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♦
Cncpclopaetita Brttanntta
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION,
jdustcateti toiti) nearlg sir tjuntireti Cngrabings.
VOL. xx.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PER1TI.
EDINBURGH :
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopedia Britannica.
Suicide.
i
Suicide
among the
Jews.
a
Among the
Greeks.
3
The Bra-
mins and
Gentoos.
S U I
SUICIDE, the crime of felf-murder, or the perfon
•who commits it.
We have often wifhed to fee a hiftory of crimes drawn
up by a man of ability and refearch. In this hiftory we
would propofe that the author fliould defcribe the crimes
peculiar to different nations in the different ftages of fo-
ciety, and the changes which they undergo in the pro-
grefs of civilization. After having arranged the hifto-
rical fafts, he might, by comparing them with the re-
ligifin and the knowledge of the people, deduce fome im¬
portant general conclufions, which would lead to a dif-
covery of the caufe of crimes, and of the remedy moft
proper to be applied. Some crimes are peculiar to cer¬
tain ftages of fociety, fome to certain nations, &c.
Suicide is one of thofe crimes which we are led to be¬
lieve not common among favage nations. The firft in-
ftances of it recorded in the Jewifh hiftory are thofe of
Saul and Ahitophel 5 for we do not think the death of
Samfon a proper example. We have no reafon to fup-
pofe that it became common among the Jews till their
wars with the Romans, when multitudes flaughtered
themfelves that they might not fall alive into the hands
of their enemies. But at this period the Jews were a
moft defperate and abandoned race of men, had corrupt¬
ed the religion of their fathers, and rejedled that pure
fyftem which their promifed Mefliah came to Jerufalem
to announce.
When it became remarkable among the Greeks, w’e
have not been able to difcover j but it was forbidden by
Pythagoras, as we learn from Athenseus, by Socrates
and Ariftotle, and by the Theban and Athenian laws.
In the earlieft ages of the Roman republic it was feldom
committed but when luxury and the Epicurean and
Stoical philofophy had corrupted the fimplicity and vir¬
tue of the Roman chara£ler ; then they began to feek
fhelter in fuicide from their misfortunes or the effe&s of
their own vices.
The religious principles of the bramins of India led
them to admire fuicide on particular occafions as honour¬
able. Accuftomed to abftinence, mortification, and
the contempt of death, they confidered it as a mark of
weaknefs of mind to fubmit to the infirmities of old age.
We are informed that the modern Gentoos, who ftill in
moft things conform to the cuftoms of their anceftors,
when old and infirm, are frequently brought to the
banks of rivers, particularly to thofe of the Ganges, that
they may die in its faered ftreams, which thev believe
Vol.'XX. Parti.
S U I
can wafli away the guilt of their fins. But the maxims, Smndc. ^
of the bramins, which have encouraged this pra&ice, we Sunilon,~
are affured by Mr Hoi well, are a corruption of the ?hn Rha^
do&rines of the Shaftah, which pofitively forbid fuicide vol. ii.
under the fevereft puniftunent. The praflice which Hoi™ell's
religion or affeftion has eftabliftied among the Gentoos,
for women at the deatli of their hulhands to burn them- acc< ^ ^
felves alive on the funeral pile, we do not think ought
to be confidered as fuicide, as we are not anxious to ex¬
tend the meaning of the wrord j for were we to extend
it thus far, it would be as proper to apply it to thofe
who cboofe rather to die in battle than make their ef-
cape at the expence of their honour. Ihus we fhould
condemn as fuicides the brave Spartans who died at
Thermopylae in defence of their country j we ftiould al-
fo be obliged to apply the fame difgraceful epithet to all
thofe well-meaning but weak-minded Chriftians in this
ifland, who in the laft century chofe rather to die as mar¬
tyrs than comply with commands which were not mo¬
rally w'rong. According to the Gentoo laws, “ it is
proper for a woman after her hulband’s death to bum
herfelf in the fire with his corpfe. Every woman who
thus burns lhall remain in paradife with her hufband
three crore and fifty lacks of years. If ftie cannot, (lie
muft in that cafe preferve an inviolable ckaftity. If Ihe
remain chafte, fhe goes to paradife 5 and if ihe do not
preferve her chaftity, ihe goes to hell.” 4
A cuftom ftmilar to this prevailed among many na-Amon.S
tions on the continent of America. When a chief died, fioj,ertj'on'>J
a certain number of his wives, of his favourites, and of America.
his flaves, were put to death, and interred together with
him, that he might appear with the fame dignity in his
future ftation, and be waited upon by the fame atten¬
dants. This perfuafion is fo deeply rooted, that many
of their retainers offer themfelves as vi£lims j and the
fame cuftum prevails in many of the negro nations in
Africa. 5
If we can believe the hiftorians of Japan, voluntary Japa>
death is common in that empire. The devotees of the116*®’ anc‘
idol Amida drown themfelves in his prefence, attended
by their relations and friends, and feveral of the pritfts,
who all confider the devoted perfon as a faint who isRaynal't
gone to everlafting happinefs. Such being the fuppofed
honours appropriated to a voluntary death, it is not
prifing that the Japanefe anxioufly eheriih a contempt of^,-^, voi, i.
life. Accordingly it is a part of the education of their
children u to repeat poems in which the virtues of their
A anceflor
6
Scythians,
, 7
and Scan¬
dinavians.
S U I l 2
Suicide, anceftors are celebrated, an utter contempt of life is
inculcated, and fuicide is fet up as the moft heroic of
aftions.”
A notion feems alfo to have prevailed among the an¬
cient Scythian tribes, that it was pufillanirnous and ig¬
noble for a man whofe ftrength was wafted with difeafe
or infirmity, fo as to be ufelefs to the community, to
continue to live. It was reckoned an heroic aflion vo¬
luntarily to feek that death which he had not the good
fortune to meet in the field of battle. Perverfion of
moral feeling does not fpring up, we hope, fpontane-
oufly in any nation, but is produced by fome peculiari¬
ties of fituation. A wandering people like the Scythi¬
ans, who roamed about from place to place, might of¬
ten find it impoflible to attend the fick, or to fupply from
their precarious ftore the wants of the aged and infirm.
The aged and infirm themfelves, no longer able to fup-
port the chara£l:e.r of warriors, would find themfelves
unhappy. In this way the pra&iee of putting to death
fuch perfons as were ufelefs to the community might
originate, and afterwards be inculcated as honourable j
but he who put an end to his infirmities by his own
hand, obtained a chara&er ftill more illuftrious.
The tribes of Scandinavia, which worlhipped Odin
the “ father of {laughter,” were taught, that dying in
the field of battle was the moft glorious event that could
befal them. This was a maxim fuited to a warlike na¬
tion. In order to eftablilh it more firmly in the mind,
all were excluded from Odin’s feaft of heroes who died
a natural death. In Afgardia flood the hall of Odin ;
where,'feated on a throne, he received the fouls of his
departed heroes. This place was called Valhalla, fig-
bifying “ the hall of thofe who died by violence.” Na¬
tural death being thus deemed inglorious, and punilhed
with exclufion from Valhalla the paradife of Odin, he
who could not enjoy death in the field of battle was led
to feek it by bis own hands when ficknefs or old age be¬
gan to aflail him. In fuch a nation fuicide muft have
been very common.
As fuicide prevailed much in the decline of the Ro¬
man empire, when luxury, licentioufnefs, profligacy,
and falfe philofophy, pervaded the -world, fo it conti¬
nued to prevail even after Chriftianity was eftablifhed.
The Romans, when they became converts to Chriftiani¬
ty, did not renounce their ancient prejudices and falfe
opinions, but blended them with the new religion which
they embraced. The Gothic nations alfo, who fubvert-
ed the Roman empire, while -they received the Chrif-
tian religion, adhered to many of their former opinions
and manners. Among other criminal practices which
were retained by the Romans and their conquerors, that
of fuieide was one ; but the principles from which it
proceeded were explained, fo as to appear more agree¬
able to the new fyftem which they had efpoufed. It was
committed, either to fecure from the danger of apoftafy,
to procure the honour of martyrdom, or to preferve the
crown of virginity.
When we defcend to modern times, we lament to
find fo many inftances of fuicide among the moft polifh-
ed nations, who have the beft opportunities of knowing
the atrocity of that unnatural crime. The Englifh have
long been reproached by foreigners for the frequent
com million of it •, and the “ gloomy month of Novem¬
ber” has been ftigrnatized as the feafon when it is moft
common. ' But this difgraceful imputation, -we think,
8
It prevail¬
ed much in
the decline
of the Ro¬
man em¬
pire.
9
Too com¬
mon in mo¬
dern times,
but not
more fo in
England
than in o-
ther coun-
tri.es.
] S U I
may be juftly attributed, not to the greater frequency Suicide,
of the crime in England than in other places, but to the 1 V /
cuftom of publifhing in the newfpapers every inftance
of fuicide which is known. Mr Moore, who lately
publifhed a full inquiry into this fubjeft, was at great
pains to obtain accurate information concerning the per¬
petration of this crime in different countries. Mercier, Mercier's
who wrote in 1782, fays, that the annual number of Tableau de
filicides in Paris was then about 150. He does not tell Parls'
us how he came by the information ; but we have the xiie num-
authority of the Abbe Fontana for afferting, that more her of fui-
perfons put an end to their lives in Paris than in Lon-cj^es in f’a-
don. The Abbe had this information from the lieute-
nant of the police. Mr Moore was informed by one neVa
of the principal magiftrates of Geneva, that in that ci- according
ty, which contains about 25,000 inhabitants, the ave-1° the heft
rage number of filicides is about eight. The averageaccounts*
number of filicides, from what caufe foever, for the laft
28 years, has been 3 2 each year for London, South¬
wark, and Weftminfter. In Edinburgh, which con¬
tains 80,000 inhabitants, we are convinced the average
number of filicides does not exceed four. Mr Moore
found, from the accounts with which he was favoured
by the feveral coroners of the county of Kent, that for
the laft 18 years the number has been upwards of 32
each year. Kent is fuppofed to contain 200,000 inha¬
bitants, and London 800,000. It is eafy therefore to
fee, that in the metropolis many inftances of filicide
muft occur which are never the fubjeft of legal inquiry,
and confequently never made known to the world.
Whereas in the country towns and villages of Kent it is
fcarcely poflible to conceal fuch an a&ion as felf-murder
from the knowledge of the whole neighbourhood. The
calculation therefore refpefling Kent we may receive as
true, while we muft increafe the average number in
London very confiderably. Mr Moore computes the
average number of filicides in England every year at a
thoufand j but the principles on which he founds this
opinion are fo imperfedt and vague, that we do not
think it can be depended on as coming near the truth. „
It might lead to fome interefting conclufions to com- In what
pare together, not only the number of filicides in differ-rank an<i
ent countries, but alfo the rank and principles, the fex jKUa^g'?s
and age, of thofe unhappy perfons by whom it has been mofl; com<>
committed. Mercier fays, that at Paris it was the lower mon.
ranks who were moft commonly guilty of it j that it was
moftly committed in garrets or hired lodgings; and that
it proceeded from poverty and oppreffion. A great ma¬
ny, he fays, wrote letters to the magiftrates before their
death. Mr Moore’s correfpondent from Geneva inform- Moore's
ed him, that from the year 1777 to 1787 more than 100 Full In-
fiiicides were committed in Geneva 5 that two-thirds into
thefe unfortunate perfons were men ; that few7 of the cle-
rical order have been known to commit it ; and that it
is not fo much the end of an immoral, irreligious, difR- ^
pated life, as the effeft of melancholy and poverty. By
the information obtained from the coroners of Kent, it
appears, that of the 32, three-fourths have deftroyed
themfelves by hanging 5 that the proportion of males to
females has been about two-thirds of the former \ that
no one feafon of the year is more diftinguifbed for this
crime than another ; and that filicide is upon the in-
ereafe. Our accounts refpe&ing the city of London are
very imperfeft; but we think ourfelves intitled to con¬
clude, that filicide is more common among the great and
wealthy
S U I
[ 3 1
S U I
Suicide.
phyficat
caufes to
which it
has been
afcribed ia
Britain.
13
And moral
caufes.
14
Not owing
always to
knfanity,
Wealthy than among the lower ranks, and that It is ufu-
ally the efFeft of gaming and diffipation.
Thofe who have inquired into the caufes of fuicide in
Britain have enumerated many pbyfical as well as moral
caufes. They have afcribed it to the variablenefs of our
climate, to the great ufe of animal food, to ftrong fpiri-
tuous liquors, to tea, and to the fulphureous exhalations
of the pit coal ufed as fuel, which are faid to produce a
depreffion of fpirits and nervous affections. Of our cli¬
mate, we have no caufe to complain, nor have we any
r^ifon to impute any of our vices to its influence. There
are many climates much more unfavourable where fui¬
cide is fcarcely known. That an exceflive quantity of
grofs animal food, or of ftrong liquors, or of tea, will
powerfully affe.Ct the human conftitution, we will not
deny : but before we confider thefe as caufes, it muft firft
be determined, whether thofe who are guilty of felf-mur-
der be much addicted to them; and if they are, whether
there be not other caufes much more violent in their na¬
ture which have operated on their mind } for we ought
not rafhly to attribute vicious effeCts to any of thofe
things which feem to have been created on purpofe for
the comfort or convenience of man. We are rather fur-
prifed to find that coal is mentioned even as a diftant
caufe of fuicide •, for it is one of the bleflings of our
ifland y and a good coal fire we have always found rather
conducive to good fpirits than injurious to them.
Among the moral caufes which are fuppofed to co¬
operate in producing fuicide in Britain, the freedom of
our conftitution and laws is reckoned one. That rational
liberty ftiould have any tendency to encourage crimes of
any kind, a Chriftian philofopher can never allow ; for
fuch an opinion is totally difcountenanced by enlighten¬
ed views of nature. Mercier has afcribed the frequency
of fuicide in Paris to the oppreflion of the late govern¬
ment. Now it appears fomewhat extraordinary, that
fuicide in one country fhould be occafioned by liberty,
and in another by the want of it. One of thefe opi¬
nions muft be falfe, and it is furely not difficult to diftin-
guilli which.
Humanity would in moft cafes difpofe us to conclude,
that fuicide is the effect of infanity, were there not fo
many inftances of cool deliberate felf-murder. That fui¬
cide is an unnatural crime, which none but a madman
would commit, compaffion indeed may fuppofe j but the Suicide.
murder of a wife, a father, or a child, are' alfo unnatu- ' i 11•"*
ral ; yet compaffion does not teach us in all cafes to a-
fcribe fuch a crime to madnefs. Paffion may often arife
to fuch a height of outrage as to be fcarcely diftinguith-
able from madnefs in its fymptoms and its effects ; yet
we always make a diftindtion between that madnefs
which arifes from difeafe and that which is owing to a
violent perturbation of mind. If a perfon be capable of
managing his wordly affairs, of making a will, and of.
difpofing of his property, immediately before his death,
or after he formed the refolution of dying by his own
hands, fuch a man is not to be confidered as infane. j-
But though a regard for truth prevents us from aferib* but often
ing fuicide in all cafes to infanity, we muft aferibe it ei- t0
ther to infanity or to vicious paffion. Thefe two divi-^W0115 Pa *
Irons, we imagine, will comprehend every fpecies of it,
whether arifing from melancholy, tcedium vita or ennui,
difappointment in fchemes of ambition or love, pride,
gaming, or a defire to avoid the ftiame of a public exe¬
cution j paffions which are often increafed by falfe views
of God, of man, and of a future ftate, arilingfrom deifru
and infidelity. If thefe be the caufes of fuicide in mo¬
dern time, what a difgraceful -^contraft do they form to
thofe principles which afluated many of the ancient phi-
lofophers, the Gentoos, the Japanefe, and the worfhip-
pers of Odin? When they committed fuicide, they com¬
mitted it from principle, from a belief of its lawfulnefs,
and the hope of being rewarded for what they judged
an honourable facrifice. But in modern times, we are
forry to fay, when it is not the effedt of madnefs, it is
the effeiff of vice : and when it is the effedt of vice, it
proves that the vicious paffions are then indulged to the
higheft degree ; for there is no crime which a man can
commit that is fo ftrong a fymptom of the violence of
particular paffions. It is from not attending to this cir-
cumftance, that it has been found fo difficult to refute
the arguments in favour of fuicide. If the criminality of
fuicide be confined merely to the violent adtion, many
apologies may be made for it ; but if it be confidered
folely as the effedt of vice, as the ftrongeft fymptom of
ungoverned paffion, he who undertakes its defence muft;
undertake the defence of what all men will loudly con¬
demn (a).
A 2 It
(a) Several of the heathens entertained a very juft fenfe of the atrocity of fuicide. Quintus Curtius introduces
Darius with the following fpeech, when he had loft his empire : “ I wait (fays the unfortunate monarch) the iffue
of my fate : you wonder, perhaps, that I do not terminate my own life j but I choofe rather to die by the crime
of another than by my own.
We cannot refufe ourfelves the pleafure of prefenting to our readers the following beautiful paffage upon this
fubjedt from Fitzofborne’s letters * : “ I am perfuaded (fays this elegant writer) this difguft of life is frequently *Lettel
indulged out of a principle of mere vanity. It is efteeraed as a mark of uncommon refinement, and as placing aiv.
man above the ordinary level of his fpecies, to feem fuperior to the vulgar feelings of happinefs. True good fenfe,
however, moft certainly confifts not in defpifing, but in managing our ftock of life to the beft advantage, as a
cheerful acquiefcence in the meafures of Providence is one of the ftrongeft fymptoms of a well-conftituted mind.
Self-wearinefs is a circumftance that ever attends folly) and to condemn our being is the greateft, and indeed
the peculiar infirmity, of human nature. It is a noble fentiment which Tully puts into the mouth of Cato, in
his Treatife upon old Age; Non lubet mihi (fays that venerable Roman) deplorare vitam, quod multi, ct 11 doEli,
Jape fecerunt; neque me vixijfe pcenitet: quoniam ita vixi, ut non frujlra me natum exijlimetn.
“ It is in the power, indeed, of but a very fmall portion of mankind to adt the fame glorious part that afforded
fuch high fatisfadiion to this diftinguiftied patriot; but the number is yet far more inconfiderable of thofe who cannot,
in any ftation, fecure themfelves a fufficient fund of complacency to render life juftly valuable. Who is it that is
placed out of the reach of the higheft: of all gratifications, thofe of the generous affedtions, and that cannot provide
fat
S U I [ 4 ] S U 1
Suicide. It is unneccfiary then to enter particularly into the
arguments of thofe cafuifts who have undertaken the de-
Unnecei fpicable otfice of advocates for the crime of fuicide.
luytoen Their talents might furely have been employed more
ter into the ufefully to the world, and more honourably to them-
arguments f(,|v-eSj than in pleading for a crime, which, if it were
committed by every man to whom their principles would
make it lawful, would totally deftroyfome of thenobleft
virtues, fortitude, patience, and refignation ) nay, would
deftroy fociety itfelf, and teach us to defpife the opinion
that this world is a date of preparation for another. “ I
came into life without my own confent, and may I not
of cafuifts
upon this
fubject.
quit it at pleafure ?” (fay the advocates for fuicide). If,
becaufe. we came into life without our own confent, we
might quit it at pleafure, why may we not fpend our life
alfo as we pleafe ? Why may we not rob and murder,
and commit every kind of crime, if mere inclination is
to be the rule of aftion ! Thus upon the principles of
fuicide the highwayman and murderer may reafon, and
every man may find a fafficient apology for any crime
which he is tempted to commit. Or this abfurdity may
be othervvife anfwered: As we came into life without
qur own confent, we muff have come with the confent
of fome other being ; and logic fays, that with the con-
fent of that Being only can we lawfully quit it.
Its great It is fufficient Ihortly to fay, that fuicide is contrary
criminality to the ftrongeft principle of the human confiitution, felf-
dence^H1' prefervation ; that it is rebellion againft God ; that it is
cruelty to the feelings and reputation, and often takes
away the fubfiftence of a wife, a child, or a father ; that
it proves a want of fortitude to brave misfortunes ; that
it delivers only from imagined to plunge into real evils.
We may add, that almoft every inftance of fuicide of
which we have heard was rafti, imprudent, and prema¬
ture, interrupted a ufeful life, or prevented a more ho¬
nourable death. Had Cato’s pride permitted him to
yield himfelf to the generofity of Caefar, his charafler
and his influence might have contributed to retard the
flavery of his country, which his death tended to haftem
Had Brutus and CafTius not executed the fatal refolu-
tion which they had formed, of dying by their own
hands in cafe of misfortune, the battle of Philippi might
have had a very different iffue. Had Hannibal furren-
dered himfelf to the Romans, inflead of fwallowing pot-
fon, he would have gained more glory in braving their
tortures than he won in the battle of Cannae j for to die
innocently and heroically is the greateft exertion of hu-
znan fortitude.
As fuicide was deemed a crime by the mod: illuftri-
ous and virtuous of the Greek and Roman philofophers, Suicide,
it was confidered as a crime by the laws, and treated —v——1
with ignominy. By the law of Thebes filicides were H,)WlSr
to have no honours paid to their memory *. The At he- nifnerfby
nian law ordained the hand which committed the deed the Greeks,,
to be cut off, and burnt apart from the reft of the body. ('e?nS &c*
The body was not buried with the ufual folemnities,
but was ignominioufly thrown into fome pit. In Cea in ™ ‘
and Maffilia (the ancient Marfeilies'), it was confidered Atticas,
as a crime againft the ftate; and it was therefore necef-p- 523.
fary for thofe who wifhed to deftroy themfelves to obtahi
permifiion from the magiftrates. f Plutarch acquaints f Plutarch
us, that an unaccountable paffion for filicide feized the w the Vir.
Milefian virgins; from indulging which they could nottlies
be prevented by the tears and entreaties of parents and. men‘
friends: but what perfuafion and entreaty could not effeft
was accomplifhed by very different means. A decree
was iffued, “ that the body of every young woman who
hanged herfelf fliould be dragged naked through the
ftreets by the fame rope with which ftie had committed
the deed.” This wife edi£t put a complete flop to the
extraordinary frenzy, and fuicide was no longer com¬
mitted by the virgins of Miletus. I5)
In the early part of the Roman hiftory there feems to By the Re-
have been feldom occafion for framing any laws againft mans,
filicide. The only inftance recorded occurs in the reign
of Tarquinius Prifcus. The foldiers who were appoint¬
ed to make drains and common fewers, thinking them¬
felves difgraced by fuch fervile offices, put tbemfelves to
death in great numbers. The king ordered the bodies
of all the felf-murderers to be expofed on crofies, and
this put an effie£lual flop to the praftice. It is doubtful
whether there was any ftanding law againft fuicide dur¬
ing the exiftence of the republic ; but during the reign
of the emperors it was thought proper to lay it under
certain regulations, though not abfolutely to condemn
it as a crime. In Juftinian’s Digefts there is a law, by Lib. xlviiL
which it was enafted, “ that if perfons accufed, or who Tit. xxi.
had been found guilty, of any crime, fliould make away l’ar* 3*
with themfelves, their effiefts fhould be confifeated.”
But this punifhment only took place when confifcation
of goods happened to be the penalty appointed by the
law for the crime of which the felf-murderer was accu¬
fed or found guilty, and was not inflifted for filicide
committed in any other cireumftances.
When the Chriftian church had extended its jurif- ArdT'-
diftion in the Roman empire, it was decreed in the fixth Chriftians.
century, that no commemoration fhould be made in the
eucharift for fuch asdeftroyed themfelves: neither ftiould
their
for his own happinefs, by contributing fomething to the welfare of others ? As this difeafe of the mind generally
breaks out with the mofi violence in thofe who are fuppofed to be endowed with a greater delicacy of tafte and
reafon than is the ufual allotment of their fellow creatures, one may afk them,*1 whether there is any/atiety in the
purfuits of ufeful knowledge ? or,, if one can ever be weary of benefiting mankind ? Will not the fine arts fupply
a lafting feaft to the mind ; or, can there be wanting a pleafureable enjoyment, fo long as there remains even one
advantageous truth to be difeovered or confirmed ? To complain that life has no joys, while there is a fingle crea¬
ture whom we can relieve by our bounty, affift by our counfels, or enliven by our prefence, is to lament the lofs
of that which we poffiefs, and is juft as rational as to die for thirft with the cup in our hands.. But the misfortune
is, when a man is fettled into a habit of receiving all his pleafures from the mere felfifh indulgences, he wears
e.ut of his mind the reliftl of every nobler enjoyment,, at the fame time that his powers of the fenfual kind are
growing more languid by each repetition. It is no wonder, therefore, he ftiould fill up the meafure of his grati¬
fications long before he has completed the circle of his duration ; and either wretchedly fit down, the remainder cf
bjs days in, difqontent, or raflily throw them up in defpair.”
4,
$ De Legi-
itus et Con-
fuetudini-
bus Anglia,
Lib. iii.
Traft. II.
21
Difficult to
devifea pu-
niflmient
that would
be an effec¬
tual pre¬
ventive.
S U I [5
their bodies be carried out to burial will) pfalms nor
have the ufual fervice fa id over them. Ibis ecclelialti-
cal law continued till the reformation, when it was
admitted into the ftatute code of England by the au¬
thority of parliament. As an additional punilhment,
however, confifcation of land and goods feems to have
been adopted from the Danes, as we learn from Brac-
ton t. At prefent the punifliraent confids in confilca-
ting'all the perfonal property of a felo de fe for the ufe
of the crown, and in excluding his body from interment
in confecrated ground. The warrant of the coroner
requires that the body fliould be buried in fome public
highway, and a flake driven through it to increafe the
ignominy. r .
To inquire into the prevalence and caules ot crimes,
■in order to difcover the moft judicious methods of pre¬
venting them, is the duty of the Patriot and the Chnf-
tian. Suicide, we find, is a common and an increafing
evil : but it is a difficult matter to find an efte&ual re¬
medy ; for what motives can be held out fufficient to
influence that man’s mind who is deaf to the voice of
nature fpeaking within him, and to the voice of nature s
God declaring that he is ftationed at a pofl which it is
his duty to maintain ? His reputation and property arc
indeed within the reach of the laws, his body may be
treated with ignominy, and his property confifcated j
but this puniflunent will not be a preventive, even it it
could be always inflifted •, and that it is feldom infli£led,
though the laws have decreed it, is well known. I he
humanity of the prefent age difpofes us to fympathife
with the relations of the deceafed, inflead of demanding
that the fcntence of the law fhould be executed. It is a
generally received opinion, and a juft one, that punifh-
jnents decreed by human laws ftiould be dire<51ed only
againft fuch crimes as are injurious to fociety ; but when
it is hence inferred, that fuicide ought not to be fubjeft
to the cognizance of human laws, every rule of logic.is.■
violated. ^Aliere is no man, however mean in ftation
and in talents, whofe life may not, on fome occafions,
be uieful to the community at large •, and to conclude,
that a perfon who fancies himfelf ufelefs may therefore
lawfully put a period to his life, is as falfe reafoning as
it would be to conclude, that by killing a poor man,
who lives on the public, we fhould perform an affion
not only innocent but meritorious, as we fliould thereby,
free fociety from one of its burdens.
SUIDAS, a Greek writer, according to fome, flour-
ifhed in the nth century, under the reign of the em--
peror Alexius Comnenus ; according to others,, before
the loth century. He wrote in Greek an Hiftorical
and Geographical Dictionary or Lexicon 5 a W’ork
which, though not always ftri&ly accurate, is neyer-
thelefs of great importance, as it contains many things
taken from the ancients that are nowhere elfe to be
found. The belt edition of Suidas is that of Kuilter,
in Greek and Latin, with notes, printed in 3 vols. fol.
which has been much improved by Toup.
Lapis SUILLUS. See Mineralo¬
gy Index.
SUIT, is ufed in different-fenfes ; as, 1. Suit of court,
or fuit-fervice, which is an attendance the tenant owes
to his lord’s court. 2. Suit-covenant, where a perfon
has covenanted to do fervice in the court of the lord.
3. Suit-cuftom, which is where one and his anceftors
have owed fuit time out of mind. 4. It is ufed for a
Suit.
5 S U I
petition to the king or any perfon of dignity, where a
lord diftrains his tenant for fuit, and none is due. In
this cafe, the party may have an attachment againft. him
to appear in the king’s court. .
Suit, in Law, the fame with a£tion. The unmans
introduced pretty early fct forms for actions and fuits
into their law, after the example of the Greeks *, and
made it a rule, that each injury (hould be redreffed by
its proper remedy only. il ASltones, (fay the Pandc£ts)
compojitce Junt (juibus inter fe homines difceptcireni, quas
acliones nc populus provt vellet injlitueret, certas fo!em~
ncfque e/]e volucvuntl^ 1. he forms of thele actions were
originally preferved in the books of the pontifical col¬
lege as choice and ineftimable fecrets, till one Cneius
Flavius, the fecretary of Appius Claudius, ftole a copy
and publilhed them to the people. 1 he concealment
wTas ridiculous : but the eftablifhment of fome ftandard
was undoubtedly neceffary to fix the true ftate of a que- hlackfl.
ftion of right; left, in a long and arbitrary procefs, it Co"I?ne*ev
might be fhifted continually, and be at length no lon¬
ger difcernible. Or, as Cicero expreffes it, *''' flint jura v
funt formulae, de omnibus rebus conjlitula:, ne <juis aut
in srenere injurue, aut in rahone aEiionis, errare pofjit,
Expreffce enim funt ex uniufcujufque damno, dolore, in~
commodo, calumitate, injuria, pubhca a pretore formu¬
lae, ad quas pnvata hs accommodatur.1 ’ And in the
fame manner Brafton, fpeaking of the original writs
upon which all our a£fions are founded, declares thenk.
to be fixed and immutable, unlefs by'authority of parlia¬
ment. And all the modern legiftators of Europe have
found it expedient, from the fame reafons, to fall into
the fame or a fimilar method. In England, the feveral
fuits, or remedial inftruments of jnftice, are, from .the
fub]eft of them, diftinguiftied into three kinds j aftions
perfonal, real, and mixed.
Perfonal actions are fuch whereby a man claims a
debt, or perfonal duty or damages, in lieu thereof j and
likewife whereby a man claims a fatisfaftion in damages
for fome injury done to his perfon or property. The
former are laid to be founded upon contracts, the latter
upon torts or wrongs: and they are the fame which the
civil law calls, “ aciiones in perfon am, quce adverfus eum
intenduntur qui ex conlraBit vel dehtlo obugatus ejl alt-
quid dare vel concedere.” Of the former nature are all
actions upon debt or proroifes } of the latter are all ac¬
tions of trefpafies, nuifances, affaults, defamatory words,
and the like.
Real adlions (or, as they are called in the Mirror,
feudal attions), which concern real property only, arc
fuch whereby the plaintiff, here called the demandant,
claims title, to have any lands or tenements, rents, com¬
mons, or other hereditaments, in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or
for term of life. By thefe aflions formerly all difputes
concerning real eftates were decided ; but they are now
pretty generally laid afide in pra&ice, upon account of
the great nicety required in their management, and the
inconvenient length of their procefs 5 a much more ex¬
peditious method of trying titles being fihee introduced,
by other aflions perfonal and mixed.
Mixed aftions are fuits partaking of the mixture of
the other two, wherein fome real property is demanded,
and alfo perfonal damages for a wrong fuftained. As
for inftance, an attion of wafte •, which is brought by
him who hath the inheritance, in remainder or reverfion,
againft the tenant for life, who hath committed wafte
therein., .
I
SU L [6] SUL
Suit therein, to recover not only the land wafted, which
Sulzer wou^ it merely a real ^£lion ; but alfo treble da-
. mages, in purfuance of the ftatute of Gloucefter, which
is a perfonal recompenfe 5 and fo both, being joined
together, denominate it a mixed aBion.
The orderly parts of a fuit are thefe : 1. The origi¬
nal writ. 2. The procefs. 3. The pleadings. 4. The
iffue or demurrer. 5. The trial. 6. The judgment
and its incidents. 7. The proceedings in nature of
peals. 8. The execution. See thefe articles.
SULLY. See Bethune.
SULPHATE, in Chemijlry, denotes a compound of
fulphuric acid with fome bale.
SULPHUR, a well known inflammable fubftance.
See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
SuLPHUR-lVort. See Peucedanum, Botany In¬
dex.
SULPHURIC acid, the name now adopted for the
vitriolic acid. See Chemistry Index.
SULPICIA, an ancient Roman poetefs, who lived
under the reign of Domitian, and has been fo much ad¬
mired as to be termed the Roman Sappho. We have no¬
thing, however, left of her writings but a fatire, or ra¬
ther the fragment of one, againft Domitian, who pu-
blifhed a decree for the banifhment of philofophers from
Rome ; which fatire is to be found in Scaliger’s Appen¬
dix Virgiliana. She is mentioned by Martial and Sido-
nius Apollinaris $ and is faid to have addreffed a poem
on conjugal love to her hufband Calenus, a Roman
knight.
SULPICIUS Severus, an ecclefiaftical writer who
flourilhed about the beginning of the 5th century, and
was contemporary with Rufinus and St Jerome. He
was the difciple of St Martin of Tours, whofe life he
has written $ and the friend of Paulinus bifhop of Nola,
with whom he held an intimate correfpondence. The
principal of his works is his Hi/loria Sacra, from the
creation of the world to the confulate of Stilicho and
Aurelian, about the year .400 ; in which his ftyle is
elegant beyond the age he lived in.
SULTAN, or Soldan, a title of appellation given
to the emperor of the Turks.
Vatner will have the word Turkifh, and to fignify
king of kings ; adding, that it was firft given to the Tur¬
kifh princes Angrolipex and Mafgud, about the year
1055: others will have it originally Perfian, alleging,
in proof hereof, an ancient medal of Cofroe ; others de¬
rive it from fold anus, quaji folus dominus ; others from
the Hebrew 'thw, fchalat or fbeleth, “ to rule, reign.”
It had its rife under Mahmoud, fon of Sebefteghin,
the firft emperor of the dynafty of the Gaznevides, to¬
wards the clofe of the fourth century of the era of the
Hegira : when that prince going to Segeftan to reduce
Kalaf governor of that province, who affedled the fove-
reignty, Kalaf was no fooner advertifed of his coming
than he went out to meet him, delivered the keys of his
fortrefs, and owned him his fultan, that is, his lord or
commander. The title pleafed Mahmoud fo well, that
he affumed it ever afterwards ; and from him it paffed to
his defcendants, and to other Mahometan princes. It is
chiefly confined to the Turkifh and Perfian monarchs.
SULZER, M. a celebrated philofopher, was born at
Winterthur, in the canton of Zurich, Odlober 16.
1720. He was the youngeft of 25 children. His early
education did not promife much, though it w'as by no
means neglected. He had little inclination for what is
called in the fchools the itudy of humanity, and made
but a fmall progrefs in the learned languages, which
were to prepare him for the ftudy of theology, for which
profeflion his parents defigned him. At the age of 16,
when he went to the academical fchool of Zurich, he
had not the fmalleft notion of the fciences, or of elegant
literature, and confequently no tafte for ftudy. The firft
' incident that developed a hidden germ of philofophical
genius, was his meeting with Wolfe’s Metaphyfics t
this was the birth of his tafte for fcience ; but he wanted
a guide. The clergyman with whom he lodged was an
ignorant man j and the academical prelections were, as
yet, above the reach of his comprehenfion. On the other
hand, a fedentary life was not the thing he liked, nor
to which he had been acuftomed ; and, moreover, a
fociable turn of mind led him often into company, where
he loft much time in frivolous amufements, yet without
corrupting his morals. Who, that obferved him at this
period, fays Mr Formey in his Eulogium, would have
thought that Sulzer would one day be numbered among
the moft knowing and wife men of his time ? The learn¬
ed Gefner was the inftrument of Providence that render¬
ed Sulzer’s inclination to ftudy triumphant over his
paffion for amufement and company. Animated by the
counfels and example of this worthy and learned man,
he applied himfelf to philofophy and mathematics with
great ardour, and refumed the purfuit of Grecian litera¬
ture and the Oriental languages. The contemplation of
nature became his noble and favourite pafiion. An ec-
clefiaftical fettlement in a rural feene, that exhibited
happy objedls and occafions for this delightful ftudy,
began to render his days happy and ufeful $ and he pu-
bliftied, in 1741, Moral Contemplations of the Works
of Nature j and the year following an Account of a
Journey he had made through the Alps 5 which {bowed
at the fame time, his knowledge of natural hiftory, and
the tafte and fenfibility with which he furveyed the beau¬
ties of nature and the grandeur and gbodnefs of its Au¬
thor. He afterwards became private tutor to a young
gentleman at Magdeburg. This procured him the ac¬
quaintance of Meffrs Maupertuis, Euler, and Sack,
which opened to his merit the path of preferment, and
advanced him fucceflively to the place of mathematical
profeffor in the King’s College at Berlin, in 1747, and
to that of member of the Royal Academy in 1750.
In this laft quality he diftinguiftied himfelf in a very-
eminent manner, enriched the clafs of fpeeulative philo¬
fophy with a great number of excellent memoirs, and
was juftly confidered as one of the firft-rate metaphyfi-
cians in Germany. But his genius was not confined to
this branch of fcience. His univerfal Theory of the
Fine Arts is a valuable produ&ion. A profound knowr-
ledge of the arts and fciences, and a perfect acquaint¬
ance with true tafte, are eminently difplayed in this
work, and will fecure to its author a permanent and di-
ftinguifhed rank in the republic of letters. The firft vo¬
lume of this excellent work was publifhed in 1771, and
the fecond in 1774’ ^ e fhaR not here give a catalogue
of the writings of M. Sulzer \ but we cannot help men¬
tioning his remarks on the Philofophical Effays of the
late Mr Hume as a work of real merit, which does ju-
ftice to the acutenefs, while it often dete<fts the fophiftry,
of the Britiflr Bayle. The moral character of M. Sul¬
zer was amiable and virtuous: fociability and benefi¬
cence
Sulzer.
SUM T 7 1 'SUM
Sulzer cence were its ehara&eriftical lines j and his virtues
11 were animated by that facred philofophy that forms the
, 5am,ltra'. Chriftian, ennobles man, and is the only fource of that
— v heart-felt ferenity and fedate fortitude which fupport hu¬
manity, when every other objedt of confidence fails. His
dying moments were calm, humble, and fublime 5 and
when he expired, the placid and compofed air of his
countenance made his mourning friends doubt, for fome
time, whether it was death or lleep that had fufpended
his converfation. He had no enemy and his friends
were numerous, affedlionate, and worthy of the tender
returns he made them.
The king of Pruffia diftinguKhed him by repeated
marks of munificence and favour. But his royal protec¬
tor had never feen him before the end of the year 1777,
though he had been member of the academy from the
year 1750. The audience, indeed, though late vouch-
fafed, was honourable to M. Sulzer, with whom the
monarch converfed for a long time with great condefcen-
lion.
SUM, fignifies the quantity that arifes from the addi¬
tion of two or more magnitudes, numbers, or quantities
together.
SUMACH. See Rhus, Botany Index.
SUMATRA, an illand of Afia, the moft weftern of
the Sunda iflands, and conftituting on that fide the boun¬
dary of the Eaftern Archipelago. Its general direftion
is nearly north-weft and fouth-eaft. The equator divides
it into almoft equal parts, the one extremity being in 5.
53. N. and the other in 5. 56. S. Lat. Acheen Head, at
the north extremity of the ifland, is in longitude 95. 34,
eaft. It lies expofed on the fouth-weft fide to the In¬
dian ocean ; the north point ftretches into the bay of
Bengal *, to the north-eaft it is divided from the penin-
fula of Malacca by the ftraits of that name ; to the eaft:
by the ftraits of Banca, from the illand of that name ;
to the fouth-eaft by the commencement of what are cal¬
led the Chinefe feas ; and on the fouth by the ftraits of
Sunda, which feparate it from the ifland of Java. It is
about 900 miles in length, but from 100 to 150 only in
Brooke's breadth. No account had been given of this ifland by
Gazetteer, any Engliftiman till the year 1778, when Mr Charles
Miller (fon of the late botanical gardener) publifhed an
account of the manners of a particular diftrift, in the
68th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions. Thefe
were the Battas, a people who live in the interior parts,
called the CaJJia Country. They differ from all the other
inhabitants in language, manners, and cuftoms. They
eat the prifoners whom they take in war, and hang up
their ikulls as trophies in their houfes. He obferves,
however, that human fiefti is eaten by them in terrorem,
and not as common food, though they prefer it to all
others, and fpeak with peculiar raptures .of the foies of
the feet and palms of the hands. They expreffed much
furpnfe that the white people did not kill, much lefs eat,
their prifoners. From this country the greateft part of
the caflia that is fent to Europe is procured. It abounds
alfo with the camphire trees, which conftitute the com¬
mon timber in ufe *, and in thefe trees the camphire is
found native, in a concrete form. It is remarkable that,
in this ftate, it is fold to the Chinefe at the price of 250I.
or3Qol. per cent, j but thefe dexterous artifts contrive to
furnifti the Europeans with it at about a quarter of that
price. In 1783, Mr Marfden, who had been lecretary to
theprefident and council of Fort Marlborough, publifhed a
3
Hiftory of Sumatra, with very copious particulars of the Sumatra,
ifland. He reprefented it as furpaffed by few in the beau- ^
tiful indulgences of nature. A chain of high mountains
runs through its whole extent 5 the ranges in many parts
being double and treble j their altitude, though great,
is not fufficient to occafion their being covered with fnow
during any part of the year. Between thefe ridges are
extenfive plains, confiderably elevated above the furface
of the maritime lands. In thefe the air is cool; and
from this advantage they are efteemed the moft eligible
portion of the country, are the heft inhabited, and the
moft cleared from woods, which elfewhere, in general,
throughout Sumatra, cover both hills and valleys with
an eternal (hade. Here too are found many large and
beautiful lakes, that facilitate much the communication
between the different parts. The heat of the air is far
from being fo intenfe as might be expected from a coun¬
try occupying the middle of the torrid zone j and it is
more temperate than many regions within the tropics 5.
the thermometer at the moft fultry hour, about two in
the afternoon, generally fluctuating between 82 and 85
degrees. Mr Marfden divides the inhabitants into Ma¬
lays, Achenefe, Battas, Lampoons, and Rejangs j and
he takes the latter as his ftandard of defcription, with
refpeCt to the perfons, manners, and cuftoms, of the in¬
habitants. They are rather below the middle ftature j
ther bulk in proportion ; their limbs for the moft part
flight, but well fliaped, and particularly fmall at the
wrifts and ancles \ and, upon the whole, they are grace¬
fully formed. Their hair is ftrong, and of a ftiining
black. The men are beardlefs, great pains being taken
to render them fo when boys, by rubbing their chins
with a kind of quicklime. Their complexion is pro¬
perly yellow, wanting the red tinge that conftitutes a
copper or tawney colour. They are in general lighter
than the Meftees, or half-breed, of the reft of India j
thofe of the fuperior clafs, who are not expofed to the
rays of the fun, and particularly their women of rank,
approaching to a degree of fairnefs. If beauty confifted
in this one quality, fome of them would furpafs our bru¬
nettes in Europe. The major part of the females are
ugly, many of them even to difguft y yet among them
are fome whofe appearance is ftrikingly beautiful, what¬
ever compofition of perfon, features, and complexion,
that fentiment may befthe refult of. Some of the inha¬
bitants ©f the hilly parts are obferved to have the fuell¬
ed neck or goitre ; but they attempt no remedy for it,
as thefe wens are confiftent with the higheft health. The
rites of marriage among the Sumatrans confift Amply in
joining the hands of the parties, and pronouncing them
man and wife without much ceremony, excepting the
entertainment which is given upon the occafion by the
father of the girl. The cuftoms of the Sumatrans per- * '
mit their having as many wives as they can purchafe, or
afford to maintain ; but it is extremely rare that an in-
ftance occurs of their having- more than one, and that
only among a few of the chiefs. This continence they
owe, in fome meafure, to their poverty. The dictates
of frugality are more powerful with them than the irre¬
gular calls of appetite, and make them decline an indul¬
gence from which their law does not reftrain them.
Mothers carry their children, not on the arm as our
nurfes do, but ftraddling on the hip, and ufually fup-
ported by a cloth which ties in a knot on the oppofite-
fhoulder. The children are nurfed but little $ are not
confined
J
SUM
t 8 ]
Sumatra, confined by any fwathing or bandages; and being fuffer-
eci to roll about the floor, foon learn to walk and ftiift
for themfelves. When cradles are ufed, they fwing
fufpended from the ceilings of the rooms.
The Sumatrans are fo fond of cock-fighting, that a
father on his death-bed has been known to delire his fon
to take the firlt opportunity of matching a cock for a
fum equal to his whole property, under a blind convic¬
tion of its being invulnerable. When a cock is killed
or runs, the other muft have fufficient fpirit and vigour
left to peck at him three times on his being held up to
him for that purpofe, or it becomes a drawn battle; and
fometimes an experienced cocker will place the head of
his vanquished bird in fuch an uncouth fituation as to
terrify the other, and render him unable to give this
proof of victory.
The wild beafts of Sumatra are tigers, elephants, rhi-
nocerofes, bears, and monkeys. The tigers prove to the
inhabitants both in their journeys and even their domef-
tic occupations moft dertruftive enemies. The number
of people annually flain by thefe rapacious tyrants of the
woods is almoft incredible. Whole villages have been
depopulated by them; yet from a fuperftitious preju¬
dice, it is with difficulty they are prevailed upon, by a
large reward which the India Company offers, to ufe
methods of deftroying them, till they have fuftained
fome particular injury in their own family or kindred.
The flze and ftrength of the fpecies which prevails on
this ifland is prodigious. They are faid to break with a
itroke of their fore paw the leg of a horfe or a buffalo ;
and the largeft prey they kill is without difficulty drag¬
ged by them into the woods. This they ufually per¬
form on the fecond night, being fuppofed on the firll to
gratify themfelves with fucking the blood only. Time
is by this delay afforded to prepare for their deitru&ion,
either by {hooting them, or placing a veffel of water
ftrongly impregnated with arfenic near the carcafe,
which is faftened to a tree to prevent its being carried
off. The tiger having fatiated himfelf with the fleffi, is
prompted to affuage his tbirft with the tempting liquor
at hand, and perilhes in the indulgence. Their chief
fubfiftence is moft probably the unfortunate monkeys
with which the woods abound. They are defcribed as
alluring them to their fate by a fafcinating power, fimi-
lar to what has been fuppofed of the fnake ; and, fays
Mr Marfden, “ I am not incredulous enough to treat
the idea with contempt, having myfelf obferved, that
when an alligator or a crocodile, in a river, comes under
an overhanging branch of a tree, the monkeys, in aftate
of alarm and diftraftion, crowd to the extremity, and,
chattering and trembling, approach nearer and nearer to
the amphibious monfter that waits to devour them as
they drop, which their fright and number render almoft
unavoidable.” Thefe alligators likewife occafion the
lofs of many inhabitants, frequently deftroying the peo¬
ple as they bathe in the river, according to their regu¬
lar cuftom,and which the perpetual evidence of the rifle
attending it cannot deter them from. A fuperftitious
idea of their fanclity alfo preferves them from molefla-
tion, although, with a hook of fufi'icxent ftrength, they
may be taken without much difficulty. The other ani¬
mals of Sumatra are buffaloes, a fmall kind of horfes,
goats, hogs, deer, bullocks, and hog-deer. This laft is
an animal fomewhat larger than a rabbit, the head re¬
sembling that of a hog, and its (hanks and feet like thofe
SUM
of the deer. The bezoar-ftone found on this animal bas Sumatra,
been valued at 10 times its weight in gold ; it is of a v'’—*’
dark brown colour, fmooth on the outfide; and the
coat being taken off, it appears ftill darker, with firings
running underneath the coat: it willfwim on the top of
the water. If it be infufed in any liquid, it makes it
extremely bitter: the virtues ufually attributed to this
ftone are cleanfing the llomach, creating an appetite,
and fweetening the blood.
Of birds they have a greater variety than of beafts.
The coo-ow, or Sumatran pheafant, is a bird of uncom¬
mon beauty. They have llorks of prodigious fize, par¬
rots, dung-hill fowls, ducks, the largell cocks in the
world, wood-pigeons, doves, and a great variety of fmall
birds, different from ours, and diftinguiffied by the beau¬
ty of their colours. Of the reptiles, they have lizards,
flying-lizards, and cameleons. The ifland fvvarms with
infers, and their varieties are no lefs extraordinary than
their numbers. Rice is the only grain that grows in the
country; they have fugar-canes, beans, peale, radiffies,
yams, potatoes, pumkins, and feveral kinds of pot-herbs
unknown to Europe; and here are to be found moft of
the fruits to be met with in other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, in the greateft perfeftion. Indigo, Brafil-wood,
two fpecies of the bread fruit tree, pepper, benjamin,
coffee, and cotton, are likewife the produce of this ifland,
as well as caftia and camphire mentioned above. Here
alfo is the cabbage-tree and filk cotton tree ; and the
forefts contain a great variety of valuable fpecies of
wood, as ebony, pine, fandal, eagle or aloes, teek, man-
chineel, and iron-wood, and alfo the banyan tree. Gold,-
tin, iron, copper, and lead, are found in the country;
and the former is fuppofed to be as plentiful here as in
Peru or Mexico. The fined gold and gold-duft are
found in the country of Liniong, immediately contiguous
to the prefidency of Fort Marlborough^ to which the
merchants repair annually for the purchafe of opium,
and fuch other articles as they may be in want of, and
give for them gold of fo pure a nature as to contain
little or no alloy. The native indolence of the Malay Afmtic Rt.
difpofition prevents them from colledling more than hftarch^s,
fufficient to fupply the few and fimple wants of a race of'0*' u
men as yet unenlightened by civilization and faience,
and ignorant of the full extent of the advantages of the
country inhabited by themr The roads leading to this
golden country are almoll impervious; affording only a
fcanty path to a ftngle traveller, where whole nights
mull be palled in the open air, expofed to the malignant
influence of a hoftile climate, in a country infefted by
the moft ferocious wild boafts. Thefe are circumftances
that have hitherto checked curiolity ; but perfeverance
and ftudied precaution will lurmount the obftacles they
furnilli, and fuel) difeoveries might be made as would
amply compenfate for the difficulties leading to them.
The gold merchants who come from the neighbouring
and lefs rich countries, give us fuch accounts of the fa¬
cility of procuring gold as border nearly on the marvel¬
lous, and would be altogether incredible, if great quan¬
tities of that metal produced by them did not in fome
degree evince the certainty of their accounts.
This great abundance of gold in Sumatra induces Mr
Marfden to fuppofe that illand to be the Ophir of Solo¬
mon ; a conjecture which, in his opinion, derives no
fmall force from the word Ophir'1 s bring really a Malay
fubftantive, of a compound fenfe, fignifying a mountain
containing
SUM [ 9 1
Site*, containing gold. The natives, he confefe, teye no
II oral tradition on the fubjea; and we have elfewhere
Sump. tnaje jt probable that Ophir was fituated in a difterent
'^v~' quarter of the world (fee Ophir). Befides the metals
and different fpecies of wood which we have mentioned,
Sumatra produces fulphur, arfenic, faltpetre, and bees¬
wax, with edible birds-nefts, which are there commo¬
dities of great importance (fee BlRDS-NeJIs'). .
IV Englifh and Dutch have fa&ories on this illand •,
the principal one of the former being Fort Marlborough,
on the fouth-weft coaft. The original natives of Suma¬
tra are Pagans •, but it is to be obferved, that when the
Sumatrans, or any of the natives of the eaftern itlands,
learn to read the Arabic chara&er, and fubmit to cir-
cumcifion, they are faid to become ?Takys the term
Malay being underftood to mean Mujjultnan. See
Acheen. o a
SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See A-
BRID CEMENT.
SUMMER, the name of one of the lealons ot the
vear, hew one of the quarters when the year is divided
into four quarters, or one half when the year is divided
only into two, fummer and winter. In the former cate,
fummer is the quarter during which, in northern cli¬
mates, the fun is paffing through the three figns Cancer,
Leo, Virgo, or from the time of the greateft declination,
till the fun come to the equinoftial again, or have no
defamation ; which is from about the 2ld of June till
aJKt the 22d of September. In the latter cafe, fum¬
mer contains the fix warmer months, while the fun is on
one fide of the equinoftial j and winter the other fix
months, when the fun is on the other fide of it. It is
faid that a frofty winter produces a dry fummer, and a
mild winter a wet fummer.
SUMMER-IJlands. See BERMUDAS.
Summer Red-Bird. See Muscicapa, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any body or figure,
as of a triangle, cone, pyramid, &c.
SUMMONS, in Lave, a citing or calling a perfon
to any court, to anfwer a complaint or to give his evi¬
dence.
Summons, in War. To fummon a place, is to fend
a drum or trumpet to command the governor to furren-
der, and to declare that if the place be taken by ftorm,
all muff fubmit to the mercy of the conqueror. See
Capitulation and Chamade.
SUMMUM bonum, in Ethics, the chief good..
SUMP, in Metallurgy, a round pit of Hone, lined
with clay within, for receiving the metal on its firft
fufion from the ore.
Sump, in the Britilh falt-works, where fea-water is
boiled into fait, is the name of a fort of pond, which is
made at fome diftance from the faltern on the fea-lhore,
between full fea and low-ivater mark. From this pond
a pipe is laid, through which, when it is full fea, tne
water runs into a well adjoining to the faltern y and
from this well it is pumped into troughs, through which
it is carried to the citterns, in order to be ready to fup-
ply the pans. See Salt.
Sump, in Mining, denotes a pit funk down in the
bottom of the mine, to cut or prove the lode ftill deeper
than before ; and in order to (lope and dig it away if
neceffary, and alfo to drive on the lode in depth. 1 he
lump principally ferves as abafon or refervoir, to colledt
Vol. XX. Part I.
SUN
the water of a mine together, that it may be cleaned
out by an engine or machine.
SUMPTER-horse, is a horfe that carries provifions
and neceffaries for a journey. _ ^ <-
SUMPTUARY laws (Leges Sumptuarice), are
laws made to reftrain excefs in apparel, coftly furniture,
eating, &c.
Mott ages and nations have had their fumptuary
laws •, and fome retain them ftill, as the Venetians, &c.
But it is obferved, that no laws are worfe executed than
fumptuary laws. Political writers have been much di¬
vided in opinion with refpeft to the utility of thefe laws
to a ft ate. Montefquieu obferves that luxury is necef¬
fary in monarchies, as in France, but ruinous to demo¬
cracies, as in Holland. With regard to England, whofe
government is compounded of both fpecies, it may ftill
be a dubious queftion, fays Judge Black 11 one, huW lar
private luxury is a public evil} and as luch cognizable
by public laws.
The fumptuary laws of the ancient Locrian legiflator
Zaleucus are famous : by thefe it was ordained that no
woman Ihould go attended with more than one maid in
the ftreet except foe were drunk : that (he Ihould not
go out of the city in the night, unlefs ihe .went to com¬
mit fornication ; that fhe Ihould not wear any gold or
embroidered apparel, unlefs ihe propofed to be a com¬
mon (trumpet; and that men Ihould not wear rings or
tiffues except when they went a whoring, bee.
Among the Romans, the fumptuary laws were very
numerous i By the Lex Orchia, the number ot guefts at
feafts was limited, though without any limitation of the
charges i by the Fanman law, made 22 years after¬
wards, it was enabled, that more than 10 ajjes (hould
not be fpent at any ordinary feaft : for the foiemn featts,
as the Saturnalia, &c. an hundred affes were allowed j
ten of which, Gellius informs us, was the price of a
Iheep, and a hundred of an ox. By the Didian law,
which was preferred 18 years after, it was decreed, that
the former fumptuary laws ihould be in force, not only-
in Rome, but throughout all Italy 5 and that for every
tranfgreflion,, not only the matter of the feaft, but all
the guefts too, ihould be liable to the penalty.
The Engliih have had their ihare of fumptuary laws,
chiefly made in the reigns of Edward III. Edward IV.
and Henry VIII. againft ihoes with long points, Ihort
doublets, and long coats} though all repealed by fta-
tute 1 Jac. I. c. 25. As to excefs in diet, there re¬
mains ftill one law unrepealed. Under King Henry IV.
Camden tells us, pride had got fo much into the foot,
that it was proclaimed, that no man ihould wear ihoes
above fix inches broad at the toes. And their outer
garments were fo ihort, that it was enabled, 2j Ed¬
ward IV. that no perfon, under the condition of a lord,
ihould from that time, wear any mantle or gown, uiv
lefs of fuch length, that, Handing upright, it might co¬
ver the lower part of the trunk of his body.
SUN, Sol, ©, in JJlronomy, the great luminary
which enlightens the world, and by its prefence eonfti-
tutes day. See Astronomy Index.
Mock-SUN. See PARHELION.
Sun-Fifh. a fpecies of ihark. See Squalus, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
SuN-Flowcr. See Helianthus, 1 g0TANY In(IeXt
SUN-Dew. See Drosera, 3
SUNDA-ISLANDS, a general name for a clufter of
B ihands
Sump
‘I
Suuds-
iilands.
SUP
Sunda-
iilands
II
Superero¬
gation.
iflands in the Indian ocean, between 930 and 120
eaft longitude, and between 8° north and 8° Couth lati¬
tude. The particular names of the itlands are Borneo,
Sumatra, Java, Bally, Banco, &c.
' SUNDAY, or the LoriTs-day, a Llemn feflival
cbferved by Chriftians on the firit day of every week,
in memory of our Saviour’s refurredtion. See Sab¬
bath.
In the breviary and other offices we meet vvith.Sun-i
days of the firit and fecond clafs. Thnfe of the firll
clafs are, Palm, Ealler, Advent, and Whitfunday, thole
cf Quajimodo and ^uadragejlma. Thofe of the fecond
clafs are the common Sundays. Anciently each Sun¬
day in the year had its particular name, which was taken
from the introit of the day •, which euftom has only
been continued to fome few in lent j as Reminifcers,
Oculi, Lcetare, Judica.
Some are of opinion that the Lord’s day, mentioned
in the Apocalypfe, is our Sunday j which they believe
ivas fo early inftituted by the apoftles. Be this as it
will, it is certain a regard was had to this day even in
the earlieft ages of the church ; as appears from the
firit apology of Juliin Martyr, where he defcribes the
exercife of the day not much unlike to ours.
But it was Conftantine the Great who firft made a
law for the proper obfervation of Sunday j and who, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, appointed it ffiould be regularly
celebrated throughout the Roman empire. Before him,
and even in his time, they obferved the Jewifii Sabbath
as well as Sunday ; both tofatisfythe law of Mofes and
to imitate the apoftles, who ufed to meet together on
the firft day.
By Conitantine’s laws, made in 321, it was decreed,
that for the future the Sunday fhould be kept a day of
reft in all cities and towns ; but he allowed the country
people to follow their work. In 538, the council of
Orleans prohibited country labour; but becaufe there
were ftill many Jews in Gaul, and the people fell into
many fuperftitious ufes in the celebration of the new
Sabbath, like thofe of the Jews among that of the old,
the council declares, that to hold it unlawful to travel
with horfes, cattle, and carriages, to prepare food, or to
do any thing neceffary to the eleanlinefs and decency of
houfes or perfons, favours more of Judaifm than of ChrD
ftianity. See SJB3A7H-Breaking.
SUNDA Y-Scliools. See Sunday-SCHOOLS.
SUO VET A UR ILIA, an ancient Roman facrifice,
fo called becaufe it confifted of a pig {fas'), a ffieep or
rather ram {avis'), and a bull {taurus). They were all
males, to denote the mafcuiine courage of the Roman
people. It was likewife ca 11 ed folitaunlia, becaufe the
animals offered up were always folida, whole or uncut.
SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by merchants
to go a voyage, and overfee their cargo or lading, and
difpole of it to the beft advantage.
SUPERCILIUM, in Anatomy, the eye-brow. See
Anatomy, N° 142.
SUPEREROGATION, in Theology, what a man
does beyond his duty, or more than he is commanded to
do. The Romanifts ftand up ftrenuouflv for works of
fupererogation, and maintain that the obfervance of
evangelical councils is fu< h. Rv means hereof, a ftoek
of merit is laid up, which the church has the difpofal of,
and which ffie diftributes in indulgences to fuch as need.
This abfurd do&rine was firtt invented towards the
TO ] SUP
of dole of the 12th century, and modified and etnbellithed Supcrcrc-
by St Thomas in the 13th : according to which, it was gation
pretended that there actually exiiied an irmnenfe trea-
lure of merit, compofed ot the pious deeds and virtuous
adtion^ which the iaints had performed beyond what was
neceffary, for their own Jalvation, and which were there¬
fore applicable to the benefit of others 5 that the guar¬
dian and dilpenier of this precious treafure was the
Roman pontiff; and that of confequence he was em¬
powered to affign to luch as he thought proper a por¬
tion of this inexhauftible fource of merit, fuitable to their
reipeCtive guilt, and fufficient to deliver them from the
punifhment due to their crimes.
The reformed churches do not allow of any wTork of
fupererogation •, but hold with the apoftles, that when
we have done our beft, we are but unprofitable fervants.
SUPKRFE E A’iTON, in Phyjiology, a fecond or
after-conception, happening when the mother, already
pregnant, conceives of a latter coition ; fo that ftie bears
at once two fcetufes of unequal age and bulk, and is de¬
livered of them at different times. We meet with in-
ftances of fuperfetations in Hippocrates, Ariftotle, Du
Laurens, &c.: but they are laid to. be much more fre¬
quent in hares and fwine.
SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in Geometry, the out-
fide or exterior, face of any body. This is conlidered as
having the two dimenfions of length and breadth only,
but no thicknefs; and therefore it makes no part of the
fubftance or folid content or matter of the body.
The terms, qr bounds, or extremities, of a fuperficies,.
are lines ; and fuperficies may be confidered as generat¬
ed by the motions of lines. Superficies are either re<fti-
linear, curvilinear, plane, concave, or convex. A redti-
linear fuperficies is that which is bounded by right lines.
Curvilinear fuperficies is bounded by^curve lines. Plane
fuperficies is that which has no inequality in it, nor ri-
fings, nor finkings, but lies evenly and ftraight through¬
out, fo that a right line may wholly coincide with it in
all parts and directions. Convex fuperficies is that which
is curved and rifes outwards. Concave fuperficies is
curved and finks inward. See Geometry.
SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to
exprefs the fuperlative finenefs of a fluff: thus a cloth,
a camblet, &c. are faid to be fuperfine when made of
the fineft, wool, &c. or when they are theffineft that can
be made.
SUPERFLUOUS interval, in Mafic, is,one that
exceeds a true diatonic interval by a ,femitone minor.
See Interval.
SUPERIN PENDANT, denotes an ecclefiaftical
fuperior in feveral reformed churches where epifcopacy
is not admitted; particularly among the Lutherans in
Germany, and the Calvinifts in feme other places.
The fuperiniendant is fimilar to. a bilhop ; only his
power is femewhat more reft rained than that of our dic-
eefan biftiops. He is the chief pallor, and has the di¬
rection of all the inferior pallors within his diftriCt or
diocefe. In Germany they had formerly feperintend-
ants general, who were luperior to the ordinary lisper-
intendants. Thefe, in reality, were archbilhops $ but
the dignity is funk into dilufe ; anci at pnfent none but
the fuperintendant of Wirtemberg a flumes the quality
of fuperintendant general.
SUPERIOR, a perfon raifed above another in rank,
office, or talents,
Superior,
Superior.
Sap? nor
II .
Superfti-
tion.
—y*——
SUP [I
Superior, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxiv. 3.
clxv. 2. and clxvi.
SUPERL A. TIVE, in Grammar, one of the three
1 degrees of coraparifon, being that inflexion of adjeftive
nouns that ferves to augment and heighten their iigni-
fieation, and {hows the quality of the thing denoted to
be in the higheft degree. See GRAMMAR..
SUPERNUMERARY, fomething over and above
a fixed number. In feveral of the offices are fupernu-
merary clerks, to be ready on extraordinary occafions.
SUPERP ARTICUL AR proportion, or Ratio, is
that in which the greater term exceeds the lefs by
unit or 1. As the ratio of 1 to 2, or 2 to 3, or 3 to 4,
&c.
SUPERPARTI ENT proportion, or is when
the greater term contains the lefs term once, and leaves
fome number greater than 1 remaining. As the ratio
of 3 to 5, which is equal to that of 1 to 1^-;
of 7 to 10, which is equal to that of 1 to 14, &c.
SUPERSEDEAS, in Law, a writ iflued in divers
cafes, importing in general a command to (lay or forbear
fume ordinary proceedings in law, which in appearance
ought to be done or purfued, were it not for the caufe
whereon this writ is granted.
Thus a man regularly is to have a furety of peace
againlt him of whom he. will fwear he is afraid ; and
the juftice required hereunto cannot deny it him : yet,
if the party be formerly bound to the peace, either in
chancerv or elfewhere, this writ lies to flay the juftice
from doing that which otherwife he ought not to deny.
SUPERSTITION, a word that has been ufed fo in¬
definitely, that it is difficult to determine its precife
meaning. From its refemblance in found to the Latin
word fupcrjics, “ a furvivor,” it is evidently derived
from it, and different attempts have been made to trace
their connexion in fignificatioU. Balbus, in the dia¬
logue De Natura Deorum of Cicero, fays, that they who
prayed and facrificed whole days that their children
might furvive them, were called fupefftitious. Laflan-
tius cenfures this etymology, and fays they were not
called fuperftitious who wiftied that their children might
furvive them (for this we all wiffi), but becaufe they
who furvived their parents worfhipped their images.
Others again fay, that fuperftition is derived from fu-
perjies, becaufe it confifted in confidering the dead as if
they were alive. But thefe etymologies are folely con-
je&ural 5 and we confider fconje&ures as abfurd in phi- ■
lology as we do in fcience ; they may miflead, but are fel-
dom of any benefit. The ufual meaning affixed to the
word fuperJHtion, both in the Latin and Englifh lan¬
guages, is fo different from fuperjies, that its change of
meaning muft; be owing to fome accident which it is in
vain to inquire after. If we had not known that the
word paganus, “ a pagan,” was derived from pagus, u a
village,” becaufe the heathens in a certain period of the
Chriftian biftory lived in villages, the whims and fancies
of etymologifts would not have thrown much light on
the fubjeft.
Without labouring, from the aid of etymology, to de¬
fine fuperftition, which is a word of a very extenfive fig-
nification, we will confider to what objefts it is applied ;
and then, by obferving what is common to them all, we
ftiall be enabled to fix with fome degree of precifion the
meaning of the term. We apply it to the idolatry of the
1 ] SUP
heathens; we apply it alfo to the Jews, who made the will Superfti-
of God of no effedl by their traditions, arm tuuilituted lU)ri'
ceremonies in place of the religion of their fathers. We
fay alfo that Chriftians are guilty of fuperithion \ the
Roman Catholics, who believe in tranfubftantiation and
in the efficacy of prayers to faints *, and thofe Proteuants
who efteetn baptifm ami the Lord’s fupper, and the
punctual performance of other ceremonies, wirlmui re¬
gard to morality, as fufficient to tmure lalvation. i hofe
perlons are alfo reckoned (uperftitious who believe, with ¬
out any evidence, that prophecies are ftili uttered by
the divine infpiration, and that miracles are ftili per¬
formed. The word i alfo extended to thofe who be-j
lieve in witchcraft, magic, and apparitions, or that the
divine will is declared by omens or augury 5 that the
fortune of individuals can be atFefted by things indif¬
ferent, by things deemed lucky or unlucky, or that dif-
eafes can be cured by words, charms, and incantations.
Through all the particulars which we have enumera¬
ted, there runs one general idea, the belief of what is
falfe and contrary to reafon. From this, however, we
mufl not fuppofe that whatever is falfe and contrary to
reafon may be denominated fuperftition. Wt think
that it is falfe and irrational to fuppofe that there ever
lived on earth a race of men who walked on one leg,
and had their eyes in their breaft j or that there were
giants 90 feet high : yet we do not call the philofo-
pher who believes thefe chimeras fuperflitious, but cre¬
dulous. Superflition has always a reference to God, to
religion, or to beings fuperior to man. We do not how
ever diftinguilh all falfe and irrational opinions in reli¬
gion by the name of fuperftition. We do not, for in*
ftance, apply this name to the opinions which fome of
the ancients entertained, that God is the foul of the
world, and that men are only portions of him feparated
for a time, or that the foul after death lives fucceffively
in different bodies. If we examine the (ubjedl: with
more attention, we fhall difeover that the foundation of
fuperftition is ignorance of the moral attributes of God $
for we never fay a man is fuperftitious for entertaining
erroneous opinions of the natural attributes of God.
Some of the Socinians have denied the prefcience of
God j and a French philofopher has not only rejefted
the belief that He is a ipirit, but has prefumed to fay
that he is compofod of a fpecies of cryftals. The firft
of thefe opinions dHcovers very imperfect ideas of God,
and the fecund is the height of impiety and abfurdity }
yet the Socinians have not been acculed of fuperftition,
nor can this French philofopher be fufpedled of it. We
do not call every falfe opinion concerning the unity or
moral attributes of God by the name of fuperftition, as,
for inftance, the opinion which fome fceptics have fup-
ported, that God L not good ; for, as was mentioned
before, fu per ft ft ion always involves the idea of creduli¬
ty. It does not confilt in falfely denying (hat God pof-
feffes any particular moral attributes, but in believing
more than what is true concerning them ; in forming
mean, unworthy ideas of them ; in fuppofing that he is
guided by blind paflion like mankind, and enjoins upon
his creatures commandments which are irrational and
abfurd.
As fuperftition arifes from ignorance and credulity in
the underftanding, fo it has alfo a feat in the paflions.
Fear has been commonly confidered as a patfion of the
human mind from which it chiefly derives its origin ;
B 2 and
SUP [I
Superfti- and there is no doubt that more fuperftition has arifen
t^Qn- from fear united with ignorance and credulity than from
y 1 any other paflion. Yet it would certainly be impro¬
per to exclude all other paffions. We cannot account
for the fuperllition of the Egyptians, without fuppofing
that much of it arofe from gratitude. They worlhipped
the Nile, becaufe it diftributed fertility and abundance
over the land of Egypt •, and they worlhipped fome ani¬
mals, merely becaufe they prevented the increafe of
other animals which were noxious. Thus they adored
the ibis, becaufe it dellroyed the eggs of the crocodile.
Having thus endeavoured to analyze the ideas com¬
prehended under the word fuperftition, we may fum
them up in a few words. It refpe&s God and beings
fuperior to man, and extends to our religious opinions,
worlhip, and praftices ; and may be defined abfurd opi¬
nions and ail ions arifing from mean and defeBive ideas
of the moral attributes of God. Let us apply this defi¬
nition to the different fpecies of fuperftition already men¬
tioned.
But before entering upon this application, it may be
proper to obferve, that fuperftition involves the idea of
a blameable inattention to reafon, or a credulity arifing
from an indolence of underftanding. We generally
make a diftin&ioh between the imperfeft opinions which
a favage, from the neceffary effe&s of his fituation, forms
of the attributes of God, and thofe which civilized na¬
tions entertain. We fay the favage is ignorant, and we
afcribe his ignorance to his fituation ; but we call the
Roman Catholic fuperftitious, and we blame him for not
having thofe juft ideas of God which he might have ob¬
tained by opening his Bible, or by the exercife of his
underftanding in the favourable fituation in which he is
placed. Superftition then does not originate fo much
from the natural weaknefs of the human underftanding,
as from a mifapplication or a negleft of it (a).
We cannot therefore with any propriety apply the
name fuperjlition to polytheifm in general ; for what all
the ancient philofophers, after much ftudy and reflec¬
tion, concluded to be true, could never proceed from
credulity and inattention, but from their fituation. We
fpeak very properly, however, when we call idolatry by
the name of fuperftition ; becaufe there is no man fo de¬
void of underftanding as not to be capable of difcover-
ing, that a piece of metal, or wood, or ftone, can nei¬
ther hear nor anfwer petitions. Superfilion was a name
which the ancient philofophers gave to thofe who en¬
tertained mean opinions of the gods, or did foolifh things
Theopbraf- to obtain their favour. According to Theophraftus,
tin's Cha- the fuperftitious man is one who, having wafhed his
raciers, hands, and fprinkled himfelf all round, leaves the temple
with a laurel leaf in his mouth, with which he walks
about the whole day. Or, if a weafel (hould crofs the
road, he will not advance a ftep till he has thrown three
ftones over the road. If he find a ferpent in his houfe,
he rears a place of devotion on the fpot. He purifies
his houfe often, will not fit upon a grave, or touch a
dead perfon. He is anxious about the interpretation of
his dreams, will not offer a facrifice unlefs his wife go
along with him, or, if fhe is engaged, he takes the nurfe
2 ] s u f>
and the little children. He purifies bimftlf with onions; Superfti*
and when he fees a mad or an epileptic perfon, he fpits tion.
in their bofom. Such was the cbara&er of fuperftition ” v ""
in the days of Theophraftus. Ail thefe whimfical ce¬
remonies were done to prevent mifchief, and to avert the
wrath of the gods j and therefore perfedly correlpond
with the definition given above.
It is only neceffary to confider a little the fuperftitious
opinions and practices among Jews and Chriftians, to be
fenlible that they have all arifen from mean and abfurd
ideas of the moral attributes of God ; for they have ge¬
nerally entertained noble opinions of his natural attri¬
butes. The Jews confidered God as a partial Being;
who had a predilection for their nation in preference to
all others, and preferred external homage and ceremony
to moral purity. If the Roman Catholics think con¬
fidently, they muft efteem God as a Being who can be
prevailed upon by the importunity of one dead man to
affift another, or as a Being whofe patience would be
fatigued with hearing prayers conftantly. Elence their
practice of praying to faints. They in effeft believe,
however they may deceive themfelves, that God is un¬
juft, or they could not believe tranfubftantiation ; for it
fuppofes that God can give commands direftly contrary
to thofe principles of belief with which he has endued
the human mind. They confider a ftridf adherence to
a variety of ceremonies, to forms, to pomp, and Ihow,
as eflential to the worlhip of God : this is treating God
as a vainglorious Being. They thought it their duty
to extirpate heretics : this was fuppofing God a cruel
and revengeful Being. Even among Proteftants, we
are forty to fay, a great deal of fuperftition remains :
we have not yet learned to confider God as a fpirit, who
is to be worfhipped in fpirit and in truth, as a pure moral
benevolent Being ; and hence arife all the fuperftitious
praftices which prevail among us.
Befides thofe fuperftitious opinions and pra&ices which
entirely refpect our duty to God, there are others-which
may be termed vulgar fuperfitions. Thefe alfo arife
from imperfeft and mean ideas of the moral attributes
of God. To believe vulgar prophecies, which are al¬
ways the effufions of madnefs or knavery, is to fuppofe
that God, who has drawn a veil over futurity, and only
delivers prophecies to accomplilh fome great moral pur-
pofe, fometimes gives them for no purpofe at all, or to
gratify idle curiofity, or to difclofe fuch a knowledge of
what is to happen as is inconfiftent with the free agency
of man and the moral adminiftration of the world. Nor
is it lefs fuperftitious to believe in vulgar miracles. To
believe in them, is to believe that God fufpends the laws
of nature for the raoft trivial purpofes, or to countenance
fraud and worldly ambition : it is to receive the moft
extraordinary faffs upon the moft unfatisfaflory evi¬
dence. The belief of witchcraft, of apparitions, and the
fecond fight, may be refolved into the fame principle.
To fuppofe that God would communicate the power of
doing mifehief, and of controuling his laws, to any be¬
ing merely for gratifying their own paffions, is unworthy
of God. The belief of apparitions is equally inconfift¬
ent with the goodnefs of God (fee Spectre). The
fame
(a) We do not pretend to fay that this is the fenfe in which fuperftition is always ufed, becaufe it is often ufe«l
improperly.
tions,
vol. iii.
SUP f. 13 ^
fame obie&ion rifes .againll the feconci-figtit as againft
the belief of vulgar prophecies and may alfo oe extend¬
ed to omens, to aftrology, to things lucky and unluo J,
to fortune-telling, &c. As to the different devtcesand
charms for preventing and curing ditorders, they re-
femble in every refpeet talfe miraeies.
A judicious hillory of fuperftition would be a curious
and entertaining work, and would exhibit the human
charaaerina remarkable point ot view. Superllition
is moil prevalent among men or weak and uncultivated
minds : it is more frequent in the female fex than among
men ; and abounds more in the rude than m the rermed
ftages of fociety. The general features of it have been
* the fame in all ages •, but it affumes certain peculiarities
according to the diverfity of charaaer of different na¬
tions. It gained admiffion into the fcience of medicine
at an early period. He who was endowed with fupe-
rior genius and knowledge was reckoned a magician.
Dr Bartolo was feized by the inquifition at Rome in the
laid century, becaufe he unexpededly cured a_ noble-
Manche/ler man of the gout. Difeafes were imputed to fafcmation,
Tranfac- and hundreds of poor wretches were dragged to the
flake for being acceffary to them. Mercatus, phyhcian
to Philio II, of Spain, a writer of uncommon accuracy
and information, appears ftrongly inclined to deny the
exiftence of fafcinatory difeafes: but he is conftrained
to acknowledge them for two reafons ; ift, Becaufe the
inquifition had decided in favour of their reality ; 2dly,
Becaufe he had feen a very beautiful woman break a
fteel-mirror to pieces, and blaft fome trees by a angle
glance of her eyes.
As the opinions concerning the caufe of difeafes were
fuperftitious, thofe concerning the method ot curing
them were not lefs fo. In the Odyffey we read of a
cure performed by a fong. Jofephus relates, that he
faw a certain Jew, named Eleaxar, draw the devil out
of an old woman’s noftrils by the application of Solo¬
mon’s feal to her nofe in prefence of the emperor Vei-
pafian. Many different kinds of applications were uted
for expelling the devil. Flagellation fometimes fuc-
ceeded admirably *, purgatives and antifpafmodics were
other modes of difcharging him. Dr Mynfight cured
feveral bewitched perfons with a plafter of affafoetida.
Flow the affafoetida was fo efficacious, was much dii-
nuted. Some thought the devil might confider fo vile
an application as an infult, and run off in a paffion ; but
others very fagely obferved, that as devils are fuppoied
to have eyes and ears, it is probable they may have nofes
t0 Nor was it only in medicine thefe fuperftitious opi¬
nions were entertained •, they prevailed alfo in,natural
philofophy. The pernicious effeRs in mines, which we
now know are occafloned by noxious air, were confi¬
dently imputed to the demons of the mine. Even Van
Helmont, Bodinus, Strozza, and Luther, attributed
thunder and meteors to the devil. Chemifts were em¬
ployed for centuries in fearch of the philofopher’s flone,
with which they were to do miracles. It was a com¬
mon queftion among philofophers in the 17th century,
whether the imagination could move external obje£is ?
A queftion generally decided in the affirmative.
Though fuperftition be generally the mark of a weak
mind, fuch is the infirmity of human nature, that we
find many inftances of it among men of the moft fublime
genius-and moft enlightened minds. Socrates believed
S U P
^thatlie was guided by a demon. Lord Bacon believed Supeiftl-
!n witchcraft j and relates that he was cured of warts by tl(Jn
rubbing them with a piece of lard with the Ikin on, and sUpjne#
then nailing it with the fat towards the fun on the poll j
of a chamber window facing the fan. Henry IV. one
of the moft illuftrious of monarchs, was very uneaiy be- ^
fore his affaffination on account of forae prophecies • of“Tf
Sully declares, that one of the confiderations that kept
him faithful to his mailer in the moft unpromifing hate
of his affairs, was a prediftion of La Broffe, that Henry
would make his fortune f. The aftrologer Morin di- f Ibid.
redded Cardinal Richelieu’s motions in fome of his jour¬
neys J. The enlightened Cudworth defended prophe- } Bayle,
cies in general, and called thofe who oppofed the belief art. Morin.
of witchcraft by the name of athei/is ; and the predic¬
tions of Rice Evans have been fupported in the prefent
century by the celebrated names of Warburton and Jor-
tin. Dr Hoffman, the father of the Modern Theory
and Pradlice of Medicine, in a differtation publiffied in
the large edition of his works in 1747> that the
devil can raife ftorms, produce infefts, and act upon the
animal fpirits and imagination j and, in fine, that he is
an excellent optician and natural philofopher on account
of his long experience. Dr Johnfon, the leviathan of
literature, is fuppofed to have believed the fecund fight.
With refped to the effedts of fuperftition on the hu¬
man mind, they are indeed deplorable. It cnainsdown
the underftanding, and finks it into the moll abjedt and
fordid ftate, and keeps it under the dominion of fear,
and fometimes of cruelty. Where once it takes poffef-
fion, it has a tendency to become extreme, and gener¬
ally becomes fo intolerable, that men of refledtion and
learning confpire its deftrudlion. ihe Chriftian icli-
gion gave a violent {hock to the heathen fuperftition,
the reformation in a great meafure demolifiled the fu¬
perftition of the church of Rome j and the fuperftition
which remained among Proteftants after their reparation
from that church has been gradually yielding to the in¬
fluence of enlightened reafon, or to the bold and daring
attacks of infidelity and deifm. We behold the prof-
pedt of its ruins with pleafure, and thank the deifts for
their zeal j but it is from the firm hope that the religion
of Jefus will arife in all its beauty and fimple majefty,
and be admired and refpedled as it deferves : for mean
and contemptible as fuperftition certainly is, we would
rather fee men do wnat they reckon their dutj fiom fu¬
perftitious principles, than fee anarchy and vice prevail,
even though attended with all the knowledge and li¬
berality of fentiment which deilm and infidelity can in-
fpire.
SUPERVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer.
SUPINATION, in Anatomy, the adlion of a fupina-
tor mufcle, or the motion whereby it turns the hand fo-
as that the palm is lifted up towards heaven.
SUPINE, in Latin grammar, part of the conjugation
of a verb, being a verbal fubftantive of the Angular nunv
ber and the fourth declenfion.
There are two kinds of fupines : one, called, the/#/
Jupine, ending in wn of the accufative cafe, which is al¬
ways of an adlive fignification, and follows a verb of
motion j as abiit deambulatum. The other called the
Iqfl Jupine, and ending in u ©f the ablative cafe, is of a
paffive fignification, and is governed by fubftantives or
adjedlives \ zs, facile diblu, &c.
They have their name, fays Probus, and after him
J Voflius,
Supine,
Supper.
Definition
Controver-
fies about
the out¬
ward and
Vifible fign.
* Exod.
xii. 15, ip,
In Mi/h
-nam.
1$ Horn, X2,
in Hiere-
miam.
SUP [I
Voffius, quod ad injlar fitpinorum et Otioforum hominum
^ omnia habent confufa : or, according to Prifcian, quod
nafcantur a participiis pajjivis, qua: iupina appellatu funt,
quia in injimo loco Jita, totam conjugationis molem fufci-
qpiant.
SUPPER, the evening repaft.—Suppers that are hea¬
vy (hoold be avoided, becauie the ftomach is more op-
preiTed with the (ame quantity of food in a horizontal
poflure than in an ereft one, and becaufe digeftion goes
on more (lowly when we deep than when we are awake.
I hey (hould be eaten long enough before bed-time, that
they may be nearly digefted before going to deep; and
then a draught of pure water will dilute that which re¬
mains in the ftomach.
SUPPER of the Lord, other wife called the Eucharifl,
is a facrament ordained by Chrift in his church, of which
the outward part is bread and wine, and the inward part
or thing fignified the body and blood of Chrift, which
the majority of Chriftians believe to be in fome fenfe or
other taken and received by the faithful communicants.
See Sacrament.
There is no ordinance of the gofpel which has been
the fubjeft of mure violent controverdes between dif¬
ferent churches, and even between different divines of
the fame church, than this facrament 5 and though all
confefs that one purpofe of its inftitution was to be a
bond of love and union among Chriftians, it has, by the
perverfenefs of mankind, been too often converted into
an occalion of hatred. The outward and vifible fign,
and the inward and fpiritual grace, have equally afford¬
ed matter of difputation to angry controvertifts. Many
members of the church of Rome condemn the Greek
church and the Proteftants for ufing leavened bread in
the Lord’s Supper, contrary to the example fet them by
our Saviour •, whilft the Greek church in general, and
fome Proteftant focieties in particular, \inite with the
church of Rome in cenfuring all churches which mix
not the wine with water, as deviating improperly from
primitive praftice. See Eucharist.
That it was unleavened bread which our Lord blef-
fed and brake and gave to his difciples as his body, can¬
not be queftioned 5 for at the time of the paffover, when
(this ordinance was inftituted, there was no leavened
bread to be found in Jemfalem *. For the mixed cup,
the evidence is not fo decifive. It is indeed true, as we
have obferved under the article Eucharist, that the
primitive Chriftians ufed wine diluted with water; and
if we may believe Maimonides f, it was the general
cuftom of the.Jews, as well at the paffover as at their
ordinary meals, to add a little water to their wine on
account of its great (Length ; but that this was always
done, or that it was done by our Saviour in particular,
there is no clear evidence. Origen indeed affirms f,
that our Lord adminiftered in wine unmixed 5 and he
was not a man to hazard fuch an affirmation, had there
been in his days any certain tradition, or fo much as a
general opinion, to the contrary. On this account we
have often heard with wonder the neceflity of the mix¬
ed cup infifted on by thofe who without hefitation make
ufe of leavened bread ; for if it be effential to the fa¬
crament that the very fame elements be employed by
4 ] SUP
us that were employed by our Saviour, the neceflity of Supper,
unleavened bread is certainly equal to that of wine di- —
luted by water.
But the mixed cup is faid to be emblematical of the
blood and water which flowed from the fide of our Lord
when pierced by the fpear of the Roman foldier, while
the abfence of leaven is emblematical of no particular
circumftance in His paflion. This argument for the
mixture is as old as file era of St Cyprian, and has fince
been frequently urged with triumph by thofe w'ho furely
perceived not its weaknefs. The flowing of the blood
and water from our Saviour’s fide was the confequence
either of the fpear’s having pierced the pericardium, or
more probably of an afcites or hydrothorax, occafioned
by his cruel and lingering death (fee Medicine, N°
34343)* -But: whatever was the caufe of it, how can
the mixing of wine with water in the facrament be em¬
blematical of the flowing of blood and water feparately ?
Such a mixture furely bears a more ftriking refemblance
to the reunion of the ferum and craffamentum, after they
had been feparated by whatever caufe. See Blood.
We urge not thefe obje&ions to the mixed cup from
any diflike that wTe have to the praftice. It is unquef-
tionably harmlefs and primitive *, and we wifli that
greater regard were paid to primitive pradtices than the
generality of Chriftians feem to think they can claim : .3
but let the advocates for antiquity be confident; let riVOlOU5,
them either reftore, together with the mixed cup, the
ufe of unleavened bread, or acknowledge that neither
the one nor the other is effential to the facrament. This
laft acknowledgement muft indeed be made, if they
would not involve themfelves in difficulties from which
they cannot be extricated. If either the mixed cup or
unleavened bread be abfolutely neceffary to the validity
of the facrament, why not wine made from the grapes
of Judeca ? why not that particular kind of wine which
was ufed by our Saviour ? and where is that wine to be
found ?
But the controverfies reipedling the outward part or About the
fign of the Lord’s Supper are of little importance when ’Ung fig-
compared with thofe which have been agitated refpedt-
ing the inward part or thing fignified ; and of thefe we
haften to give as comprehenfive a view as the limits pre-
fcribed to fuch articles will admit.
Our Bleffed Lord, in the fame night that he was be¬
trayed, 4 tooK. bread, and blefled it, and brake it, and
gave it to the difciples, and faid, Take, eat ; this is my
body. And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave
it to them, faying, Drink ye all of it; for this is my
blood of the new teftament, which is (hed for many for
the remiflion of fins.” Such was the inftitution of the
Lord’s Supper as it is recorded in the gofpel by St Mat¬
thew ; and we have the fame account of it, in almoft
the very fame words, by three other infpired writers, St
Paul, St Mark, and St Luke. i hat it was the bread
which Chrift bleffed and brake that is here called his
body, and the wine over which he gave thanks that he
ftyles his blood of the new teftament, will admit of no
reafonable doubt (a) ; but in what fenfe they became
fo, has been the fubje^I of many controverfies.
The church of Rome, which holds, that after confe-Do(qrine of
cration, the church
of Rome.
(a) Some over-zealous Proteftants have indeed affirmed, that it was not the confemted bread and wine, but
thofe
SUP [I
Supper, cration, Jefus Chrift, God and man, is reaLy, truly,
■—v   and fubflantially, contained under the outward appear¬
ances of the bread and wine, informs us, that about the
middle of the mafs, when the pried, taking into his
hand, firft the bread and then the wine, pronounces over
each feparately the facred words of coniecration, the
fubftance of thefe elements is immediately changed by
the almighty power of God into the body and blood of
Chrift ; but that all the outward appearances of the
bread and wine, and all their fenfible qualities remain.
This more than miraculous change is called transub-
ST ANT I at ion ; and is founded on the philofophy of
Ariftotle, which refolves all bodies into matter anti form
(fee Metaphysics, N° 142—150.) 5 for it is only the
matter or imperceptible fubftance which fupports the
forms or fenftble qualities of bread and wine, that is
changed into the fubjlance or matter of the body and
blood of Chrift, fo that this divine matter, coming into
the place of the former earthly matter, fupports the fame
identical/o/wir which it fupported. Hence we are told,
“ that Jefus Chrift, now prefect inftead of the bread
and wine, exhibits himfelf to us under thofe very fame
outward forms or appearances which the bread and wine
had before the change.”
Could this du<ftrine be true, it would be abundantly
myfterious ; but to add to the myftery, we are farther
informed,, that under each kind is contained Jefus Chrift
whole and entire, his body and blood, his foul and di¬
vinity ; fo that when a man eats what has the appearance
of a wafer, he really and truly eats the body and blood,
the foul and divinity, of Jefus Chrift ; and when he af¬
terwards drinks what has the appearance of wine, he
drinks the very, fame body and blood, foul and divinity,
which not a minute perhaps before he had wholly and
entirely eaten ! The ingenious author from whofe work
we have taken this account of the Rotniih doftrine con¬
cerning the real prefence, may perhaps rejeft our infe¬
rence that tiie orthodox members of his church muft
believe the foul and divinity of Chrift to be eaten and
tirunle in the Lord’s fupper ; but he cannot deny that,
according to, his ftatement of the Catholic faith, the foul
and divinity are both received whole and entire into the
flomach of each communicant. He fays indeed, that
“ communion confifts in receiving Jefus Chrift whole and
entire, hL facred body, his precious blood, his blefled
foul, and his adorable divinity, into our fouls but that
which was formerly bread and wine^unqueftionably goes
into the Jlomachs of the communicants •, and fince, ac¬
cording to him, it is now the body and blood of Chrift,
5 ] SUP
the foul and divinity muft go thither with it, for thefe Supper,
four cannot be feparated. 1 his our author hiirfelf
grants. “ The Scripture (fays he) poiitivtly declares,
that Chrijl ri/ing again from the dead, dieth no more;
death /bail no more have dominion over him pRom. vi.
9.). Confequently his body, his blood, and his foul,
(hall never more be feparated from one another j and
as the union of his divine and human natures can never
more be broken, lo neither can thefe, his two natures,
united in his divine perfon, be ever feparated. From
this it neceffarily follows, that wherever the body of
Chrift is, there alfo his blood, his foul, and his divinity,
muft of neceffity be in like manner.”
Now, whether we fuppofe, with our author, that the
foul and divinity of Chrift diredily carry his body and
blood with them into the human ioul, or, trufting, in
fome degree to the evidence of fenfe, believe that the
body and blood carry the foul and divinity with them
directly into the iiomach of each communicant—is it
credible, is it poftible, that the high and lofty On*, who
inhabiteth eternity, and whom the oracles of truth af-
fure us that even the heaven of heavens cannot contain,
ftiould be fubfantially received whole and entire into a
finite fpirit like the human foul, or into a body fo limi¬
ted as the human ftomach ? Our author lays it is ; de¬
claring that, “ by the blefled prefence of Jelus Chrift,
whole and entire within us, are communicated to our
fouls all the heavenly graces which are the effects of the
holy communion: fuch as the fandlification of the foul
by an increafe of juftifying,grace ; the rendering of it
more pure, more holy, more beautiful, more agreeable,
in the eyes of God ; the elfcanfing of the foul from all
thofe venial fins and imperfedtions of which we repent,
and preferving us from falling into mortal fins ; the
uniting of us in a mo ft intimate manner with Jefus
Chrift, who comes to us in this holy facrament on pur-
pofe to dwell in our fouls and abide with us ; and the
giving us a pledge and earneft of a glorious immortality^,
to the enjoyment of which it brings us at laft, if we perr
levere to the end in the grace of God,”
The confequence of the dodtrine of tranfubftantiation
is i\w facrifce of the mafs, by which, it is laid, God’s
acceptance of Chrift’s facrifice on the crofs is obtained
for the adtual benefit of thofe perfons in particular for
whom the mafs is offered. In the work fu often quoted,
we are told, that “ Jefus Chrift our redeemer, who is
both our high-prieft and our vidfim, who, in order to
perfedl the work of our redemption, and reconcile man
with his offended Creator, offered himfelf once in a
bloody
thofe elements, together with the whole action of taking them into his hands, bleffing them, breaking the bread,
and ttiiftributing the bread and wine to the difciples, that Chrift calls his body and blood. This novel and fingu-
lar opinion refts upon no better foundation than a very childifh eritieifm. Our Saviour, after bleffing and breaking
the bread, gave it to the difeiples, faying, in the original, AaSilt tpecytlt TO'fTO trji to ruftet, uov. Now, fay our
critics, rovlo, in the neuter gender, can never agree with the antececL ni in the malcullne, but muft refer to
all the circumftances of the adtion taken together, and confidered as one complex neuter noun. But this noun,
whether complex or Ample, certainly denotes what could be eaten ; and to fuppofe that our bleffed Lord defired
his apoftles to eat aBions, is as repugnant to human reafon as any dodfrine of the church of Rome The truth is,
that the word too\o.. which is more properly a definite article than a demonftrative pronoun (fee Grammar, Chap.
II.), refers direclly to the thing whatever it was, which our Saviour held in his hand and gave to the difeiples ;
and the claufe when completed, is tov\o ev i<fU ro cruy.» poo 5 this being, this fubfance, is my body. There was no
neceffity for charadlerifing that fubftance by any analogy to fex, in order that it might be diftinguifhed from
every other fubftance ) for the apoftles could not but fee it in the hand of their Mafter.
SUP
[ 16 1
Shipper, bloody manner upon the crofs, in order to Communicate
and apply to the fouls of individuals thofe graces, which,
by his death, he merited for mankind in general, con¬
tinues to offer himfelf daily upon the altar in an un¬
bloody manner, by the miniftry of his priefts, in the tnaj's.
The facrifice of the crofs and that of the mafs are both
one and the fame facrifice, becaufe in both the viidim is
the fame and the high priell the fame, viz. Jefus Chrift.
The only difference is in the manner of offering. On
the crofs he offered himfelf in a bloody manner and ac¬
tually died ; whereas on the altar he is offered up to
God in an unbloody manner, not aBuallij dead, but un¬
der the appearance of death j” fo that the communicants
Hot only eat the man Jefus Chrift, but even eat him
alive (b) !
It is known to all our readers that this do&rine of
tranfubflantiation AVas one caufe of the breach between
the church of Rome and thofe various focieties which
call themfelves reformed churches. I he real and fub-
ffantial change of the bread and wine into the body and
blood of our Lord is rejefted by every reformer as a
change contradiddory and impoflible, and fraught with
the mofl impious confequences; and volumes have been
Written toexpofe the weaknefs of thofe arguments which
have fo often been vainly urged in its fupport. It has
numberlefs been fhown to imply numberlefs abfurdiiies, fuch as,
—that the fame thing can be in a million of different
places, 'whole and entire, at the fame inftant of time ; that
it is above 1800 years old, and yet may be not more than
one minute •, that forms or fenfible qualities are real
things independent of their fubject and the fentient be¬
ings who perceive them ; that the infinite and eternal
God, who created and fuffains the univerfe, is himfelf
6
Implies
number
contradi:
tions,
6 ] SUP
wholly and fubflantially comprehended by the human
foul and that the half, or fourth, or tenth part of the
body of Chrift, is equal to the whole of that body.
That thefe are neceffary confequences of tranfubftantia-
tion has been fo completely proved in various works (c)
to which every reader may have accefs, that it is need-
lefs for us to repeat arguments fo hackneyed } but there
are two obje&ions to that doftrine, which, as we do not
remember to have met with them elfewhere, and as they
appear to us abfolutely conclufive, it may be worth while
to ftate in this place.
The advocates for the real prefence in the Lord’s Sup¬
per contend, that every word relating to that ordinance
is to be taken in the ftrifteft and moft literal fenfe, and
they affeft to triumph over the Proteftants, becaufe their
notions of the facrament cannot be fupported without
having recourfe to figure and metaphor. This however
is a very vain triumph ; for we hefitate not to affirm, that
fuppofing tranfubftantiation poffible, and even capable
of proof, there is not in the whole New Tettament a
fingle word or a fingie phrafe which, if interpreted lite¬
rally, gives the'llighteft countenance to that wonderful
doftrine. The reader will remember, that tranfubftan¬
tiation, as we have ftated it from a dignitary of the Ro-
miffi church, and as it is in fa£l ftated by the council of
Trent (d), confifts in a change of the matter, imper¬
ceptible fubjlance, or fubjlratum of the bread and wine,
into the matter, imperceptible fubjlance, or fubjlratum
of Chrift’s body and blood* for all parties agree that
the fenfible qualities of the bread and wine remain, and,1
according to the Romanift, are after confecration either
fupported by the matter of Chrift’s body and blood, or.
hung upon nothing. But the phrafe rovlo etrjt
Soppej.
7
contrary
T* ™^toStfrip_
tur«,
(b) This whole account of the Romilh doftrine refpe&ing the facrament of the Lord’s Supper is taken from a
work in two fmall volumes, called Tie Sincere Chnfian injlru&ed in the Faith of Chrifl, from the Written Word.
Its author is a man of learning, and great perfonal worth : and as he fills a high ftation in the church of Rome,
we cannot doubt but that he has given a fair view of the do&rine of that church refpefting this and every other
article of which he treats. We are forry however that his zeal ftiould have impelled him, in a popular work,
to write in the manner that he has done of the faivation of thofe who are not members of his church, or Avho
cannot embrace all his opinions * for if his dodlrine on.this fubjeft be implicitly received by thofe “ over whom
he has the rule, and for whofe fouls he is appointed to watch,” they muft neceffarily look upon the majority of
their fellow-citizens, as reprqbates doomed to eternal perdition. Let this be our apology for treating fome of thofe
opinions, which he thinks fo abfolutely neceffary to faivation, with lefs ceremony 4han perhaps we ftiould have
done, had he lefs pofitively pronounced our damnation for not having it in our power to embrace them. He is not
indeed much lefs fevere on the moft virtuous heathens, though they never faw the New Teftament, or heard the
doctrines of his church preached. But perhaps this feverity may be occafioned by the following queftion of
Gicero : “ Cum fruges, Cererem ; vinum, Liberum dicimus, genere nos quidem fermonis utimur ufitato : fed
ECQUEM TAM AMENTEM effe putas, qui illud, quo vefcatur, deum credat effe ?”—De Natura Deorum, lib. iii.
cap
16.
(c) Among other works on this fubjeft, we may confidently recommend to the reader a fmall traft publifhed
by Dr Abernethy Drummond, about thirty years ago, in the form of A Dialogue between Philalethes and Rene-
molus. In that treatife, together with a defence of it, which were both printed for Balfour and Drummond,
Edinburgh, the abfurd confequences which we have mentioned are, by arguments unanfwerable, proved to flow
from the dodlrine of tranfubftantiation ; and the artful fophiftry, by Avhich a very acute genius endeavoured
to keep thefe confequences out ©f fight, is detedled and expofed on acknowledged principles of the foundeft
metaphyfics.
(d) The canon of that council which eftablifhes tranfubftantiation is thus tranflated by the author of The Sin¬
cere Chriftian InfruBed: “ If any man (hall fay, that in the blefled facrament of the Eucharift the fubftance of
the bread and wine remains along with the body and blood of our Lord Jefus Chrift, and lhall deny that wonder¬
ful and fingular converfion of the whole fubftance of the bread into the body, and of the whole fubftance of the
wine into the blood, the appearances of the bread and wine only remaining, which converfion the Catholic Church
..sails tranfubjlantiation, let him be anathema.”
& Chap, vi
verfe 54.
8
and inca¬
pable of
proof.
SUP t 17 1 SUP
jtiib, if taken in the literal fenfe, cannot poflibly denote
the confequence of fuch a change as this j for every per-
fon at all acquainted with the Greek language, efpecial-
ly the language of the Peripatetic fchool, knows that
to Mux ftov fignifies, not the matter ox fubjlralum of my
body' diverted of its fenfible qualities 5 but the body of
me in its natural ftate, confifting of matter and qualities>
or matter and form united. Unlefs therefore the fenfible
qualities, as well as the matter of the bread and wine,
give place to the fenfible qualities as well as the matter
of our Saviour’s body and blood, and unlefs he appear
glorified on the altar as he appeared on the mount at his
transfiguration, the words to ciwtoAS muft be interpret¬
ed figuratively. Plad the apoftles underftood their Maf-
ter’s words in the fenfe in which they are underftood by
the church of Rome, they would have rendered them
into Greek, not rovlo isrlt to <rwf*.x pev, “ this is my bodyf
but roulo s/h tov <rufAx\og (tiv, this is the matter
of my body.” In like manner, when St John relates*
that Jefus faid, “ Whofo eateth my flefti and drinketh
by blood, hath eternal life, and I will raife him up at
the laft day,” had he underftood his adorable Mafter to
fpeak of his flelh and blood in the Eucharift in the fenfe
in which they are taught to be there by the church of
Rome, he would have reprefented him as faying, not
'O T^uym (toov •r»s kxi ttoixv fzov to cufS.x, but O rga*-
yuv tw vAw f4ov Trig cx^y-og, rtxt ttivojv tijv vhnv (mov tov aifAX-
Tog, “ whofo eateth the matter oi my flelh, and drink¬
eth the matter of my blood, hath eternal life, and I will
raife him up at the laft day.”
But further, fuppofing this lingular converfion pofli-
ble in itfelf, it cannot be rendered credible, however
ftated in any language that ever was or ever will be fpo-
ken by man. At firft fight it may appear paradoxical
to affirm, that a poffible faft cannot be fo related as to
obtain credit *, but that tranfubftantiation, if poffible, is
fuch a fa£l, will be apparent on the flighteft coiifidera-
tion.
The relation that fubfifts between things and words
is arbitrary •, fo that what is termed body in Engliffi, is
rwpo in Greek, and corpus in Latin ; and the fame
thing might with equal propriety (had the authors of
thefe languages fo pleafed) have been expreffed in the
firft by foul, in the fecond by vovg, and in the third by
anima. (See LANGUAGE, N° 3, &c.). The confe-
quences of this are, that there is no univerfal language
fpoken that the natives of one country under Hand not
the fpeech of thofe of another j and that different men
fpeaking the fame language are perpetually liable to
miftake each other’s meaning. Between the fubfrata
of bodies and their fenfible qualities there is a relation
founded in nature, fo that the fenfible qualities which
indicate the ftibftance to which they belong, to be gold,
for inftance, in one country, indicate the fame thing in
every other country, and have done fo from the begin¬
ning of time. The fenfible appearances of bodies there¬
fore are an univerfal language, the language of the Au¬
thor of Nature, by which he declares to his creature
man, that though the l^n Tr^ulii. or primary matter of
all bodies, may be the fame kind of ffibftance ; yet the
vXv ir(>orz%rig of one body, or the internal combination of
its primary parts, differs from that of another ; that
gold, for inftance, has a different fubfratum or baps
from iron, lead, or filver *, that the internal organiza¬
tion or ftrmfture of the body of an ox is different from
Vol. XXk Part I,
that of a horfc ; and that the internal fib fiance or fub- SappejV
flratum which exhibits the appearances of bread and
wine is different from that which fupports the fenfible
qualities of flelh and blood (fee Metaphysics, Part I.
Chap* I. and Part II. Chap. I. and II.). Suppofing
therefore the doflrine of tranfubftantiation to be poffible
and even true, it w'ould ftill be impoffible, by any ftate-
ment of it in human language, or by any argument
urged in its fupport, to render that doftrine an objeft of
rational belief; for if it be faid that the words Totflo idh
to eupu /mov were fpoken by' a divine perfon, -who could
neither be deceived himfelf nor intend to deceive us., it
may be replied, that the fenfible appearances of bread
and wine, which are confeffed to remain, are likewife
the language of a divine perfon, even of the Creator and
Governor of het ven and earth ; that this language ad-
dreffed to the fif ht, the tafte, the touch, and the fmell,
is equally intelligible to all nations 5 that mice the crea¬
tion of the world its meaning has never been miftaken
by the fcholar or the clown, the fage or the favage, ex¬
cept in this fingle inftance of our Lord’s fleffi and blood
exhibiting the fenfible appearances of bread and wine j
and that it is therefore infinitely more probable that the
members of the church of Rome fhould miftake the
meaning of the words rtvlo idh to o-co/mx (xov, which,
though fpoken by Chrift, are part of the language of
men, and liable to all its ambiguities, than that all man¬
kind ffiould miftake the language of God himfelf, which
is liable to no ambiguities, and which was never in any
other inftance mifunderftood by a fingle individual.
Should tranfubftantiation therefore be really true, its
truth can never be proved or rendered probable, but by
an immediate operation of the fpirit of God on the mind
of man $ and he who is confcious of no fuch operation
on his own mind, may reft affured that the Father of
mercies, who knows whereof he is made, will never
bring upon him, for his incredulity in this inftance, any
of the anathemas denounced by the church of Rome
upon thofe who place implicit confidence in the univer-
fal language of Him who created them, in oppofition to
her figurative and contradictory interpretations of the
written word. Of the tranfubftantiation of the elements
a vifible miracle would afford no proof. Had the water
been changed into wine at the marriage in Cana of Ga¬
lilee, for the exprefs purppfe of bearing teftimony to this
Angular converfion, what muft have been the confe¬
quence on the minds of thofe who witneffed that mira¬
cle ? Nothing, we think, but fcepticifm or diftruft of
their own faculties 5 for they would have had the very
fame evidence that no fubftantial change was wrought
on the elements, as that the water was aBually turned
into wine.
Though the teformed churches unanimoufly rejeCl the
doftrine of tranfubftantiation, and of courfe the facrifice
of the mafs, its infeparable confequence, they are far
from being agreed among themfelves refpefting the na¬
ture of the Lord’s Supper*, and the notions of this ordi-purine
nance entertained by fome of them appear to us as unte-0fthe
nable as any part of the doClrine of the church of Rome.therans in-
The Lutherans believe, that the body and blood ofcredibie.
Chrift are really and fubftantially prefent with the
bread and wine •, that the body is really and truly eaten, 40q 'Ger- ’
and the blood really and truly drunk, by the eommuni-Atf divLoc.
cants ; and that whatever motion or aftior the bread Theol. de
has, the body has the fame *. According to them,Sacratcen^
G therefore,
Supper.
10
Of the ear.
ly Calvi¬
ns
SUP [I
therefore, the fame fenfible appearances are exhibited
by two fubftances united in fome inexplicable manner,
which is neither a perfonal union, nor incorporation,
nor the inclofure of the body within the bread ; nor
does it lad longer than while the facrament is celebrat¬
ing. This union is generally called CONSUBSTANTIA-
TIONbut they rejeft the term, contenting themfelves
with afferting the real prefence, without prefuming to
define the mode by which the body and blood of Chrift
are united to the facramental elements.
It would be fuperfluous to walte time in replying to
this doftrine. Every reader fees that it implies the pof-
fibility of the fame thing’s being whole and entire in a
million of places at one and the fame inftant of time,
which has been fo often urged as an unanfwerable ob-
jeftion to the Romifh doftrine j and it is fraught with
this additional abfurdity peculiar to itfelf, that two bo¬
dily fubftances may at once occupy the fame place,
which is direftly contrary to our notions of folidity. It
may be obferved too, that whatever be the real fenfe of
our Saviour’s words, he fays exprefsly, “ This is my
body”—this thing which I give you, and which you
fee and feel} whereas, had he meant what Luther and
his followers teach, he would furely have faid, “With this
bread receive my body, v)ith this cup receive my blood.”
I he notions of fome of the early Calvinifts refpeft-
ing the Lord’s Supper are very myfterious, and expref-
fed in language of which we are not fure that we un-
derftand the meaning. In the year 1561 an attempt
was made in France to bring the Catholics and Prote-
ftants to an uniformity of doftrine on this great topic
of controverfy 5 and deputies were appointed by both
parties to meet at Poi/fy, and debate the queftion in a
friendly manner. The principal managers on the fide
of the Catholics were the cardinals of Lorraine and
Tournon; thofe on the fide of the Proteftants were
Beza and Peter Martyr. After feveral meetings, dif-
putes, and violent feparations, the Proteftant deputies
declared their faith in the following words ; “ We con-
fefs, that Jefus Chrift, in the Supper, does truly give
and exhibit to us the fubftance of his body and blood
by the efficacy of his Holy Spirit; and that we do re¬
ceive and eat fpiritually, and by faith, that very body
which was offered and immolated for us, fo as to be
bone of his bone and flefti of his flelh, to the end that
we may be enlivened thereby, and receive what is con¬
ducive to our falvation. And becaufe faith, fupported
by the word of God, makes thofe things prefent, which
it apprehends, and by that faith we do in deed and rea¬
lity receive the true rtatural body and blood of Chrift,
by the power of the Holy Spirit ; by this means, we
confefs and acknowledge the prefence of his body and
blood in the Supper.” One of the Catholic delegates
txpreffing his difiike of this laft claufe, the Proteftant
minifters gave the following explanation of their fenti-
ments : “ No diftance of place can hinder us from com¬
municating of the body and blood of Chrift, for the
Lord’s Supper is a heavenly thing ; and though on
earth we receive with our mouths bread and wine, which
are the true figns of his body and blood, yet by faith,
and the efficacy of the Holy Ghoft, our minds, which
are fed with this food, are rapt up into heaven, and en¬
joy the prefence of the body and blood 5 and that by
this means it may be faid that the body is truly joined to
t&p bread, and the blood to the wine $ but after the
3:
j
SUP
manner ot a facrament, and not at all according to place Supper,
or natural pofition *.” 0 c—
If the reader can difeover the precife meaning o{* Thuanus
thefe paftages, his fagacity exceeds ours. That the Pro- hb. 28.
teftant deputies believed, or profeffed to believe, thatSee alfo,
the natural body and blood of Chrift are by the faithful
received in the Lord’s Supper, is indeed evident; but Sacrifice,
their notions refpefting the manner of this reception are vol. i.
very unintelligible, if not con trad i dory. In the former It
quotation,^ they confefs that Chrift’s body and blood are.unfntellr-
really prelent in the facrament; that they are m. pre-g‘ble'
fent by faith (we fuppofe the faith of the communi¬
cants) ; and that the very body which was offered arid
immolated for us is eaten fpiritually and by faith. In
the latter quotation, they feem to fay that thrift’s body
and blood are in heaven, at a great diftance from the
true figns of them j that on earth the communicants re¬
ceive only thefe figns, which are bread and wine ; but
that, by faith and the efficacy of the Holy Spirit, their
minds, during a&ual communion, are rapt up into hea¬
ven, where they enjoy the prefence of the body and
blood j and that by this means the body and blood are
truly joined to the bread and wine through the medium
of the mind of the communicant, which is at once pre¬
fent both to the fign and to the thing fignified. To this
myfterious dodlrine it is needlefs to urge objedlions.
Every man who is accuftomed to think, and to ufe
words with fome determinate meaning, will at once
perceive that the authors of this declaration muft have
had very confufed notions of the fubjedl, and have
pleafed themfelves with found inftead of fenfe, fatisfied
that they could not be wrong if they did not fymbolize
with the Lutherans or the Council of Trent.
The churches of England and Scotland, in their efta-oft]^
bliffied doftrines refpefting the Lord’s Supper, appear churches of
to be Calvimftical j but the compilers of the Thirty-Britain,
nine Articles and of the Confeffion of Faith muft have
been much more rational divines than Beza and Pete?
Martyr. They agree in condemning the do&rine of
tranfubftantiation as contrary to common fenfe, and not
founded in the word of God ; they teach, that to fuch
as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the facra¬
ment, the bread which we break is a partaking of the
body of Chrift, and the cup of bleffing a partaking of
the blood of Chrift ; and they add, that the body and
blood of Chrift are eaten and drunk, not corporally or
carnally, but only after a heavenly and fpiritual man¬
ner, by which the communicants are made partakers of
all the benefits of his death f. In one important cir-x a f - j
cumftance thefe two churches feem to differ. The Con- of the
feffion of Faith, as we underftand it J, affirms, that \n Church of
the Lord’s Supper there is no facrifice made at all. The 'EnSland*
thirty-firft article of the church of England likewife con- art. ~8, f r
demns the Popiffi facrifice of the mafs as a blafphemousZn r°f
fable, and danger ous deceit y but in the order for the ad- Faith, chap.
miniftratwn of the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion, 29-
the celebrator “ befeeches God moft mercifully to ac.
cept the alms and oblations of the congregation,” and
again “ to accept their facrifice of praife and thankfgiv-
ing. from which petitions many have inferred that, in
the Lord s Supper, that church offers a commemorative
and euchariftical facrifice. This inference feems not to
be wholly without foundation. In the order for the ad-
miniftration of the Lord’s Supper, according to the form
of the Book of Common Prayer fet forth by aft of par¬
liament;
SUP
Suppier. Ikment m the fecond and third years of King Edward
the Sixth, the elements were folemnly offered to God
as a facrifice of praife and thankfgiving; and though
the prayer containing that oblation was, at the review
of the liturgy fome years afterwards, removed from the
prayer of confecration, to which it was originally join¬
ed, and placed where it now Hands in the poll commu¬
nion fervice ; yet the very a£t of parliament which au¬
thorized that alteration, calls King Edward’s “ a very
godly order, agreeable to the wrord of God and the pri¬
mitive church, and very comfortable to all good people
defiring to live in Chriftian converfation.”
The Englifli church, however, has not pofitively de¬
termined any thing refpedting this great queftion ; and
whilft (he condemns the do&rine of the real prefence,
with all its dangerous confequences, (he allows her mem¬
bers to entertain very different notions of this holy or¬
dinance, and to publilh thefe notions to the world.
Accordingly, many of her moft eminent divines (e)
have maintained that, in the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper, the elements of bread and wine are offered to
God as a facrifice commemorative of Chrift’s one facri¬
fice for the fins of the whole world ; that thefe elements,
though they undergo no fubftantial change, yet receive
fuch a divine virtue by the defcent of the Holy Ghoft,
as to convey to the worthy communicant all the bene¬
fits of Chriff’s paflion j that they are therefore called his
body and blood, becaufe being, after their oblation,
eaten and drunk in remembrance of Him, they fupply
the place of his body and blood in the feaft upon his fa¬
crifice ; and that it is cuftomary with our Saviour to
give to any thing the name of another of which it com¬
pletely fupplies the place, as when he calls himfelf the
door * of the (beep, becaufe there is no entrance into
the church or kingdom of God but by faith in him.
They obferve, that the Euchariff’s being commemora¬
tive, no more hinders it from being a proper facrifice,
than the typical and figurative facrifices of the old law
hindered them from being proper facrifices : for as to be
a type doth not deftroy the nature and notion of a le¬
gal facrifice, fo to be reprefentative and commemora¬
tive, doth not deftroy the nature of an evangelical fa¬
crifice. To prove that, in the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper, there is a real facrifice offered to God as well
as a facrament received by the communicants, they ap¬
peal to St Paul, who fays exprefsly f, that “ Chriftians
have an altar, whereof they have no right to eat who
ferve the tabernacle,” and who by contrafting the cup
of the Lord with the cup of devils, and the table of the
Lord with the table of devils^;, teaches plainly, that
thofe cups and thofe tables had the fame fpecific nature.
That the table of devils fpoken of by the apoftle was
the Pagan altars, and the cup of devils the wine poured
out in libations to the Pagan divinities, will admit of
no difpute $ and therefore, fay the advocates for the eu-
chariftical facrifice, the table of the Lord muff be the
Chriftian altar, and the cup of the Lord the wine offer¬
ed to God as the reprefentative of the blood of Chrift ;
otherwife there would not be that abfurdity which the
apoftle fuppofes, in the fame perfon drinking the cup of
the Lord and the cup of devils, and partaking of the
S U P
Lord’s table and the table of devils. They obferve Soppy*.
farther, that in all the ancient liturgies extant there is 'r"""¥
a folemn form of oblation of the facramental elements,
and that all the Chriftian writers from the fecond cen¬
tury downwards treat of the Lord’s Supper as a facrifice
as well as facrificial feaft, having indeed no value in it-
felf, but acceptable to God as reprefenting Chrift’s one
facrifice for the fins of the world. Our limits will not
permit us to give even an abftradt of their arguments $
but the reader who (hall attentively perufe
bloody Sacrifice and Altar unveiled andfupported, will
difcover that their notions are better founded than pro¬
bably he fuppofes, and that they are totally irreconcile-
able with the doftrine of tranfubftantiation and the Po-
pitb facrifice of the mafs. 14
Other Englifb divines of great learning, with the ce-Other?, n
lebrated Hoadley biftiop of Winchefter at the head ofj^fj3^*'
them, contend ftrenuoully that the Lord’s Supper, fo 1 ’
far from being a facrifice of any kind, is nothing more
than bread and wine reverently eaten and drunk, in re¬
membrance that Chrift’s body was broken and his blood
fired in proof of his Father’s and his own love to man¬
kind ; that nothing is effential to the facrament but this
remembrance, and a ferious defire to honour and obey
our Saviour as our head ; that the facrament might be
celebrated without uttering one prayer or thankfgiving,
merely by a fociety of Chriftians, whether fmall or great,
jointly eating bread and drinking wine with a ferious re¬
membrance of Chrift’s death ; that St Paul enjoins a
man to examine himfelf before he eat of that bread and
drink of that cup, not to difcover what have been the
fins of his paft life in order to repent of them, but only
that he may be fure of his remembering Chrift’s body
broken and his blood (bed ; that, however, it is his du¬
ty in that as in every other inftance of religious worfliip
to refolve to obey from the heart every precept of the
gofpel, whether moral or pofitive ; and that to partake,
worthily of the Lord’s Supper is acceptable to God, be¬
caufe it is paying obedience to one of thefe precepts ;
but that no particular benefits or prmleges are annexed
to it more than to any other inftance of duty. Biftiop
Hoadley acknowledges, that when St Paul fays *, * 1 Cor*x>
“ The cup of bleffmg which we blefs, is it not the com-16-
munion of the blood of Chrift ? The bread which we
break, is it not the communion of the body of Chrift ?”
he has been fuppofed by many learned men to affirm,
that all the benefits of Chrift’s paffion are in the Lord’s
Supper conveyed to the worthy communicant 5 but this
(fays he) is an idea which the apoftle could not have in
his thoughts as at all proper for his argument. The
Greek word kowuhcc and the Englifli communion fignify
only a partaking of fomething in common with others
of the fame fociety j and the apoftle’s meaning (he fays)
can be nothing more, than that in the Lord’s Supper
we do not eat bread and drink wine as at an ordinary
meal, but as memorials of the body and blood of Chrift,
in honour to him as the head of that body of which we
are all members. That the word xanww* is not meant
to denote any inward or fpiritual part of the Lord’s Sup¬
per, he thinks evident, becaufe the fame word is ufed
with regard to the cup and the table of idols, where no
C 2 fpiritual
[ 19 1
13
Some Eng-
lifh divines
hold the
Lord’s Sup¬
per to be
a eucharif-
tical facri-
fiee.
* St John
x.7.
f Hei- x'ui.
10.
t r Cor. x.
16, See.
(e) The archbiftiops Laud and Wake ; the bifhops Poynet, Andrews, Bull, and Patrick } the doctors Hkkes,
Gtabe, and Brett j Meflrs Bingham, Johnfon, Mede, Wheatly, Scandaret, Bowyer, &c.
SUP
Supper, fpiritual part could be thought of, and in an argument
which fuppofes an idol to be nothing f.
Account*1*/ ^'° v*ew ^ie nature and end of the Lord’s
the Nature Supper, it muft appear no finall objeflion, that “ he
and fold of who eateth and drinketh unworthily is faid to be guilty
the Lord's 0J i]ie body anc{ blood of the Lord, and to eat and drink
upper. a judgment to himfelf not difcerning the Lord's body.'"
No doubt it would be finful to eat and drink a mere
memorial of Chrift’s death without ferious difpolitions j
but we cannot conceive how a little rvandering of the
thoughts, which is all the unworthinefs which the au¬
thor thinks there can be on fuch an occafion, fhould be
a fin of fo deep a dye as to be properly compared with
the guilt of thofe who murdered the Lord of life. Other
divines, therefore, feeling the force of this and fimilar
obje6Uons, fleer a middle courfe between the mere me-
’■v ' morialifi: and the advocate for a real facrifice in the holy
15 Eucharift, and infill; that this rite, though no facrifice
ar1/ f5hcrs’ itfelf, is yet a feaft upon the one facrifice offered by
mwSavi-011 and flain upon the crofs. The moft eminent pa-
eur’s facri- trons of this opinion have been Dr Cudworth, Bifhop
£ce. Warburton, and the prefent bilhop of Cheiler; and they
fupport it by fuch arguments as the following : “ In
thofe ages of the world when viflims made fo great a
part of the religion both of Jews and Gentiles, the fa¬
crifice was always followed by a religious feafting on the
thing offered 5 which was called the feajl upon, or after
the facrifice, and was fuppofed to convey to the parta¬
kers of it the benefits of the facrifice. Now Jefus (fay
they), about to ofler himfelf a facrifice on the crofs for
our redemption, did, in conformity to general praflice,,
inftitute the laf fupper, under the idea of a fenf after
theficrifce; and the circumflances attending its inflitu-
tion were fuch, they think, that the apoftles could not
poffibly miftake his meaning. It was juft before his-
paflion, and while he was eating .the pafchal fupper,,
which was a Jewifhy£q/? upon the facrifice, that our blef-
fed Lord inftituted this rite j and as it was his general
euftom to allude, in his aftions and expreffions, to what
paired before his eyes, or prefented itfelf to his obferva-
tion, who can doubt, when, in the very form of cele¬
bration, we fee all the marks of zficrficialfupper, but
that the divine inftitutor intended it fhould bear the fame
relation to his facrfice on the crofs which the pafchal
fupper then celebrating bore to the oblation of the paf¬
chal lamb? If this was not his purpofe, and if nothing
more was intended than a general memorial of a dead
benefactor,, why was this inftant of time preferred for
the inftitution to all others throughout the courfe of his
miniftry, any one of which would have been equally
commodious ? Indeed any other time would have been
more commodious for the inftitution of a mere memo¬
rial j for the pafchal lamb and unleavened bread were1
certainly a facrifice ; and the words ufed by our Savi-
«ur, when he gave the bread and wine to the apoftles,
were fuch as muft neceffarily have led them to confider
that bread and wine as bearing the fame relation to his
facrifice that the pafchal fupper bore to the pafchal facri¬
fice. At that Jewifti feaft, it was the cuftotn of every
father of a family to break the unleavened bread, and to
give to every gueft a portion, faying, “This is the
bread of affliction, which our fathers did eat in the land
©f Egypt:” a cuftom which, we may be fure, that
Chrift, as father of his family, would religioully ob-
ferve. The apoftles knew well that they were not eat-
S U P
ing the identical bread which their fathers did eat in Suppe.%,
Egypt, but the feaft upon the facrifice then offered in v-—
commemoration of their redemption from Egyptian bon¬
dage } and therefore when they faw their Mafter after
fupper break the bread again and give it to each of
them, with thefe remarkable words, “ This is my body
which is given for you, do this in remembrance of me,”
they muft have concluded, that his meaning was to in¬
ftitute a rite which fhould to the end of the world bear
the fame relation to his facrifice that the pafchal fupper
bore to the facrifice of the paffover.
This inference, from the circumftances attending the
inftitution, Bifhop Warburton thinks confirmed by St
Paul’s mode of arguing with the Corinthians, on their
impiety and abfurdity in partaking both of the Lord’s
table and the table of devils; for “ what (fays he) had
the eaters of the facrifices to do with the partakers of
the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper, if the Lord’s
Supper was not a feaft of the fame kind with their feafts ?
If the three feafts, Jewifh, Pagan, and Chriftian, had
not one common nature, how could the apoftle have in¬
ferred that this intercommunity was inconfiftent ? ITe
CANNOT (fays he) drink the cup of the Lord and the cup
of devils ; ye CANNOT be partakers of the Lord's tabic
and the table of devils. For though there might be im¬
piety in the promifcuous ufe of Pagan and Chriftian rites
of any kind, yet the inconffency arifes from their hav¬
ing a common nature, and confequently, as they had
oppofite originals, from their deftroying one another’s
effects in the very celebration. Sacrifices, and feafts
upon facrifices, were univerfally confidered as federal
rites ; and therefore the Lord’s table and the table of
devils being federal rites, the fame man could no
more be partaker of both, than he could at once engage
to ferve both God and the devil. This is the apoftleV
argument to the wife men, to whom he appeals 5 and we
fee that it turns altogether upon this poftulatum, that
the Chriftian and Pagan feafts had the fame fpecific na¬
ture, or were both feafts upon facrifices. If this be ad¬
mitted, it is eafy to fee why St Paul deemed thofe who
ate and drank unworthily guilty of the body and blood
of the Lord ; for if the Lord’s Supper be a feaft upon
his facrifice, it muft have been confidered as the means
of conveying to the communicants all the benefits of
his death and paffion ; and the profanation of fuch a rite,
by rendering his death ineffeftual, might be fitly com¬
pared and juftly equalled to the enormous guilt of thofe
by whom his blood was fhed.” In reply to Bifhop
Hoadley’s remarks upon the word xouunu. In’s brother
biftiop obferves, that “ had the apoftle meant what the
learned writer makes him to mean, he would doubtlefs
have faid xoivamct vpuv us to crupa, ‘ your communion in
the body—your eating it jointly.’ St Paul (continues
he) knew how to exprefs himfelf properly, as appears
from a paffage in his epiftle to the Philippians, where,
profeffedly fpeaking of the joint participation of a blef-
fing, he ufes thefe words, hoivmvix vpav us to tvxyytXicV}
* your communion in the gofpel.’ To the other remark,,
that no fpiritual part could be thought of in the table of
idols, becaufe an idol is faid by the apoftle to be nothing,
Bifhop Warburton replies, “ that by St Paul the Gen¬
tiles are faid to have facrificed to devils, and thofe who
ate of fuch facrifices to have had communion with de¬
vils : now the devil (continues his Lordfhip) was in St
Paul’s opinion fomething." But the inference which
the
E 20 j
Supper
II .
Suppofition
* i Cor- x.
37-
iG
The ordi¬
nance not
generally
mnderftood,
SUP [
the apoftle draws from the acknowledged truth^ that
the cup of bleffing which we blefs is the communion oi
the blood of Chrift, and the bread which we break the
communion of the body of Chrift, puts his meaning, our
author thinks, beyond all doubt. He fays , that the
partaking of one bread makes the receivers of many to
become one body- A juft inference, if this rite be of
the nature of a feaji upon the facrifice; for then the
communion of the body and blood of unites the re¬
ceivers into one body by an equal diftribution of one
common benefit. But if it be only a general comme¬
moration of a deceafed benefaftor, it leaves the receivers
as it found them, not one body, but many feparate pro-
feffors of one common faith. .
Thus have we given fuch a view as our limits would
permit us to give, of the principal opinions that have
been held refipefting the nature and end of the Lord’s
Supper. It is an ordinance which feems not to be ge¬
nerally underftoodthough, being intended to ^°'v
forth the Lord’s death till he come, it is iurely of tuf-
fiicient importance to engage the attention of every fe-
rious Chriftian. The moft confiderable Proteftant di¬
vines who have exprefsly written upon it are, Johnfon in
his Unbloody Sacrifice ; Cudworth in his Difcourfe con¬
cerning the true Nature of the Lord's Supper ; Hoadley
in his Plain Account; and Warburton in his Rational
Account. The notions of Cudworth and Warburton are^
the fame, and perhaps they differ not fo much from
thofe of Johnfon as many readers feem to imagine. At
any rate, the arguments by which Warburton fupports
his doftrine muft have fome force, fince it is faid that
Hoadley himfelf acknowledged they would be unari-
fwerable, if it could be proved that the death of Chrift
was a real facrifice.
SUPPLEMENT, in literature, an appendage to
fupply what is wanting in a book. Books of various
kinds require fuch an appendage ; but none lo much as
a dictionary of arts and Iciences, which, from the pro-
greftive courfe of phyfical fcience, cannot be completed
without it.
SUPPORTED, in Heraldry, a term applied to the
uppermoft quarters ©f a ftueld when divided into feveral
quarters, thefe feeming as it were fupported or fuftained
by thofe below. The chief is faid to be fupported when
it is of two colours, and the upper colour takes up two-
thirds of it. In this cafe it is fupported by the colour
underneath.
SUPPORTERS, in Heraldry, figures in an achieve¬
ment placed by the fide of the (hield, and feeming to
fupport or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly
figures of beads : figures of human creatures for the like
purpofe are called tenants.
SUPPOSITION, in Mujic, is when one of the parts
dwells on a note, while another part makestivo or more
leffer notes equivalent to it, by conjoint degrees.
Suppofition is defined by a late author the ufing of
two fucceflive notes, of the fame value as to time j the
one whereof, being a difeord, fuppofes the other a con¬
cord.
The harmony, Mr Malcolm obferves, is always to be
full on the accented parts of the bar or meafurej but,
on the unaccented, difeords may tranfiently pafs, with¬
out any offence to the ear. This tranfient ufe of dif¬
eords followed by concords^ make what we, after the
French, call fuppofition.
Sur.
21 ] S U It
Concords by fuppofition are thofe where the conti- Suppofition
nued bafe adds or fuppofes a new found below the fun¬
damental bafs; whence fuch concords always fucceed the ,
extent of the o&ave. Of thefe concords there are three
forts, all which are concords of the feventh : the firft,
when the added found is a third below the fundamental
found; fuch is the concord of the ninth : and if the
concord of the ninth is formed by the mediant, added
below the fenfible concord in the minor mode, then the
concord is called the fuperfluous fifth. The fecond kind
when the fuppofed found is a fifth below the funda¬
mental found, as in the concord of the fourth or ele¬
venth j and if the concord is fenfible, and the tonic be
fuppofed, this concord is called the fuperfluous feventh.
The third kind is that where the fuppofed found is be¬
low a concord of the diminifhed feventh ; if it is a fifth
below, i. e. if the fuppofed found be the mediant, the
concord is called the concord of the fourth and fuper-
Jluous fifth I if it is a feventh below, i. e. if the fuppofed
found be the tonic, the concord is called the lejfer fixth
and fuperfluous feventh.
SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone or ball,...
which is introduced into the anus for opening the belly.
It is ufually compofed of common honey, mixed up
with foap or oil, and formed into pieces of the length
and thicknefs of the little finger, only pyramidal. To
the compofition is fometimes alfo added powder of fcam-
mony, euphorbium, colocynthis, fait, aloes, &c. accord¬
ing to the cafe of the patient.
The fuppofitory was invented for the convenience of
fuch as have an averfion to clyfters; or to be ufed when
the difeafe does not allow their ufe.
SUPPRESSION, in Medicine, is generally ufed to
fignify a retention of urine or of the menfes.
SUPPURATION, the fecond way wherein an in¬
flammation terminates ; being a converfion of the infpif-
fated blood and the firft adjacent parts, as the veffels and
fat, into pus or matter } which diforder, when it has not
yet found an opening, is generally called an abfeefs.
SUPRACOSTALESy in Anatomy. See fable of
the Muficles in Anatomy.
SUPRAL APSARIANS, in Theology, perfons who
hold that God, without any regard to the good or evil
works of men, has refolved, by an eternal Aecree, fupra
lapfum, antecedently to any knowledge of the fall of
Adam, and independently of it, to fave fome and to
damn others •, or, in other words, that God intended to
glorify his juftice in the condemnation of fome, as well
as his mercy in the falvation of others} and for that pur¬
pofe decreed that Adam fhould neceflarily fall, and by
that fall bring himfelf and all his offspring into a ftate of
everlafting, condemnation*.
Thefe are alfo called antelapfiaries, and are oppofed to
fublapfaries and infralapfaries.
According to the fupralapfarians* the objeft of pre-
deftination is, homo creabilis et labilis; and, according
to the fublapfarians and infralapfarians, homo crealus et'
lapfiur.
SUPRASPINATUS, in Anatomy. See Table of
the Mu files in Anatomy.
SUPREMACY, the faperiority or fovereignty of
the king. See SOVEREIGNTY.
SUR, or Shur, in Ancient Geography, a defert of
Arabia Petraea, extending between Paleftine and the
Arabian gulf j into which the Ifraelites, after marching
through
SUE [ 2
through the Red fea, firft came (Exod. xv. 22.). A-
gain (Numb, xxxiii. 8.), it is faid, that from the fea
they went three days journey into the Wildernefs of
Etham j whence fome conclude that Etham and Shur
are the fame wildernefs j or only differ as a part from
the whole, Shur being the general name, and Etham
that part of it lying neareft to the place of encampment
of the fame name. We know fo little of the geography
of thefe places, that there is more room for deputation
than for decifion. As to the route which the Ifraelites
followed in their paffage through the Red fea, Mr Bry¬
ant, we think, has given the moft fatisfa&ory account
in his late work on the Plagues of Egypt.—-Shur is now
called Corondel.
SURAT, a city of Indoftan, belonging to Britain,
on the weftern coaft of the peninfula, a little to the
northward of Bombay, and about l6 miles up the river
Tappee. It is but of modern date, and is a moft re¬
markable inftance of the power of trade to bring wealth
and population to any fpot where it can be brought to
fettle. Towards the middle of the 17th century, this
place was only the refort of a few merchants, who, un¬
der the fhelter of an old infignificant caftle, laid the firft
■foundations of a city now almoft as large and fully as
populous as London within the walls, and containing
-many fine buildings of Indian archite£ture, which is
partly Gentoo and partly Morifque. Thofe of the
greateft note are fo contrived, that the gateway is defen-
lible againft any fudden irruption of a few armed men.
The private apartments lie backwards for the conveni-
ency of the women, of whom the Moors are remark¬
ably jealous. They are fond of having one room, in
the midft of which a fountain keeps playing, and which,
by its noife, lulls them to fleep, and refrefhes the room
by its coolnefs j but thus a damp is produced, which
would be very dangerous to Europeans. They have
alfo generally a faloon with fountains playing in it,
which, with the variegated flower-beds, in which they
are very curious, makes a beautiful profpeft. During
the intenfe heats of fummer they have country retire¬
ments a little way out of town, where they refide, or go
in parties to amufe themfelves. The ftreets are irregu¬
larly laid out 5 but have one property which renders it
agreeable to walk in them, viz. that a competent width
being left at bottom, the upper ftories of the houfes pro-
je£t over one another in fuch a manner, that people
may with eafe converfe from them ; by which means
the ftreet is agreeably fhaded, at the fame time that a
proper ventilation is not impeded, but rather promoted.
The (hops, notwithftanding the vaft trade carried on in
this great and populous city, have a very mean appear¬
ance, owing to the dealers keeping their goods in ware-
houfes, and felling by famples.
No place is better fupplied with provifions than the
city of Surat while its communication with the country
remains open. Befides the unbounded importation, by
which every article is brought here in great abundance,
the natural produftions of the foil are excellent, though
lefs cheap than in other parts of India, as at Bengal ef-
pecially ; yet in that place, though the cattle and poul¬
try are bought originally at a very low rate, they turn
out very dear by the time they are fed for the table.
Here, however, all kinds of eatables may be had at a
reafonable price, ready for immediate ufe, and as good
as can .be found anywhere. The wheat of Surat is fa-
2 ] S U It
mous all over India for its Angular fubftance, wfutenefs,
and tafte $ and its falads and roots are likewife of an
excellent quality. There are alfo many kinds of wild¬
fowl and other game to be had at an eafy rate j but
for wines and fpirituous liquors they depend moftly on
importation.
Surat was furrounded with a wall in a fhort time after
it had afliimed the form of a town. The fortification,
however, was meant only to prevent the incurfions of
the Mahrattas, who had twice pillaged it j fo that the-
place was by no means capable of Handing any regular
liege. Even the caftle appears but a poor defence, be¬
ing mounted with cannon here and there, without any
order, or without any thing like an attempt towards
military architecture.
In this city, before the Eaft India Company became
invefted with the pofleflion of Bombay, was the prefi-
dency of their affairs on the weftern coaft. For this
purpofe they had a factory eltabliflied there with great
privileges by the Mogul government j and even after
the prefidency was eftablilhed at Bombay, they conti¬
nued a fadtory here at one of the belt houfes in the city ;
which yet not being fpacious enough to contain their
effeifts, they hired another at fome diftance from it, and
nearer the water-Ade, which was called the new factory.
In the mean time, the city flouriflied, and became the
centre of all the Indian trade, being much more fre¬
quented for the fake of foreign merchandife than for
either the natural produdtions or manufaftures of the
country, though they alfo made a confiderable part of
its commerce. In ftiort, there was fcarce any article of
merchandife but what was to be found at all times in
Surat, almoft as readily as in London itfelf. While
the Mogul government was in its vigour, there was
fuch a ftiow of juftice kept up, as induced merchants of
all religions and denominations to take up their refidence
in the city. The Gentoos efpecially reforted thither,
in order to avoid the oppreflions of their own govern¬
ment. Great care indeed was taken that no very fla¬
grant afts of oppreflion flrould be committed j fo that,
in what fometimes happened, appearances were at leaft
kept up*, and the oppreflions of government were chiefly
owing to the animoflties and rivalfhip of the merchants
themfelves. As an inftance of the great extent to which
commerce was pufhed in Surat, we ftiall here quote
from Mr Grofe, what is faid by Captain Hamilton of a
merchant named Abdulgafour, viz. “ That he drove a
trade equal to the Eaft India Company : for he had
known him fit out in a year above 20 fail of ftrips, be¬
tween 300 and 800 tons, none of which had lefs of his
own flock than 20,cool, and fome of them 25,000!.
After that foreign flock was fent away, it behoved him
to have as much more of an inland flock for the follow¬
ing year’s market.’’ On the deceafe of this merchant,
the government feized on a million of his money ; and
his grandfon was not only deprived of all that he poffef-
fed, but barbaroufly murdered through the envy and
treachery of his brother merchants, and the rapacity of
the governor.
The city of Surat was taken and ruined by the Por-
tuguefe in 1520 ; and it was not till after this misfor¬
tune that it became fuch a celebrated emporium. All
the Indian merchants who had been accuftomed to trade
thither contributed to re-eftablifti it ; but it was not till
near a century after that it became the general ftaple of
Indian
SUE t i
Surat, Indian and European merchandife; when the Dutch
Surcharge, appearing in the Indian ocean, had deprived the Portu-
^ ” gue^e their conquefts on that coaft, and almoft
entirely ruined their trade. The Englilh eftablilhed a
fa&ory here in 1609, the Dutch in 1616, and the
French in 1665. In procefs of time, the Indian feas
being greatly infefted by pirates, a naval officer was
appointed by the Mogul to keep them in awe. This
officer was named Siddee (a) Mu/foot, who had been
chief of an Ethiopian colony fettled at Rajapore. Here
he had colle6led fome veflels of corffiderable force, and
carried on fome trade, till he was difpoffeffed by the
Mahrattas 5 upon which he repaired to Bombay, and
afterwards to Surat, where he was appointed admiral on
that ftation to the Mogul, with a yearly revenue of
about 36,000!. fterling. Though he had no power,
independent of the marine, he feized on the caftle, en¬
croached on the town, and appropriated to himfelf a
third part of its revenues, under pretence of arrears due
in his appointed revenue. Another third was paid to
the Mahrattas, to prevent their depredations upon trade
in the open country ; but they, not fatisfied with this
flipulation, watched an opportunity to plunder the town,
which wTas kept in fubjeflion by Siddee Muffoot, till
his death which happened in 1756.
Siddee Mulfoot was fucceeded by his fon, who foon
rendered himfelf very difagreeable to the inhabitants. In
1758, the Engliffi factory was greatly oppreffed by him,
and the black merchants treated ftill worfe ; on which
the latter applied to Mr Ellis the Engliffi chief at that
time, defiring him to recommend it to the prefidency of
Bombay to take the caftle by force out of the hands of
the ufurper. This propofal proving agreeable, Admiral
Pococke, who was then with his fquadron at Bombay,
readily concurred in fupporting the expedition. The
enterprife was conduced with the ufual fuccefs attend¬
ing the Britiffi arms; and Captain Maitland the con¬
ductor took pofleffion of the caftle with its revenue in
name of the Eaft India Company, who were confirmed
in the government by grants from the Mogul.
SURCHARGE of the Forest, is when a com¬
moner puts more beafts in the foreft than he has a right
to. See Forest.
SURCHARGE of Common, is a difturbance of common
of pafture, by putting more cattle therein than the paf-
ture and herbage will fuftain, or the party hath a right
to do. This injury can only happen where the com¬
mon is appendant or appurtenant, and of courfe limitable
by law •, or where, when in grofs, it is exprefsly limited
and certain j for where a man hath common in grofs,
Jans nombre, or without ftint, he cannot be a furcharge.
In this cafe indeed there muft be left fufficient for the
lord’s own beafts.
T he ufual remedies for furcharging the common are
by the lord’s diftraining the furplus number, or by his
bringing an aClion of trefpafs, or by a fpecial aClion on
the cafe, in which any commoner may be plaintiff. The
ancient and moft effeClual method of proceeding is by
writ of admeafurement of pafture.
Writ of Second SURCHARGE, de fecunda fuperonera-
3 3 S U R
tione, is given by the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. Surcharge
cap. 8. when, after the admeafurement of pafture hath sJL
afcertained the right, the fame defendant furcharges the . ' ^ „‘u, t
common again j and thereby the ffieriff is direCled to
inquire by a jury whether the defendant has in faCt again
furcharged the common *, and if he has, he (hall then
forfeit to the king the fupernumerary cattle put in, and
alfo ffiall pay damages to the plaintiff.
SURCINGLE, a girdle wherewith the clergy of
the church of England ufually tie their caffocks. See
Girdle.
SURCO AT, a coat of arms, to be worn over body
armour.
The furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffety coat, with
arms embroidered or painted on it. Such as is worn by
heralds, anciently alfo ufed by military men over their
armour to diftinguiffi themfelves by.
SURD, in Arithmetic and Algebra, denotes any num¬
ber or quantity that is incommenfurable to unity: other-
wife called an irrational number or quantity. See Al¬
gebra, Part. I. Chap. IV.
S URETY, in Law, generally fignifies the fame with
Bail.
SURF, is a term ufed by feamen to exprefs a peculiar
fwell and breaking of the fea upon the fliore. It fome-
times forms but a fingle range along the fliore, and at
others three or four behind one another extending per¬
haps half a mile out to fea. The furf begins to affunt©
its form at fome diftance from the place where it breaks,
gradually accumulating as it moves forward till it gain,
not uncommonly, in places within the limits of the
trade-winds, a height of 15 or 20 feet, when it over¬
hangs at top, and falls like a cafcade with great force
and a prodigious noife. Countries where furfs prevail
require boats of a particular conftrudlion very different
from the greater part of thofe which are built in Eu¬
rope. In fome places furfs are great at high, and in
others at low water j but wre believe they are uniform¬
ly moft violent during the fpring-tides.
It is not eafy to affign the caufe of furfs. That they
are affe&ed by the winds can hardly be queftioned *, but
that they do not proceed from the immediate operation
of the wind in the places where they happen, is evident
from this circumftance, that the furf is often higheft and
moft violent where there is leaft wdnd, and vice verfa.
On the coaft of Sumatra the higheft are experienced
during the fouth-eaft monfoon, which is never attended
with fuch gales as the north-weft. As they are moft.
general in the tropical latitudes, Mr Marfden, who
feems to have paid much attention to the fubjedl, attri¬
butes them to the trade-winds which prevail at a diftanc©
from ffiore between the parallels of 30 degrees north
and fouth, whofe uniform and invariable aftion caufes a
long and conftant fwell, that exifts even in the calmeft
weather, about the line, towards which its direftion
tends from either fide. This fwell, when a fquall hap¬
pens or the wind freffiens up, will for the time have
other fubfidiary waves on the extent of its furface, break¬
ing often in a direftion contrary to it, and which will
again fubfide as a calm returns, without having pro¬
duced
(a) When the Abyffinian flaves are
Siddees*.
promoted, to any office under the Mogul government, they are.called.
\
sun
Surf ^uced on it any perceptible effeft. Sumatra, though
I! . not continually expofed to the fouth-eaft trade-wind, is
!ir eit ■ not To diftant but that its influence may be prefumed to
extend to it; and accordingly at Poolo Pefang, near the
fouthern extremity of the ifland, a conftant foutherly fea
is obferved, even after a ftrong north-weft wind. This
inceffant and powerful fwell rolling in from an ocean,
open even to the pole, feems an agent adequate to the
prodigious effects produced on the coaft ; whilft its very
fize contributes to its being overlooked. It reconciles
almoft all the difficulties which the phenomena feem to
prefent, and in particular it accounts for the decreafe of
the furf during the north-Weft monfoon, the local wind
then countera&ing the operation of the general one;
and it is corroborated by an obfervation, that the furfs
on the Sumatran coaft ever begin to break at their
fouthern extreme, the motion of the fwell not being per¬
pendicular to the dire&ion of the ftiore. This explana¬
tion of the phenomena is certainly plaufible ; but, as the
author candidly acknowledges, objedlions may be urged
to it. The trade-winds and the fweli occafioried by
them are remarkably fteady and uniform ; but the furfs
are much the reverfe. How then comes an uniform
caufe to produce unfteady effetts ?
In the opinion of our author it produces no unfteady
effefts. The irregularity of the furfs, he fays, is per¬
ceived only within the remoter limits of the trade-winds.
But the equatorial parts of the earth performing their
diurnal revolution with greater velocity than the reft, a
larger circle being defcribed in the fame time, the wa¬
ters thereabout, from the rtronger centrifugal force, may
be fuppofed more buoyant; to feel lefs reftraint from
the fluggiffi principle of matter; to have lefs gravity ;
and therefore to be more obedient to external impulfes
of every kind, whether from the winds or any other
caufe.
SURFACE. See Superficies.
SURFEIT, in Medicine, a ficknefs with a fenfation
of a load at the ftomach, ufually proceeding from fome
error in diet, either with regard to the quantity or qua¬
lity of the food taken. Sometimes, however, a furfeit
is only a plethora from indolence and full diet; in which
cafe perfpiration is defedtive j and eruptions appear on
theikin.
S U It
Fafting for fome time, and an attention to temperance Siuffit
afterwards, dvith fome brilk purgatives, will generally H
remove the effects of a furfeit, when it is unaccompanied ." . ^c°
with other more permanent affedtions.
Surfeit, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
SURGE, in the fea-language, the fame with a wave.
See Wave.
SURGEON, or Chirurgeon, one that profeffes the
art of Surger y.
In England there are two diftindt companies of fur-
geons now occupying the faience or faculty of furgery ;
the one company called barbers, the other furgeons,
which latter are not incorporated.—The two are united
to fue, and be fued, by the names of mailers or gover¬
nors and commonalty of the myftery of barbers and fur¬
geons of London. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42.
No perfon ufing any barbery or (having in London,
fliall occupy any furgery, letting of blood, or other mat¬
ter ; drawing of teeth only excepted. And no perfon
ufmg the myftery or craft of furgery (hall occupy or ex-
ercife the feat or craft of barbery or (having, neither by
himfelf, nor any other for his ufe. 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 4-2.
By the fame ftatute, furgeons are obliged to have
figns at their doors.
The French chirurgeons being refufed to be admitted
into the univerlities (notwithftanding that their art
makes a branch of medicine), on pretence of its border¬
ing a little on butchery or cruelty, affociated their (elves
into a brotherhood, under the protedlion of S. Colmus
and S. Damian : on which account, according to the
laws of their m. 1 if..'.ion, they are obliged to drefs and
look to wounds gratis the fir ft Monday of each month.
They diftinguifh between a chirurgeon of the long
robe and a barbtr-ehiruigeon. The firft ha« ftudied
plrvfic, and is allowed to wear a gown. The (kill of
the other, btfides what relates to the management of
the beard, is fuppofed to be confined to the more Ample
and eafy operations in chirurgery; as bleeding, tooth¬
drawing, &c.
They Were formerly diftinguifhed by badges: thole
of the long gown bore a cafe of inftruments; the barber^
a bafon.
r 24 ]
SURGERY.
THE term furgery has been ufually employed to
(ignify that part of medicine which treats of the
difeafes of the human body which are to be cured or
alleviated by the hand, by inftruments, or by external
applications.
INTRODUCTION.
Medicine and furgery, formerly regarded as one and
the fame fcience, were exercifed by the fame perfons
during the moft remote ages; and their feparation, fuch
as now generally exifts, is to be confidered as a modern
inftitution. If we confider their origin and end, the
knowledge which the pra&itioner of each requires, and
the connexion which naturally fubfifts between the dif¬
eafes which are fuppofed peculiarly to belong to each de¬
partment, it is probable that the firft pra&itioners con¬
founded them with one another; and it is eafy to con¬
ceive how the fame ideas ftiould have paffed from one
generation to another. At laft, however, the know¬
ledge of the healing art being greatly enlarged, it be¬
came neceffary to feparate it into different claffes, and
to form it into diftinft departments in praftice. Ac¬
cordingly there were not only fome who confined them-
felves to furgery, but there were lithotoftiifts, phleboto-
mifts, oculifts, aurifts, dehtifts, &c.
We do not propofe here to enter into any detail in
attempting to (how how this feparation w’as made, and
ftill lefs to make mention of the puerile difputes regard¬
ing the pre-eminfence of medicine to furgery. There
1 are
SURGERY.
Infcroduc- nre few we believe who in our days do not feel that
tion. a pre-eminence does not exift in nature j that
medicine and forgery are one and the fame fcience;
that they are coeval with the human race; and to thofe
* who are able to appreciate them, they muft appear of
equal utility and importance. The healing art is one,
its principles ought to be the fame throughout, and the
exercifes of its different branches fuppofes the fame fun¬
damental knowledge 5 but it offers in the detail fuch a
vaft field for ftudy, that few men are able to embrace
the whole, and to cultivate all the parts with equal fuc-
cefs. It becomes, therefore, an advantage to fociety
that fuch parts as can be eafily feparated in pra&ice be
exercifed by different individuals; and that a man who
has acquired a general knowledge of the flrufture,
fun&ions, and difeafes of the animal economy, pra&ife
in fuch departments as he finds his talents and acquire¬
ments point out.
Some have oppofed furgery to medicine by qualifying
the firit with the name of art, and in giving to the fe-
cond that of fcience. To pretend that furgery is no¬
thing but the art of treating difeafes by external means
or by manual operations, is to rank it among the me¬
chanical profeffions; and to confider as a good furgeon,
the man who can drefs an ulcer, apply a bandage, reduce
a frafture, amputate a limb, or perform fuch like opera¬
tions, on the living body. We have already mentioned
that the healing art is the fame in all its branches; the
internal organs of the body in a flate of health are go¬
verned by the fame general laws, and many of them are
analogous in flrufture to the external parts ; and the
nature of a local difeafe can never be underftood if we
are not acquainted with all the deviations from the na¬
tural date, of which the whole animal fyflem is fufeep-
dble. If a phyfician be called to treat a pleurify, he
cannot expert to do it with fuccefs unlefs he have a fuf-
ficiently clear idea of the nature of inflammation, or at
leall of the principal fymptoms which charadlerife it;
of its confequences, and of the proper mode of applying
the means to remove it. This knowledge is not lefs
necefl'ary to the furgeon who is called to treat an wound,
the management of which depends chiefly on the pre¬
cautions neceflary to prevent and remove inflammation
in the affedled parts, without at the fame time weaken¬
ing too much the vital powers. The knowledge of the
phyfician does not merit more the name offcience, than
that of the furgeon who is well acquainted with the
fun&ions of the animal economy, with morbid ftrufture,
and with the progrefs and termination of difeafes.
The ftudent of furgery has therefore to acquire, not
only all that knowledge neceffary for the well educated
phyfician, but he has likewife to learn the manner of
performing furgical operations. This, though no doubt
an effential requifite to the furgeon, is by no means fo
important as a competent knowledge of thofe difeafes
and dates of difeafe which require fuch means; and the
young furgeon diould endeavour nottocherilh that love
of operating which is obferved in fome, and which arifes
from the eclfit which a dexterous operator generally re¬
ceives.
To become an intelligent and expert operator, feveral
qualifications are neceflary ; and fome of thefe fall to
the lot of few individuals. There are many people,
who, though they have acquired an extenfive knowledge
of difeafes, have not that calmnefs of mind, that colled-
\ OL. XX. Part I.
ednefs of thought, ’which is neceflary for a good opera- Introduc
tor; and there are fome who are even deficient in that ; tlon*
mechanical dexterity, which, though not requifite in all, 'r^
is yet neceflary in feveral of the operations in furgery.
Thefe talents, however, are never given in fuch per¬
fection as not to require cultivation. An early habit of
being prefent, and of afliding at operations, prepare^ the
dudent to aCt for bimfelf; and a long and unremitting
habit of ufing the knife, and (if performing operations
on the dead body, gives a facility in all the mechanical
part of them, which even experience on the living body
does not procure.
Hijlory of Surgery.
That furgery was coeval with the other branches of
medicine, or perhaps antecedent to any of them, will
not admit of doubt. The wars and contentions which
have taken place among mankind almod ever fince their
creation, necedarily imply that there would be occafion
for furgeons at a very early period; and probably ex¬
ternal injuries would for fome time be the only dif¬
eafes for which a cure would be attempted, or perhaps
thought prafticable. In the facred writings we find
much mention of balfams, particularly the balm of
Gilead, as excellent in the cure of wounds; though at
the fame time we are informed that there were fome
wounds which this balfam could not heal.
Concerning the furgery praftifed among the Egyp- 3
tians, Jews, and Afiatic nations, wTe know little. The
art defeended from the Greeks to us, though they con-
fefledly received it from the eaftern nations. The firft
Greek furgeons on record are yEfeulapius and his fons
Podalirius and Machaon. iEfculapius flourilhed about
50 years before the Trojan war; and his tw^o fons diftin-
guilhed themfelves in that war both by their valour and
by their Ikillin curing wounds. This indeed is the whole
of the medical fkill attributed to them by Homer; for
in the plague which broke out in the Grecian camp,
he does not mention their being at all confulted. Nav,
what is ftill more ftrange, though he fometimes mentions
his heroes having their bones broke, he never cakes no¬
tice of their being reduced or cured by any other than
fupernatural means; as in the cafe of iEneas, whofe
thigh-bone was broken by a flone caft at him by Dio-
med. The methods which thefe two famous furgeons
ufed in curing the wounds of their fellow foldiers, feems
to have been the extracting or cutting out the darts
which inflicted them, and applying emollient fomenta¬
tions or ftyptics to them when neceflary: and to thefe
they undoubtedly attributed much more virtue than
they could poflibly poflefs ; as appears from the follow¬
ing lines, where Homer describes Eurypylus as wounded
and under the hands of Patroclus, who would certainly
praCtife according to the directions of the furgeons.
Patroclus cut the forky fteel away;
Then in his hand a bitter root he bruis’d,
The wound he wafh’d, the ftyptic juice infus’d.
The clofngflefh that inftant ceas’d to glow;
The wound to torture, and the blood to flow.
Till the days of Hippocrates we know very little of
what was the praCtice of the Greek furgeons. From
him, however, we learn, that the praClice of blood-let¬
ting, cupping, and fcarification, was known to them; al-
6 S U R G
Hiftory. fo the ufe of ovarm and emollient fomentations, iffufcs
“""'i ' made with hot irons, peffaries, injections, fumigations,
&c. Hippocrates alto gives direftiens with regard to
fraCtures, luxations, ulcers, fiftulas. He dirteCts the ex-
tenfion, reduction, bandages, and fplints, proper to ,e
ufed in fraftares and luxations of ditferent bones, with
feveral machines to increafe the extenfion when necei-
fary. He dittos the laxity and tightnels of the ban¬
dages ; the intervals for unloofing and binding them on
again ; the pofitioh and repofe of the fraCtured member,
and the proper regimen } and he mentions the time
when a callus is ufually farmed. He treats alfo of frac¬
tures of the fkull, and the method of applying the tre¬
pan. In his treatment of ulcers, he (peaks of reducing
fungous flefh by means of efcharotics, fome of which
are alum, nitre, verdigrife, quicklime, &c.
4 Surgery appears not to have exifted in Rome, not-
with(landing the warlike genius of the people, for more
than ijoo years. Archagathus, a Greek, was the full
profeffor of the art in that city *, and fo frequently em¬
ployed the knife, hot irons, and other cruel methods of
cure, that he was branded with the opprobrious title of
earnifex, and expelled the city, where no phyfician Or
furgeon of eminence again made his appearance for 180
years. At this time Afclepiades undertook the ptofef-
fion of medicine j but feems to have dealt little in for¬
gery. Neither have we any thing of importance on
That fubieCl till the time of Celfus, who flomilhed du-
rincr the reigns of Auguttus and Tiberius.—In his
work on furgery, all the improvements from Hippocrates
to his own days are collected \ the moll minute and
trifling difeafes are not omitted. An eminent furgeon,
of the moderns, emphatically exhorts every per (on in
that profeffion “ to keep Celfus in his hands by day
and by night.” He defcribes the figns of a fraClured
fkull, the method of examining for the fraClure, of lay¬
ing the Ikull bare by an incifion in the form of the let¬
ter X, and afterwards of cutting away the angles, and
of applying the trepan, mentioning alfo the figns of
danger and of recovery. He obferved, that fometimes,
though very rarely, a fatal concuflion of the brain might
happen from the blood-veffels within the fkull being
burft, the bone remaining entire. After the operation of
the trepan, fpunges and cloths wetted with vinegar, and
f'everal other applications, were made to the head j and,
throughout, fevere abflinence was enjoined. In violent
fracfures of the ribs, he ordered veneledion ; low diet *,
to guard againfl all agitation of the mind, loud fpeak-
ing, motion, and every thing that might excite cough¬
ing or fneezing. Cloths wetted with Wine, roles and
oil', and other applications, were laid over the frafture.
The cure of fractures, in the upper and lower extremi¬
ties, he faid were nearly alike *, that fraTures differ in
degree of violence and danger, in being fimple or com¬
pound, that is, with or without a wound of the flefti, and
in being near to the joint. He directs the extenfion of
the member by aflillants •, the reduction, by the fur-
geon’s hands, of the fractured bones into their natural
fituation •, and to bind the fra£tured part with bandages
of different lengths, previoufly dipped in wine and oil:
on the third day freflr bandages are to be applied, and
the fractured member fomented with warm vapour,
efpecially during the inflammation. Splints, if necef-
fary, are to be applied, to retain the bones in a fixed po-
fition. The fractured arm is to be fufpended in a broad
E R Y.
fling hung round the neck: the fractured leg is to be
inclofed in a kind of cafe, reaching above the ham, and 1~—
accommodated likewife with a fupport to the foot, and
with ftraps at the fide, to keep the leg ileady : in the
fra&ured thigh-bone, the cafe is to extend from the top
of the hip to the foot. He defcribes the method of treat¬
ing compound fradtures, and of removing fmall frag¬
ments of fplinters of bones ; and the manner of extradt-
ing darts. In luxations of the flioulder, he mentions
feveral methods of giving force to the extenfion, and of
replacing the dillocated bone. One method fimilar to
that of Hippocrates was, to fufpend the patient by the
arm j the fore part of the flioulder, at the fame time,
refting upon the top of a door, or any other fuch firm
fulcrum. Another method was to lay the patient fu-
pine, fome afliflants retaining the body in a fixed pofi-
tion, and others extending the arm in the contrary di-
redtion j the furgeon, in the mean time, attempting, by
his hands, forcibly to reduce the bone into its former
place.
If a large inflammation Ivas expedled to enfue after a
wound, it Was fuffered to bleed for fome time, and blood
was drawn from the arm. To wounds accompanied w ith
confiderable haemorrhagy, he applied a fponge wet in
vinegar, and conllant preffure : Ir neceffary, on account
of the violence of the haembrrhagy, ligatures were made
round the veffels, and fometimes the bleeding orifice
Was feared up with the point of a hot iron. On the
third day frefli dreflings were applied. In confiderable
contufions, with a {mall wound of the flefti, if neither
blood-veffels nor nerves prevented, t he wound was to be
enlarged. Abftinence and low diet, upon all fuch ac¬
cidents, Were preferibed •, cloths Wet with vinegar, and
feveral other applications, were to be applied to the in-
flamed part. He obferves, that frefli wounds may be
healed without compound applications. In external
gangrene, he cut into the found flefti ; and when the
difeafe, in fpite of every effort, fpread, he advifed am¬
putation of the member. After cutting to the bone,
the flefli was then foparated from it, and drawn back, in
order to fave as much fl'efti as poflible to cover the ex¬
tremity of the bone. Celfus, though extremely diffufe
in the defeription of furgical difeafes, and of various re¬
medies and external applications, treats flightly of the
method of amputating 5 from which, comparing his
treatife with the modem fyftems, We might infer that
the operation Was then feldomer praftifed th n at pre-
fent. He defcribes the fymptoms of that dangerous
inflammation the carbuncle, and directs, immediately
to burn or corrode the gangrened part. To promote
the fuppuration of abfeeffes, he orders poultices of
barley-meal, or of marflimallows, or the feeds of lin-
feed and fenugreek. He alfo mentions the compofi-
tions of feveral repellent cataplafms. In the erysipelas,
he applies cerufe, mixed with the juice of folanum or
nightihade. Sal ammoniac was fometimes mixed with
his plafters.
He is very minute in deferibing difeafes of the eyes,
ears, and teeth, and in preferibing a multitude of re¬
medies and applications. In inflammation of the eyes,
he enjoined abftinence and low diet, reft, and a dark
room : if the inflammation was violent, with great pain,
he ordered venefeftion, and a purgative 5 a fmall poul¬
tice of fine flower, faffron, and the white of an egg, to
be laid to the forehead to fupprefs the flow of pituita ?
S U ft G E Tt Y. VI
Kiftory. tKe foft infide of warm wheat bread dipped in wine, to
'-—v"”—' be laid to the eye ; poppy and rofes were alfo added to
his collyriums, and various ingredients too tedious to
enumerate. In chronic watery defluxions of the eyes,
he applied aftringents, cupped the temples, and burnt
the veins over the temple and forehead. He couched
catara&s by deprefling the cryftalline lens to the bot¬
tom of the orbit. Teeth, loofened by any accident, he
directs, after the example of Hippocrates, to be faflened
with a gold thread to thofe adjoining on each fide.
Previous to drawing a tooth, he ordered the gum to be
cut round its neck; and if the tooth was hollow, it was
to be filled with lead before extra&ion, to prevent its
breaking by the forceps. He deferibes not only the in¬
flammation, but likewife the elongation, of the uvula:
he alfo deferibes the polypus, and fome other difeafes
affecting the nofe.
He deferibes feveral fpecies of hernise or rupture, and
the manual afliflance required in thofe complaints.
After the return of the inteitines into the abdomen, a
firm comprefs was applied to that part of the groin
through which they protruded, and was fecured by a
bandage round the loins. In fome cafes, after the re¬
turn of inteflinal ruptures, he diminithed the quantity of
loofe Ikin, and formed a cicatrix, fo as to contract over
the part, to render it more rigid and capable of refill¬
ing. He deferibes various difeafes of the genital parts,
the hydrocele or dropfy of the ferotum, a difficulty of
urine, and the manner of drawing off the water by a
catheter *, the figns of done in the bladder, and the me¬
thod of founding or feeling for that Hone. Lithotomy
was at that time perfermed by introducing two fingers
into the anus ; the ftone was then preffed forward to the
perinseum, and a cut made into the bladder", and by the
finger or by a fcoop the ftone was extradled. He de¬
feribes the manner of performing this operation on both
the fexes, of treating the patient, and the figns of re¬
covery and of danger.
Celfus direfled various corrofive applications and in¬
jections to fiftulas •, and, in the laft extremity, opened
them to the bottom with a knife, cutting upon a groov¬
ed inftrument or conduClor. In old callous ulcers, he
made a new wound, by either cutting away the hard
edges, or corroding them with verdigrife, quicklime,
alum, nitre, and with fome vegetable efcharotics. He
mentions the fymptoms of caries in the bone; direfts
the bone to be laid bare, and to be pierced with feveral
holes, or to be burnt or rafped, in order to promote an
exfoliation of the corrupted part; afterw-ards to apply
nitre and feveral other ingredients. One of his applica¬
tions to a cancer was auripigmentum or arfenie. He
direCls the manner of tapping the abdomen in afeites,
and of drawing blood by the lancet and cupping-glafles.
His cupping-glaffes feem not to have been fo convenient
as the modern : they were made either of brafs or horn,
and were t nprovided with a pump. He cured varicofe
veins by uftion or by incifion. He gives directions for
extracting the dead foetus from the womb, in whatever
pofition it Ihould prefent; and, after delivery, to apply
to the private parts foft cloths wet in an infufion of vi¬
negar and rofes. In Celfus’s works there is a great
redundance and fuperfluity of plafters, ointments, ef¬
charotics, eollyriums, of fiippurating and difeutient ca-
taplafms, and external applications of every kind, both
fimple and compound: Perhaps, amongft the multitude,
there are a few ufeful remedies now laid afide and ne- Hiftary.
glected. v
The laft writer of confequence who flourilhed at Rome
was Galen, phyfician to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
His works are for the moft part purely medical; al¬
though he wrote alfo on furgery, and made Commen¬
taries on the Surgery of Hippocrates'. He opened the
jugular veins and performed arteriotomy at the temples;
direfted leeches, fcarification, and cupping-gtafles, to
draw blood. He alio deferibed with accuracy the dif¬
ferent fpecies of hernise or ruptures.
In the year 500 flouriffied Aeiius, in whofe works we
meet with many obfervations omitted by Celfus and Ga¬
len, particularly on the furgieal operations, the difeafes
of women, the caufes of difficult labours, and modes of
delivery. He alfo takes notice of the dracunculus, or
Guinea worm. Aetius, however, is greatly excelled by
Paulus Egineta, who flouriffied in 640; whofe treatii'e
on furgery is fuperior to that of all the other ancients.
He direCls how to extraCt darts ; to perform the opera¬
tion fometimes required in dangerous cafes of rupture or
hernia. He treats alfo of aneurifm. Galen, Paulus,
and all the ancients, fpeak only of one fpecies of aneu¬
rifm, and define it to he “ a tumor arifing from arterial
blood extravafated from a ruptured artery.” The an¬
eurifm from a dilatation of the artery is a difeovery of
the moderns. In violent inflammations of the throat,
where immediate danger of fuffocation was threatened,
Paulus performed the operation of bronchotomy. In
obftinate defluxions upon the eyes, he opened the ju¬
gular veins. He deferibes the manner of opening the
arteries behind the ears in chronic pains of the head.
He wrote alfo upon midwifery. 1'abricius ab Aquapen-
dente, a celebrated furgeon of the 16th century, has
followed Celfus and Paulus as text books.
From the time of Paulus Egineta to the year pcc,
no writer of any confequence, either on medicine or
furgery, appeared. At this time the Arabian phyficians
Rhazes and Avicenna revived in the eaft the medical
art, which, as well as others, was almoft entirely extin-
guifhed in the weft. Avicenna’s Canon Medicines, or
General Syftem of Medicine and Surgery, was for many
ages celebrated through all the fchools of phylic. It
was principally compiled from the writings of Galen
and Rhazes. The latter had correClly deferibed the
fpina ventofa, accompanied with an enlargement of the
bone, caries, and acute pain. In difficult labours, he
recommends the fillet to affift in the extraction of the
foetus; and for the fame purpofe, Avicenna recommends
the forceps. He deferibes the compofition of feveral
cofmetics to polifli the fkin, and make the hair grow-, or
fall off.
Notwithftanding this, however, it was not till the
time of Albucafis that furgery came into repute among
the Arabians, Rhazes complains of their grofs igno¬
rance, and that the manual operations were performed
by the phyficians fervants. Albucafis enumerates a
tremendous lift of operations, fufficient to fill us with
horror. Tire hot iron and cauteries w'ere favourite re¬
medies of the Arabians; and, in inveterate pains, they
repofed, like the Egyptians and eaftern Afiatics, great
confidence in burning the part. He deferibes accurate¬
ly the manner of tapping in afeites; mentions feveral
kinds of inftruments for drawing blood ; and has left a
more ample and correCl delineation of furgical inftru-
D 2 ments
SURGERY.
6
Sixteenth
ceatuj y.
Eighteenth
eentury.
merits than any of the ancients. He gives various ob-
itetrical directions for extradling the foetus in cafes of
difficult labour. He mentions the bronchocele, or pro¬
minent tumor on the neck, which, he tells us, was moft
frequent among the female fex. We are alio informed
by this writer, that the delicacy of the Arabian women
did not permit male furgeons to perform lithotomy on
females ; but, when necelfary, it was executed by one of
their own fex.
From the nth century to the middle of the 14th,
the hiftory of furgery affords nothing remarkable ex¬
cept the importation of that naufeous difeafe the leprofy
into Europe. Towards the end of the 15th century
the venereal difeafe is faid to have been imported from
America by the firft difcoverers of that continent.
A.t the beginning of the 16th century, furgery was
held in contempt in this ifland, and was praftifed indif-
eriminately by barbers, farriers, and fow-gelders. Bar¬
bers and furgeons continued, for 200 years after, to
be incorporated in one company both in London and
Paris. In Holland and fome parts of Germany, even
at this day, barbers exercife the razor and lancet alter¬
nately.
It is within the laft three centuries that we have any
confiderable improvement in furgery } nor do we know
of any eminent Britifh furgical u'riters until within the
laft 130 years. “ In Germany (fays Heifter) all the
different furgical operations, at the beginning even of
the 18th century, were left to empirics ; while regular
practitioners were contented to cure a wound, open a
vein or an abfcefs, return a fractured or luxated bone 5
but they feldom.or never ventured to perform any of the
difficult operations.” He alfo fpeaks of their grofs ig¬
norance of the Latin language.
The firft furgical work of the 16th century worthy
of notice is that of J. Carpus. F. ab Aquapendente, an
Italian, publiffied a Syftera of Surgery, containing a de-
feription of the various difeafes, accidents, and opera¬
tions. Boerhaave pays this author the following com¬
pliment : I/fe fuperavit omnes, et nemo ilti hanc difputat
gloriam ; omnibus potius quern hocce carere po/Jhmus.
About the fame period, A. Parey, a Frenchman, made
feveral important additions to furgery, particularly in
his colle&ion of cafes of wounds, fraftures, and other
accidents which occur during war. The ancients, who
were ignorant of powder and fire-arms, are defedlive in
this part of military furgery. Parey pretends to have
firft invented the method of tying with a needle and
ftrong filk-thread waxed the extremities of large ar¬
teries, after the amputation of a member. The liga¬
ture of the blood-veffels is, however, merely a revival of
the ancient practice, which, had fallen into difufe :
Throughout the dark ages the hot iron, cauteries, and
ftrong aftringents, were fubftituted in its place. B.
Maggius and L. Botellus wrote on the cure of gunfhot
wounds. J. A. Cruce wrote a fyftem of furgery.
In the 17th century, furgery was enriched with feve¬
ral fyftems, and with detached or mifcellaneous obferva-
tions. The principal authors are, M. A. Severinus,
V. Vidius, R. Wifeman, Le Clerc, J. Scultetus, J. Man-
getus, C. Magatus, Spigellius, F. Hildanus, T. Bartho¬
lin, P. de Marehett.
During the laft century, furgery, like all the other
feiences, made more rapid progrefs toward perfedlion,
than during all the preceding periods. This partly a-
rofe from the aftiftance of governments in the different
countries. They being convinced that anatomy is one of ^
the moft neceffary feiences, and the groundwork of the
whole healing art, but particularly of furgery, in many
great cities academies were iivftituted for the cultiva¬
tion of praftical anatomy j and fchools were alfo efta-
blilfied for the inftruclion of the theoretical and practi¬
cal parts of furgery.
Thefe improvements in furgery have been chiefly
made in England, France, and Germany •, and in all
thefe countries a number of very eminent men have ap¬
peared.
The Englilfi furgeons, befides poffefling an accurate
knowledge of anatomy, and great abilities in the opera¬
tive part of their profeffion, were the firft who endea¬
voured to bring the art to its prefent fimplicity. They
directed alfo their attention, in a particular manner, to
the diet of patients ; the negledl of which had caufed
the unfortunate iffue of many operations which had been
dexteroufly performed.
Among the furgeons of later times, we may firft men¬
tion the name of Sharp. He was a fcholar of Cheffelden,
and one of the beft furgeons of his day. He wrote a
Compendium of Surgical Operations, 1746*, and alfo a
Critical Inquiry into the State of Surgery ; both of
which works are ftill in high eftimation.
In the year 1719, Dr Monro, after vifiting the
fchools of London, Paris, and Leyden, where he was a
pupil of the great Boerhaave, came to Edinburgh *, and
this may be confidered as the date of the foundation of
the Edinburgh medical fchool. He began by giving
leftures on anatomy and furgery, the firft which were de¬
livered in Edinburgh j and in the year 1721 he was ap¬
pointed profeffor of anatomy and furgery to the univer-
fity. This eminent anatomift and furgeon, befides fill¬
ing his chair with the greateft reputation, contributed to
the advancement of our knowledge in many important
parts of anatomy and furgery. His works, publiflied by
his fun, befides his Treatife on Ofteolngy, which is cer¬
tainly the beft defeription of the bones that has ever been
given, will be found to contain many interefting and
valuable obfervations on various furgical difeafes.
Jofeph Warner, furgeon of Guy’s Hofpital, in Lon¬
don, publilhed his Cafes and Remarks in Surgery, in
the year a work which contains many very im¬
portant praflical remarks. He afterwards publiffied a
very good work, containing a defeription of the human
eye and its adjacent parts, in which he particularly re-
je<Rs the faftening of the eye during the operation of ca-
taraft. He alfo publiffied An Account of the Tefticlesj
their Common Coverings and Coats, &c.
Percivai Pott, furgeon of St Bartholomew’s Hofpital,
may be juftly confidered as one of the principal Englifh
furgeons of his time. He was not only a fuccefsful prac¬
titioner, but an induftrious and excellent writer. The
merits of Pott are indeed confiderable. He‘threw
much light on the dotftrine of wounds of the head, by
his accurate arrangement of the different kinds of inju¬
ries to which the head is fubje£L He alfo gives a good
account of hydrocele and the other difeafes of the tefti-
cle. For th’e operation of the fiftula in ano, he made ma¬
terial improvements. He has given many ufeful hints
on frafftures and diflocations •, and he was a great cham¬
pion in favour of the operation for cataraft by couching.
He was the firft perfon who deferibed the chimney*-
fwceps
Hiftory,
S U R G
Htftory. fweens cancer j and on hernige, polypus, and curvatures
 *   of the fpine, he has made many judicious pathological
and practical obfervations.
Charles White, furgeon in Manchefter, publilhed an
excellent praftical work in the year 1770, in which he
recommends amputation of the loot, a little above the
ankle joint, inftead 01 under the knee, as had uiually
been pra&ifed. He alfo (hows the effeft of laying off
the ends of bones ; and dilbuffes feveral other intereff-
ing points in furgery. In the fame year, Mr Elfe of
' St Thomas’s Hofpital, publilhed his treatife on the hy¬
drocele, in which he recommends the ufs of cauttia in
the cure of that difeafe.
In the year 1770, Mr Deafe, of Dublin, wrote an ex¬
cellent treatife on the wounds of the head. Mr Brom-
field, of St George’s Hofpital, and Mr Hill, furgeon at
Dumfries, alfo di'ftinguilhed themfelves; Mr ^romfield
for his Chirurgical Obfervations, and Mr Hill for his
Obfervations on Cancers.
In the year 1778, Mr Benjamin Bell publilhed the
firft volume of his Syftem of Surgery. The reputation
of this work was foon fuch, that it was tranflated into
the French and German languages ; and it has fince
gone through feveral editions in thefe, and many in
Englilh.
This work prefented the moft complete fyftem of fur¬
gery which had ever appeared •, and in every part of it
there is difplayed a talent for praaical obfervation and
clearnefs of thought which mult render it ever a ufeful
and valuable prefent to furgery. Like all fuch extenfiye
works, it is not without faults, and the language in
which it is written is in fome places prolix and diffufe }
but notwithftanding its errors, it certainly muff be con-
fidered as the moft ufeful body of furgery that has ever
yet appeared in this country.
Befides thefe, mention muft be made of two other
eminent furgeons, William and John Hunter ; the former
rendered immortal by his fplendid work on the gravid
uterus, and the latter by his treatife on the venereal dif¬
eafe, and his treatife on the blood, inflammation, and
gun-lhot wounds.
Many very eminent men arofe, both in France and
Germany, during the laft century. The tranfa&ions of
their academies leave a lafting monument of their zeal
and induftry.
In France we have the names of Petit, Arnaud, Ga-
rangeot, Morand, Le Dran, Le Cat, Louis, David Lev-
ret, Le Blanc, De la Faye, David Chopart, Deffault,
Janin, Jourdain, Pouteau, Andre Lombard Wenfel.
In Germany, furgery has been enriched by the works
of Vogel, Plainer, Albert Haller, Bilguer, Weitz, Sei-
bold, Brambilla, Theden, Smucker, Stork, Plenk, Ifen-
flamm, Rougemont, Conradi, and many others.
8
^rrange-
nent of
urgical
iifeafes.
Moft authors who have written fyftems of furgery
have deferibed difeafes according to the parts of the
body where they are fituated •, beginning with the
head, and deferibing the parts in fucceflion, according
to their fituation.
Befides this mode of arrangement being unphilofophi-
cal,it has many feriousdifadvantages. Difeafes which have
no analogy to each other, are treated of in the fame place •,
and fimilar difeafes are treated of feparately, inftead of be¬
ing claffed together; and confidered in one general point
E R Y.
of view. A repetition of what may be confidered as
the fpecific charafters of the difeafe, therefore, is con-
ftantly occurring. The utility of nofological fyftems
in practical medicine and in pathology, has been very
generally acknowledged. Dileafes having common
characters are thus brought together and arranged un¬
der claffes, orders, genera, and fpecies. It is to be
confidered, therefore, as an important ftep in order to
facilitate the knowledge of the difeafes of the human
body, and to give clear and diftindt ideas of them ; for
it is equally important, to be able to diflinguilh difeafes,
as to point out how they (liould be treated.
All nofological writers have not, however, conftrudl-
ed their fyftems on fimilar principles ; and their efforts
have been often fruftrated by the falfe theories and hy*
pothefes with which they have fet out.
The world is indebted to the ingenious and celebrat¬
ed Bichat, for the firft truly philofophical view of the
ftrutture of the human body. The Ample divifion of it
into its component parts, which that great anatomift and
philofopher pointed out, muft be confidered as the ground¬
work of all future anatomical and pathological inquiries.
Bichat demonftrated, that moft of the organs of our
body are made up of a variety of elementary parts or
textures ; each of which, in whatever part of the body it
is found, uniformly has the fame phyfical properties, and
prefents the fame morbid phenomena. Thefe he confi-
ders as the elementary parts *, which, by the diverfity of
their combinations, produce all the modifications of ftruc-
ture and fundtions exhibited in the different organs of
animals. This method of confidering organized bodies,
accords with every phenomenon with which we are ac¬
quainted, and feems to arife from the effential nature of
their conftitution. We may trace this view of the ftruc-
ture of the body in the obfervations of many of the ol¬
der anatomifts •, and particularly it may be confidered as
the bafis of fome of the moft ingenious philofophical
inquiries of the late ingenious Mr John Hunter.
In order to fix the ehara&ers of the elementary tex¬
tures, Bichat employed various modes of inquiry. Ho
performed numerous experiments on living animals j per-
fevered in tedious and minute diffedlionsj employed
chemical reagents to fupply the place of the knife j and
examined with minutenefs all the varieties of morbid
ftrudlure. Having by thele means accompliftied his ob-
jeft in tracing the charadter of each feparate texture, he
proceeded next to inveftigate their combinations as they
are found in the different organs.
The effe&s of this mode of inveftigating the ftrudlure
of the human body when difeafed, muft be at once ob¬
vious. We learn from it, that difeafes at their com¬
mencement are generally confined to one texture of an
organ 5 the other textures of which the organ is com-
poled remaining found.
There is no organ of the body from which this im¬
portant truth may not be deduced. It may be readily
illuftrated from confidering the difeafes of the mucous,
ferous, and mufcular textures, which compofe the ftomacK
and alimentary canal ; of the cellular texture of the
lungs ; of the mucous membrane of the bronchim, the
ferous membrane of the pleura, and many others. _
But difeafes are not folely confined to one individual
texture of any organ, as in the cafes juft mentioned ^
the fymptoms and morbid changes are likewife uniform¬
ly the fame in textures of a fimilar ftru&ure. in whatever
parts
SURGERY.
Hiftory. parts of the body thefe textures may happen to be found.
¥ 'j'j|US ).jie fer0Ub meaibranes which inveft the lungs, the
brain, the heart, the abdominal vifcera, have one com¬
mon character when affected with any fpecific difeafe :
fo alfo have the mucous membranes, whether we trace
them in the mouth, the nofe, the vagina, the urethra,
or covering the eye-ball j and the fame may be obfer-
ved of every individual texture which enters into the
compofition of our badies.
Befides the fymptoms and morbid changes which are
common to all textures whofe ftructure is fimilar in the
natural date, there are others which are determined
from the particular funftions of the organ in which the
difeafed texture exifts. For example, when any of the
ferous membranes are inflamed, the nature of the pain,
the degree of fever, and the duration of the fymptoms,
are the fame, in whatever membrane it may have taken
place. But to thefe fyraptoms are added, cough, diffi-.
culty of breathing, &c. when it happens to be connedl-
ed with the organs of refpiration, as in the cafe of pleu-
ritis ; coftivenefs, ftrangury, delirium, lofs of vxfion,
when the inteflinal canal, the bladder, the brain, or the
eye, is involved in the difeafe.
This view of the fubjedf naturally fuggefls a corre-
fpondent divifion of the fymptoms. The fir it clafs of
fymptoms is general, and chara<5terifes a whole genus
of textures 3 the fecond is in a manner aeceffory, and
depends upon the relative fituation or the particular
functions of the organ into the compofition of which the
affected texture enters.
But here we muft fet bounds to this theory 3—the hi-
fiory and progrefs of difeafes fhew, that we ought not to
confine our obfervations within fuch narrow limits. The
principles which have been ftated, indeed, account ad¬
mirably well for the propagation of fome affe6tions 5
and for fome of the fympathies which fubfill between
different parts of the body 3 but there are other difor-
ders which advance in a very different manner. In fome
difeafes, which are termed chronic, for example, the
whole ftruflure of an organ becomes gradually altered,
although the primary affeftion was confined to one of
its component textures. This is often to be obferved in
cancer, fcrofula, lues venerea, &c. When cancer at¬
tacks the mamma, it is at its commencement generally
confined to a fmall portion of that gland 3 but if allow¬
ed to proceed, it ultimately involves the whole gland,
and the adjacent cellular and cutaneous textures, in one
mafs of difeafe.
Thefe general obfervations will be fufficient to give
an outline of-the principles of a pathological fyftem,
founded on the bafis of anatomical knowledge 3 and in
giving an account of thefe difeafes which more properly
belong to a fyftem of furgery, we have ventured to ap¬
ply thefe principles. We fhall, in the firft place, there¬
fore, confider the difeafes of the cellular membrane 3 the
difeafes of the {kin ; of the mucous, ferous, and finovial
membranes 3 of bone and cartilage 3 of the vafcular and
nervous fyftems 3 and of the glands. In the fecond
place, we ftiall treat of difeafes which occur only in par¬
ticular organs, whether from the peculiarity of their
ftru&ure or funftions; fuch are the difeafes of the eyes,
ears, nofe, teeth, mouth, and fauces, and the organs of
urine and generation. In the third place, we {hall take
notice of malconformations, diftortions, and protru-
fions j and in the laft place, of wounds, fra&ures, difioca- Hidort.
tions, and fuch operations as are oecafionally neceffary
to be performed on different parts of the body, as am¬
putation, futures, &c.
Chap. I,
Of the Difeafes of the Cellular Membrane.
General Remarks on the Pathology of the Cellular Mem- 9
brane.
The cellular membrane is diftinguiftied from other
organs, by the power which it has of throwing out gra¬
nulations, by its being capable of elongation, of repro¬
duction, and of growth, when it has been divided or
cut by any means *. *Bichat
Suppuration alfo takes place in the cellular mem- j*at0’n*e
brane, with a rapidity of which we have few examples
in other textures. The fluid which is the refult of this
fuppuration, is well known. Its colour, its confiftence,
and ail its external qualities, have become the criterion
by which we form our ideas oi pus i in confequence of
which, all difcharges which do not referable it, have
been commonly confidered as pus of a bad kind, or as
fames. This opinion, however, is falfe, and has been
formed in confequence of a too fuperficial view of the
different circumftances attending different kinds of dis¬
charged fluids. Certainly the pus which is difebarged
from a bone, from a mufcle, from the ikin in eryfipelas,
from the mucous membranes in catarrh, is erf a good
kind whenever the inflammation runs regularly through
its different periods, and notwithftanding it is quite dif¬
ferent in all thefe cafes from the pus produced by fup¬
puration of the cellular membrane. As the latter is
moft frequently obferved, from it we have formed an
idea of laudable pus, and of fames. The cutaneous pus,
the mucous pus, the offeous pus, &e. have all their pro¬
per fanies ; which differ from one another as much as
the natural ftru&ure and funftions of the organs from
which they are produced.
There are fexv parts of the body which have a great¬
er number of exhalents than the cellular membrane 3
and this expofes it to a number of alterations of ftruc¬
ture, fuch as being preternaturally diftended by the dif¬
ferent fubftances which it exhales 3 thefe prefenting a
folid appearance, and fometimes producing a lardy fub-
ftance, fometimes a gelatinous matter, and fometimes a
much firmer and harder mafs. The numerous abfor-
bent veffels which are alfo diftributed on the cellular
membrane is another caufe of various difeafes 3 every
fmall cell being a refervoir common to the exbalents
which terminate in it, and to the abforbents which arife
from it.
1 here are fome difeafes too, which produce a change
in the elafticity and powers of diftenfion, which the
cellular membrane naturally pofieffes. In health it has
enormous powers of diftenfion, as may be obferved in'
emphyfema and in anafarca 3 and whenever thefe caufes
are removed, it regains its natural bulk and form. In
inflammations, this property is in part deftroyed, and it
happens alfo in many of the different indurations to
which it is liable. Its elafticity is alfo lefs remarkable in
people advanced in life, than in children. When an old
man becomes rapidly thin, the Ikin becomes flaccid, and
tbrmed
tliap. I.
r>f the Pa- formed into many folds ; but when a young man is ema-
thology of dated, the fkin is applied exactly to the fubjacent organ,
he Cellular ancl preferves its tenfion.
VIembrane. ^jie cellular membrane, when difeafed, becomes
' fometimes extremely fenfible, and the feat of acute pain,
thouoh it feems to poffefs no fenfibility in its natural
ftate. When either blood, milk, or lymph, are effufed
in it, its fenfibility is not altered, and thefe fluids are
abforbed. On the contrary, the fenfibility is fo much
altered by the contact of urine, of bile, of faliva, and of
the other fluids deftined to be thrown out of the body,
that often the inflammation which fuceeeds the effufion
prevents their abforption.
As. the cellular membrane enters into the eompofition
of every organ, it is often difficult to diflinguifli in dif-
eafes what belongs to it from what is the attribute of
die parts with which it is found. Thefe connexions,
however, become manifeft under feveral circumftances :
in acute and chronic difeafes it is very fufceptible of be¬
ing influenced by the difeafe of the organs. We do not
fpeak here of the alterations produced from juxtapofi-
tion and continuity, but of thofe which arife in parts of
the cellular membrane which have no known connec¬
tion with the affeXed organ.
In acute difeafes which affeX a particular organ, as
the lungs, ftomach, inteftines, &c. often the cellular
membrane becomes fympathetically affeXed and the feat
of inflammation and abfeeffes. See. The greater num¬
ber of critical abfeeffes arife from this conneXion which
exifts between the organ affeXed and the cellular mem¬
brane. In acute difeafes too it is commonly the func¬
tion of exhalation or abforption of the cellular mem¬
brane that is affeXed, and hence the hidden oedema
which often accompanies them. In chronic difeafes
their influence is no lefs remarkable. It is well known,
that in chronic difeafes of the heart, of the lungs, of the
liver, of the ftomach, kidneys, uterus, &c. they have for
their fymptom during their laft ftages an anafarca, more
or lefs general, which arifes from a debility produced in
the cellular fyftem.
We obferve, that in all acute difeafes, the (kin re¬
ceives with great facility the fympatbetic influence of
the difeafed organ, and that it is alternately moift
and dry frequently during the fame day. It is by no
means improbable that the cellular membrane under¬
goes alterations analogous to tbofe of the fkin } and if
we could obferve what pafles in it, we would diffover
the cells more or lefs moift, more or lefs dry, according
as it happened to be influenced : it is alfo to this that
We ought to attribute the different ftate of the cellular
membrane, in patients who have died of acute difeafes j
thefe prefenting numberlefs varieties in the ferous effu-
fions.
3*
a feton produces an effeX which cannot be obtained by Of the Pa-
a blifter : and this probably arifes from the conneXion
which exifts between the cellular membrane and the Membrane-
eye, being more aXive than that which exifts between y — <mi
that organ and the ikin *. * Vide ^
It ought alfo to be remarked, in confidering the pa- ^tat01/"e
thology of the cellular fyftem, that there is a manifeft tje^par
difference in the properties of the cellular texture, which Bicbatt
is compofed of layers and filaments •, and in that found
exterior to the different mucous furfaces, to the blood-
veffels and excretories, which confifts of filaments alone.
From this difference refults the rare occurrence of in¬
flammations and of different kinds of tumors in the lat¬
ter. It often forms a barrier where the morbid affec¬
tion of the former flops, and thus proteXs the organ
which it envelopes.
The unfrequency of hemorrhagy when extenfive fup-
purations have laid bare large arteries is a proof of what
has been faid. We have feen cafes where the cellu¬
lar membrane contiguous to the brachial and femoral
arteries has been completely ulcerated, whilft the coats
of the arteries remained found. We have obferved the
fame phenomenon in the urethra and in the inteftines.
In cafes of fuppuration of the proftate gland and cavern¬
ous bodies of the urethra, the canal has remained un¬
touched ; and in a cafe of femoral hernia, where the
hernial fac, and the cellular membrane covering it, all
mortified, the protruded gut remained quite found.
The cellular membrane has alfo a powerful influence
in the produXion of a variety of tumors and excref-
cences, forming as it were their bafe or parenchyma of
nutrition. Encyfted tumors are met with alone in the
cellular texture of different parts of the body, and va¬
rious kinds of folid tumors and excrefcences are formed
by the growth of that texture on the part where the
tumor is to be developed ^ afterwards different fub-
ftances are depofited amongft it, the difference in the
nature of which conftitutes the diftbrence in the tu¬
mors.
Thefe remarks will be fufficient to give a general
view of the pathology of the cellular membrane, and
will enable us to form a more comprehenfive and con-
neXed view of thofe difeafes, which may be more pro¬
perly confidered as coming within the province of fur-
gery.
The difeafes of the cellular membrane which we (hall
treat of in this chapter are, I. Inflammation of the cel¬
lular membrane, or phlegmon. 2. Sinufes. 3. Parony¬
chia or whitloe. 4. Carbuncle. 5. Encyfted tumors. 6.
Steatom. 7. Sarcoma. 8. Oedema. And, 9. Emphyfema.
Sect. I. Of Phlegmon*
SURGERY.
The cellular fyftem is not only influenced by its fym-
patby with other organs ; but it alfb exercifes a fym-
pathy over them. In a phlegmon or inflammation of
the cellular membrane, if the tumour is confiderable,
often various alterations take place in the funXions of
the brain, of the heart, of the liver, or of the ftomach.
The, fympathetic vomiting, &c. are thofe phenomena in
great phlegmons which are often manifefted without be¬
ing confidered as belonging to the difeafe.
Art avails itfelf of the influence of the cellular
fyftem being affeXed by other organs, in the ufe of
felons. Often in the difeafes of the eye and of joints
In moft accounts which furgical authors have given
x>i inflammation, they have taken the defeription of its
general phenomena from inflammation of the cellular
membrane.
Inflammation of the cellular membrane, or phlegmon,
is charaXerized by a tumor more or lefs elevated and
circumferibed, vifible or not vifible, according to the
part where it is fituated. It is always accompanied with
an increafed fenfibility of the part, and with a lancina¬
ting or beating pain, a degree of heat, greater than
natural, a bright rednefs, which becomes more livid as
the difeafe advances, an elevated point j and it gradual-
32
Of ly turns fofter from the centre to one part of the cir-
• Phlegmon. cumference.
J Thefe are the fymptoms which are generally to be
obferved more or lets remarkable in every fpecies of
phlegmon. When they are flight, and when the af-
fefted part is not extenflve, or very important from
the nature of its fundtions, it generally has not much in¬
fluence on the general fyftetn. But when they are more
confiderable, and the inflammation extends far, the pulfe
becomes commonly full, frequent, and hard} at the
- fame time, the patient complains of univerfal heat, thirft,
' and other febrile fymptoms.
When by the efforts of nature, or by tbe application
of proper remedies, the pain, the heat, and the tenfion
go away, the other fymptoms, which depend in a great
degree or altogether on the firft which have been men¬
tioned, difappear alfo, and the patient quickly recovers
-his health. This termination, which is commonly the
moft defirable, is called refolutinn.
But if, notwithftanding the remedies ufed, the differ¬
ent fymptoms augment inftead of diminifhing, the tu¬
mor gradually increafes in fize and turns foft. A fmall
• eminence is obferved towards the centre of the tumor
or at fome particular point, and its furfaee becomes
poliflied. Soon afterwards the pain diminiflies, and the
febrile fymptoms abate •, and on cotaprefling the tumor,
the fluctuation of a fluid can be pereeived in it, and
this conftitutes the fecond termination of a phlegmon,
or abfcefs.
Of the treatment of Phlegmon.—The principal objedt
which is to be generally kept in view in the treatment
of inflammatory tumors, is to obtain their refolution;
this being the moft prompt and moft certain mode of
cure. There are, however, fome cafes which are an
exception to this general rule; Inch as fome inflamma-
^tory tumors which precede fevers, and other internal
difeafes : for it is commonly fuppofed that in thefe cafes,
fuppuration is a mode by which nature throws off cer¬
tain fluids or humours, which are pernicious to remain
in the fyftem. There are other tumors which feem to
arife from internal caufes, where it is perhaps better
neither to attempt to accelerate their fuppuration nor
refolution, but to truft them entirely to nature. Such
are inflammatory tumors-which occur in fcrofulous fub-
jedfs. There are few cafes of this kind where fuppu¬
ration ought to be promoted, for their treatment is al¬
ways embarrafling whether they are opened naturally
or by art. It is well known too, that fuch tumors
-often remain a long time without any danger; from
•whence we may conclude, that it is moft prudent not
to touch them.
In the venereal difeafe, we have a fpecific for its cure;
and when buboes are opened, or other inflammatory ve¬
nereal fwellings, they generally become very difficult
and embarrafling to treat. It is therefore always moft
•prudent to attempt their refolution.
The principal means to be employed, in order to pro¬
cure the refolution of an inflammatory tumor, are local
and general blood-letting, the application of heat and
moifture, &c. Leeches is perhaps the befl mode of
bleeding the inflamed part; but fhould the inflamma¬
tion take place in any of the extremities, or contiguous
to any of the large veins, one or other of thefe may be
opened. There is no application which tends fo much
-to remove the tenfion and pain of an inflamed part as
Chap, J,
the ufe of poultices or warm fomentations. Applies- Of
tions of a fedative nature are recommended by many, PMegfoen
fuch as the different preparations of lead, the fulphate of' '"J
zinc, vinegar, &c.; but as far as we have been able to
obferve, the ufe of this clafs of medicines has by no
means fueh powerful effedfts as emollients, though it
has been generally fuppofed that emollients haften fup¬
puration. In applying poultices, they fhould generally-
be removed three or four limes in twenty-four hours, and
the part bathed with warm water each time the poultice
is changed. When fomentations are to be ufed, many
employ warm wrater alone, whilft others prefer a decoc¬
tion of chamomile flowers, or of poppy heads. A piece
of flannel of confiderable fize, wet with either of thefe
in nearly the boiling heat, is to be forcibly wrung out,
and applied as warm as the patient can fuffer it, to the
inflamed part. A, fecond piece of flannel is to be pre¬
pared in the fame manner, and whenever that which is
firft applied begins to cool, the fecond piece is to be em¬
ployed ; and this practice is to be continued for ten or
fifteen minutes, and repeated as often as it is found to
relieve the patient. Tbe beft mode of applying the fe¬
dative remedies in external inflammation, is in the form
of watery folution. Half an ounce of the acetate of
lead diffblved in four ounces of vinegar, with the addi¬
tion of two pounds of diftilled water, is a convenient
form. In making ufe of this folution, it is of confe-
quence to have the parts affe&ed kept conftantly moift,
and cataplafms prepared with it generally anfwer that
-intention exceedingly well. But when the inflamed
part is fo tender and painful, as not eafily to bear the
weight of a poultice, pieces of foft linen, moiftened with
the folution fliould be employed. Both fhould be ap¬
plied cold, or at leaft with no greater warmth than is
merely neceffary for preventing pain or uneafinefs to
■ the patient. They fhould be kept conftantly at the part,
and always renewed before turning dry and ftiff.
When the part'affedfed with inflammation is not very
tender, or lies deep, applications of vinegar are often
had recourfe to with confiderable advantage; and the
moft effedlual form in ufing it, is in that of cataplafm,
made with the ftrongeft vinegar and crumb of bread.
In fuch cafes, the alternate ufe of this remedy, with
the faturnine folution, has produced more beneficial
effedls than are commonly obferved from a continued
-courfe of any one of them.
In all cafes of inflammation, the whole body, but
more efpecially the difeafed part, fhould be preferved as
free as poflible from every kind of motion, and the pa¬
tient fhould be confined to a low cooling diet, and alfo
a total abftinence from fpirituous and fermented li¬
quors.
In flight cafes of inflammation, a due perfeverance in
the mode of treatment which has been mentioned, will
be in general fufficient to accomplifh the intended pur-
pofes ; but when there is likewife a full, hard, and quick
pulfe, with other fymptoms of fever, general blood-let¬
ting becomes neceffary; and the quantity of blood ta¬
ken away is always to be determined by the extent and
violence of the difeafe, and by the age and ftrength of
the patient. Evacuations, however, fliould never be
carried to a greater height than what is merely necef¬
fary for moderating the febrile fymptoms ; for fliould
fuppuration take place after the fyftem is too much re¬
duced, its progrefs becomes more How and uncertain ;
nor
S u It G E ft T.
Chap. I.
SURGERY.
23
Of nor is the patient able to fupport the difcharge that en-
Pblegmon. fues# The ufe of gentle laxatives, with a cooling diet,
''—V——1 alfo attended with very good effe&s.
Befides thefe different evacuations, it is of great con-
fequence to procure eafe and quietnefs to the patient.
The moft effectual remedy for this purpofe is opium,
and, when the pain and irritation are confiderable, as
in extenfive inflammations very frequently happens, it
(hould never be omitted. In all fuch cafes, the opium
fhould be given in full dofes, otherwife, inftead of prov¬
ing ferviceable, it feems rather to have the contrary ef¬
fect, a circumilanee which is perhaps the chief reafon
for opiates having been by feme very unjuftly con¬
demned in every cafe of inflammation.
By a proper attention to thefe different circumftances,
a refolution of the tumor will generally begin to take
place in the courfe of three or four days, and fometimes
in a fhorter time ; at lealt before the end of that period,
it may be for the moft part known- how the diforder is
to terminate. If the heat, pain, and rednefs, and other
attendant circumftances abate, and efpecially if the tu¬
mor begins to decreafe, it is probable that, by a con¬
tinuance of the fame plan, a total refolution will be fi¬
nally effefted.
But, on the contrary, if all the different fymptoms
rather increafe, and efpecially if the tumor turns larger,
and fomewhat foft, with an increafe of throbbing pain,
we may with tolerable certainty conclude that fuppura-
tion will take place *, and we fhould therefore immedi¬
ately defift from fuch applications as were judged pro¬
per while a cure was thought practicable by refolution,
and endeavour to afftft nature as much as poflible in
the formation of pus, or what is called the maturation
the tumor. To effect this, nothing is more ufeful
than warm fomentations and cataplafms ; and fhould
thefe not have been employed during the former ftage,
the cold faturnine applications fhould be given up, and
recourfe had to the emollient remedies.
Dry cupping, as it is termed, viz. ufing the cupping
glaffes without the fcarificator, applied as near as pof-
fible to the part affe&ed, is frequently had recourfe to
in promoting the fuppuration of tumors. It is only,
however, in thofe in which there feems to be a defi¬
ciency of inflammation, that it can ever be either necef-
fary or ufeful but in all tumors of an indolent nature,
and where there is ftill fome probability of a fuppura¬
tion, no remedy is more effectual. By thefe different ap¬
plications, continued for a longer or fhorter time, accord¬
ing to the fize of the tumor, its fituation and other cir-
eumftances, a complete fuppuration may generally beat
laft expe&ed.
Whilft an abfeefs is forming, it extends according as
the quantity of purulent matter is augmented in the ca¬
vity in which it is contained and this extenfion takes
place towards that fide where there is leaft refiftance. It
is on this account that where an abfeefs is deep, or
covered by an aponeurofis, it extends in the interfli-
ces of the neighbouring parts, and differs, as it were,
the tendons, the mufcles, and the bones, whilft in com¬
mon cafes it makes its way towards the fkin. When
matter is collected very near to the furface of the body,
and is only covered by the common integuments, it
fpeedily makes its way externally, but when it is deep,
and furrounded bv parts which make great refiftance,
purulent matter infinuates itfelf until it arrives at fome
Vol.XX. Parti.
place where there is nothing to oppofe its exit; and it is Of
obferved making its efcape after having made, in fome 1 e^mon,1
cafes, a very great circuit. It is generally towards the
inferior parts of the body that purulent matter, in con-
fequence of its weight, makes its route. On this account
we fee large abfeeffes open themfelves molt frequently at
their inferior part, and trom thence the advantage which
is found by waiting till they open of themfelves, or that
they indicate the place moft convenient for the opening
to be made. Thus, we fee abfeeffes formed under the
temporal mufcles open themfelves in the mouth, and
thofe of the loins making their appearance near the ring,
or upon the anterior part of the thigh. Deep abfeeffes,
in certain parts of the body, proceed rather towards the
interior than towards the furface, became the purulent
matter finds lefs obftruftion in its paffage. 1 hofe, for ex¬
ample, which form on the furface of the lungs, find great
refiftanfe from the ribs and other parts forming the tho¬
rax, whilft: they eafily make their way through the
fpongy fubftance of the lungs, and open in the ramifica¬
tions of the bronchise. For the fame reafon, abfeeffes
formed in the cavity of the abdomen fometimes difcharge
themfelves into the ftomach or inteftines j but as the pa¬
rities of the belly yield more eafily than thofe of the
cheft, we alfo fee abfeeffes of the different organs con¬
tained in the belly, difcharge their contents through its
parietes. ,
When matter is fully formed in a tumor, a remiffion
of all the fymptoms takes place. The throbbing pain,
which before was frequent, now goes off, and the patient
complains of a more dull, heavy, and conftant pain. I he
tumor points at {ome particular part, generally near to
its middle, where, if the matter be not deep feated, a
whitifh yellow appearance is obferved, inftead of the
deep red that formerly took place ; and a flu&uation of
the fluid underneath is, upon preffure, very evidently
perceived. Sometimes, indeed, when the abfeefs is
thick, and covered with mufcle and other parts, though
from concurring circumftances there can be little doubt
of there being a very confiderable collection of matter,
yet the fluctuation cannot be readily diftinguilhed. It
does not, however, often happen that matter is fo very
deeply lodged as not to be difeovered on proper exami¬
nation.
This, however, is a circumftance of the greateft con.
fequence in practice, and deferves more attention than is
commonly paid to it. In no part of the furgeon’s em¬
ployment is experience in fimilar cafes of greater ufe
to him than in the prefent; and however fimple it
may appear, yet nothing more readily diftinguifhes a
man of extenfive obfervation than his being able eafily
to deleft deep-feated colleftions of matter ; whilft no¬
thing, on the contrary, fo materially affefts the charac¬
ter of the furgeon as his having, in fuch cafes, given an
inaccurate or unjuft prognofis.
In addition to the feveral local fymptoms of the pre¬
fence of pus already enumerated, may be mentioned the
frequent thiverings to which patients are liable on its
firft formation. Thefe, however, fcldom occur fo as to
be eafily diftinguilhed, unlefs the colleftion is confider¬
able } but it is a fymptom conftantly obferved in all
large abfeeffes j and when it takes place, along with
other fymptoms of fuppuration, it always contributes to
point out the true nature of the difeafe.
Of the opening of Abfceffes.—When abfeeffes come to ia
E complete
34
AbfbefTes. C0.m'P'ele matur4y, the integimients gradually become
thinner over the more prominent part of the tumor ; and
they become ulcerated in one or more points through
which the pus is evacuated. In many cafes it is advi-
fable to wait for the fpontaneous rupture; but, on the
other hand, it is often more prudent, and is indeed abfo-
lutely neceflary, to give vent to the matter by an artifi¬
cial opening. It is a general rule not to have recourfe
to fuch means before fuppuration is completely formed $
for ix an abfeefs be opened before this period, and a con-
fiderable hardnefs remain around, the treatment after¬
wards becomes very embarraffing and difficult. It is,
however, neceffiary in fome cafes to depart from this ge¬
neral rule, and to open an abfeefs much fooner j above
all, thofe which are critical, and thofe which are the
confequence of lingering fevers.
In many cafes there is neither fafety nor convenience
to be expelled from the fpontanepus opening of the in¬
teguments. In abfcelTes fituated in any of the joints, or
upon either of the cavities of the breaft or abdomen, and
more efpecially when they feem to run deep, they ftiould
always be opened as foon as the leaft flu&uation of mat¬
ter can be difeovered j for when the refiftance is on either
fide equal, it juft as readily points inwardly towards the
cavity, as outwardly towards the fkin ; and the confe¬
quence of a large abfeefs burfting into either of the large
cavities, is moft frequently fatal.
Abfceffes *re fometimes formed about the face, which
point externally, and thefe ffiould be opened in the infide
of the mouth, in order to prevent any deformity. When¬
ever the fiudluatian is fcnfible, this (hould be immedi¬
ately done. They cicatrife very rapidly, and require
no dreffings.
Abfcelfes confined under an aponeurofis, and in gene¬
ral under thofe parts which are not capable of being
extended without much difficulty, ought to be opened
early. Such are abfeeffes which are formed under the
temporal mufcles or fafeia lata of the thigh, or thofe
which frequently happen in the extremity of the fingers,
under the arch of the palate, round the maxillary bones,
behind the ear, above the maftoid proceffes, &c. All
thefe ought to be opened very fpeedily, and in particular
thofe laft mentioned, on account of the danger of a ca¬
ries of the bone m which they lie being produced.
It is alfo particularly neceliary to open without delay
abfeefies in the neighbourhood of the anus, or near the
urethra. I his ought alfo to be done in large abfeefies
of the extremities, and in particular thofe which are
the confequence of violent inflammation, occupying the
whole member, as the thigh, the arm, &c. If in^fuch
cafes the matter be allowed to remain too long, the
greater part of the cellular membrane is detached from
the fubjacent aponeurofis, and there often follow large
gangrenous Houghs, which in feparating themfelves lay
open extenfive fiirfaces, and often form large bags of
pus, \\ hich become as many feparate abfceffes j and often
the diforder is fuch that the whole of the integuments of
the member fphacelate and fall off. It is alfo neceffary
not to delay the opening of abfceffes formed among the
large, mufcles, the interftices of which are filled up
with cellular texture ; fuch are thofe of, the thigh, the
back leg, and under the arm-pit. In thefe fituations the
matter is very apt to fpread, and to form ramifications of
the abfeefs in various direftions, which, if not treated
with much care, are very tedious to heal,
Chap. I,
With the exception of thofe cafes which have been Of
mentioned, it ought to be obferved as a general rule not Akfr'fles*
to open an abfeefs until fuppuration be complete *, for if'
it be true, as it is faid, that pus is always fufficiently
prepared to be evacuated, it is alfo the cafe, that the
more we favour its formation before giving it vent, the
more we are fure of dimimfhing and of reducing the
hardneffes which exift in the neighbourhood, and faci¬
litating the cicatrization of the ulcer.
Of the different Methods of opening Abfceffes.
. There are three different modes of opening abfceffes j j,
viz. by cauftic, incifion, or feton.
i. Bij Caujhc.—The ufe of cauftic is recommended
in cafes where fuppuration has been flow, and has net
occupied the whole tumor 5 in thofe where the integu¬
ments have fuffered much, and where it was neceffary to
wait long before opening it, on account of fome affedtion
of the bottom of the abfeefs ; and in general in all cafes
of the fuppuration of glands.
But though there are circumftances which may render
it neceffary to erpploy the cauftic rather than the incifion,
} et the latter generally delerves the preference. The pain
which it occafions lafts only a moment, whilft that of
cauflic continues many hours j and when the inflamed
part has acquired a morbid degree of fenfibility, the pain
is very violent. The furgeon alfo can never limit pre-
cifely the extent of the aflion of the cauftic j and what¬
ever attention be paid to it, it often extends too far, and
penetrates too deep.
To open an abfeefs with cauftic, an adhefive plafter
fpread on leatner is to be applied over the tumor, with
a flit in it of a fize fomewhat lefs than what is intended
to be made in the fldn by the cauftic. The flit is to be
filled with the cauftic reduced into powder, mixed with
a fmall quantity of foap, and wetted, fo as to make it
operate more quickly. Another adhefive plafter is then
to be laid over it, and the whole fecured with a firm
comprefs and bandage. T. he time neceffary to allow the
cauftic to make a fufficient opening will depend on the
thicknefs of the Ikin and ftrength of the cauftic, but
generally it requires two, three, or more hours. When
the efehar is made, and the matter has not efcaped, we
ought to affift its exit with the end of a probe, or the~
point of a biftoury 5 and the feparation of the efehar is
to be promoted by emollient applications.
2. By the incifion.— J he tumors which are not very ex- 14
tenfive, may generally be opened by making a longitudi- p]at„
nal incifion with the lancet, fee Plate DXIII. fig. 1. For DXIIfi
this purpofe, when the fituation of the abfeefs permits it, fig-
the furgeon is to apply one hand on the bafe of the tumor’
and prefs the pus towards the fkin, by doing which there
is no rifk of wounding any artery, or important part at the
bottom of the tumor, and the lancet penetrates into the
cavity of the abfeefs with more certainty and eafe, and
with lefs pain. With the other hand an incifion of the
integuments is to be made in fuch a direflion, that it may
terminate at the moft depending part of the tumor : and
ffiould be made of fuch length as may appear neceffary,
in order that the matter may be allowed freely to efcape.
It is in general fuppofed fufficient, in cafes of fmall ab¬
fceffes, that the incifion extend two-thirds of the length
of the tumor. Some authors have advifed, that when
the integuments are much diftended, an incifion ffiould
be made through the whole length of the tumor, even
S U 11 G E R Y.
•Chap. I.
S U R G E R Y.
Of
where k is of a large Cue j but this praftice ought to be
'Abfceffes. rarely adopted. The irritation and coniequent xnflam-
  »   niation, produced from fuch an operation, mutt always
be very confiderable ; and as it fcarcely ever happens
that the integuments are ever fo much extended as en¬
tirely to lofe their eontraaile power, there is always
reafon to hope that they will recover their natural di-
menlions. In all very large abfceffes, it is the fafeft prac¬
tice to make at firft a fmall incifion fufficient to allow
the contents to be difcharged ; for whenever this is done
the extent of the cavity rather dimimlhes *, and Ihould
it be found afterwards neceffary to make a more exten-
five opening, this can now be done with much advan¬
tage. When an abfcefs has been opened by either oi
thefe methods, it is reduced to the date of a fimple
Wound or ulcer, and ought to be treated accordingly.
The mode by incifion ought to be preferred to that ot
caullic, when the matter is colledled deep ; when it is
in the neighbourhood of important nerves or blood-vel-
fels ; when it is neceffary to make the opening large j
when the (kin which is to be opened has natural ap¬
pearance •, and, above all, when the ulcer is wiflied for
to be healed rapidly up, and leave little deformity.
Although furgeons generally agree in preiernng the
incifion to the cauftic, it has neverthelefs its inconveni¬
ences. Whenever the incifion is made, the matter con¬
tained in the tumor is fuddenly evacuated 5 from whence
it happens, when the collection is confiderable, that the
patient faints, or has fome other difagreeable fymptoms *,
but the principal difadvantage of this method is, that it
gives free accefs to the air over a large extent of the ul¬
cerated furface •, a circumftance which is followed by
very pernicious effe£ts, particularly in large abfceffes. A
total change takes place in the nature of the matter •, a
laudable pus is transformed into an ichorous indigefted
fluid ; the pulfe becomes quick ; colliquative fweats and
other fymptoms of fever come on, and commonly the
patient dies in a (hort time. Surgeons have too often oc-
cafion to obferve the dangerous efFefrs which probably are
altogether produced by the admiffion of the a- r 5 for ive
fee a great number of patients have for a long time af¬
ter a termination of inflammatory difeafes confiderable
abfceffes, where the pus is perfetfly formed, without
(hewing at the fame time any fymptom of hedtic fever.
But when thefe abfceffes exceed a certain fize, and if a
large incifion be made into them, there always follow
fymptoms of fever, generally in forty-eight hours from
the time that the abfcefs had been opened. Thefe ac¬
cidents, which we have frequently obferved in private
pradtice, are flill more frequent in great hofpitals, where
the air is impregnated with putrid exhalations.^
3. B:/ the Seiott.—from the obfervations which have
been already made, it appears neceflary that as much pre¬
caution as pofiible fliould be taken to prevent the contadl
of the air with the internal furface of the hbfcefs. I he
feton, therefore, has the advantage, not only of being
attended with little pain, and emptying the abfcefs in a
gradual manner, but it completely prevents the accefs
ef the air. When patients are otherwife in good health,
there is another advantage in employing the feton ‘, for
frequently a cure is obtained at a period much (hqrter
than that which is ufually neceffary when the ihcifion
has been adopted. On the dther hand, if we have reafon
fco wilh to keep up for a long time a certain degree of
irritation and fuppundion in the affcdled part, the feton
ought to be preferred to every other means. 1 here have
been various inftruinents contrived for introducing the fe¬
ton, and it may ealily be done by a lancet and common
probe, or by the inilruments reprefentedin Plate DX III,
fig, 15. and 16. One of thefe being threaded with glovers
foft filk or with cotton, fhould be introduced into the ujb-
per part of the tumor ; but if the blunt one be employed,
it will be neceffary to have the affiftance of the lancet.
The inllrument is then to be brought out at the under
part of the tumor, and the matter allowed to run gra¬
dually along the threads. The feton ihonld be changed
forty-eight hours after it has been introduced, and as
much of it fhould be pulled out at the under part as is
fufficient to allow the removal of that which was fhut up
in the abfcefs. The abfcefs is to be dreffed in this man¬
ner every day as long as circumftances feem to require.
By means of the feton, we obtain a regular and flow
difeharge of the matter contained in the abfcefs ; the
fides of the abfcefs are allowed to contract in a gradual
manner •, the prefence and fri<5tion of the feton on the
furfaces, excites a flight inflammation which contributes
to unite them, and to complete an adhefion, much more
readily than by any other method. In proportion as the
difeharge dimhiiffies, the thicknefs of the feton ought to
be leflened •, and this is eafily done by taking out fome
of the threads of the cotton every two or three days.
It ought to be entirely taken out when no more matter
is difcharged than what would be produced by the irri¬
tation of the feton alone ; and by comprefling gently the
parts for fome days after it has been withdrawn, with *
comprefs and bandage, we can in general depend upon
a complete cure.
When fpeaking of the mode of introducing the fe¬
ton, we recommended that this fliould be done from
above downwards, becaufe, if the firft opening be made
at the bafe of the tumor, a great quantity of matter
immediately efcapes. Thus the boundaries of the ab¬
fcefs at the upper part become effaced, and the paffage
of the director along the abfcefs is much more difficult
than when the abfcefs is opened according to the man¬
ner we have pointed out. In that way the under part
of the tumor is left completely diftended till the laft
moments, and only a very fmall quantity of matter ef¬
capes by the fuperior orifice. Another advantage isj,
that the part of the feton left for the future dreffings, is
eafily kept clean and dry.
The method of opening abfceffes by the feton has
been found particularly ufeful in fuppurations of the
joints, and in all thofe glandular parts where the ad~
million of the air is followed by very pernicious effects.
Thus, when it is thought neceffary to open a fcrofulous
tumor, we may generally be able to obtain a more
prompt and eafy cure from the ufe of the feton, than by
making a larger incifion. Venereal buboes, too, when
Come to maturity, have been faid to get well much
(boner by this than by any other method, when the In¬
teguments have not become too thin by great diftenfion
long- continued. On the other hand, this mode is not
without its inconveniencies, for in adopting it we can¬
not be well affured of the ftate of the bottom of the ab¬
fcefs, which it is often important to know.
Whatever advantages thefe different methods of open¬
ing abfceffes may poffefs over one another, yet there is not
one of them which deferves the preference in all cafes^
although the c'auftic, as already mentioned, be the means
< E 2, to
to which we ought mod rarely to have recourfe. How¬
ever troublefome it may be, the aftion of the air on the
interior furfaee of the abfcefs is not always equally per¬
nicious ; and when by properly applied dredings, care
is taken not to allow purulent matter to form in any
particular cavity, and to prevent the accefs of cold air
on the furface of the wotind, and above all when the
furrounding air, as that in hofpitals, is contaminated
with putrid exhalations, daily experience thews, that the
method by incinon is accompanied with moft fuccefs.
On the other hand, we have feen the feton extremely
ufeful in gradually difcharging, and without exciting
much inflammation, large abfctffes.
1 hefe are the general principles we have to obferve
in the treatment of abfcefTes, in whatever part of the
body they are found. There are, however fume modi-
^cations, fome particular details of praftice, which
ought to be kept in view, when the difeafe is feated in
particular organs, as the eyes, the mamma;, the cavity
of the cheft, the groin, the ferotum, &c. Mention
will be made of thefe in giving an account of the dif-
eafes of the particular organs.
Sect. II. Oj Sinufes (Fiftulae).
When an abfcefs, inftead of healing continues to dif-
charge purulent matter, and when this takes place
through a feral 1 orifice, it obtains the name of a ftfiula.
The orifice has fmooth and callous edges, and the fitlula
commonly communicates with one or more cavities of
different dimennons, fituated in the cellular membrane,
between the common integuments and the mufcles, or
between the interftices of tire mufcles themfelves.
Thefe different cavities, which are generally known
oy the name oifinufet, ferve as refervoirs, both for the
matter which is formed in the body of the ulcer, and
for that furnithed by their own tides. It is thus that
when by compreffion, the matter contained in the
finufes is preffed out through the ulcers, thefe difcharge
a much greater quantity than what might have been
expefted, by confidering the extent of their furface
alone.
This defcription of a fiffulous ulcer indicates the moft
fimple form of the difeafe ; but when it has lafted for a
long time, the whole internal furfaee frequently becomes
hard and callous, acquiring the properties and ftrufture
of a mucous ferface.
The moft frequent caufe of the formation of finufes
is, when an abfcefs burfts, that the purulent matter, in¬
ftead of being all difeharged, remains fhut up in fome
part of the cavity. Remaining there, it naturally falls
to the lower part, and gradually infinuates itfelf among
the layers of the cellular membrane, which, from its
foftnefs, gives little refiftance ; it advances by degrees
among the interftices of the more folid organs, which
are con netted by that fubftance alone 5 and at laft it
makes its appearance on the furfacoof the body, or pe¬
netrates into one of the cavities. Both recent and old
fiftulous ulcers are generally curable, provided that the
ulcer be fitualed in fuch a manner, that the neceffary
remedies can be applied to it, and that the conftitution
be other wife free from diforder. But when the difeafe
has been of very long duration, and, above all, when
the finufes open into any articulating cavity, or are pla¬
tted in fuch a manner, that one cannot prattife any ope-
SURGERY. Chap. I.
ration, the treatment then becomes extremely difficult, OfSir.ufes.
and the event very doubtful. There is no difeafe which
refills more frequently all the efforts of art than certain
fpecies of fitlula, and particularly fome of thole about the
anus and perinseum.
Of the treatment ofFifu/ce.—There are feveral dif¬
ferent modes which have been propofed for the treat¬
ment of this difeafe, all of which may be ufeful in par¬
ticular cafes.
Injettipns, fuppofed to have a cicatrizing quality, have g
been propofed by fome ; and thefe are no doubt uieful tion/^*
in particular cafes, in diminifhing the quantity of the
difcharge, and in preventing the extent of the finus from
increafing. When the difeafe is far advanced, and the
edges become perfettly callous, injettions of an efcharo-
tic quality have been employed ; but thefe remedies
hare feldom, if ever, produced any good effetts j and
their too frequent ufe has even rendered finufes hard and
caLous, which were of a more benign nature.
In fome cafes, particularly when the difeafe is recent R lS ,
great advantage may be derived from the proper appli-’^0™1*'*"
cation of a comprels and bandage. In applying thefe
the comprefs fhould be placed in fuch a manner, and
made of fuch a form, as to make a firm preffure ’from
the bottom of the finus towards its orifice; and care
fhould be taken that no preflure be made towards the
orifice itfelf, in order that any matter which is formed
may not be allowed to eollett, but be difeharged from
it. Indeed in whatever mode we treat finufes, the ob-
jett to be held in view, is to allow any matter which
is formed to be immediately difeharged. /
. Surae have advifed, that, in all fiftuke of long ftand-
mg, their cavities ftiould be laid open from one end to
the other, and all the parts fhould be diffetted out which
have become hard, and thus to convert the whole into
an ulcer, and treat it in the ordinary manner. There
is no doubt, but that by fuch an operation, it will often
be poffible to obtain a cure ; but independent of the
gieat pain, and of the large and difagreeable cicatrix
which muft always follow, the prattice is not without
danger, it cannot anfwer, for inftance, in thofe fiiiulas
which extend far up the rettum. No prattitioner fure-
ly would advife the adoption of fuch a method in the
cafe of fiftulas which penetrate very deep, and extend
as often happens, underneath the blood-veffels, the ten¬
dons, and the nerves ; and even although this prattice
was without danger, it ought to be adopted in no cafe
as we are enabled, by an operation more fimple, and
much lefs painful, always to obtain a cure with as much
certainty as by a total deftruttion of the parts.
In the treatment of fiftulas, it is neceffary to procure n • I?c
an agglutination of the edges of the finufes,' fo a! to ob.B> ^
literate the cavity. The means moft efficacious to fulfil
this indication are, to make firft an openinp' fo as tn nl
low the exit of the matter ; and to excite a certain de¬
gree of inflammation on the internal furface of the ca¬
vity, fo as to produce an adhefion between its fides
Both of thefe indications may, in feme cafes, be ful¬
filled in the moft convenient manner, by introducing in¬
to the orifice of the ulcer a feton which will follow the
whole courfe of the finus as far as its oppofite extremi-
^ feton ^Q“ld be of a proportioned to that
of the finus ; and it may be diminifhed by degrees as
the cure advances, by taking away feme of the thread,
day after day. At laft, when the cavity of the finus is
Chap. I. ’ rSU\G
Of Sinufes. nearly filled up, and confequently the difcharge much
moderated, the feton ought to be withdrawn. After¬
wards a bandage is to be firmly applied over the part,
which (hould be allowed to continue a convenient time,
in order to obtain a complete cure. In all cafes, there¬
fore, we ought to difcover the dire&ion of the finus,
whiih can commonly be done by introducing a probe,
or by obferving the place in which the matter colkas,
when it has been allowed time to accumulate, and by
marking the place from whence it comes, the prefiure
is to be made on the affe&ed part. A feton ought
then to be introduced into each finus.
Another means of procuring the obliteration of fmu-
fes is, by a longitudinal incifion along the whole cavity.
In cafes where the fiftula extends to parts which it is
not dangerous to cut, and where the feton has inconve¬
niences which render it inadmiflible, we fhould not he-
iitate to have recourfe to this means. Indeed, the lon¬
gitudinal incifion of the finus is to be confidered in all
cafes, as the only means which can be adopted with cer¬
tainty in the cure of the difeafe ; and thougn in many
cafes"it may be proper to attempt the cure by the mild¬
er means which have been mentioned, yet they often
fail, and the mode by incifion ought always to be held
in view.
We may obferve here, that this part of furgery owes
much to the celebrated Mr Pott, he having rendered
much more fimple and luccefsful the treatment of fiftu-
las, particularly thofe fituated in the perinaeum and anus.
When a fifiula is to be laid open, the firft thing to be
done, is to determine the extent of the incifion. 1 he
exaft extent of the finus Ihould be accurately afeertain-
ed with a probe, and it is neceffary to lay it open to the
extreme point, in order completely to fecure the filling
up of the cavity. The operation may be performed
by introducing a direftor (fig. 9. and 12.), along the
whole courfe of the finus, and cutting on it with a com¬
mon fcalpel (fig. I.); or the (harp-pointed biftoury (fig. 4.)
may be introduced along the groove of the director, the
point of the inftrument pufhed through at the bottom of
the finus, and then, by withdrawing the director, the
incifion may be fpeedily completed with the biiloury,.
A {fill better method is one we have often adopted in
cafes of finus with the greateft advantage. It confifts
Amply in putting a fmall bit of wax, about the fize of a
pin head, upon the end of a fiiarp-poihted biftoury, in¬
troducing the point of the inftrument thus defended
along the finus*, and when it arrives at the bottom of
it, the point may be pulhed through the Ikin, and dif-
place the wax with very little preffure. When the
point has been brought through the fkin, the incifion may
afterwards be completed with one quick motion of the
knife. In laying open finufes jn this manner, it is par¬
ticularly neceffary to form an exaft idea of the direc¬
tion of the finus, and of the extent of the incifion to be
made, before attempting to introduce the biftoury. For
as a very flight degree of prefiure is fufticient to difplace
the wax on its point, any untoward motion upon the
fide of the abfeefs would thus expofe the point of the in¬
ftrument, and render the operation more tedious and
difficult, and always more painful.
The principal advantages of this mode of laying
open finufes are, that the operation can be much more
fpeedily performed, and that it cofts much lefs pain to
37
Of the
Whitloe.
Plate
DXIII.
E R Y.
the patient. The introduction of the direClor through
a fmall fiftulous opening, and the tedious procefs of cut¬
ting through the integuments with a fcalpel, cannot fail
of creating much diftrefs, whereas a thin biftoury can
be introduced without giving almoft any uneaiinefs}
and after the operator has conduced its point to the
bottom of the finus, it may be pulhed through the
integuments, and the finus cut open with a coui) de
mam.
All finufes {hould be laid open in this manner, which
can be deteded by a careful examination with the
probe j and if the edges of the fiftulous fore are found
to have acquired a great degree of eallofity, it is alfo
fometimes advifeable to cut them entirely away.
The finufes are now to be dreffed by placing between
the edges portions of caddis dipped in oil, or fimple
ointment \ and great care ffiould be taken that no por¬
tion of newly divided parts be. allowed to come into,
contaft, as there will be great riik of an adhefion tak¬
ing place between them, thus fruftrating the very ob¬
jects of the operation. After the pledgets have been
introduced between the edges of the wound, it is com¬
monly direfted that the whole wound be covered up
with a piece of linen fpread with ointment. In place
of the ointment, we have generally found a poultice an-
fwer better. The poultice, by its moifture, prevents
any agglutination of the lips of the wound ; and it has
the power of diminiftiing the inflammation more than
any other application. The wound is afterwards to be
treated on the principle of the common ulcer * see
cers.
SECT. III. Of the Whitloe (Paronychia).
The whitloe is a painful inflammatory fwelling, oc-
cupying the extremities of the fingers, moft frequently
at the root of the nails. Several varieties of the difeafe
have been deferibed by authors •, but thefe differences
only confift in the depth the difeafe is fuppofed to have
been feated. From what we have been able to obferve,
it appears to be fituated chiefly in the cellular membrane
immediately underneath the Ikin, and in the ftruClure
conneffed with the nails; though at the fame time the
pathology of this difeafe is not yet well underftood.
The firft fymptom of the whitloe is an uneafy burning
fenfation over the point of the finger, or root of the nail.
The part becomes tender and painful to the touch ; and
a flight degree of fwelling takes place, refernbling cede-
ma, attended by little difcolouratron. A tranfparent
effufion takes place below the epidermis, and forms a
vefication round the root of the nail. A purulent dif¬
charge takes place round the edge of the nail, and the
nail always feparates. The peculiarity in this difeafe is,
that it generally affeCls feveral fingers, one after the
other, and fometimes all the fingers of both hands.
In the more fevere forms of the dileafe, the inflam¬
mation extends to the cellular membrane underneath the
{kin, and even to the tendinous aponeurofis and perio-
fteum of the fingers, producing caries. In fuch cafes the
whole hand generally fwells, and the fwelling even ex¬
tends up the arm and affeCls the axillary glands.
Whitloes fometimes fucceed a blow or injury of the
finger ; but they moft ufually make their appearance
without any known caufe.
Treatment.—\t\ the treatment of whitloe, two fets o£ 5, v
remedies
38 S U R <
r°h renie^ie8 -ave ^?en employed. Some ufe fomentations,
. ar uiil e. p0U]t;ceg> ancj leeches . vvhilft others apply ardent fpi-
rits, vinegar, cold water, and aftringents.
Local bleeding and emollients do not feem to give the
fame relief in this as in other fpeeies of inflammation.
When, however, the inflammatory fymptoms and pain
are violent, it is always neceflary to take away feme
blood ; and this may be belt done at the bend of the
arm. '1 he affected part fhould be afterwards immerfed
in ftrong brandy, fpirit of wine, or alcohol or ftrong vine¬
gar. We have alfo feen the inflammation much abated
by immerfing the hand, on its firfl: commencement, in
a very large veffel of cold water.
It is only, however, in the firfl: ftages of this affec¬
tion that remedies of this kind can prove ufeful: for, when
effufion has actually taken place, and fuppuration begun,
thatftateof the difeafe is produced which thefe remedies
were intended to prevent. Emollient remedies fliould
now be employed ; and whenever the prefence of a fluid
can be afcertained, it fliould be difcharged with a lancet.
The wound is afterwards to be treated as a common
abfcefs j but we may remark, that here, more than in
any other part of the body, it is of the greateft import¬
ance to lay open freely every finus, which a patient ufe
®f the probe can detetff. Sinufes, fituated here, never
heal; and, when allowed to fpread, are always attend¬
ed with mifchief. They deflroy ligaments and tendons,
or at leaf! produce a thickening of the parts around the
joints, fo as afterwards to interrupt their free motion.
Sect. IV. Of the Carbuncle.
3 The carbuncle {anthrax) may be confidered as a fpe-
cies of phlegmon, attended with a remarkable degree of
malignity, and is one of the fymptoms of the plague,
where that difeafe rages, or of typhus fever in this
country. It confifts in a deep-feated very hard fvvel-
ling, attended with an intenfely painful fenfe of burn¬
ing in the part, and confiderable difeolouration of the
Ikin.
The carbuncle is often fudden in its appearance. It
is of a dulky red colour at its centre, but much paler
and variegated at its circumference. Vefications appear
on its furface, and when thefe are ruptured they dif-
charge a dark-coloured fanies. The difeafe fometimes
commences with fymptoms of general inflammation }
but moft commonly it is attended with rigors, ficknefs,
great reftleffnefs and depreffion of ftrength, fainting,
delirium, &c. A miliary eruption, or even petechia,
are alfo fometimes found difperfed in different parts of
the body.
When fuppuration takes place, feveral openings ge¬
nerally form in the {kin, a thin ichorous fluid is dif¬
charged, and a dark yellow flough is obferved at the
bottom of the fore.
The carbuncle moft frequently takes place about the
back, neck, and (boulders, and is generally folitary.
They are ufually two or three inches in diameter, though
fometimes they acquire an enormous fize.
The cellular membrane and Ikin feem to be the prin¬
cipal textures affefted in this difeafe ; a great part of
the former is always deftroyed by the formation and re¬
paration of very large floughs, and that of the latter by
the extenfive ulceration.
chap. I.
In the treatment of this difeafe great attention is ne-GfEucyft*4
ceffary, not only to the local applications, but alfo pj Tumors,
the general remedies.
Emollient poultices, and warm anodyne fomentations,
ought to be employed during the firft ftages of the dif-
eaft , and 'when ulceration of the (kin has taken place,
the application of an ointment, compofed of a connder-
able quantity of the powder of opium, we have found
to relieve very much the pain which the ulcerative pro-
cefs generally creates. The ufe of rags, wet with dilu¬
ted nitrous acid, or a folution of lunar cauftic, has been
found of great ufe in promoting the feparation of the.
llough, and the granulation of the cavities which re¬
main.
When the conftitutional fymptoms are inflammatory-
in their commencement, it may be neceffary to employ
general blood -letting ; but the fever being commonly
of a typhoid form, wine, bark, and opium, ought to be
freely adminiftered. It will be alfo proper to prefcribe
a generous diet, and to pay great attention to keep the
bowels regular.
SECT. V. Of Kncyfed Tumors.
word tumor has been the origin of much confu- Gene rid 64. j
fion in the arrangements of difeafes adopted by the moft Nations,
celebrated nofologlfts; they have employed it as a term°n tumo^i
to charafterife a clafs, and alfo as expreffing merely a
fjtnptom of difeafes. A vaft variety of difeafes have
been thus included under the clafs of tumors, difeafes
which are totally diffimilar, and have no analogy what¬
ever. Anafarca, bubo, encyfted tumors, fcrofulous and
fcirrhous tumors, warts, &c. have all been included un¬
der this clafs, thefe bfbng as different from one another
as any difeafe with which we are acquainted, having
only one common fymptom, which is that of fwelling.
Mr Abernethy has lately made a very laudable at¬
tempt to arrange tumors from their anatomical ftruc-
ture but, like thofe who preceded him, he has claf-
fed difeafes together, among which no analogy can be
difcovered. He divides tumors into farcomatous, en¬
cyfted, and offeous. Under the farcoma he includes
the fteatom (adipofe farcoma), medullary farcoma, and
others, all of which have no refemblance to each other
an their hiftorV or fymptoms.
The word twnor ought therefore to be expunged from
liofology, and be no longer employed to charafterife
a clafs of difeafes. Its ufe fliould be fynonymous wit b.
that of fwelling, and be confined to exprefs merely an
enlargement of any organ of the body, or a "new
growth ; whilft all thole difeafes, which have been
formerly claffed among tumors, ll ould be arranged ei¬
ther according to their fpecific nature, or to the texture
of the body in which they arife. Thus tumors, connect¬
ed with lues venerea or fcrofula, fhould be included un¬
der thefe general names. The Jleatom, being a growth
of fat, and being always formed in the cellular mem¬
brane, ought to be treated of among the difeafes of
that texture. Encyfted tumors, being alfo formed in the
cellular membrane, ought to be arranged among its dif¬
eafes j and warts, corns, and other tumors being dif¬
eafes of the (kin, will be with propriety claffed a mono-
them : and the fame may be faid of all other difeafes
^flich havs ufually received the general appellation of
, tumor"
Chap.
I.
sun
□fSnryfted tumor. We fliall, therefore, in this feaion, treat of
Tumors. th.c>fe tumors only which nrc formed in the cellular
'' membrane.
Under the clafs of encyfted tumors {tumeurs enkyf-
ties, loups cijstides), are comprehended all thofe. tumors
of preternatural formation, the contents ot which a.e
4, furrounded by a bag*or cyft.
Of Encyfted Encyited tumors are generally formed in the cellular
tumors. membrane, immediately, underneath the common inte¬
guments, they are moveable, circumfcribed, commonly
indolent, without heat or any change of colour in the
fkin •, and they are very flow in their formation and
progrefs. They contain a matter more or lefs thick in
confiftence 5 and, according to the nature and confift-
ence of this matter, they are diftinguiftied by different
names. They have been denominated atheroma, from
the contents being of a foft cheefy confiftence; me-
liceris, when they contain a matter of the confiftence
of honey 5 and Jleatoma, when formed of fat. The
fleatom, however, ought not to be clafled among the
encyfted tumors, as the thin cellular covering in which
it is contained has no analogy in its ftructure to the
cyst of the other tumors.
It ought to be obferved, that the confiftence of the
matter contained within the eyft varies in every fpecies
of encyfted tumor. In the atheroma and melicens they
have fometirnes the confiftence and firmnefs of new
cheefe, and at other times they are fofter than the moft
liquid honey. Thefe varieties depend on the length of
time which the fluids have remained in the cyfts, and
in the proportion of coaguhble lymph and ferum, which
have been feparated and abforbed, and alfo from their
having been inflamed or not, and on the extent to which
this inflammation may have proceeded. Sometimes an
encyfted tumor is compofed of different cyfts, each of
which contains a fubftance of a different nature. Thefe
different circumftances render in general the diagnofis in
the varieties of encyfted tumors very difficult 5 and
happily this diftin£tion is not neceffary in pra&iee, and
perhaps ought alfo to be omitted in our nofological ar¬
rangements. The fac of an encyfted tumor is gene¬
rally pretty firm, and compofed of concentric lamellae.
We have obferved fome of the cyfts which were nearly
as. firm as cartilage, having fmall chalky concretions
formed in many parts between each layer. When the
contents of the tumor are wafhed out, the internal fur-
face of the fac generally appears fmooth and polifhed j
but, in others, fome of the matter adheres firmly to the
furface of the fac. In fome cafes the tumor very much
refembles the hydatids found in the liver and other or¬
gans ; for, befides the firm fae, there is fometimes form¬
ed within it, and apparently having no adhefion with
it,- a thin and very eafily torn whitifh bag^ which con¬
tains the fluid.
Encyfted tumors are very fmall at their commence¬
ment, and grow by almoft infenfible degrees. They
vary a good deal in their form and fize. Thofe which
are formed in the hip, are generally round and fmooth j
commonly of the fize of a nut, and acquire rarely the
bulk of a large egg. Thofe which are feated in other
parts of the body are more irregularly formed, and
fometimes become of a prodigious fize, fome having
been found which weighed to, 15, and even 20 lbs.
They are never painful, at leaft at their commencement,
and the fkin preferves, for a long time, its natural cq-
G E II Y. 39
lour ; but when they become very large, the veins of Of Encyfted
the fkin are large, and become varicofe ; and the fkin , ,
on their upper part becomes poliftied, and acquires a
reddifh colour, fimilar to that of a part inflamed. I hey
feldom give pain or uneafinefs, except when they re¬
ceive a blow. Inflammation and pain then eafily come
on, and the cyft becomes ruptured, if it is not previoufly
opened by an inftrument.
Such is the ufual progrefs of encyfted tumors; and
although they do not come to a rapid termination, yet
this fometimes happens more readily under certain cir¬
cumftances, and even before they have acquired a large
fize. In the hip, for example, we perceive the integu¬
ments become tender and very thin, and open before
the tumor has acquired any confiderable fize. But on
other parts of the body, and particularly the back,
fhoulders, and thighs, the integuments preferve their
natural appearance, even when the tumor has acquired
a large bulk. This appears to arife from the fkin being
more loofe in thefe parts.
The fituation of ency fted tumors alfo contributes much
to determine the degree of adhelion which they have
contracted with the neighbouring parts. In fome fitua-
tions they are fo detached, efpecially while they conti- ■
nue fmall, that they readily alter their fituation by very
flight degrees of preffure ; but in others, particularly
when covered by any mufcular fibre, they are more
firmly fixed from their commencement. rl he attach¬
ment of encyfted tumors is alfo influenced by their re¬
maining more or lefs free from inflammation ; for they
never become inflamed, even in the flighteft manner,
without fome degree of adhefion being produced be¬
tween the cyfts and contiguous parts. 16
It has been generally luppofed that the membrane Mode of
which forms the cyft of this fpecies of tumor is not atheir for“
new formation in this part, but that it is formed by a ‘
collection of fluid in one of the cells of the cellular
membrane, which by its increafe dilates the cell, and
brings it in clofe contaCt with the adjacent cells, fo as
finally to obliterate them, and increafe the thicknefs of
its own coats.
The ingenious Bichat * has ftiown that this opinion fo * Vide
generally adopted is without foundation, and that the Anatomic
formation of encyfted tumors more probably depends on
laws, analogous to thofe which regulate the growth of
the different parts of our bodies. He has alfo ftiown
that there is a great analogy between thefe cyfts and the
ferous membranes.
The cyfts, like ferous membranes, form a fpecies ox
fac without an openings they contain the fluid which
they exhale, and they have a fmooth and poliftied fur-
face contiguous to the fluid, whilft the other furface is
unequal, and conneded with the adjacent cellular mem¬
brane.
The cyfts have a fimilar ftruCture to ferous mem¬
branes ; maceration, &c. proving them both to be com¬
pofed of a cellular texture. In the natural ftate neithor
of them have any fenfibility, but when inflamed they •
both-become extremely fenfible. The cyfts alfo are
evidently fecretory organs, exhaling the fluid with
which they are filled, and their power of abforption is
alfo very manifeft fronrthe fpontaneous cures of fome
eneyfled dropfies.
Thefe confiderations led Bicliftt to conclude that
there exifts a perfect refemblance between the cyfts of-
the :
4®
Of Encyfted the encyfted tumors and the ferous membranes. An
lumors. important queftion here prefents itielf, to know how
v thefe cylls are formed, how a membrane which did not
exift in the natural date can be produced, can grow,
and even acquire a conliderable developement under
certain circumtlances ? The mechanical explanation of
thefe phenomena which has been already mentioned,
though it at firif fight may appear fimple and fatisfac-
tory, yet it is by no means conformable to the ulual
.proceedings of nature. How does it happen that as the
cyfts and ferous membranes are analogous, that thefe
membranes are formed in a different manner, the ferous
membranes being never formed from a compreffion of
the cellular membrane ? How is it, if the cells are ap¬
plied and compacted with one another fo as to form a
lac, that the neighbouring cellular membrane does not
difappear, or even diminilh, whilft the fac acquires a
large bulk ? Thefe refie&ions would lead us to believe
with Bichat, that the common manner of explaining the
formation of cyfts is eflentially different from the man¬
ner in which nature generally follows in all her opera¬
tions.
Bichat ingenioufly remarks that all tumors which
vegetate externally, or appear internally, are formed
and grow in the fame manner as the cyfts, there being
no difference between thefe two morbid produ&ions but
in the form in which each of them appears. Moft tu¬
mors throw out upon their external furface the fluid
which they feparate. The cyft, on the contrary, ex¬
hales that fluid from its internal furface, and preferves
it in its cavity. “ Suppofe a fungous tumor in fuppura-
tion (fays Bichat), transformed in a moment into a
cavity, and the fuppuration to be tranfported from the
external furface to the fides of the cavity, that cavity
will then become a cyft.—Reciprocally, fuppofe a fu-
perficial cyft, the cavity of which is obliterated, and of
which the fluid is exhaled from its external furface, you
will then have a tumor in fuppuration.
“ If therefore the form alone eftablifties the difference
between tumors and eyfts, how does it happen that the
formation of the latter is not analogous to that of the
firft ? or has ever any one attempted to attribute the
formation of external or internal tumors to compreffion?
We ought therefore to conceive the produftion of cyfts
in the following manner: they begin to be formed in
the cellular membrane by laws analogous to thofe which
regulate the general growth of our bodies, and which
appear to be deviations of thefe fundamental laws
of which we are ignorant. When the cyft is once
formed, exhalation begins to take place, and though
at firft in a fmall degree, it at laft augments in pro¬
portion to its progrefs. The increafe of the exhalent
organ then always precedes the accumulation of the
exhaled fluid, in fuch a manner that the quantity of the
fuppuration of a tumor is always dire&ly in proportion
* Vide t0 i*-5
Anatomic This mode of explaining the formation of cyfts appears
Gcneralc. much more conformable to the laws of nature than that
which has been formerly mentioned and generally receiv¬
ed. But it ftill remains to determine the precife mechanifm
of the origin and growth of cyfts, and confequently of all
other tumors. We ought to ftop where the firft caufes
commence j and as we do not know the mechanifm of the
natural growth of our organs, how ought we to guefs at
that of morbid produ&ions which depend upon the fame
Chap. I.
laws. It is a great deal in the economy of our organs Of iincyftel
to point out analogies, and to ftiow the uniformity of a humors,
phenomenon not underftood with one in regard to' » ^
which all the world agxee. Much would be done for
the benefit of fcience, if in all its branches we could de-
monftrate that principle on which depends fuch a great
number of effects, that nature, avaricious in her means,
is prodigal in her refults j that a few caufes prefide over
a multitude of effeds, and that the greater number of
thofe regarding which we are uncertain, depend on the
fame principles as many others which appear to us evi¬
dent.
Of the treatment of EncyJIed Tumors.—.Encyfted
tumors, though not dangerous, are often inconvenient
from their fize, fituation, and from the deformity which
they produce, fo that whenever their removal becomes
neceflary, this can be done alone by a furgical opera¬
tion.
If the tumor be of the thin or meliceris kind, which j*
for the moft part will be the cafe when a diftinft flue-ton.
tuation is perceived in it, it ought to be treated as a
common abfeefs. If the tumor be fmall, the matter
may be difeharged by laying open the moft dependent
part of it with a common lancet, and treating it in the
ordinary way till the fides of the cavity come in contaft
by adhefion, or by the procefs of granulation. But
when the tumor is more confiderable, the free admiffion
of air into the interior of its cavity is always dangerous j
and we ought to be attentive to prevent its eftedls by-
making the opening in fuch a manner, that the wound
be expofed as little as poflible. When treating of ab-
feeffes, we have recommended the palling of a feton or
cord through them, as the beft method of opening them
when they are of a large fize. This method is alio very-
convenient in the cafe of encyfted tumors, which con¬
tain a matter of a liquid confiftence. It will only be
neceffary here to oblerve, that the feton ftiould tranverfe
the whole tumor, from the fuperior part of it to the
moft dependent point, and that the inferior opening
Ihould be fufficiently large for allowing the matter to be
freely difeharged. 1 his method often anfwers extreme¬
ly well j and cures have been performed by it which
could not have been obtained in fo ffiort a time in fol¬
lowing the ordinary method of treatment by incifion.
But this method cannot be employed, except in thofe
cafes in which ine contents of the tumor are fo liquid as
to be eafily difeharged by a fmall opening. When it is
of too firm a confiftence to admit of the feton, the con¬
tents muft be emptied, either by making an extenfive
opening into the cyft, or the cyft and its contents may¬
be difle<fted out.
When an encyfted tumor adheres fo firmly to the-
contiguous parts, as to render its removal tedious and
difficult, it is often better not to undertake the opera¬
tion. In fuch a cafe it will be fufficient to lay open the
tumor its whole length, and to cut away any portions of
the cyft which can be eafily detached. ' The contents of
the tumor will in this manner be completely removed,
and the cure will be effedled, either by keeping the
wound open till the cavity of the cyft is filled with gra¬
nulations ; or it may be attempted by drawing the di¬
vided edges of the fkin together, and applying mode¬
rate pieiTuie, fo as to produce adhefion with the fidee
of the cavity. It fometimes happens, however, that
from the adhefion being- complete, the remaining por¬
tion
SURGERY.
Plate
dxiil
fig. 19.
Chap. T.
OfEncyfted tion of the cyft forms as It were the nucleus of a new
Tumors. tumor. y
 * Operation. When it is determined upon to remove the
29 cyft completely, the firft ftep of the operation is to make
a free incifion through the integuments covering the tu-
* See Plate mor with a common fcalpel *. If the tumor be not very
DXIlI. large, a longitudinal incifion will anfwer the purpofe j
6s- I- buriliould the tumor be of fueh a fize, that the whole in¬
teguments covering it are too large to lie neatly upon the
wound, it is much better to remove an oval portion of
| See the themf. The fize of this portion muft be left entirely to
tumor re- the judgment of the operator, who fhould always take
prefented f«care that a fufficient quantity is left, fo as completely to
cover the wound. After the (kin is divided, the cel¬
lular membrane flrould be differed back, fo as ditlinflly
to expofe the furface of the fac , and as the lac will be
generally found loofely attached to the adjacent parts,
ft may be eafily feparated by a very fimple diffec-
tion. In removing encyfted tumors, it is particularly
neceffary to cut fairly down upon the fac } for if this be
not done, inftead of the tumor being readily turned out
of the (heath of loofe cellular membrane which furrounds
it, it can only be removed by a very tedious procefs of
diffeftion. Some furgeons have recommended that the
contents of the tumor fliould be removed, before at¬
tempting to diffect out the fac ; but if the incifion of the
integuments be made fufficiently large, this may be ge¬
nerally avoided. We have often obferved the operation
of extirpating encyfted tumors, and indeed tumors of
every defcription, rendered extremely tedious by a want
of proper attention to this ftep of the operation. We
would therefore particularly recommend, that in the
extirpation of all tumors, the incifion of the integu¬
ments extend both above and below the tumor a confi-
derable way, proportioned in all cafes to its bulk and
eafy accefs.
In fome cafes it is advifeable to open the cyft, and
remove its contents, before an attempt be made to dif-
fe£l it out. This pra&ice will only be neceffary in cafes
where, either from the ftiape or fituation of the tumor,
it is impra&icable to pafs the knife round it, and where,
from the fituation of important parts at its bafe, the dif-
feftion is rendered very nice and delicate. We remem¬
ber a cafe of encyfted tumor clofely attached to the cap-
fule of the knee joint, where great afliftance was de¬
rived from operating in this manner. Whilft the tumor
remained diftended, it was impoflible to feparate it,
without running great rilk of cutting, either into it, or
into the cavity of the knee joint. When, however, its
contents wereremoved, the tumors could be readily diffedt-
ed from one another, without the fmalleft rilk of injury.
After an encyfted tumor is extirpated, if any artery
bleed very profufely, it ought to be fecured by a ligature j
but this ftiould always be avoided as much as poflible,
as ligatures are apt to interfere with the adhefion of the
lips of the wound. At the fame time it is always ne¬
ceffary that the bleeding be completely flopped before
the wound is dreffed •, for ftiould any hemorrhagy take
place after the dreflings have been applied, it is very
apt to difplace the edges of the wound, and prevent
them from adhering by adhefion.
Vol. XX. Part I.
S U R G E R Yr 4*
The edg es of the wound are to be placed accurately Of EncyfttS
together, and kept in contact with adhefive plafter, a rumora‘ t
comprefs and proper bandage being applied over it.
The wound is to be treated in the ufual manner, remov¬
ing the dreffings whenever they become foiled, and the
application of the adhefive plafter continued till a com¬
plete cicatrization has taken place.
Sect. VI. Of the Steatom or Fatty Tumor (b).
This fpecies of tumor confifts of a mere accumulation
of cellular membrane and fat in a particular part of the
body. They occur frequently, and are formed molt
commonly on the front or back part of the trunk of the
body, and fometimes in the extremities. They gene¬
rally grow in a flow and progrefiive manner, and the
blood-veffels are neither large nor numerous. They
have always a thin capfule of common cellular fub-
ftance; and this capfule feems merely to be the eftcft
of that condenfation of the furrounding cellular fub-
ftance which the prefl'ure of the tumor occafions. “ As
the growth of adipofe tumors is regularly and {lowly
progreilive, and as nothing like inflammation in gene¬
ral accompanies their increafe, their capfules afford a
ftriking inftance of an inveftment acquired, limply by a
flight condenfation of the furrounding cellular ftrudlure,
unaffected by inflammation When the capfule, *.
which is extremely thin, and which adheres but flight-Wf£6v’.r
ly to the tumor, is removed, the tumor within confifts Surgical
of a mere piece of fat, more or lefs compacted accord- ffer^a-
ing to its fituation in the body, and the length of timetl0hS'P' ;'
which it has remained.
Of the treatment of the Steatom.—When a fteatom is 31
fmall, when it caufes little deformity, and when it does
not feem to injure the fumftions of any organ, it is molt
prudent to allow it to remain. They fometimes, how¬
ever, acquire a very large bulk, and from their fitua¬
tion are extremely inconvenient and unfeemly, and they;
then become an objedt of medical treatment. No ex¬
ternal application was ever known to be ufeful in dif-
cufling tumors of this kind j and the only means to be
employed for removing them is by an operation. There
is indeed no fpecies of tumors that can be diffedled out
with fo much celerity, or with fuch apparent dexterity".
In fome cafes, however, if inflammation has been in¬
duced, the capfules even of thefe tumors are thickened,
and adhere fo as not to be feparated without difficulty
from their furface.
In diffedting out a tumor of this kind, the fame gene¬
ral rules may be followed as we mentioned when treat¬
ing of encyfted tumors. The external incifion Ihould
be made vyry free, and it is alfo of great importance to
cut completely down to the capfule of the tumor, before
attempting to diffedt it out.
Sect. VII. Of the Sarcoma or Flefby Tumor.
Our knowledge of the pathology of tumors of the
celkdar membrane is yet too limited to be able to ar¬
range them in any fyftematic form ; and it would be
foreign to our purpofe to attempt in this place the in-
F veftigatioa
S3
(b) Steatoma, adipofe arcoma of Mr Abernethy.
33
3 U K G
veftigation of the fubjeft. We have adopted the term
farcoma as very general; and include under it all thoie
fwellings or wens of a flefhy leel, which occur in the
cellular membrane throughout the body. ,
The bans of thefe tumors, as we before mentioned, is
the cellular membrane ; and the difference in the qua¬
lities of the fubftances depofited in the cells gives the
peculiar appearance to the tumor.
The veffels which pervade them are either larger or
fmaller, and more or lefs numerous. They are alio
diftributed in their ufual arborefeent manner, without
any defcribeable peculiarity of arrangement.
When tumors of this kind have attained a confider-
able fize, the fuperfieial veins appear remarkably large.
They have little feniibility, enduring a rough examina¬
tion. _ . -
This kind of tumor generally grows till the fkin is io
diftended that it ulcerates, and expofes the new formed
fubftance, which {loughs aw:ay. In this manner does
the difeafe occafionally terminate \ but inch is the con-
flitutional irritation attending this procefs, and the dif-
guib'ng fmtor and frightful appearance of the part, that
the furgeon generally recommends its removal. In
fome inftances farcomatous tumors are computed of a
number of irregular-lhaped mafies, which from their
refemblance to the pancreas have been called by Pvlr
Abernethy the •pancreatic farcoma, and confxdered as a
diftimff fpecies. “ This new-formed fubftance is made
up of irregularly-ffsaped maffes, which in colour, tex¬
ture, and fize, refemble the larger maffes compoiing the
pancreas. They appear alfo to be connedfed to each
other like the portion of that gland, by a fibrous iub-
flance of a loofer texture.” Other farcomatous tumors
are compofed of a number of cyfts, containing fome-
times a tranfparent and fometimes a dark fluid ; and
have been called by Mr Abernethy, the cyfic jarco-
mas.
The Mammary and Tuberculated Sarcomas are alfo
other two fpecies enumerated by Mr Abernethy. In
the firft the ftrudlure of the tumor has been fuppofed to
refemble the natural ftrudlure of the mamma, and in the
fecond the tumor “ confifts of an aggregation of fmall,
firm, roundfth tumors of different lizes and colours,
connedled together by a kind of cellular texture. The
fize of the tubercle is from that of a pea to that of a
horfe-bean, or fometimes larger *, the colour of a brown-
ifti red, and fome are of a yellow tint (c).”
Thefe different terms employed to charafterize the
various kinds of fwellings which form in the cellular
membrane, are by no means adequate ; and tumors will
be daily met with which it is impoftible to affign to one
or other of thefe fpeeies. This fubjedl th erefore Hill
remains open for the inveftigation of future inquiry.
And it is probable, that when the fubjedl is better un-
derftood, the furgeon will not on all occafions be obli¬
ged to have recourfe to the knife 5 and that he will be
able to diftinguifh thofe which* may be allowed to re¬
main, or as harmlefs treated by external applications,
from thofe wbofe nature is more malignant, and require
an early extirpation.
E R Y. Chap. I.
Treatment.—When farcomatous tumors are painful Sarcoma-
and tender to the touch, advantage may be had by local
blood-letting, either by leeches or cupping. Fomenting
the parts with a deco&ion of chamomile flowers or poppy
heads, and applying a folution of muriate of ammonia
or of vinegar, and acetate of lead, are alfo ufeful in di-
minifhing their bulk. Frictions with unctuous fub¬
ftances, as mercurial ointment and camphor ; campho¬
rated fpirits, aqua ammonia and oil ; tincture of can-
tharides—have been ufed for the difeuflion of indolent
fwellings: Soap and mercurial platters have been alfo
much commended by fome; but of all thefe remedies
perhaps there is none more ufeful than fridtion with the
dry hand. The mode by which this practice is to be
conduced is particularly mentioned under Swe/lings of
the Joint. While we employ thefe applications to the
tumor, we ought alfo to preferibe purgative medicines
every fecond or third day, enjoin an abltemious diet and
reft. An alterative courfe of medicine is alio fuppofed
to be ufeful. Small dofes of calomel or corrofive fub-
limate are given for this purpofe. The extract of hyof-
cyamus and calomel, or calomel and the extract of
cicuta, has been much extolled by fome.
By caujiic.—Some furgeons (and it is a favourite 3^
pradlice with all itinerants) have attempted to remove
tumors with cauftic *, and though this mode is much
more painful and more clumfy than the knife, yet there
are fome cafes, where, either from the tumor being fo
fituated, or from the patient being timorous, this prac¬
tice may be reforted to.
Where a tumor is to be removed by cauftics, the
common cauftic potafs will anfwer the purpofe extremely
well. This is to be placed over a fufficient bulk of
the {kin, and allowed to remain longer or {horter ac¬
cording to the depth of the tumor, and the portion of
it intended to be removed. After the dead portion has
feparated by the afliftance of poultices, &c. the cauftic
may be again renewed until the whole mafs is deftroyed.
Equal parts of red precipitate and burnt alum forms a
very atffive cauftic, and is ufed by fome *, but it creates
great pain. By mixing opium with the cauftics, the
pain has been alleviated.
By incifion.—When a farcomatous tumor is to be re-
moved by ineifion, the furgeon ffiould always keep in
remembrance, that whilrt the tumor is growing, the
contiguous cellular membrane is generally condenfed,
and is formed into a kind of capfule. A knowledge of
this not only renders the extirpation of the tumor much
eafier, but tumors may be cut out from a depth, and
from connexions, apparently dangerous. The integu¬
ments are to be freely divided, and the inciiion carried
down to the capfule of the tumor, before we attempt to
diffeft it from the contiguous parts ; if this be not done,
the diffeftion becomes more tedious and difficult, and
more blood is loft than what was neceffary, from veffels
being divided which might have been faved ", and if the
tumor happen to be deeply feated, its extirpation even
becomes impracticable. The general directions given
for the extirpation and after treatment of eneyfted tu¬
mors may alfo be applied to the farcomatous tumors.
Sect.
(c) Another fpecies of farcoma has been termed the ojleo farcoma, from bony matter being formed in the
tumor.
Cliap. 1
37
38
S9
burger y.
43
SEfcTi VIII. Of Oedema.
Oedema confifb in the effufion of a watery fluid m
the cellular membrane of any part of the body.
The fwelling in oedema is not circumicnbed. 1
skin of the fwollen part retains its natural colour and
fometimes becomes paler than natural, having a gloiiy
hue. The part has a cold feeling 5 and preflure made
by the point of the finger forms, an imprefiion or dim¬
ple, which remains for fome time after the finger is re¬
moved, and difappears flowly. There is no acute pain,
but there is an uneafinefs or fenfe of weight and tight-
nefs in the part. If a limb be cedematous, the magni¬
tude of the fwelling is always increafed or dimimthed,
according as it is placed in a depending or honzonta
pofture. Oedema always arifes from the want of pro¬
per balance in the funftions of the exhalent and abiorb-
ent fyftems, and it appears both in a eonftitutional and
local form. Contufions, fprains, the long ufe of re¬
laxing poultices and wafhes, are often local cautes ot
oedema. More or lefs oedema is conjoined with eryji-
pelatous inflammation, and this fometimes terminates in
gangrene. A part which has been’ acutely inflamed
often remains Oedematous for fome time attervvarde. It
is afio often owing to fome impediment which prevents
the return of the blood to the heart. Preffure of the
gravid uterus on the iliac veins often renders the lower
extremities oedematous. Aneurifms and other tumors,
by comprefling the veins of the extremity, often pio-
duce this affe&ion. It alfo accompanies afcites, hy¬
drothorax, &.c. &c.
Treatment—As an oedematous fwelling is generally
the effedt of fome other difeafe, the cure mult depend
upon the original difeafe being removed.
If the limb be the part affedled, it fliould be kept in
a horizontal pofition. Fridlions made on the part with
flannel, and a moderately tight roller, applied, from the
toes upwards, have a powerful effedt in diminifhing the
fwtlling. The operation of thefe means is to be affifted
by giving purgatives and diaphoretics. See Medicine.
If the tumor become fo tenfe as to create much
pain and inflammation of the {kin, thefe are better mo¬
derated by the difeharge of the fluid by means of a
fmall pundlure, than to allow the integuments to burft.
A pundlure is, however, not void of danger, for wounds
in dronfical conftitutions generally excite a great de¬
gree of inflammation, and are apt to become gangren¬
ous. The pundlure (hould be made upon the moft
prominent parts of the fwelling with Ihe point of a
lancet; and as the fluid which oozes out is apt to create
great irritation of the tender fkin over which it fluivs*
it is a proper and very ufeful precaution to keep the
fkin always covered with fome undleous adhefive fub-
fiance. For this purpofe the unguenlum refnofum is
very well calculated.
Sect. IX. Of Emphyfema.
Emphvfema is an effufion of air into the cellular
membrane of ahv part of ihe body.
The fwelling is without pain, ai^ colourlefs1, and it is
eaflly diflinguifhed from Ced< ma By the noife and par¬
ticular feeling it has when preffed upon. It then makes
a crackling noife, and refembles the feeling created by
preffmg a dry thin bladder half filled with air.. The Oedema. ^
fwelling is not heavy. At its commencement, it only
affedls one part $ but it foon fpreads over the body, and
diflends the whole {kin.
Emphyfema generally arifes from a wound of the
lungs ) often from a fpicula of a broken rib .It has*See
alfo been known to arife from an ulceration in the Wounds of
lungs-, but this feldom happens, as the inflammation
attending the formation of the matter condenfes the con-WouNDS>
tiguous veficles, and produces adhefions between the
lungs and cavity of the thorax.
Emphyfema has alfo been fometimes obferved in fom.e
putrid difeafes. Dr Huxham has recorded a cafe of this
kind in a failor who was attacked with putrid fever and
fore throat f. _ f Medical
A partial emphyfema has alfo been obferved in cafes Obfcrva-
of gangrene. Dr William Hunter has mentioned a cafe tions and
of that kind. I'oiPi.™*’
The treatment of emphyfema muft always depend
on the nature of the original difeafe. It may be here,
however, remarked, that the effufed air is readily ab-
forbed, and creates no inflammation or any change in
the cellular ftru&ure where it had been effufed.
Chap. II.
Of the Difeafes of the Skin.
Genera/ Remarks on the Pathology of the Skin. ^
There are a confiderable number of difeafes which
arife in the different parts which compofe the fkin; and
there are others which feem to be the effett of that fym-
pathy which the {kin has with moft organs of the body.
Of the difeafes which attack the {kin, there are five
claffes. In the firft, the papillae are affi fted; in the fe¬
cund, the cellular membrane contained in the areolae of
the {kin; in the third, the rete mucofum or capillary
net-work, from which the exhalents arife j in the fourth,
the cutis vera or chorion-, and in the fifth, the epidermis
or fcarf {kin.
I. Under the difeafes of the firft clafs, or thofe of the
papillae, may be confidered all thofe in which an altera¬
tion in the fenfibility of the {kin takes place. When¬
ever inflammation affe£h the {kin, this alteration of fen¬
fibility is perceptible -, and in fome of the nervous dif¬
eafes of women it is very remarkable ; for on touching
the fkin a little roughly, convulfions are produced. It is
alfo well known the effeeft of titillation on the {kin ; and
perhaps an application of this knowledge might be ex¬
tremely ufeful in the treatment of fome difeafes.
We have examples of the fecond clafs of difeafes of
the {kin, where the areolae of the cellular membrane of
the cutis vera becomes inflamed, in boils and perhaps
alfo in Imallpox, and in fome of thofe tumors commonly
called pimples of the Ikin.
3. The rete mucofum, from its vafcularity, is pro¬
bably the feat of eryfipelas, meafles, fcarlatina, and that
multiplicity of eruptions to which thfc {kin is fubjedh
4. In telephantiafis, cancer, &c. and in general in all
chronic cutaneous difeafes, the cutis vera is affefted ; it
appears, however, to be feldom primarily affe&ed in
acute difeafes.
3. The epidermis is paflive in all the difeafes of the
{kin, and is only affetted by its continuity. Its fenfibi-
F 2 %
44
S U H
41
* Bichat
Anatomic
(Jetierale,
torn. iv.
F 73°-
Difeafes nf lity is never increafed, nor is it fufceptible of being in-
the Skin. flamed? and confeqaently it never forms adhefions. Its
-V—' internai furface, too, railed by a blitter or any other
means, and applied to the parts below, never reunites.
The excrefcences which form on it, fuch as corns, &c.
are dry and inert, and without circulation 5 if they are
painful, it arifes alone from their preffure on the nerves
. ef the fubjacent parts.
From all tbefe different affe£tions of the lkin, a num¬
ber of fympathetie affeftions arife which it is worth
while here to remark, though only a few of the difeafes
of this organ come properly within the limits of a fy-
Item of furgery.
1. Every time that the papillae are much excited in
irritable people, as in titillation, various organs are fym-
pathetically affected by it. Sometimes it is the heart ;
hence follows fainting. Sometimes the ttomach, and
in two cafes mentioned by Bichat, the perfon vomited.
Sometimes it is the brain, as is obferved in people, where
tickling brings on laughter, and even violent convul-
lions,
“ Medical men,” fays Bichat*, “ are often attonifhed
at the extraordinary effedls which quacks produce on
the body from the knowledge they have acquired of
the fympathies of the fkin produced by titillation. But
how ftxould we be more aftonilhed at this, than by vo¬
miting produced by difeafes of the womb, than by dif¬
eafes of the liver being brought on from an injury of the
brain, or by headaches arifing from a difordered ftate of
the gaftric vifcera ?” The influence of titillation of the
fein may be of much ufe in the treatment of fome dif¬
eafes. In hemiplegia, &c. would not the excitement
©f the foies of the feet, which have fo much fenfibility,
as every one knows, anfwer much better repeated
ten or twelve times a day, than the application of a
blitter, the irritation of which continues only during a
fliort time ?
From this fympathy which the Ikin has with the di-
ftant organs, we may be perhaps able to explain fatis-
fa&orily the influence which friftion has been lately
found to have in fome difeafes. Mr  , an ingeni¬
ous furgeon at Oxford, has employed this remedy to a
very great extent in difeafes of the joints 5 and he has
experienced from it the beft effedls f.
2. Whenever the exhalents of the Ikin, or the ex¬
terior capillary fyftem from whence they arife, are af-
fe£ted in any manner, a number of other parts partici¬
pate, and thence arifes a fecond order of fympathies of
the Ikin.
There are few organs which have more fympathy
with the Ikin than the ftomach. The bath, which a£ls
upon the Ikin, during digettion affe&s fympathetically
the ftomach, and difturbs it funftions. When that or¬
gan is fpafmodically affe&ed, it often is reftored to a
ftate of health, by the influence it receives from the
bath. Bich&t mentions a cafe of a woman who was
troubled with conftant vomiting, in confequence of fup-
preffed menfes •, and who was immediately relieved by
the warm bath after other remedies had failed.
The a£Hon of cold on the fkin produces a variety of
fympathetic effects ; above all when that action takes
place during perfpiration. It is alfo well known what
a number of phenomena refult from a fudden dilappear-
ance of many eruptions of the Ikin.
3. When the cellular membrane contained in the
1
f Treat¬
ment of the
White
Swelling
of the
Joints.
G E R Y. Ch
areolae of the ikin, becomes inflamed, as in boils, pti-
ftules, &c. a number of fympathies enfue, which may be
referred to the cellular fyftem in general.
4. The difeafes of the cutis vet a and epidermis being
all of a chronic nature, their fympathetic afmdtions have
the lame chaiafter, little more being known ot them.
We have alfo mentioned, that befides difeafes of the
Ikin, ariiing from a change of iirudlure in that organ,
there were alfo others which arofe from the fympathy
it has with other organs. Whenever a cold body enters
the ttomach whilft there is a peripiration on the Hein*,
the perfpiration inftantly flops. The entry of warm
drinks into the ttomaeh, and an augmentation of tlm
cutaneous exhalation, are two phenomena which coin¬
cide at the fame moment, in fuch a manner, that one-
cannot attribute the fecond to the abforption of the
drink, to its paffage to the venous blood through the
lungs, and then to the arteries. The production of per¬
fpiration is, therefore, analogous to the fuppreffion of it
in the former inttance. Hence will be found a great va¬
riety of phenomena in different difeafes, arifing from the
fympathy exifting between the Ikin and the other or¬
gans, various degrees of drynefs, of moitture, and of per¬
ipiration. Sometimes thefe phenomena are chronic.
In many organic difeafes, different kinds of tumors are
formed on the Ikin, in the fame manner as wre cbferve
petecJtice, miliary eruptions, &.c. &c. produced in acute
fevers ; the difference being merely in the duration of
the periods of the fympathetic affeCtions.
The difeafes of the Ikin form a very important clafs
in a fyftem of nofology. There are, however, only a
few which ought properly to be confidered in a fy ftem-
of furgery.
It is the feat of all eruptions, as fmallpox, mealies,
and a vaft number of other difeafes. It is liable to in-,
flammation, fuppuration, and gangrene. It is alfo fub-
jeCt to difeafes and injuries from its expofure to the ac-.
tion of external bodies, and from ferving as a defence to
the internal parts. It is alfo fubjeft to cancer, warts,
and other excrefcences, the treatment of which more-
properly belong to the furgeon.
Sect. I. Of the Eryfpe/as, or the Rcfe,
1 he rofe is fometimes a local difeafe ; at other times
it is merely a fymptom of fome other affeftion. It
differs from all other inflammations in the peculiar Ihade
of red colour, and it is alfo remarkable for the diiorder
which it generally creates throughout the whole fyftem.
T he part of the Ikin which is affeCled becomes of a
bright fcarlet colour, with a tinge of yellow 5 and towards
the termination of the complaint, the yellow becomes
more difcernible. Befides the difference in the Ihade of
red, the fwelling is neither fo hard, fo elevated, nor fo
circumfcribed as that of phlegmon. The Ikin has a
glofly fmooth appearance, a burning heat, and on its.
being touched with the finger, the fcarlet colour difap-
pears where the preffure is made, leaving a white fpot,
which, however, is almoft immediately replaced when
the finger is removed. T he pain attending the difeafe
is fometimes very great j there is alfo always more or
lefs fwelling of the parts affe&ed and thofe in the im¬
mediate vicinity j and this feems chiefly to arife from a
watery effufion in the cellular membrane.
I he role is very apt to fpread rapidly to a great ex¬
tent y
p.i.
Bifeafev of
the Skin.
43
Chap.
S U R G
Eryfipelas. tent •, and It Frequently changes its fituatxon, growing
1 ' v ' gradually well in one fide, and extending itielf on the
other. Sometimes it difappears entirely at one place,
and attacks fome other. As the difeafe gets well, the
cuticle peels oft from the affedfed part.
Eryfipelas may be combined with phlegmon (eryfipe-
las phlegmonoides), in which cale the inflammation .s
of a deeper red colour-, the fwelling is alfo greater and
deeper, and the pain is more acute. There is alfo a
throbbing in the part, and the pulfe is full and hard.
There is alfo a particular fpecies of eryfipelas called
St Anthony's fire, in which fmall veficles are formed on
different parts of the fkin. Thefe burft, and difcharge
a thin fluid which forms a fcab, and beneath the fcab
fuppuration fometimes takes place.
The true eryfipelatons inflammation feldom fuppurates,
but generally terminates by refolution; very violent cafes
fometimes caufe gangrene. ^ _ .
When eryfipelas is accompanied with inflammation of
the cellular membrane, as there are nodiftinft limits of
the difeafe, the matter which is formed in thofe cafes
which advance, to fuppuration, often extends very far in
every direftion, and fometimes produces very confider-
able iloughing, not only of the cellular fubftance, but of
the fafcise and tendons beneath the Ikin. Eryfipelas is
generally accompanied with all the fymptoms of general
fever, and thefe occur in a very confiderable degree,-
even where the external inflammation is extremely flight,-
Languor, laflitude, vvearinefs in the limbs, headach, lofs
of appetite, oppreflion about the ftomach, precede the
appearance of the local complaint. The moft violent
form of eryfipelas is moft frequently feen attacking the
face, producing a great deal of general fever, often ac¬
companied with delirium j and in a few cafes we have
known it to proceed fo far as to inflame and fuppurate
the membranes of the brain. Eryfipelas feems to be in¬
timately connefted with the ftate of the general confli-
tution. Perfons in the habit of drunkennefs and other
fpecies of intemperance, and who, when in a flate of in¬
toxication meet with local injuries, often have eryfipe-
talous inflammation in confequence of thefe. In gene¬
ral, eryfipelas has its principal fource in a difordered ftate
of the chylopoetic vifcera, and the wrong ftate of the bi¬
lious fecretion. It feems alfo to be often conne&ed with
a fuppreflkm of perfpiration, for it never recedes until
that fymptom is relieved.
^ Of the treatment of Erysipelas.—The mild eryfipelas
is to be relieved by the exhibition of gentle diaphoretics.
A few dofes of nitre, in order to promote the ordinary
evacuations, and the general attention to the antiphlogi-
ftic regimen.
It is alfo of great importance to attend to the Hate of
the bowels, and to give purgative medicines, both with
a view of removing any feculent matter contained in
them, and as a general evacuant.
Wh en the cafe is conjoined with phlegmon, and when
there are ftrong fymptoms of inflammatory fever, vene-
feiflion becomes neceffary \ and this is particularly the
cafe when the face is the feat of the difeafe. Copious
bleeding, however, is generally hurtful, and no blood
ought ever to be taken away when the funftions of the
abdominal vifcera are much difordered.
When the patient has a very foul tongue, a bitter
tafte in his mouth, and a propenfity to vomit if thefe
fymptoms cannot be removed, purgatives and emetics
E R Y. r 45
become neceffary. Indeed, in almoft all levere cafes, S.yfipi
an emetic is indicated, and ought even to be repeated,
ftrould the fymptoms remain fevere.
There has been a great variety of opinions with re¬
gard to the external treatment of eryfipelas y fome re¬
commending the part to be kept dry, of a moderate
warmth, and excluded from the air : others have ufed
warm or cold moift applications. I he practice of Eef-
fault is perhaps the moft judicious. In thofe cafes of
eryfipelas which were produced from an internal caufe,
no topical application is to be employed, except, per¬
haps, drifting the part with flour j but when any fpecies
of eryfipelas fucceeds a contufion, a wound or an ulcer,
the regimen and internal medicines are infufficient, if
proper topical remedies are not at the fame time em¬
ployed to alleviate the local irritation. In this point
of view Deflault employed poultices, the good t ffefls of
which in thefe fort of cafes were confirmed by numerous
obfervations. He confidered it, however, as an. effen-
tial precaution not to extend this topical application
further than the bruifed part, or the edge of the wound
or ulcer. If any application is made to the eryfipela-
tous fur face, it ought to confift merely of a weak af-
tringent folution : that which was always employed at
the Hotel Dieu, confifted of a fcruple of the extract of
lead in a pint of water.
Sect. II. Of the Yurun cuius or Bod.
The furunculus appears to be an inflammation of the
cellular membrane of the areola of the chorion y the
other inflammations of the {kin and cutaneous eruptions
being feated on the corpus reticulare. The furunculus
is a circumfcribed, very prominent, and hard tumor, of
a deep red colour ; and they vary, from the fize of a
pea to that of a pigeon’s egg. They are extremely
painful, and are feldom attended with fever. They are
alfo moft frequent in young people. Boils generally pafs
into a more or lefs perfeft kind of fuppuration 5 a fmall
white fpot is formed on the apex of the tumor, which,
when it has reached the fkin, difeharges but a fmall
quantity of pus in proportion to the bulk of the fwell¬
ing. Before the tumor begins to fubfide, a yellow
flough, formed by a portion of dead cellular membrane,
comes out.
As fwellings of this kind almoft always fuppurate,
and as induration conftantly remains after an incomplete
refolution of them, we ought to promote fuppuration by
ufing emollient applications. Emollient poultices are
beft for this purpofe. When a quantity of matter is
colledled, it is fometimes advantageous to open the boil
with the point of a lancet, then to allow it to remain
until the {kin ulcerates. Gentle aperients and antiphlo-
giftic regimen ought not to be omitted.
Sect. III. Of the Chilblain, -
The chilblain is a painful, and very often an extreme¬
ly itchy fwelling of the {kin of an extreme part of the
body, in confequence of expofure to extreme cold, or
fudden change from a very cold to a warmer atmo-
fphere.
Chilblains are moft frequent in young people of fero-
fuious conftitutions, and in this country the difeafe is
moft prevalent during the winter months. It appears
moft
44
45
IS
S U R G
blain. moft commonly on the toes and heels, and fometimes
alf0 on the fingers, and parts where the circulation is
moft languid.
The firft fymptoms of the difeafe are a palenefs of the
part, which is quickly fucceeded by more or lefs red-
nefs, a very troublefome itching, and fometimes pain.
The lkin gradually acquires a purple hue j the part
fwells, and the cuticle feparates from a ferous effufion
which takes place below it. Beneath the cuticle an
ulcer appears of a very irritable appearance, and accom¬
panied with great pain. This ulcer fpreads rapidly, has
very acute edgesj and its furface is of a dark or rather
dirty yellow colour. Sometimes the ulceration pene¬
trates as low as the tendons, or even expofes the fur-
face of the bones, producing a fphacelation of an extre¬
mity.
In the treatment of chilblains, before the Ikin has
ulcerated, the principal attention ought to be paid in
keeping the affedted part of an equal temperature, and
to rub it over with flimulating applications. Campho¬
rated fpirit, fpirit of turpentine, &e. have been gene¬
rally recommended for this purpofe $ but we have found
the tinfture of cantharides, properly diluted, to be much
more efficacious. A drachm of this tin6kire to an ounce
of the tinfture of foap, will be generally found to an-
fwer extremely well j and this is to be rubbed on the
part once or twice a day.
When vefications begin to appear, and ulceration has
taken place, emollient poultices ffiould be employed j
but after this procefs has gone on a certain time, and
the pain and irritation abated, much benefit will be ex¬
perienced by the application of the red precipitate
ointment to the ulcers. Under this treatment we have
repeatedly obferved large ulcers of this kind heal with
unufual rapidity.
Reft and a plain nourilhing diet Will be commonly
bell fuited to people with chilblains; and Ihould fymp¬
toms of debility and a floughing of the fore enfue, it may
be even neceflary to give freely wine and bark.
46 SECT. IV. Gf Cancer of the Skin.
The fkin is frequently attacked with cancer. That
of the face is more particularly expofed to it ; and this
no doubt arifes from its delicacy, from the great num¬
ber of vefiels which penetrate it, and perhaps alfo from
its more frequent expofure than any other part of the
body to external irritations. Cancer, however, is not
confined to the (kin of the face 9 it frequently appears
on the back of the hands, and on the feet. Wifeman
has feen it on the cranium, Gooch on the infide of the
thigh, Richter at the umbilicus 9 and we have feen an
example of it in the fkin above the pubesi
When cancer affe&s the Ikin, it begins in the form
of a fmall, hard, and dark-coloured wart, which in-
creafes very flowly in fize 9 the contiguous Ikin be¬
comes hardened, forming a ftool or button around the
wart. The progrefs of the difeafe in the Ikin has been
always obferve.Uto be more flow than cancer in any
other part 9 fo Uiat it often remains in the form of a
black fcab for many years. The fcab at laft feparates,
and then an ulcer of the {kin is expofed, having all the
characters of the true cancerous fore. It has a pale co¬
lour. ragged hard edges, and unequal furface 9 and it gra¬
dually extends in an irregular manner along the ikin 9
E It Y. Chap. II.
the hard tumor which forms its balls, at the fame time Cancer of
increafing in fize. Inftead of pus, the ulcer difcharges the Skin,
a thin ichor, which reddens and excoriates the adjacent
{kin. The difeafe which, when in the form of a fcab
gave little uneafinefs, now becomes painful 9 and the
patient feels mure or lefs frequently iharp lancinating
pams darting through the tumor, and extending from it
to the adjacent loft parts.
When a cancerous affedlion of the {kin is examined
efter it is removed from the body, it has all the leading
charadlers we have defcribed in our general obfervations
on cancer *. The great degree of hardriefs of the mor-* See chajt
bid mafs, is produc d from the formation of the hardon ^ancer'
fibrous-looking matter obferved in all fehirrous tumors 9
and the diredtion of its fibres will be generally found
extending from the bafe of the tumor to the furface of
the fkin.
Cancer of the {kin follows the fame progrefs as can¬
cerous affedlions of other textures 9 the contiguous glands
become enlarged and ulcerate ; and both the ulcers
which thefe form, and the primary one, fpread over
whatever parts they meet, till they deftroy the patient.
Treatment.—The fuccels which ha^ been attributed 47
to various medicines, particularly to arfenic and (trong
corrofive applications, in the cure of cancer, has been
chiefly from the ule of thefe medicines in cancerous
affedlions of the {kin. From the difeale being obferved
in the flan before it ha- far advanced, from its flow nro-
grefs in that part, and the ready application of reme¬
dies, it affords better opportunities of experiment than
other parts of the body when affedted with that dif¬
eafe. Paft experience, however, leaves us but little
room to hope for a cure of cancer in the fkin by any
external application with which we are as yet acquaint¬
ed 9 and we know of no remedy to bt trufted to but the
complete excifion of the dif< afed parts.
The more early the difeafed Ikin is removed, the
greater is the chance of a permanent cure of the dif¬
eafe. And in whatever part ot the body the {kin is
affedted, it is of the utmoft importance to remove every
part where there is the h aft fufpicion of contamination.
In the lace, we have often obferved the furgeon too
anxious to fave {kin, with a view of leffening the ble-
mifti of an extenfive fear 9 but in a dileafe fo deplorable
as cancer, no objedt of this kind can in any degree com-
penfate for being expofi d to the fmalleft rilk of its re¬
turn 9 the more fo, efpecially as we have often remark¬
ed that a fecond operation is feldom if ever attended
with permanent advantage. The furgeon, therefore,
oug'ft to lay it down as a general rule, to include in his
iheifion a confiderable portion of the found £kin fur¬
rounding the difeafed parts.
I he particular cafes wherein an operation is advifable,
muft be left entirely to the judgment of the furgeon.
The operation mav be performed in all cafes where the
difeaft d parts appear to be wiihin the reach of the knite 5
or if there are any glands affedted, if thefe can be fafe-
ly rem ved, it may be even under thefe circumftances
undertaken, though no doubt the chance of a return of
the difeafe in fuch cafes is greater.
Whenever the periofteum and parts furrounding any
of the bones is affedted, there is little chance from any
a (lift an ce of art, except when the difeafe occurs in the ex¬
tremities of the body, as in the hands or feet 9 for in fuch
cafes,amputation of the whole member may be performed.
When
Chap.
II S U R
Cancer of When cancerous fores appear about the eyelids, and
the Skin, p rea(j along the conjunBiva, covering the eyeball, it is
‘"■'v ' the only fafe praaice to remove the whole contents ot
the orbit. The different parts which compofe the eye¬
ball and its appendages, feem to have fuch a clofe connec¬
tion with one another, that it is difficult, perhaps impoi-
fible to mark the boundaries of the difeafed adion which
is going on 5 and as the lofs of any part of the organ
prevents the others from performing their funaions,
it becomes no material objedt to lave any particular
Parit is generally remarked, that the lips are particular¬
ly fubjebf to cancer, at leal! in men ; aiffi that the un¬
der lip is more fo than the upper one. The difeafed
part may be removed in this part of the body with great
neatnefs upon the general principles of the operation of
harelip. This can only be done when the difeafed
portion is fmall, and may be included by two incifions
forming an angle, inclining towards the chin. See
Harelip. When, however, the diieafe has fpread
over a confiderable portion of the lip, fo as to pre¬
vent the found parts from being united : after the
difeafed parts have been removed, all that can be done
is to remove the parts affeded, fecure the bleeding vef-
fels, and drefs the fore like any other recent wound.
By a little ingenuity and contrivance, much may be
fometimes done in making the incifion in fuch a man¬
ner as to allow the found parts to be afterwards brought
together and united •, fo that in all cafes of extenfive
difeafe, the furgeon fhould confider of all the different
modes by which the difeafed parts may be removed with
moft advantage.
The operation is performed by fome with a com¬
mon fcalpel, by others with fciflars. V. hen the fcal-
pel is ufed, the lip is to be held firmly with for¬
ceps by an affiftant, and the fecond incifion made a-
long their edge ; but when the difeafe extends beyond
the adhefion of the lip to the jaw, no forceps are necef-
fary.
The fciffars are, however, the preferable inftrument *,
they divide the lip with much lefs pain, and with a ma¬
thematical precifion. When they are ufed for this pur-
pofe, it is neceffary they be made thick and ftrong ;
and as in fome people the lip is extremely thick, and apt
to flip through the blades, inftead of being divided.
Giving the cutting edge of the blades a circular form
will be found to be an improvement on the common
ftraight edge. It is evident, however, that the feif-
fars can only be employed in thofe cafes where the
forceps could be ufed to aid tbe knife. All wounds
of the lip heal beft and moft accurately with the
twifted future 5 fo that the edges Humid be brought
together in the fame manner as has been recommended
in the cafe of harelip, and the fame mode of after-treat¬
ment is alfo to be purfued.
4g Sect. V. Of Warts.
There are two kinds of* warts which grow upon the
furface of the body •, the one fpecies is connected with the
Ikin by a broad bafe; is of a hard, firm texture, unequal
in the furface, and free from pain. Warts of this de-
fcription are frequent in young people, and are generally
found on the hands.
The other fpecies of wart is attached to the fkin by
G E R Y.
a flender pedicle ; they have a very unequal furface,
appearing as if compofed of an aggregate of fmall tu¬
mors. Warts of this kind feldom attain any very con¬
fiderable lize, the largeft fcarcely exceeding that oi a
pea. They are feldom Lroublefome } but in fome fitua-
tions they become extremely irritable, and produce, ef-
peclally when injured, very difagreeable fenfations.
This fpecies of wart is moft frequently met with on
the prepuce and glans of the penis ; on the labia }
around the anus, and alfo frequently upon the hairy
fealp. In thefe fituations they fometimes acquire a
very large lize, numerous warts arifing over the whole
furface, and forming a mals of a cauliflower appear¬
ance. They are moft frequent in people advanced in
life, and are often connefted with the venereal dif¬
eafe.
Befides thefe, there are varieties of fmall warts which
occur in different parts of the body, which have not
been accurately defcribed by authors. There is one
variety where a number of fmall, whitiih tumors ap¬
pear in fome parts of the face of children ; thefe contain
an opaque white fluid, which when diieharged, and al¬
lowed to remain upon the contiguous fkin, contaminates
it, and produces warts of the fame defcription.
Of the treatment of Warts.—A variety of local re¬
medies have been applied, both by medical men and the
vulgar, for the curing of warts 5 and thefe generally
poffefs a corrofive quality.
Lunar cauftic is one of thofe which generally anfwers
beft, and is moft eaftly managed for deftroying the firft:
fpecies of warts which we have defended. A faturnine
folution applied to the warts three or four times a day,
or aqua ammonias, and tindlure of cantharides, have
alfo been found beneficial in promoting their abforp-
tion.
In the fecond fpecies, when the excrefcences are very-
large, they Humid always be removed along with a por¬
tion of the adjacent fkin, by tbe knife. In thofe cafes
where the warts are very numerous, and where, from
their fituation, it becomes impoffible to remove them
with the knife, equal portions of eerugo ans and favine
powder, or favine powder alone, will be found fome¬
times to fueoeed in removing them. In fome cafes, par¬
ticularly where the warts are fituated about the glans
of the penis, we have found a faturated folution of the
muriate of mercury in fpirit of wine, completely anfwer
the purpofe. In thofe cafes conceded with fyphilis,
befides local applications, it is neceffary to ufe mercury.
Sometimes, indeed, the warts drop off whenever the
mercury begins to affedt the conftitution.
Sect. VI. Of Corns.
A corn Is a peculiar hardnefs of the epidermis, which
fometimes extends to the fubjacent fkin. In the firft
cafe, the difeafed part is removeable ; in the fecond cafe
it is more fixed. It frequently elevates itfelf above the
fkin, and is not unlike one fpecies of wart. It is hard,
dry, and infenfible, except when preffed upon the con¬
tiguous parts •, and it refembles in colour and appear¬
ance the thickened cuticle on the hands of workmen.
Corns commonly are formed on the toes and fides of the
feet, and they are generally owing to the wearing of
tight ftioes. Sometimes corns do not occafion the leaft:
inconveniency j but in other inilances they occafion fo
much
49
5°
48 S U R G
Corns, inuc^ paJn> that the patient can walk with difficulty.
Corns are generally more painful in warm than in cold
weather. The pain feems to arife from an inflamed
Hate of the parts in the circumference of the corn,
which ftate is excited and kept up by the preffure of
the induration, and not from any fenfibility in the corn
itfelf. They are more painful in dry than in moift wea¬
ther, becaufe they become much more hard and dry.
51 Treatment of Corns.—The pain and difficulty of walk¬
ing produced by corns, may be alleviated by immerfing
them in warm water, and with a ffiarp inftrument cut¬
ting off their external layers j much relief will alfo be
found by covering the part with a piece of adhefive
plafter, and by being careful not to wear Ihoes which
are too tight. But what we have found a mofl complete
cure for corns, is the application of one or other of
thofe corrofive fubftances which were mentioned for the
treatment of warts. The lunar cauftic, or the fatura-
ted folution of muriate of mercury in fpirit of wine,
ought to be preferred. They may be applied once every
fecond or third day, until the abforption of the corn be
completed •, and, before ufing them, it will be found pro-
' per to pare off feme of the external hard layers of the
corn.
Some corn-operators extirpate the corn by a ffiarp
inftrument j but this only proves a palliative treat¬
ment, for fooner or later a hard fubftance is again de-
poffted.
52 Sect. VII. Of Ncevi Muterni.
Nsevi materni are thofe marks which frequently ap¬
pear upon the bodies of children at birth, and which are
fuppofed to originate from impreffions made on the mind
of the mother during pregnancy. They are of various
forms 5 their colour is likewife various, though moft
frequently refembling that of claret or port-wine.
Many of thefe marks are perfedlly flat, and never rife
above the level of the fkin : thefe do not require the
afliftance of furgery •, but in fome cafes they appear in
the form of fmall protuberances, which frequently in-
creafe to a great ftze in the courfe' of a few months.
. They appear to be foft and fleffiy •, of a cellular texture,
the cells containing liquid blood. They may be re¬
moved with little danger when not involving any im¬
portant organ. They are fupplied indeed more plenti¬
fully with blood than moft other tumors are *, and even
fometimes they appear to be entirely formed of a con¬
geries of fmall blood-veffels •, but the arteries which fup-
ply them may be, for the moft part, eafily fecured by
ligature. An operation fhould never be long delayed j
for as the fize of the veffels correfponds with that of the
tumor, they fometimes are fo large as to throw out a
good deal of blood before they can be fecured. In per¬
forming it, the tumor is to be cut out, the arteries taken
up, and the remaining {kin brought as well together as
• the nature of the part will allow, and kept fo by adhe¬
five plafter or future.
If the whole tumor be removed, little hamnorrhagy
generally follows j but if the fmalleft portion of the dif-
eafed veffels remain, not only a troublefome bleeding fol¬
lows, but the tumor is quickly reproduced by an increa-
fed exuberance. Tumors of this kind have been alfo
removed by ulceration excited by the application of
corroftve fubftances*, and a knowledge of this circum-
iiance might be in fome cafes of practical application.
E R Y.
Chap. III.
On the Difeafes of Mucous Membranes.
Chap. HI,
Difeafes of
the Mucous
Mem¬
branes.
General Remarks on the Pathology of the Mucous 53
Membranes.
Though at firft fight it may appear that the mucous
membranes are very confiderable in number, yet when
they are viewed more generally, they appear much mere
limited ; and we will find that in whatever part of the
body they be found, they are iubjedt to the fame morbid
alterations of ftrmffure.
The ingenious Bichat has ftiown that there are tw*»
general mucous furfaces, of which the others are all
portions. The one penetrates into the interior of the
mouth, the nofe, and the anterior furface of the eye.
After lining thefe two firft cavities, it is prolonged into
the excretory dufts of the parotids, and fubmaxillary
glands. It paffes into all the finufes, forms the conjunc¬
tiva, enters the lachrymal points, the nafal canal, the
lachrymal fae, and is continued into the nofe. It lines
the pharynx and euftachian tube, the trachea and bron-
chiae. It goes down the cefophagus into the ftomach,
and paffes along the whole inteftinal canal till it joins
with the {kin at the. extremity of the re£tum. This he
.calls the g afro-pulmonary mucous furface.
The other general mucous furface, the genito-urinary,
begins in the male at the urethra ; paffes along that
canal into the bladder, lines the bladder, veficulae femi-
nales, and vafa deferentia, along with their numerous
branches. It alfo extends into the excretories of the
■proftate gland, the ureters, and the pelvis of the kidneys.
In the female it begins at the vulva, penetrates the
ureter, and paffes as in the male over the urinary organs. *
It alfo enters the vagina, lines the womb and fallopian
tubes, and is then continued with the peritoneum. This
is the only example of a communication eftablilhed be¬
tween the mucous and ferous furfaces.
This view of the extenfion of the mucous membranes
is ftrongly exemplified by an examination of their dif¬
eafes j for it will appear that there is not only an ana¬
logy between the different portions of the firft, by an
affe&ion of the whole parts over which it extends, but
there is alfo a line of demarkation between the two,
from the one remaining found whilft the other is affe£Ied
throughout. This laft circumftance is confirmed in the
hiftory of many epidemic catarrhs ; one of thefe mem¬
branes having been obferved affefted throughout, whilft;
the other remained unchanged. The epidemic obferved
at Paris in the year 1780 had this chara£ler. “ This
(fays Fine!*) which was very general in Paris, ^ .r .
which I was myfelf attacked, was remarkable *,pkic Phila*
for it affefled almoft the whole mucous membranes,
that of the trachea and bronchia;, the conjunctiva, thetom- u.
pituitary membrane, the palate, the pharynx, and the ali-P- ao8,
mentary canal.” The epidemic catarrh of 1752, de-
feribed in the Memoirs of the Medical Society of Edin¬
burgh, is an example of the fame kind 5 for in all thefe,
the mucous membrane lining the urinary and genital
organs remained unaffefted.
epidemic
and with
We alfo obferve that an irritation of any part of a
mucous membrane frequently creates a pain on a part
of the membrane which was Hot irritated. Thus a cal¬
culus
Chap. III. ' , , S.U R G
Inflamma- cuius in tlie urinary bladder produces tlie chief pain
tion of Mu- ,-^g p0int Gf the penis, and the preffure of worms in the
cous Mem- inteft;nes produces an itching at the nofe.
. . Among thefe phenomena, which are purely fym-
pathetic, it is feldom that a partial irritation of one
of the mucous furfaces produces pain in any part of the
other. The lingular connexion which fubfifts between
the membranes of the uterus and bronchite in mucous
haemorrhagies, however, is an example of this kind.
If the blood accidentally ceafe to flow from the one
during menftruation, the other frequently fupplies the
functions of the firft, and exhales it. In cafes of ftric-
ture, or thickening and diforganization of the mucous
membranes of the urethra, the ftomach is lometimes
affe&ed : this may alfo arife from the fympathy of the
two mucous membranes.
Mucous membranes, from being conftantly expofed to
the action of the external air, or to the contact of ex¬
traneous fubftances, do not fuller, when difplaced, like
other parts of the animal economy. In a prolapfus of
the uterus or reflum, their mucous furfaces lerve all the
purpofes of Ikin ; and furrounding bodies do not pro¬
duce more pain on them than on common Ikin. T. his
is very different from the effefts produced on opening a
cavity or a capfule of any joint. 1 he cellular,
mufcular, nervous, glandular, and other fyItems, when
laid open, prefent alfo very different phenomena.
The mucous membrane, like the Ikin, isorganifed in
{uch a manner as to endure, with impunity the contact
of external bodies; thefe merely producing an increafed
fecretion of thin mucus. A found introduced and re¬
tained in the bladder produces no alteration in the ftruc-
ture of the mucous membrane of the urethra j and for
the fame reafon, a ftyle or tube can be kept in the la¬
chrymal duft without cauling any irritation.
Moll of the difeafes of mucous membranes come with¬
in the province of the furgeon j the others have been
already treated of under the article Medicine.
54
Sect. I. Inflammation of Mucous Membranes.
The contact of extraneous and irritating fubffances,
acrid vapours, or the hidden expofure to cold air of any
mucous furface, is often followed by fome degree of in¬
flammation.
A preternatural degree of rednefs is a-conftant fymp-
tom of inflammation in moil parts of the body *, but the
moft remarkable character of inflammation in mucous
membranes, and that which diflinguilhes it from all
others, is the fecretion of a puriform fluid. The mu¬
cus, which in the natural llate is nearly tranfparent,
and merely moiftens the furface, becomes of a yellow
colour, and the quantity is fo abundant as to form a
purulent difehargf. It Js from the fufeeptibility of the
mucous glands to be a£ted upon by any irritation
which is applied to the extremities of their dudls,
that the Hone or any tumor of the bladder, polypi of
the nofe or vagina, are always accompanied by a profufe
difeharge.
The inflammation is accompanied with a more or lefs
degree of thickening of the membrane j and fometimes
this remains after all the inflammatory fymptoms ceafe.
The abatement of the inflammation is marked by an in-
creafe in the thicknefs of the difeharge and a diminu¬
tion in its quantity.
Vol. XX. Part I.
E R Y. ... 49
We have an example of inflammation affe&ing the Gonorrhoea,
mucous membrane of the nofe in coryza, the ear in
otitis, the urethra and vagina in gonorrhoea, the blad¬
der in a catarrhus veficse, and the eye in the puriforra
ophthalmia, the lachrymal fac or du£l in fiftula lacryma-
lis. In all thefe difeafes the fymptoms have a linking
analogy, and are varied only from the difference in the
funftions of the particular organ, the mucous covering
of which has been affedted.
During life, mucous membranes become gangrenous
much more feldom than the Ikin. This is proved fronv
the confequences of catarrh, compared with thofe of
eryfipelas. There are, however, cafes where this tex¬
ture dies, whilft thofe adjacent continue to live ; as in
malignant angina.
Sect. II. Of the Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane
of the Urethra.
55
The term gonorrhoea is employed to fignify a dif-
charge of puriform matter from the orifice of the ure-^^
thra or prepuce in men, and irom the vagina in women 'fcew').
whether it proceed from a fyphilitic or any other irri¬
tating caufe.
The gonorrhoea may be defined a difeharge of a con¬
tagious, puriform fluid, which comes from the mucous
glands of the urethra, and membrane which lines that
canal; or from the glans in men, and the interior of the
genital organs in women. I he difeafe feems to be pro¬
duced by a virus fui generis.
This difeafe generally makes its appearance in three
or four days, fometimes in fix, but rarely later, after im¬
pure coition, with the following fymptoms. The patient
finds a particular itching and difagreea’ble fenfation at
the point of the yard, and a fort of flight itching alfo
at the part of the urethra placed immediately under the
frenum. This lalls one or two days, and on the fol- .
lowing days the orifice of the urethra becomes fenfible
and red ; it alfo fwells, and a limpid matter of a clear
yellow colour flows from it, which tinges the linen.
Whilft: the flow of this matter continues, the titillation
becomes ftronger and more painful, particularly in ma¬
king water j for this leaves a burning impreflion and
fliarp pain in the affe&ed part. In fome individuals the
firft: fymptom prefenting itfelf is the difeharge of a thick
mucus. In thefe cafes the patient feels from the com¬
mencement a burning and painful fenfation in making
water. Thefe fymptoms generally increafe in three
or four days. Sometimes, however, that does not fen-
fibly happen till after eight or twelve days. The glans
acquires a deep red livid colour j the difeharge through
it increafes, and the matter becomes of a yellow, or
greenifti yellow colour, refembling pus diluted. The
fwelling of the glans, and alfo of the whole penis, be¬
comes confiderable •, the patient has frequently a defire
to make water, and he finds, particularly when he has
remained for fome time in bed lying on his back, fre¬
quent and involuntary erections, and fo painful that
they diflurb his fleep, and oblige him to rife out of
bed.
Such is ufually the progrefs of the difeafe when the in¬
flammation is Ample, flight, and fuperficial; but in many
cafes the inflammation extends farther and penetrates
more deeply, affecting the reticular fubftances of the
G cavernous
50
gonorrhoea, cavernous bodies of the urethra.
wjm. y„ i comes exceffive during erections, and the frenum of tha
glans is drawn downwards as by a cord, in luch a man¬
ner that the body of the penis is forced upwards by the
violence of the erection. It is this which is called
cordee. It fometimes happens, that in this ftate the
veffels of the urethra are torn, and thus occafion conli-
derable hsemorrhagy. At other times, the difcharged
matter is mixed with ftreaks of blood ; the prepuce is
alfo fo mucli inflamed and fwelled that it cannot be
pulled back over the glans, or if it has been pulled
back, it cannot be again brought forwards. In fome
cafes the ftrangulation which accompanies this lafl: ac¬
cident, produces a mortification of the glans, and even
occafions the death of the patient 5 this, however, fel-
dom happens.
In fome perfons one or more of the inguinal glands
fwell, become painful, and are attended w-ith fymptoma-
tic fever. Often the glands of the penis fwell alfo, a
cord or knots can be felt on the back of the penis, and
the Ikin is alfo fwelled and painful. Befides thefe fymp-
toms, the patient often feels, either from his own fault,
or on account of bad treatment, a particular uneafy
aching fenfation, with tenlion and fwelling of the fper-
matic cord and teflicles, accompanied with a diminu¬
tion, or even a complete fuppreffion of the difcharge by
the urethra. In other cafes the difeafe makes greater
progrefs } the irritation and inflammation itretching
along the canal of the urethra. All the fymptoms
then become more violent, the pain which is felt in the
perinaeum or behind it, in making water, is fo violent,
that the patient is afraid to make the attempt, at the
fame time that he is frequently folicited by the
fatiguing tidilation at the neck of the bladder and
anus. There is a perpetual deflre to let off the water,
whilft he can make no more than a few drops at a time
with a burning pain. The whole canal of the urethra
is fwelled, and in a ftate of tenfion ; the patient has fre¬
quent erections, and lancinating pains along the whole
length of the canal, through the perinaeum and anus.
He cannot lie down for a long time, nor can he reft
feated. In this ftate the fwelling of the glands of the
urethra, and the fpafmodic contraflion of its internal
membrane, obftruft the free paffage of the urine, and
allow it to flow in a very thin bifurcated ftream, or drop
by drop ; and if at the fame time the difcharge dimi-
iiifli confiderably, or totally flop, a complete fuppref-
lion of urine fometimes fueceeds, occafioned by the in¬
flammation and ftri&ure of the neck of the bladder, or
by the inflammation and fwelling of the proftate gland
and adjacent parts.
It fometimes happens that the inflammation of the
urethra becomes fo violent, that its internal furface, and
the orificesof the glands which line it, fecrete nothing;
the fame as we obferve fometimes happens in inflamma¬
tion of the mucous membrane of the nofe and of the
lungs. It is this ftate of the difeafe which fome authors
have defcribed under the name otgonorrhoea Jicca.
After thefe fymptoras have continued with more or lels
violence, or when they have increafed during one, two,
or three weeks, or even during fix or feven, according
to the treatment employed, they begin gradually to di-.
minilh. The difficulty and the frequent defire to make
water ceafe; the eredtions are no longer painful; the
setter acquires more confidence, and forms into threads
SURGERY. Chap. III.
Then the pain be- between the fingers, and at laft the difcharge entirely Gonorrhoea.
difappears. In other cafes, and thefe the molt frequent,
the inflammatory fymptoms difappear by degrees; but
the difcharge remains during weeks, months, or even
vears. It is this form of the difeafe which is called
gleet, or Amply blennorrhoea.
Sometimes the inflammatory fymptoms difappear by
degrees, and leave behind them in the urethra an ulcer,
from which there is a malignant and purulent difcharge,
and which occafions an affedtion of the fyftem. This is
what has been called gonorrhoea complicata or ulcerofa ;
but it occurs rarely.
In other cafes a contradtion remains in the urethra;
fometimes a paraphymofis continues, and fometimes
there is a tumor of the tefticles, a hardening of thefe
parts or of fome of the glands of the urethra, an in¬
flammation of the proftate gland, with a more or lefs
complete fuppreffion of urine; at other times, though
very rarely, the difcharge, when fupprefled, produces
fuddenly a perfedt deafnefs, or moft violent ophthal¬
mia *. * Traits dt
The exciting caufe of fyphilitic gonorrhcea is always
the application of the fpecific virus to fome part of thepar Swc.
mucous membrane lining the urethra. The contagious d/awr«
fluid, applied to any part of the body of a found perfon,
adts with more or lefs difficulty, according to the differ¬
ence in the ftrudlure, the greater or lefs debility of the
part, and alfo according to the particular conftitution
of the individual; for we fee people wh© are expofed to
every danger of infedtion, without ever having the dif¬
eafe even during their whole life. Perhaps alfo the
more or lefs violence of the adlion of the virus depends
fometimes on the greater or lefs degree of acrimony of
the virus itfelf.
The feat of gonorrhoea, when it immediately proceeds
from impure coition, is always at a fmall diftance from
the orifice of the urethra, under the frenum, at that
part of the canal where we obferve a dilatation, called
Jo/la navicu/aris. All gonorrhoeas which are fituated
more anteriorly on the cuvature of the penis, in the
veru montanum, the neck of the bladder, or in the
bladder itfelf, arife from bad treatment, or from fome
caufe which has flopped or fuppreffed the primary dif-
charge.
Sometimes by the natural progrefs of the difeafe, and
more frequently from faults committed by the patient,
or by the effedts of improper remedies, the inflammation
and irritation are apt to change their place. They often
occupy the orifice of a mucous gland which opens at
the firft turn of the penis. At other times they affedl
the two glands of Cow'per. Sometimes they occupy the
protuberances which cover the orifices of the feminal
veficles; and they alfo fometimes take place in the
proftate gland, or in the neck of the bladder.
In fome rare cafes the contagious virus does not pene¬
trate during the inflammation into the urethra, but ap¬
plied to the extremity of the penis, it fixes itfelf upon
the corona of the glans, and irritating the excretory dudts
of the febaceous glands there, produces a difcharge which
has been called the gonorrhoea of the glans.
When the urethra of a perfon who has laboured under
gonorrhoea is laid open, no ulcer is almoft ever found upon
the furface of the internal membrane ; and in thofe who
have fuffered much in confequence of the difeafe, there
is merely a thickening and contradtion of one or more
parts,,,
Cliap. HI.
S U R G
Gonorrhoea, parts of the urethra. Sometimes, though very rarely,
—V—■J excrefcences are formed within it. I he ducts of the
mucous glands are obliterated, and the prollate gland
and bladder changed in their ftruaure.
It has. been a matter of great difpute among thole
•who have written on the venereal difeafe, whether the
gonorrhoeal and venereal virus are the fame. In this
controverfy a number of very futile arguments have
Specific na- been brought forward. It is a ftriking fa&, however,
tureofthe which the praftical man muft have always in view,
virus. t]iat tiie venereal difeafe is never cured without mercu¬
ry ^ whilft a gonorrhoea, however virulent, never re¬
quires that remedy. This difference in the treatment
of the difeafes fome authors have attempted to ex¬
plain, from the difference in the ftrufture of the parts
affected. It is remarkable, however, that the matter
from the gonorrhoea never affeas the fkin, producing
chancre ; but that when its virus is applied to the va¬
gina, or to the urethra of another perfon, gonorrhoea is
the confequence. When it affeds the prepuce too, it
produces, in place of chancre, a morbid difcharge from
the febaceous glands of that organ. It is alio a 11 viking
faa, in the htftory of gonorrhoea, that however long it
may remain, it never produces any conftitutional affec¬
tion. AH thefe circumftances in the hiftory of the dif¬
eafe, in its progrefs and fymptoms, and in its cure, be¬
ing fo didimilar to thofe of the venereal difeafe, are
furely fufficient grounds to confider gonorrhoea and fy-
philis as two difHnft morbid affe£iions, and different
from one another as much as any two difeafes of the ani¬
mal economy.
Treatment.—All the forms of the venereal difeafe,
when they are left to themfelves, undermine and deftroy
the conftitution •, but gonorrhoea ceafes without the re-
fources of art, particularly if during its comfe the pa¬
tient live a fober and regular life. The irritability of
the urethra, the conftitution of the patient, the faults in
his diet, and his exereife and choice of remedies, and
perhaps alfo the nature of the virus itfelf, which is
more or lefs acrid, and of which theattion will be more
or lefs violent, often renders gonorrhoea a very fevere
difeafe. Experience confirms, that the fooner proper
remedies are applied, and the fooner the patient is
cured, the lefs he fuffers; and the more certainly he a-
voids the difagreeable accidents which are fo often the
ponfequence of that difeafe. From this confideration,
it is evidently of importance, either to prevent the dif¬
eafe entirely, or deftroy it in its beginning. Two
means have been propofed to accomplifh thefe ends j
one is, to remove the virus before it can aft on the parts
-oxpofed to it •, the other deftroys and alters its nature,
and prevents thefe effefts from the moment that it gives
the firft figns of its aftion.
Different practitioners have tried and recommended
various prophylaftic remedies. Some have applied mer¬
curial ointment upon the furface of the glans and pre¬
puce, immediately after coition, and others different
kinds of lotions and injeftions, as cauftic alkali, lime
water, alcohol diluted with water: thefe preparations
being injefted feven or eight times a-day, for feveral
days after the commencement of the difcharge.
By the ufe of injeftions the irritation is diminifhed,
and the progrefs of the inflammation flopped ; and when
the difcharge becomes thicker during their ufe, they
ought to Ire continued eight or ten ffays after it has dif-
il
E R Y. 51
appeared; for if tve were to give ftp too foon the ufe of'JOROrr-lS’4
thefe injections, the inflammation and difcharge would
increafe. In this cafe it is neceffary to make the injec¬
tion ftronger, and to ufe it more frequently. The ad¬
vantages to be derived from this praCtice do not feem,
however, to be altogether confirmed ; and it is to be
wifhed that enlightened and prudent practitioners would
make fome dccifive experiments to determine whether
injeCtions are ufeful or hurtful in the commencement of
gonorrhoea.
When inflammation has taken place, and when the
difcharge and other fymptoms of gonorrhoea are com¬
pletely formed, a different mode of treatment ought to
be purfued. Repofe, abftinence from all kinds of irri¬
tating food, fpiceries, wine, &.c. will contribute much
to allay the irritation.
In order to defend the irritable parts againft the acrid
matter, and to moderate the fymptoms of inflammation,
authors have recommended the ufe of mucilaginous,
oily, and fedative applications. That which renders the
urethra in man fo violently affeCted by gonorrhoea, and,
fb different from catarrh, is not from the difference of
ftruCture in the organ, which has been fuppofed to be
more irritable than the mucous membrane of the nofe
and other parts of the body. It is the falts of the urine
palling along the urethra, which keeps up the irritation
produced by the virus. It has been propofed, in order
to remedy this fource of irritation, to give gum arabic
or the infufion of linfeed internally j but thefe, when
taken in the neceffary quantities, generally injure the
flomach. An infufion of hemp has been found by Swe-
diaur to anfwer all the purpofes, and not to be fubjeft
to the inconveniences of the others. This remedy may
be rendered more agreeable to take, by adding a little
fugar to it j and in fome cafes a weak decoCtion of farfa-
parilla may be advantageoufly added. All thefe drinks
fhould be taken cold, or at leaft nearly milk-warm, and
in fmall dofes frequently repeated.
The antiphlogiftic regimen muft alfo be purfued in
the treatment of gonorrhoea. The patient ought tc)
avoid all exercife, or high-feafoned food. Lint, wet
with a faturnine folution, fhould be kept conftantly ap¬
plied to the penis ; and the patient ftiould keep his
bowels open with faline purgatives. When the fymp¬
toms of inflammation are confiderable, and the pulfe
hard and frequent, bleeding becomes neceffary, either
general or topical : the conflant application of fomenta¬
tions and emollient poultices is alfo ufeful. Swediaur
has advifed, that camphor and the nitrate of potath.
ftiould be given internally, and this ihould be continued
according to its effeiffs. Camphor alone, taken in the
form of emulfion with fugar or frefh egg, is an efficaci¬
ous remedy in allaying the pain and ardor urince. The
ufe of camphor has alfo been recommended externally,
with a view to allay the cordee.
Thefe remedies ought to be continued as Idwg- as tire
pain and fymptoms of inflammation in the urethra con¬
tinue. After they are abated, the patient may be allowed
a better diet, in order to prevent the urethra from being
affefted with a chronic gonorrhoea or gleet. Injections
made of the extraCt ©f opium with acetate of lead, applied
frequently from the commencement of the difeafe, con¬
tribute much to fhorten it, and allay the accompanying
pain. Sometimes, howrever, even the moft mild injec¬
tions do harm, from a particular irritable ftate of tire
G 2 urethra.
52 S U R G
Gonorrhoea, urethra. Great advantage has alfo been obtained by
» fome, in very aggravated cafes of the difeafe, by fric¬
tions of mercurial ointment on the perinaeum, and along
the courfe of the urethra, or by mercurial fumigations
applied to the genital organs, and even by the injection
of mercurial ointment into the urethra.
On the other hand, when the fymptoms of eryfipela-
tous inflammation prevail; when the patient is feeble,
and of an irritable temperament j when he feels better
after dinner ; when the difeharge is clear and profufe,
accompanied with fharp pain, often lancinating through¬
out the whole urethra ; and if the pulfe is feeble and
frequent, it is more advifeable to give him a lefs rigid
diet j to allow him the moderate ufe of wine, and in
fome cafes to give him opium and bark internally. We
are fometimes furprifed at the fudden changes which
thefe remedies in fuch cafes produce. The ufe of opium
alfo contributes much to prevent cordee ; and in all
cafes this ought to be avoided as much as poflible, by
fixing the penis downwards, and in making the patient
lie on his fide upon a mattrefs, which anfwers better
than lying upon the back, and in a feather bed.
If in confequence of the violence of the inflammation
the difeharge flops, and the pofterior parts of the urethra
begin to be affected, we fhould have recourfe to the
warm bath, or apply vapours to the part, by placing
the patient upon a veflfel containing boiling water, and
this fhould be repeated three or four times a-day j the
patient fhould keep his bed, and an emollient cataplafm
applied upon the penis, which fhould be renewed every
hour. All kinds of injeftions in fuch c^fes are hurtful.
The fame treatment is alfo applicable when the difeharge
is flopped by the ufe of acrid and aftringent injedtions,
or by injedlions improperly ufed, or by the improper
ufe of turpentine and balfams.
When the proflate glands and the neck of the blad¬
der are affedled, and the patient of a plethoric habit, it
becomes neceflary to bleed profufely, either at the arm,
or by applying a number of leeches to the perinaeum.
In all thefe cafes, a fedative clyfler repeated every feven
or eight hours, and a general or local warm bath ufed
twice a-day, are the befl remedies which can be ufed.
Sometimes a blifter applied to the perinaeum is alfo ufe-
ful.
The fwelling of the lymphatic glands of the groin
which fometimes takes place, is purely fympathetic, and
difappears along with the inflammatory fymptoms of the
urethra.
In all cafes of gonorrhoea the patient fhould wear a
fufpenfory bandage whilfl the difeafe continues *. It
is alfo ufeful to perfons who are obliged to take exercife,
to wear a, convenient bandage round the penis, which
may be united to the fufpenfory in fuch a manner, that
the penis may be enclofed in a kind of cafe, and thus
defended from external injuries, from cold, and from
friftion •, this bandage being kept conflantly clean, by
often changing the caddis, which is placed in its cavity.
Tor this purpofe, a hole ftiould be left in the bag, co¬
vered by the caddis, which the patient can take” away
each time he makes water. Another general precau¬
tion which it is ufeful to make, is never to keep the
pep is bound up high, but to keep it low, in order that
the matter may flow out freely, and may. not pafs back-
■wards along the urethra.
Plate
DXIV.
*g. 13.
E R Y. Chap. III.
The gonorrhoea which takes place In the glans and Gonorrhoea,
prepuce is generally eafily cured, by injecting frequent-—v—^
ly warm milk between the glans and prepuce, and by
keeping the penis in an emollient poultice. In thofe
cafes where the prepuce is fo fwelled that it cannot be
pulled back, we ought to have recourfe to fedative in-
jeftions.
It is a ufeful general rule, which ought to be obferved
in all cafes of gonorrhoea, to touch the parts affe&ed as
little and as feldom as poflible; and every time that it
is touched, to wafh the hands immediately afterwards,
and with the greateft care, fearing that, by carrying
them unintentionally upon the eyes, nofe, &c. thefe or¬
gans might be inoculated with the difeafe. g
Gonorrhoea in women is feldom followed by fo vio-jn women,
lent fymptoms, or by fo fevere and dangerous confe-
quences as in men. In fome cafes the fymptoms are fo
flight, that they conceive the difeharge, particularly at
its commencement, to be nothing but the whites, to
which difeafe a great many are fubjedl, efpecially in the
large towns of Europe.
The gonorrhoea in women has been fuppofed by many
authors to have its feat in the cavities of the urethra.
This, however, will not be found to be the cafe. The
difeafe is feated, either upon the clitoris, or on the ori¬
fice of the urethra; upon the nymphae, or in the ca¬
vity of the vagina j or even upon the inferior commif-
fure.
With regard to the treatment, we have the fame in- Treatment
dications to fulfil in gonorrhoea in women as in men,
with this difference, that one can fee the change of
ftru&ure in thefe parts, and thus, from the feat of the
difeafe, employ proper inje6tions and lotions from the
beginning.
Precautions in ujing InjeElions.—The fyringe ufed in
men for this purpofe ought to have a Ihort point of a
conical form and of a thicknefs proportioned, that not
more than its extremity may pafs into the orifice of the
urethra*. The body of the fyringe fhould be perfeftly # Platfe
cylindrical, and the pillon ought to play very accurate- DXIV.
ly j for if the pitlon does not fit the body of the fy- fig-12*
ringe, the injeflion, inffead of pafling into the urethra,
regurgitates between the pifton and the fyringe. From
the unfteadinefs of the motion of the pifton, the point of
the fyringe is apt to move fuddenly on the urethra, and
injure its thin and delicate membrane. To prevent any
injury of this kind, we have employed with great ad¬
vantage, particularly if the mouth of the fyringe is
made of metal, a fmall ftrip of caddis wrapped in a
fpiral manner round the mouth of the fyringe, fo as
nearly to expofe its point. If the difeafe is feated near
the point of the urethra, the patient ftiould be attentive
to comprefs with one hand the urethra above the arch
of the pubis, where the ferotum commences, whilft with
the other hand he holds and guides the fyringe. The
liquid ftiould be thrown in gently, and fo as (lightly to
diftend the urethra ; the liquid is to be kept for a mi¬
nute or two, and the fame operation repeated two or
three times in fucceffion.
'1 he liquid employed (hould always be ufed warm,
which may be eafily done by filling a cup with the ne-
ceffary quantity, and placing the cup in a bafon of boil¬
ing water.
It often happens, particularly in young people, that
after
r ^
hap.
Gleet,.
III.
* Plate
DXIV.
fig. 13-
<J0
after having uft'd Inje£iions fome time ^
taee they become lefs attentive xn ufxng them, and ne-
them even for a day. This omiffion is always fol¬
lowed with bad confequences, the difeharge returning
with double force j and the patient is obliged to con¬
tinue the injections during fome weeks more than would
have been neceffary, if the ufe of the remedy had not
been interrupted.
In order, therefore, to prevent die danger of a re-
lapfe, it is always prudent to advife patients to inject
three, four, or even fix times a-day, if the circumftan-
ces demand it, and to continue the fame two or three
times a-day regularly for at leaft ten or fifteen days
after the difeharge has entirely ceafed.
For women the canula ought to be larger and longer.
•A canula of ivory, an inch in diameter, and two or
three inches in length, fixed to a bottle of elaftic gum,
is the moft convenient form of a fyringe *.
Of Gleet.
It very often happens, that after the fpecific inflam¬
mation of the urethra is removed, from which gonor¬
rhoea is fuppofed to originate, a difeharge {fill continues.
This difeharge is not attended with pain, nor can it be
communicated from one perfon to another. T. he matter
which efcapes is generally of a tenacious confiftence,
and of a yellow colour, appearing to be compofed of
globules, mixed with a mucous fluid. When a cure
cannot be formed, either by the ufe of injections, or
by bougies, it has fometimes been propofed to inj_e& li¬
quids capable of exciting irritation and inflammation in
the affeaed part of the urethra. It is probably from
this principle that fome gleets have been cured by^ vio¬
lent exercife on horfeback, or a long journey. I here
have alfo been examples of fimilar cafes cured by coi¬
tion ; but this is a cure not to be recommended^as there
always may be a rilk of communicating the difeafe to
the women. A blifter, applied externally to the part
affeaed, or to the perinmum, has alfo been found ufe-
ful. The cold bath has often been recommended in ob-
ftinate gleets, from which good effea^ often refult; but
there are other cafes in which it feems to increafe the
difeharge. ^ _
It is alfo proper to change the injeaion ; for it is ob¬
served that an injeaion lefs ftrong fometimes produces a
good effea, after a ftrong one has been employed with¬
out fuccefs, and vice verfa. In many cafes it is ufeful
to combine the ufe of internal medicines with external
means. The chief of thefe are mercurial preparations,
balfamic and refinous fubftances, and tonics. Swediaur
has ufed, with much fuccefs, in gleets, pills made of
turpentine and oxide of mercury. Among the refinous
fubftances which are employed, the moft common is the
balfam of copaiba. The beft way of taking this remedy
is to give the patient thirty or forty drops in a fmall glafs
of cold water morning and evening, or from fifty to eighty
drops for one dofe in the middle of the day, and after¬
wards to take, in a fmall glafs of water, twenty drops of
the elixir of vitriol, which renders the balfam lets dif-
agreeable to the ftomach. Half a dram of turpentine,
of the balfam of Tolu, or of the balfam of Canada, an-
fvvers the fame end. Swediaur mentions the cafe of a
young man, who, having been for a long time diftreffed
with a very obftinate gleet, fwallowed at once between
SURGERY.
with advan- two and three ounces of the balfam of copaiba, and was
53
Ceryza.
cured.
Sometimes the balfams, combined with tinfture of
guaiac, or with kino, produce a defireable effe£l.
Among the corroborant or tonic remedies, the kino,
which we have already mentioned, is one of the. moft
ufeful} the cinchona alfo in powder or infufion in red
wine, or, which is ftill better, in lime water ; tormen-
tilla in powder, or in extraft, in the form of pills, join¬
ed according to circumftances, with preparations^ of
iron. Glauber’s falls are ufeful and efficacious remedies.
The tinflure of cantharides, given in a dofe from twenty
to thirty drops, has often been found very beneficial.
It is one, however, which ought to be given with pre¬
caution, as it might do much harm to people of a deli¬
cate and irritable temperament.
There are, however, cafes, where all our efforts to
cure a gleet are fruitlefs ; and we fometimes fee, that
nature alone can in time fucceed, after we have ufelefs-
ly tried all the refources of art.
There fometimes remains a fpecies of cordee or cur¬
vature of the penis after all the other fymptoms of go¬
norrhoea have difappeared. Fri&ions, with mercurial
ointment, with camphorated oil, fpirituous lotions, or
eleftricity applied to the part, are moft appropriate re¬
medies in fuch cafes.
In all cafes of obftinate gleet, which are fituated far
back in the canal of the urethra, the ftate of the pro-
ftate gland ftiould be carefully examined; for they often
arife from a difeafe in that part. When the proftate is
found fwelled and hard, Swediaur has feen inftances
where, after a mercurial treatment, the repeated appli¬
cation of cupping-glaffes to the perinaeum, and the ufe
of large dofes of the esnium maculatum, has fucceeded,
other remedies having failed.
The gonorrhoea of the proftate is a morbid difeharge
of mucus from that gland, mixed fometimes with the
liquor of the feminal veficles; and it takes place princi¬
pally through the day, without , any venereal defire.
This difeafe is foon followed by feeblenefs and general
debility, with emaciation of the whole body, and even
with death •, particularly if the patient has not employ¬
ed proper remedies.
The remedies moft efficacious are the cold bath, in-
je&ions of metallic falts, fomentations of hemlock, blif-
ters to the perinseum, and internally tonic medicines,
with a well-regulated diet.
Sect. III. Of Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of Coryza.
the Nofe.
Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nofe is
generally preceded by drynefs in the noftrils, with an
itching feeling, and with a weight over the forehead.
It is alfo accompanied with fneezing and an increafed
flow of tears. The fecretion of mucus from the nofe is
at firft diminilhed, and afterwards becomes very abun¬
dant. At firft it is limpid and irritates the found fkin
of the upper lip, over which it paffes, and becomes af¬
terwards opaque, of a yellowifli white colour, and a dif-
agreeable odour. This ftate is fometimes accompanied
by fever, and it continues for a longer or flrorter period,
Moft commonly it ceafes at the end of a few days.. It
fometimes, however, becomes chronic and indetermined,
in which cafe it is often intermittent, and re-appears at
regular _
Ci
SORCERY.
6 a
*3
regular period*. Coryza, like all oilier inflammations
of the mucous membranes, terminates by refolution. It
fometimes pafles into the ftate of chronic catarrh, and
it alfo occafions an ulceration of the mucous membrane
of the nofe ; but this is extremely rare.
Coryza is frequently accompanied with inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the eye, it alfo fpreads in
many inflances along the euftachian tube, producing
deafnefs, and it is very apt alfo to pafs down the trachea
and affe.ft the lungs.
The nofe is fometimes affedted with a difcharge of
thick vifcid mucous, when there is very little apparent
rednefs or pain. Such inftances are often connedied
with the formation of polypi: but we have obferved fe-
veral cafes, where no other fymptom than the mucous
difcharge appeared, and where the difeafe had very
much the general charadter of feme difcharges from the
urethra.
Treatment.—Coryza is commonly an affedtion fo
flight, and of fuch Ihort duration, that it is feldom ne-
celfary to employ any means to produce an abatement
of its fymptoms. Sometimes, however, the fymptoms
go to a very high degree, and it is then that emollient
vapours diredted into the nafal cavities are particularly
indicated. If much fymptomatic fever accompanies the
difeafe, it may be advifeable to draw fome blood from
the arm, and in all cafes a brifk purgative will be
found to relieve the fullnefs and uneafinefs in the
head. When the inflammation fpreads along the mu¬
cous membrane of the trachea, it becomes the more ne-
ceflary to ufe every means to alleviate the inflammatory
fymptoms, and to prevent the inflammation affedting the
mucous membrane of the bronchi.
Patients labouring under this difeafe, feel remarkable
relief from living in a warm atmofphere ; and the fymp¬
toms of inflammation of the nofe and trachea will be
much alleviated by the internal exhibition of opium.
When the inflammation and the difcharge are of a
"chronic nature, aftringent injedtions, or a dolfel dipt in
limilar folutions, kept in the nofe during the night, are
in luch cafes the moft ufeful applications. They gra¬
dually diminifli the quantity of the difcharge, and render
it more thick and tenacious ; and the fenfe of fmelling,
which is commonly deftroyed, is gradually reftored.
If the difcharge be foetid, and occafionally mixed
with blood, in all probability it originates from the
formation of ati abfcefs or ulcer, connedted with a ca¬
rious bone.
Sect. IV. Of the Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane
of the Ear (Otitis).
In inflammation of the ear, there is the fame charac¬
ters deduced from analogy of ftrudture, as in other
mucous membranes. The principal caufes of this difeafe
are fudden changes in the atmofphere j above all, the
change from heat to cold, or from drynefs to moifture ;
coldnefs of the nights, north winds, fuppreflion of any
regular difcharge, the crifis of acute difeafes, me-
taflafis, the prefence of an irritating body in the ear,
or the imprudent application of oily or fpirituous fub-
Hances.
The inflammation fometimes takes place in the meatus
-avditorius ; and in other cafes it is confined to the cavity
Chap. lilf
of the tympanum and euflaclnan tube. In the firft cafe, Otitis,
there is more or lefs pain, and buzzing in the ears, and -y—w
afterwards a difcharge of thin reddilh yellow matter.
This matter gradually becomes white and opaque, and
increafes in confiftence till the termination of the dif¬
eafe ; when it differs in nothing from the wax of the
ear, but in its white colour. This affe&ion generally
lafts twelve or fifteen days. It fometimes fpreads to the
external parts of the ear, and often paffes into a chronio
flate.
When the inflammation is confined to the cavity of
the tympanum, it produces an obfcure tingling fenfa-
tion, and a feeling of tenfion, which the patient lupports
without much inconvenience j but moil frequently the
inflammation is propagated from the cavity of the tym¬
panum along the euftachian tube. In this cafe, the
pains become more violent and extend along the con¬
tiguous mucous furfaces j they pafs from the interior
of the ear into the throat; (here is great difficulty in
fwallowing, and the food, when paffing through the
pharynx, gives a fenfation as if the fldn had been ero¬
ded. The motions of the neck alfo become uneafy, and
the fmalleft attempt to cough, to fneeze, or blow the
nofe, produces a painful fenfation in the ear* The pa--
tient alfo complains of a ftoppage in the nofe, of a fre¬
quent dry cough, and of pain in the head, and more or
lefs fever in the evening. The ear alfo feels hard and
diftended, and there is generally deafnefs, particularly
towards the end qf the difeafe. Soon all thefe fymptoms
diminifli except the hardnefs in^the ear, which augments -
continually till the fifteenth or twentieth day.
Moft commonly after this period, a quantity of foetid
matter is fuddenly difeharged into the external ear, or
into the throat, and then all the fymptoms difappear.
This difcharge generally diminiflies daily, and in a ffiort
time ceafes altogether. At other times, particularly in
young people, it continues, and becomes chronic.
Treatment.—When the inflammation is confined to the
external meatus, the difeafe is generally fo flight that it
may be allowed to run through its common periods, and
it is merely neceifary to keep the patient warm. When
the inflammation is very confiderable, the mildeft injec¬
tions give pain, and in place of moderating the fymp¬
toms, they increafe the irritation. We ought there¬
fore to do nothing, except, perhaps, to allow fome warm
vapour to pafs into the ear, and to purfue the antiphlo-
giftic regimen. About the twelfth or fifteenth day, it
may be ufeful to apply tonic medicines, fuch as aromatic
alcohol dipped in a piece of cotton. When the inflamma¬
tion is in the tympanum, or the euftachian tube, befides
emollients, it will be alfo neceflary to give fome brifk
purgative, or to employ local or general blood-letting.
If the membrane of the drum is much diftended, and
accompanied with violent pains, it has been even propo-
fed to make an opening through the tympanum*. When „ .r -
the matter has been difeharged from the tympanum phic Philo*
ther fpontaneoufly or artificially, little more is requiredfophique
to be done, unlefs the difeafe aflumes a chronic form./’sr Pinch
This is more frequent in children. We often fee the
purulent difcharge continue in them for many months,
and fome of the imall bones of the ear become carious,
and are difeharged along with the matter. In fuch
cafes fmall dofes of calomel, for fome time repeated,
blifters applied behind the ear, and injcdlions of lime
water
S U U G E R Y.
!hap. HI.
Angina, water combined with muriate of mercury, acetate of lead
—N   and the like, ihould be employed.
Sect. V. Of Angina.
The parietes of the mouth, trachea, and larynx, are of¬
ten inflamed in catarrhal affections* andprefent fymptomj
which vary according to the infcenfity of the diieale, and
particular feat of the affeaed membrane.
Angina has therefore been diftingmflied according
to its feat in the tonfils, the trachea, the pharynx, and
When the patient has great difficulty in fwallowing
his food, and when the pain ftretches in chewing, to
the ear along the euftachian tube, by a fort of crepita¬
tion, and if, on infpeCtion of the throat, the amygdalae
and edge of the palate appear much inflamed, along with
an abundant excretion of mucus, the angina has its feat
principally in the amygdalae.
Angina affefts the pharynx when deglutition is* diffi¬
cult or impoffible, and the food is returned by the note,
refpiration at the fame time not being impeded. Inis
inflammation is alfo vifible by examining the bottom of
the mouth. . j r •
But if the deglutition is difficult j it no rednels is
perceived at the bottom of the throat, and if the patient
has great difficulty in refpiring, a (harp pain in the mo¬
tions of the larynx, the voice acute but weak, and
the fpeech (hort, we may then conclude that the infiam-
, mation has attacked the larynx, or upper part of the
wind-pipe. An affedion of this kind, though a few
cafes have been known to take place in adults, generally
attacks children under twelve years of age. It is known
by the name of croup.
When the inflammation affe&s the amygdalae, inhal¬
ing fleams of warm water and vinegar will often be
found to give great relief. A poultice, too, applied to
the outfide of the throat, affifts in leffening the tenfion
of the inflamed parts. Though in many cafes the inflam¬
mation feems to be confined to the mucous covering of
the glands, vet in others it fpreads into the glandular
fubftance, where it generally advances to fuppuration
and abfcefs. In fuch cafes, the early difcharge of the
matter gives great and immediate relief *, and though no
matter has been formed, puncturing the inflamed part
with a {harp inflrument often produces an alleviation of
all the fymptoms. 1 he inftrument delineated in Plate
DXIV. fig. 14. is well calculated for thefe purpofes.
By altering the pofition of the fcrew in the handle, the
depth of the cutting part of the inftrument may be re¬
gulated. When it is to be ufed, the fore finger of the
left hand is to be introduced down the mouth, and the
perforator concealed in the canula introduced as a direc¬
tor. When the extremity of the canula reaches the
inflamed part, the perforator may be then fafely pufhed
into it, of a fufficient depth, which had been previoufly
regulated.
When the inflammation affeCls the pharynx, relief
will alfo be obtained by inhaling the fleam of warm wa¬
ter, and by employing antiphlogiftic remedies. In
croup, calomel has been found to have a fpecific effeft j
and it is aftoniftiing the quantity that has been given to
infants for the cure of that difeafe. See Medicine.
When the effufion which takes place in croup, is
chiefly confined to the upper part of the larynx, and
4
55
66
produces fymptoms of fuSbcatlon, it has been propofed Or ffie C,i
to make an artificial opening into the trachea below e
where the matter is effufed, in order to fave the life of t - - t - - •<
the patient. See Bronchotomy.
Sect. VI. Of the Catarrh of the Bladder.
The ureters, the bladder, and the urethra, are all li¬
able to be affeCled with catarrhal affections from gene¬
ral caufes, the fame as thofe affeftions of the mucous
membranes which have been already mentioned j and
befides, the furfaces of the mucous membranes of thefe
parts are expofed to the aCtion of particular caufes,
namely, the ureters and the bladder to calculi, and the
urethra to the venereal virus.
The catarrh of the bladder is more frequent among
men than among women j and old people are more
fubjeCt to it, than thofe at any other period of life.
It is often produced by the internal ufe of cantharides,
by acrid diuretics, and by the pregrefs of hemorrhagy
from the urethra. The hidden expofure to cold, fup-
preffed perfpiration, the difappearance of different dif-
eafes of the {kin, of rheumatifm, and of gout, are fol¬
lowed almoft fuddenly by this catarrh. Other circum-
ftances may alfo give rife to the chronic catarrh of the
bladder. The prefence of a calculus or any foreign body,
the continual application of bougies, a fwelling of the
proftate gland j and above all, ftri&ures of the ure¬
thra.
This difeafe is marked by pains of the bladder, and
at the point of the urethra, both before, and whilft
making water. The injeClion of the urethra is more
or lefs difficult, according to the aClion of the bladder,
and of the freedom of the paffage of the urethra. The
hypogaftric region is tenfe, and the urine prefents va¬
riety of colours j it is fometimes whitifti, or reddifli, or
of a deep yellow colour j it is muddy, and it exhales
an odour of ammonia, which becomes more fenfible a
{hort time after it has cooled. It alfo forms, in moft
common caffs, a mucus, which mixes and comes away
with the urine in the form ofglary filaments, and which
is afterwards depofited at the bottom of the veffel in
the form of the tenacious glary fubftance, refembling
fomewhat the white of egg.
The chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the bladder, may be accompanied with an ulceration
of the kidneys or bladder \ the mucus difeharged
then becomes of a greenifli yellow colour, fometimes
mixed with ftreaks of blood. It is depofited flowly, is
mixed eafily among the urine, and in water; it has lit¬
tle vifeidity, or foetor, and does not coagulate by ebul¬
lition. The other fymptoms which accompany this ex¬
cretion, as fever, pain, wafting of the flefli, fufficiently
diftinguifti this double affe&ion of the bladder. The
chronic catarrh isfubjett to return with intolerant pain
in the region of the pubis and perinseum, accompanied
with reftleffnefs and anxiety. Thefe intermiffions are
irregular, and may remain fome weeks.
Treatment.—The matter which exifts in the mucous
membrane of the bladder, and that of other membranes
of the fame name, is fufficient to point out the means
which are to be employed in its treatment. The warm
bath, and mucilaginous drinks, are particularly indicated
at the beginning of the acute catarrh; but the tendency
which it has to become chronic, ought to make us cau¬
tious
6?
$6 S U R G
Strictures, tious in not prorecuting debilitating remedies too far.
Opium fhould be employed with great prudence, not-
withftanding the intenfity of the pain $ and as this is
often the refult of the dittenlion of the bladder, from the
accumulation of urine, it is fometimes neceffary to have
recourfe to the introdu&ion of the catheter.
The chronic catarrh of the bladder is generally dif¬
ficult to cure, and the more fo, if it occur in old age :
if it arifes from the preflure of a ftone in the bladder,
there is no cure but the operation of lithotomy *, if it
arifes from metadafis, Theumatifm, or any other difeafe,
we ought to employ remedies to the fldn and inteftinal
canal, and pour tonic injeffions into the bladder. The
uva urfi has alfo been found a ufeful remedy. Exercife,
dwelling in dry and elevated places, the ufe of woollen
clothes next the Ikin, contribute often more to the cure
of this difeafe, than the ufe of medicines, and they ought
always to be combined.
The conjundtiva covering the eye-ball, eye-lids, and
lacrymal paffages, are alfo fubjedt to inflammation 5 but
thefe will be treated of among the difeafes of the eye
and its appendages.
«8
Sect. VII. General Remarks on Strictures.
431*
The term ftridture has been ufually applied to a con¬
traction of the urethra j generally arifing from a thick¬
ening of the mucous membrane lining that canal. This
change of ftrudture is not, however, confined to the mu¬
cous membrane which lines the urethra j the fame mor¬
bid alteration takes place in the oefophagus, in the eufta-
chian tube and meatus externus, in the maxillary finus,
in the bladder, in the lacrymal paflages, and in all ca¬
nals lined by mucous membranes. Stridtures, however,
occur much more frequently in the urethra, and are
there more pernicious than in any other part. They
appear alfo fometimes in the upper part of the oefopha¬
gus. A fimilar change has been obferved in the in¬
ternal part of the bladder. Bichat found the membrane
lining the maxillary finus feveral lines in thicknefs, and
* Anatomic the canals of the tympanum much thickened* j
Generate, and reafoning from analogy, and from what we may ob-
tom. iv. ferve by an attentive examination of the fymptoms of
many cafes, of what is ufually called fiftula lacrymalis,
there is little doubt but a contradlion and thickening
often take place of the mucous membrane lining the
lacrymal fac and dudt, and produce that difeafe.
This change in the ftrudture of mucous membranes
is always the confequence of inflammation j and when
the membrane is thus altered, the difcharge, inftead of
being healthy mucus, is generally a puriform fluid, ap¬
parently a mixture of pure mucus and globules of
pus.
Sect. VIII. Of Strictures tn the Urethra.
The treatment of the difeafes of the bladder and ure¬
thra has always been confidered a difficult branch of fur-
gery, as their true nature is often obfcure, and as it is
by no means eafy to diredt the proper means of relief.
Of the great variety of caufes which difturb the func¬
tions of thefe organs, ftridtures in the urethra are per¬
haps the moft frequent, and moft ferious. They pre¬
vent the free evacuation of the bladder ; greatly difturb,
if not entirely deftroy the fundtion of generation ; and
often give origin to conftitutional fymptoms which fome-
E R Y. Chap, in
times increafe to an alarming degree, and even prove Stridtures
fatal. t °ftthhevUre
That the urethra ftiould be fubjedt to many morbid.
changes, w'e may infer, not only from our knowledge of
the fundlions it performs, but alfo from its delicate and
no lefs complicated ftrudture.
One part of this ftsudture is intended for the evacua¬
tion of the urinary bladder, the other for the tranfmiflion
of the feminal fluid ; and as in the exercife of this laft:
fundtion, the urethra fympathifes, in a greater or lefs
degree, with the whole fyftem, and alfo with the mind
itfelf, it muft have a connedtion with many of the other
organs of the body.
Accordingly, we find that patients who have ob-
ftrudtions in the urinary canal, have at the fame time
other complaints, which get well when the obftrudtion
is removed. And, on the other hand, difeafes of other
parts bring on morbid affedtions of the urethra, which
are cured along with the original complaint.
The whole extent of the urinary canal is lined by a
delicate membrane, which is conftantly covered with a
vifcid fluid, fecreted by numerous glands, whofe dudts
open on its internal furface by orifices which are called
lacunae.
It is highly vafcular, and is endowed with fo much
nervous fenfibility, that irritating bodies applied to it
often affedt, or even derange the whole fyftem.
It has a confiderable degree of contradlility, is evident¬
ly elaftic, and perhaps may poflefs a mufcular power,
although no mufcular coat has yet been demonftrated j
but to whatever caufe this contradlility be owing, it is
well known it does not contradl upon irritation.
As a proof of this contradlile power, a remarkable
cafe is mentioned by Mr Cline in his ledtures, where a
ftone was lying in the membranous part of the urethra
one evening, which during fleep had been expelled and
was found among the bed-clothes the following morning.
The contradlion which forms a ftridlure in the ure¬
thra may take place round the whole circumference of
the canal j it may arife chiefly at a particular point of
the circumference; or, it may extend along a confider¬
able extent of its furface, and thus produce obftrudlions
of different forms.
The ftridlure once begun, continues no longer than
the caufe which firft produced it continues to operate.
But if the parts are kept long in this ftate of contrac¬
tion they generally are attended with a degree of inflam¬
mation ; the membrane of the urethra acquires a morbid
degree of thicknefs the furrounding parts are altered in
ftrudlure ; and this change of form and appearance re¬
mains after the caufe which originally produced them
has ceafed to operate.
lhat fpafmodic ftridlures do exift appears from the
impreffions made on bougies which have been pafled
through them, and from the examination of the parts
after death ; for although complete obftrudlions to the
bougie were found when alive, yet not the fmalleft re¬
mains can be obferved on diffedlion. This contradlion
is peculiarly violent, and from what we have feen more
frequent, at the foffa navicularis than at any other part
of the canal.
A gentleman, after many attempts to make water
during the night, was not able to pafs a drop, and he
applied for relief in the morning. A bougie was intro¬
duced, and met with a complete obflrudlion at theglans,
which
Chap. III. S U R
Stri&urcs. which yielded in a few feccnds after the bougie was
*> v   in clofe contaa with it; on being withdrawn the urine
flowed freely, and the complaint has never fince re¬
turned. .
Contra&ions at this place are fometimes lo violent as
for a long time to interrupt the entrance of the bougie;
and in one cafe it was fo flrong as nearly to cut the in-
flrument through, after it was introduced. What is re¬
markable, this happened repeatedly with the fame patient.
When there has been a permanent ftri&ure, the natu¬
ral ftru&ure of the urethra is changed, and the morbid
alterations it has dndergone may be feen on diffeftion.
There is commonly a contraftion at one particular part
of the canal*, and the appearance of it has been com¬
pared to that which would have been given had a pack¬
thread been tied round it, or in flight cafes it is a mere
* See Plate narrowing *.
DXIV. fig. wlien a ridge js formed projeaing into the cavity of
70
Appearan"
ces on dif-
ledtion.
(k and 7.
71.
Situations
ilricturc.
the canal, it is found to be a doubling of the inner mem¬
brane, with the cellular fubftance lying between the
fold. The internal membrane itfelf is difeafed } it af-
fumes a whitifh colour becomes much harder, fometimes
as hard as cartilage and in fome cafes this change is con-
flned to the doubling of the ftri&ure itfelf, whilft in
others it extends into the cavernous bodies. Thefe ridges
or folds often form over one another, fo that the inter¬
mediate portion of urethra becomes preternaturally con-
tra£led alfo 5 but it never becomes fo narrow as at thofe
parts where the original ftriclures were formed. Inftead
<xf a diftinft curtain or fold, it happens alfo in feme cafes
that the urethra has the appearance of a cone gradually
converging before the ftri&ure, and diverging in the
fame manner behind it.
The contra&lon is generally round the whole of the
circumference of the urethra j but it fometimes happens
that it is only at one fide, and in fuch cafes the urethra
docs not form a uniform tube, but it becomes ferpentine
and contorted in various direftions.
When one ftri&ure is formed, that portion of the
urethra anterior to it is liable to fuffer fome changes,
and thefe probably arife from its not meeting with the
ordinary diftenfion, the ftream of urine being diminifli-
ed. It is by no means uncommon, therefore, to find in
thofe cafes where the original ftri&ure has been formed
near the bladder, another ftrifture anterior to it, fo that
when an obftru&ion is found at the glans or four in¬
ches and a half from it, another is generally met with at
feven inches, or at the bulb.
From the peculiarity in the form of the urethra,
fome parts are fubjeft to ftri&ures much more frequent¬
ly than others.
In the adult, and in the relaxed ftate, the urinary
canal is about nine inches long, and nearly of the fame
diameter as a common quill5 but its fize varies at three
different points, and there ftri&ures mofi: frequently
arife. Thefe contraftions are at the glans, the bulb, and
the proftate gland (fee fig. 5. Plate DXIV.) The nar-
roweft part is juft below the bulb, and here ftri&ures
xnoft frequently occur.
The natural contraflion renders it, in almoft every
•cafe of ftrifture, the feat of the difeafe. This part of
the canal feems alfo to pofiefs an uncommon degree of
irritability, as it is here that the contraflion takes place
in cafes of ftrangury. When ftriftures continue long,
Vol. XX. Part I.
G E R Y. 57
and the violence of the fymptoms Increafe, difeafes arife Stridhires
in other parts. v
The urethra between the ftri&ure and bladder, from
the obftruftion the urine has to overcome, enlarges, and
is fometimes attacked by inflammation.
As in moft cafes the ftri&ure is attended with a gleet,
the glands fituated about the neck of the bladder be¬
come difeafed. The bladder becomes extremely thick¬
ened, and its capacity dicniniftied. From the ftrong
exertions it is neceffary to make in order to overcome
the obftru&ion, and as it cannot contain much urine,
the ureters alfo become dilated.
When the difeafe advances dill farther, fo that it is
impoflible to evacuate the bladder, the obftru&ion being
complete, the urine efcapes by fome new channel 5 for
as in fuch cafes the parts between the bladder and ob-
ftruftion make lefs refiftance than its coats, both on ac¬
count of their natural ftrudture, and as thefe parts are
generally inflamed or ulcerated, they give way, and the
urine takes a new courfe. When this change has once
taken place, fo that no urine paffes through the meatus
urinarius, the other fymptoms will differ according as
the aperture has been formed by ulceration of the inner
membrane of the urethra, or by a fudden rupture. For
when the membranous part of the urethra has been ero¬
ded, a fuppurating cavity muft have formed in the con¬
tiguous cellular lubftance, and as the urine cannot fo
eafilv be diffufed in the furrounding parts, it makes its
way without difficulty through the integuments.
But when a fudden rupture or ulceration of the inner-
membrane of the urethra takes place, as the urine meets
with no obftruclion in infinuating itfelf into the cellular
membrane, it effufes itfelf in a fhort time over the peri-
rueum, ferotum, and adjacent parts ; extenfive abfctffes
are formed where the urine was diffufed 5 and as thefe
burft in numerous places, fiftulous openings are formed,
which have either a direct or indirect communication
with the bladder, and through which the urine conti¬
nues to pats till the original obftruflion is removed.
Symptoms.—Often this complaint does not become of 72
fuch importance as to give alarm to the patient till many
months, or even years, after the original caufe has been
forgot. At other times, a few months after a gonor-
rhosa has been cured, the urine, inftead of coming away
with the accuftomed eafe, begins to be paffed with fome
difficulty. The ftream, in place of being full and even,
diminifties and becomes unequal; fometimes it comes in
drops after much ftraining and exertion, has a forked
appearance, or fcatters in all direfb’ons. From the ir¬
ritable flate of the parts, the fmalleft quantity collefted
in the bladder, brings on a defire to make water, and a •
continual uneafinefs all along the courfe of the canal,
about the peringeum, anus, and lower part of the abdo¬
men. In moft cafes thert is a difeharge of matter from
the urethra. The gleet is always more fevere after any
debauch or venereal aft. It comes on immediately after
fuch excefs, and gradually diminiflies or difappears. It,
is alfo not unfrequent to find ftriftures accompanied with
that profufe difeharge of mucus from the bladder called
catarrhus vejtece. The irritation communicated to the
bladder in confequence of the difeafe of the urethra,
brings on inflammation, which is followed by a profufe
difeharge of mucus from the whole of its internal fur-
face, and this mucus comes away with the urine, and
H is
• 73 r
Diagnons.
S U R G E R Y.
is (lepolited, and f.rnily adheres at tlie bottom or the pot
in the form of a tough tenacious mafs.
Nocturnal emilfions are fometimes the only fymptoms
which lead as to fufpeft the exiftence of ftrictru e ; for
in feme cafes the dileale is neither attended with any
fixed pain in the urethra, nor is there any dilcharge of
matter.
Fiflulas in the perinseum, and along the courfe of the
penis, often derive their origin from an obftruftion of
the urinavy canal. _ # Jt
When, either from irritating injections, bougies, ot
any other caufe, inflammation comes on, the urethra k5
completely fhut at the place of the flridture, and the in¬
ternal membrane giving way, the urine is effufed in the
cellular membrane, which gives rife to ablceffes and fiftu-
Inus openings, through which the urine continues to pafs,
till the flricture is removed.
The inflammation in fome cafes fpreads to the fur¬
rounding parts *, the mucous glands inflame, fuppurate,
and built j and hemorrhoidal tumors often form at the
extremity of the rectum.
Eefldes tbefe, the more ufual fymptoms of ftri&ure,
there are others which accompany that complaint, and
arife from conftitutional caufes.
The molt frequent of thefe is a febiile attack, in the
form of a complete paroxyfm j but it differs from the
common intermittent fever, in its fhort continuance, its
irregularity, and in the violence of its termination. It
happens moft frequently to thofe who have been in
warm climates; but it is by no means confined to them
alone.
People of weak confthutions have often ficknefs at
ftomach, naufea, and vomiting, and fometimes an uneafy
Hate of irritability about the itomach, which gets better
when the ftri&ure is relieved.
Gout, epilepfy, hydrocele, fciatica, eryfipelas, fwellings
in the perinseum, occafional fuppreflions of urine, have
all been found connedled with flritlure j but fuch cafes
rarely occur.
There are other difeafes of thefe organs which have
fo many fymptoms in common with ftriflure, that it is
neceffary to inquire with much attention into the hiftory
and flate of all the fymptoms, before we can judge of
the true nature of the complaint; and wflien there is
any reafon to fufpeft that an obftruffion exifls, it is af-
certained only by the introduftion of a bougie ; but the
mode of doing this will be explained when fpeaking of
that inftrument.
There are difeafes that ought to be mentioned as be¬
ing liable to be miflaken for ftridlure, and always kept
in view in forming the diagnofis. An irritable ftate of
the urethra, proceeding from gonorrhoea, is one that is
very frequent.
In fuch a cafe there is a <hfcharge of matter and a
pain in making w7ater. The urine flows in a fmall
ffream at the commencement, but before it is all eva¬
cuated it is of the natural fize. The fymptoms come
on a few hours after coition, but abate in a fliort time,
and whenever the irritating caufe is repeated, they re¬
turn.
The bladder alfo, when irritated, brings on difeafes of
the urethra, as thefe parts fympathize fo flrongly with
one another 5 but when the primary affeflion is in the
bladder, there are always fymptoms which aid us in
di.fcovering the true complaint.
Chap. Ilj,
Enlargements of the proitate gland d're by far the Strictures,
moil apt to miflead our judgement. Scrophulous and '—■—v—
fchirrous enlargements of that organ were at one time
fuppofed to be very frequent caufes of retention } it is
now generally believed that they occur feldom, and are
chiefly confined to people advanced in life.
It will be afterwards mentioned how fwellings of the
valvular procefs of the proftate are apt to be miftaken
for ilridture when a bougie or catheter is introduced.
The obflruftion in fuch a cafe is always at a diftance, as
the canal has increafed in length from the enlargement
of the parts.
If attention be paid to this remark, and if the gland
be at the fame time examined from the redtum, littls
doubt will remain of the naiure of the difeafe.
It is often difficult to draw off the water when the
proflate gland has become thus difeafed : to do this,
much benefit will be found in ufirig a catheter longer
than ordinary, as the common curve cannot reach the
extremity of the urethra from the increafed length of
that canal. Pouches or irregularities are alfo apt to form
from the unequal growth of the gland ; and as the dutfts
of the feminal veiicles and mucous glands become en¬
larged, the infirument ought to be of a large diameter
to avoid being entangled by them. <74
From the idea we have of the manner in which Cayfes of
ftridlures are formed, we infer that many fubflances <3r‘^uire*
of an irritating nature, whether applied immediately to
the parts themfelves, or to thofe connedied with them,
may, under particular circumftances, produce this dif¬
eafe. The llone irritating the bladder, numerous dif¬
eafes of that organ and proftate gland, irritations in
confequence of gonorrhoea, long and repeated eredtions
or other ftimulants, and the natural difpofition which
the urethra has to contradf in lome conftitutions, are
the common caufes of ftriclure. In whatever man¬
ner this irritation is produced, the fymptoms and chan¬
ges obferved in the ftrudture of the urethra, Jmake
it probable that there is always a certain degree of
inflammation fubfequent to or accompanying it. Ob-
ftrudtions in the urethra were fuppofed by Daran, and
others about his time, to originate from caufes very dif¬
ferent from thofe now mentioned. They conceived that
the difeharge from gonorrhoea proceeded from internal
ulcers, and that the cicatrices and indurations they left
behind were the moft common caufes of fhidture. But
fince the nature of the difeharge from gonorrhoea is
found very rarely, if ever, to be purulent, and as ulcers
occur very feldom, they cannot be confidered as a
common caufe of the difeafe in queftion.
Caruncles were alfo fuppofed to be frequent caufes of
obflruftion in the urethra j but thefe are rarely met with.
One preparation of fuch a cafe may be feen in the mu-
feum of ot Thomas’s Hofpital. Drs Hunter and Baillle
have feldom met with them. Indeed, fince the internal
membrane of the urethra fo much refembles that which
lines the cavities of the nofe, mouth, and oefophagus,
and as ulcers in thefe parts are more difpofed to form
fkin and heal, than to produce fungi, few cafes of ob-
ftruftion can be aferibed to fuch tumors.
The other caufes which prevent the free difeharge
of the urine, are thofe which are attended with no
morbid change in the ftruifture of the urethra itfelf.
Such are tumors or indurations of the proftate gland,
of the veficulae feminales, or parts compofing the body
of
Chap.
75
III. ‘ S U R G
Stritfures. of tile petiis, or of the mucous glands along the courfe of
Bv far the moft common of thefe, is an obftru6Hon
into the entrance of the bladder, from a difeafed proitate
^ This proceeds from a new form which the canal has
affumed in coniequence of an enlargement of its parts.
Its cavity becomes deeper from the growth ol its lides,
and the polterior extremity or valvular procefs forms a
projedting tumour into the cavity oi the bladder, which
interrupts the paffage of the urine, or the entrance of a
catheter. . r
From the frequency of this appearance in diiealed
proftate glands, it is probable that it is the caufe of dif-
eafes of that organ being often miftaken and treated as
ftrictures of the urethra, and has in numerous inftances
not only prevented the introduction of a bougie into the
bladder, but has been the caufe of the formation of arti¬
ficial pafiages through the fubltance of the gland.
Treatment of StriBure.—Yxom the erroneous ideas
that the older furgeons formed of the nature of ftrictures,
it was not to be expedted that the means of cure they
employed were either founded on juft principles, or at¬
tended with much fuccefs.
They made ufe of various external and internal reme¬
dies ; they prefcribed long and tedious courfes of mer¬
cury, and gave many medicines which were fuppofed
to have peculiar virtues in curing difeafes of thefe or¬
gans.
They fometimes introduced into the canal mechanical
inftruments in order to dilate it j and wThen that was im¬
practicable, a new paffage wras made by force, or the
difeafed parts were diffedted away, and a new canal
formed in the found parts.
Wifeman, fo far back as the beginning of the laft
century, exploded many of thefe rude and dangerous
pradtices, and introduced into ufe the waxed candle or
bougie, by means of which he faid he “ cruihed the ca-
runculi to pieces.” He met with cafes, however, where
this could not be done ; that is to fay, cafes where it
was impracticable to pals fmall bougies into the blad¬
der j and this led him to adopt another mode of treat¬
ment. He confumed them by ftimulating applications
in the following manner. The wax at one end of the
candle was fcraped away, and the wick dipped in plafters
compofed of alum, red precipitate, calcined vitriol,
eerugo, and other fuch fubftances, and then it was ap¬
plied to the caruncle.
“ But (fays he), if after doing this you cannot pafs
cauftic pro-the caruncle, you may well conclude it callous •, in
pofed by which cafe you may pafs a canula into the urethra to
that caruncle, and whilft you hold that there fteady,
you may convey a grain of cauftic into the canula, and
prefs the cauftic to it; and whilft you hold it there, you
will perceive its operation by the preffing forward of the
cauflic. The caruncle thus confumed, caft in a lenient
injeftion daily 5 and if you take notice of his urine, you
may fee the feparation of the {loughs as rags in it. After
which you may with the common medicated candles
wear away the remainder, and with the injeclions cica¬
trize it.”
After Wifeman, Daran introduced into ufe a kind of
bougies, the particular compofition of which was kept
fecret. They were fiippofed to poffefs very great medi¬
cal virtues j and it was from thefe qualities that their fu-
.
Wifetnan’s
practice.
77 „
The ufe of
hi
E R ; Y. 59
perior efficacy was fuppofed to proceed. Other furgeons
foon began to imitate them, and'they found that thofe
they made hid the fame qualities as thofe of the original
inventor. This led them foon after this to alter theic
opinion of their mode of action *, and, inftead of fuppo-
fing that all the beneficial effects proceeded from the
medicines in their compofition promoting fuppuration,
cicatrization, &c. they explained their a£tion on the
principle of a fimple wedge.
But however fuccefsful their pra&ice might have been
in alleviating, if not in curing flri&ures, yet many cafes
occurred where the obftrudtion was (o complete as alto¬
gether to prevent the bougie being introduced. They
were therefore obliged to continue forcing paft the
obftru£tion, till the mode of treatment detcribed by
Wifeman was renewed, and held out as an original in¬
vention. The practice, indeed, generally followed by
modern furgeons is founded entirely on wThat Wifeman
has written j but fince tbefe have been better unde.-
ftood, from the progrefs of pathological inveftigation, it
has been confiderably modified and improved.
When we confider the effe&s of thefe modes of prac¬
tice, and try to reconcile them with the ideas we have
formed of the caufes producing the ftrifture, it would
appear that thoie very means employed for their removal
belong to the fame clafs of bodies as thofe originally
producing the complaint.
As this cannot be denied, yet it will appear neither
furprifing nor improbable, when wTe reafon from analogy,
and obferve the effeft of limilar applications to other dif¬
eafed parts, and fimilar phenomena in other organs. It
may be here obferved, that the action of any part de¬
pends not only on the kind of the ftimulus applied, but
alfo on its degree of violence. We know that a flight
preffure on the fkin produces uncafinefs or tickling,
whilft to a ftronger degree it paffes unnoticed. A cer¬
tain degree of light produces diftindt vifion, but a more
intenfe one deftroys it. J. he upper part of the throat is
thrown into violent a£hon by a flight irritation, but a
more powerful one has no effedt. Similar phenomena
take place in difeafe j or flight irritations fometimes oc-
cafion violent morbid aft.on, wdiilft thofe that are more
powerful not only produce a leffer degree of dileafe, but
are even employed to remove fuch as are brought on
from a (lighter caufe. We lee this opinion ftrongly con¬
firmed in ulcers, attended with much local or conftitu-
tional irritation. The moft emollient applications in
fuch cafes, if they do not increafe the fufterings of the
patient, bring no relief j whilft ftrong ftimulating ones,
fuch as a folution of lunar cauftic, or diluted nitrous acid,
feldom fail to diminifh the pain and promote the cure °f
the difeafe *. Haute's Ob-
In toothach, the irritation produced by the external
air on the expofed nervous furface excites much pain^and 0n Stric-
even fymptomatic fever ; but the application of cauftic or
acid deftroys thefe fenfations.
The fame we will find to take place when we confider
the nature and the mode of treating ftridtures of the
urethra ; and if we can prove that ftri&ures have all
that variety of character which an ulcer or many other
difeafes have, we will be better able to judge of the
comparative merit of the different modes of treatment, -
and be able in feme degree to account for theft mode of
aftion,
H 2 £/
6o
Strictures.
78
S U R G
Of the Bougie.
When furgeons attributed all the beneficial effefts of
bougies to their mechanical qualities, the principal defi-
deratum was to have them fufficiently pliable to take the
curvature of the urethra, firm and elaftic to make refin¬
ance, and mild fo as to produce no irritation. But
however limple fuch inftruments might be in their com-
pofition, yet it will appear probable that their ultimate
effeft is not the fame as that which a wedge produces on
inanimate matter. That bougies cannot add by their
mechanical powers in removing fpafmodic ftrifture, ap¬
pears from thofe cafes where the mere introduction of
the inftrument into the urethra, and its contact with
the obftruftion, removes at once all fpafm.
The fame thing is obferved in thofe cafes of perma¬
nent ftriCture which are attended with occafional fpafm.
In fuch cafes it frequently happens that a bougie finds
a complete obftruftion on its firft introduction, but after
being allowed to remain for fome time in the canal it
pafles readily without force. A remarkable caie of this
kind happened, where there was not only a ftriCture in
the urethra, but fiftulous openings in the perinaeum and
fcrotum, through which moft of the urine was difchar-
ed. After much trouble, a very fmall-fized elaftic ca¬
theter was paffed into the bladder, and as it gave no pain
it W’as allowed conftantly to remain. For the firft five
days the urine flowed through the inftrument, but after¬
wards it began to pafs along its fidesj and gradually as
the urethra dilated, larger inftruments were introduced
with fimilar good effeft.
The lilver ftiles ufed by Mr Ware feem to a£f, in remo¬
ving obftruftions of the lacrymal paffages in fiftula lacry-
malis, on the fame principle as the catheter appears to
have done in the above example. The flile when firft:
introduced, fills up completely the lacrymal dud } but
in a (hort time the tears begin to flow along the fides,
and pafs into the cavity of the nofe. In thefe examples
it is difficult to explain the aftion of bougies on mere
mechanical principles ; it feems much more probable that
they produce their, good eflfeCls, either by a change of
aftion of the living body, or by fome alteration in the
ftrufture of the difeafed parts. Says Hunter, “ Preffure
produces adlion of the animal powers, either to adapt
the parts ta their newr pofition or to recede by ulcera-
79 tion”
Mode cf in- When fpeaking of the fymptoms of ftriClure, it was
troducing obferved, that in order to determine with certainty their
'tae bougie. prefence> Jt was necefifary to introduce a bougie. To do
this, either with a view of afeertaining the ftate of the
urethra, or in order to remove a ftrifture, a good deal of
■caution and nicety is required ; for as the urethra is
generally tender, painffil, and eafily thrown into fpafmo¬
dic aftion, any aukwardnefs might entirely prevent the
poffibility of afeertaining the nature of the complaint,
or of affording the means of relief.
When, therefore, the operation is to be performed, in
order to difeover the kind of ebftrudtion, bougies ought
to be provided of different flzes, cf a foft confidence,
* See Plate and of a cylindrical form*. One cf the fize of a
JDXIV.
H'
E R Y. Chap. m.
common goofe quill, or even larger, generally paffes Stri&ures.
eafily, and is lefs apt to meet with obftrudlions before
it comes to the ftri&ure, than one of lefs diameter.
Being of a foft conflftence, it readily takes an impreflion
of the ftridlure, and its blunt point prevents its being en¬
tangled by any accidental irregularity.
As it ought always to be rubbed over with oil before
being ufed, it generally paffes with little more force than
its own weight, till4t comes to the contracted part, where
it flops. After changing with much caution the diredtion
of the point, by elevating or deprefling the other extre¬
mity of the bougie, and perhaps bringing it a little
backwards and then forwards, fo as to be fatisfied of the
fituation of the ftridture, the inftrument may be allowed
to remain in clofe contadt with it for a few feconds and
receive its imprefiion, fo that when it is withdrawn, a
precife knowledge is obtained of its fituation and form.
Some patients are often fo irritable, that any foreign
body touching the urethra excites much irritation and
pain. In fuch cafes it is the more neceffary not to em¬
ploy the fmalleft force, and to ufe an application of
opium, or fuch medicine, to the perinaeum, to prevent
thefe inconveniences as far as poffible.
When the ftridture lies near the extremity of the ure¬
thra next the bladder, the point of the bougie ought al¬
ways to be confiderably bent previous to its introdudtion,
fo that it may readily accommodate itfelf to the curve of
the urethra } for as a large inftrument does not bend ea¬
fily, it is apt to prefs on one of the fide of the canal,
and give rife to the fufpicion of a ftridture.
It is alio of confiderable importance that the point of
the inftrument be not conical*. When once we are well*^^^
acquainted with the ftate of the parts, fuch formed in-f;g ’
ftruments may be ufed with much advantage, as the
fmall point enters the ftridture, and by pufiiing the bou¬
gie forward it is dilated by the bale of the cone.
It may be alfo here remarked, that in fome inftances
a catheter can be eafily introduced when no bougie can
be made to pafs ; we ought therefore to make ufe of that
inftrument before finally deciding on the nature of the
obftrudtion (d).
When a ftridture is difeovered, and when bougies are
to be ufed with a view of curing it, the firft thing we
are to attempt is to pafs one through it. As the bougie
we employ is moft frequently of a very fmall fize, we
muft attend particularly to the irregularities in the canal
which may entangle the point of fuch a fmall inftrument
and the occafional bendings it may make, while it is
fuppofed it is palling forwards towards the bladder. As
the mouth of the lacunae are chiefly fituated on the fu-
perior part of the canal, the point of the bougie ought
to glide along its inferior furface to avoid them.
The bending of the bougie is only to be prevented
by a forbearance in ufing force, and in diredling pro¬
perly the point j but as the common bougies are apt to
do this, it is often extremely ufeful to have catgut ones for
this purpofe •, and it is neceffary to have them very fmall.
In order to overcome the obftrudtion when the bou¬
gie reaches it, the fituation of the point ought to be
changed by ftiifting it backwards and forwards, and
from
a & erJ?al\S r^re^ente^ *ln £)XIV. fig. 4. have alfo been found ufeful in afeertaining the nature of
Jtndtures by Mr Charles BelL
hap. HI. ° a * G
ridtnres. from fide to fide, and even employing a little preflure,
-V ' tiU it paffes forwards, provided the furgeon has a clear
and diftina idea of the diredion of the urethra.
As the Introduaion of the bougie almoit always
brines on fpafm to a greater or lefs degree on the firft
attempt, it is often neceffary to perfevere fome time be¬
fore it can be made to pafs the ftriaure •, and we mult
continue in our endeavours a long time before we de¬
clare it impraaicable. • r
Blifters on the perinaeumor loins, fomentations ot warm
water and fpirits, turpentine glyfters, dipping the feet
or glans in cold water, anodyne applications and
the internal ufe of camphor, opium, or tinaure of iron,
all aflitt in alleviating the fpafmodic fymptoms when
they occur, and may be felefted for ufe according to
the lodgement of the furgeon.
Attention ought to be paid to the compontion of the
bougie for thofe madeof elaftic metal, catgut, orelaftic
gum, often give pain, while thofe mads of foft plafter
are mild and harmlefs. . .
The time which a bougie ought to remain in the uie-
thra, muft depend greatly on the peculiarities oi the
cafe, for there are no difeafes which appear under moie
various forms than ftriaure. In moft cafes bougies can
be introduced with little pain, and can icmain for fome
minutes without inconvenience •, but there are others
where the introduaion not only produces general iriita-
tion, but the pain is fo violent, as hardly to allow them
to enter the canal, and fometimes they give rife to con-
ftitutional fymptoms. In the firft cafe, from the little
pain the patient fuffers, their ufe has been abufed, and
they have been allowed to remain not only when alleep,
but they have been worn during the patient’s daily em¬
ployments. /
It is found, however, that bougies have a more power¬
ful effea when retained for a fhort time, and often re¬
peated, than when they are longer continued, but fel-
domer ufed j fo that in no cafe, however little pain they
may produce, ought they to be allowed to remain for a
long time. Many indeed think that all their good ef-
fefts are obtained after they have remained twenty or
fifteen minutes, while others allow them to remain for
one or more hours. ^
In cafes of ftri&ure accompanied with much irrita¬
tion, whatever pain the bougie may bring on, it ought
not to be thrown afide, but it (hould be introduced re¬
peatedly whenever there is the leaft abatement of the
fymptoms. This pradtice {hould be continued for weeks
before we defpair offuccefs, as afterwards the pain, from
daily habit, will be diminifhed, and the patient will be
gradually more and more able to bear it. Whilrt we
continue the ufe of the bougie, it ought gradually to be
increafed in fize as the ftridfure gives way, and be in¬
troduced once or perhaps twice a-day till the obftruc-
tion is no longer felt, and till the urine flows in a full*
even, and natural ftream*
When this happens we are not to confider the
cure as altogether complete j for it is very generally
found, that if the ufe of the bougie is at this time given
up, the parts foon begin to contra# again, as they have
ftill a difpofition to return to their former fituation, and
the difeafe in a fhort time is completely renewed.
It will therefore be proper to continue ufing them at
diftant intervals, fome time after the cure appears com-
E R Y.
plete, and give them up in a very flow and gradual man- Stridures.^
ner. # .
It may be here mentioned, that it is not nece^ary to
retain the point of the bougie in the cavity of the blad¬
der, but merely to allow it to pafs the ftridure.
Of the Cauflic.
In fpeaking of the ufe of bougies, we have fuppofed
that it has been pra#icable to pafs one through the
ftri#ure; but it is well known, that cafes do often occur,
where, from the tortuous form the canal has affumed,
the fmalleft bougie is prevented from entering the blad¬
der.
In fuch cafes, preffure was employed on the difeafed
parts, in order to produce ulceration to deftroy the
obftruftion •, but as this mode was found in many cafes-
to be followed with violent inflammation, and attended
with great pain, it was not often performed.
Laying open the flnufes, and diffefting out the dif¬
eafed parts, was alfo a painful and no lefs difficult ope¬
ration, fo that no eafy mode was ever, adopted till Wife-
man employed lunar cauftic.
From the delicate ftrufture of the urinary canal, it
was not without much caution, and in very urgent
cafes, that this remedy was firft employed 5 but fince its
affion was found not to be io violent, it has been freely
uied by many lurgeons, and its application not confined,
to the more advanced ftages of the complaint.
From the time of Wifeman to that of Mr J. Hunter,,
we find little worthy of remark in furgical writers re¬
garding the ufe of cauftic. I he latter of thefe authors,
however, again introduced it into pradlice, and applied it
to all thofe" cafes where he could either do no good with
bougies, or when he could not pafs them through ttie
ftridfure. In his firft trials he met with fuccefs j and as
he foon improved the mode of its application, he was able
to employ it with confiderable advantage.
Mr Hunter’s mode of applying cauftic was firft adopted
by Wifeman ; but as the filver canula which he employ¬
ed, not only gave much pain, but could not be intro¬
duced as far down the urethra as a common bougie in
many inftances, and as the cauftic could not be applied
dire#ly to the centre of the obftruftion, a new mode
was invented. A piece of cauftic was fixed in the ex¬
tremity of a common bougie, and covered with the pla¬
fter except at the extremity, where a part was expofed,
but lb fmall as merely to form the apex of the conical
point of the bougie. In this manner it is found poilible
to apply it to almoft all cafes, and when in dexterous
hands, may be ufed with confiderable fafety. When it
is to be applied to a ftrifture, it is neceflary that fome
previous knowledge of the caie has been obtained from
the introduction of a foft bougie. When this has been
done, tfye armed bougie muft be introduced rather quick¬
ly, but fteadily, till it meets the ftriCture, which we
know both from the feel, and from the fituation previoufly
determined. When brought into conta# with the ftric-
ture, it is perhaps better merely to touch it with the cau¬
ftic the two or three firft applications, and afterwards it
may be retained longer. When the bougie is to be with¬
drawn, it ought to be done cautioufly j for as it has be¬
come foft, and the cauftic not fo firmly fixed in it, it may.
fall out, and be left behind in the urethra. Although
this
SiJk.
'62
S U R G E R Y.
Chap. III.
Strictures, this mode has advantages over the filver canula former-
ly employed, yet there is a way which we think, may
be attended with confiderable fuperiority, as it not only
requires lefs dexterity on the part of the lurgeon, but is
lefs apt to do mifchief.
It is evident, that when the armed bougie is pafied
to a ifricture, it wall unavoidably touch feveral parts of
the lide of the canal in its paffage ; and as often its in-
trodudlion brings on a fpafm, wdiich lafts fome feconds,
or even minutes, a conliderable portion of cauftic may
be diffolved on the found membrane.
The frequency of the application of the cauftic muft
be determined by the particular circumrtances of the
cafe. It ftrould never be repeated till after the effedls of
the firft application have ceafed ; in general, every fecond
day will be found to be enough, but in fome inltances it
may be applied daily.
After the ufe of the cauftic, the patient ought to be
kept quiet j he Ihould not make any exertions
to
In
Si
Bad efteefts
-of cauftic.
82
Strangury.
•Hjemor-
Thagy.
empty the bladder, nor take any violent exercife.
general the pain from the cauftic lafts but a few mi¬
nutes ; and the day following, when the flough fepa-
rates, a rawnefs is felt on making water.
The application of cauftic to the urethra is, however,
•often followed by a train of very alarming fymptoms j
inftead of a mere burning heat in the parts, the patient
is feized with violent pain, followed by retention of
urine, fwelling of the tefticles and perinaeum, haemor-
rhagy, and fometimes, a complete febrile paroxyfm.
From the fympathy that exifts betwixt the urethra
and tefticles, it ,is not unfrequent to find difeafes of the
former produce morbid affedtions of the latter.
Stone of the bladder and the ufe of common bougies
often bring on fwelling on one or both of the tefticles •,
and in one cafe the irritation of a bougie brought on an
inflammation, which terminated in a hydrocele of the
vaginal coat. It is a frequent effedl of cauftic, but foon
difappears when its ufe is given up.
Strangury has often followed the application of
cauftic after any imprudence on the part of the patient *,
and it generally happens in thofe cafes where it has been
applied near the bladder. This may happen not only
from the great fufeeptibility this part of the canal has to
contrad! 5 but it may arife from the bougie palling a
part of the urethra where cauftic had been formerly ap¬
plied, and which remained ftill tender. This retention
of urine in general does not continue long, and in moft
cafes it is relieved by the introdudlion of a bougie, or
the application of a blifter.
When cauftic has not only deftroyed the ftridture,
but its adlion extended to the found parts, blood is often
poured out into the canal, or is effufed into the cellular
texture of the penis. The haemorrhage is fometimes very
profufe, and feems to proceed from an erofion of the
fpongy bodies; but as it has, in every cafe hitherto pub-
lilhed, ceafed of itfelf, no particular means have been
found neceffary to flop it. Keeping the parts cool, and
giving cold acid drinks, quietnefs, and caution againft
all caufes of irritation, Ihould be attended to. The
tumor compofed of effufed blood generally gives little in¬
convenience, and like an ecchimofis on any other part,
it may be removed by the topical application of ftimu-
lants.
By far the moft ferious and moft alarming fymptom
which arifes from the ufe of cauftic is an ague or febrile Stri&ures.
fit. It begins with a fevere cold ftage, which continues ' 1
from fifteen minutes to an hour. This is followed by pebri^ fit
another fit, which lafts fometimes feveral hours, and is
fucceeded by a very profule perlpiration, which is much
greater than what happens in common ague. Thefe
paroxyfins do not return at the fame periods, and feldom
occur more than two or three times. When repeated,
they become more and more fevere, and every future
application of the cauftic brings on one fix or twelve
minutes after. Patients attacked i-n this manner become
extremely debilitated ; and three inftances have come
under our immediate knowdedge wdiere it proved fatal.
When fuch a fymptom occurs, the cauftic ought to
be immediately laid slide, emollients applied to the ure¬
thra, and the patient fupported by cordials.
The cauftic too has been fometimes known to fall out Falling out
of the bougie, and diffolve in the urethra. When fuchthe cau-
an accident happens, if it be not immediately removed,^10
it may produce a flough of almoft the whole extent of
the canal, and bring on very alarming fymptoms.
In place, therefore, of fixing a large piece of cauftic Mo<jeofar
in the bougie, take fuch a quantity as is intended to bepying the
diffolved on the ftrifture $ reduce it into a fine powder,catdtie..
and ftrek it on the point of the bougie, by prefling them
on one another. When this is done, it may be dipped
in warm wax, and receive a thin covering of it.
A bougie prepared in this manner may be introduced
down to the ftiifture without any rilk of injuring the
found membrane ; for as the thin layer of wax which
covers the cauftic, prevents it being immediately dif¬
folved, it is not till it has been kept fome time in con-
ta£l with the ftriffure that it begins to a£t. By follow¬
ing this plan we not only avoid injuring the internal
membrane, but we diffolve no more of the cauftic on
the difeafed parts than what is wifhed for, and there is
no rifk from a portion of cauftic being left behind.
There are, however, cafes where a loft bougie cannot
be fo eafily introduced as a metallic inftrument : in
them, a filver catheter, or one made of Smith’s elaftic
metal, may be ufed with much advantage.
Inftead of the holes being made at the fides of the in¬
ftrument, it ought to be perforated at the extremity,
and this hole filled with cauftic, and fixed in that fitu-
ation with adhefive plafter. Or, what anfvvers equally
well, the catheter may be introduced down to the
obftruftion, and an armed bougie pafled through it.
Comparative advantages of the Bougie and Caujlic.
87
Thus far we have mentioned the manner in which
the bougie or cauftic are to be employed ; wTe now come
to confider the peculiar merits of thofe two modes of
praftice, and to point out thofe cafes where the one is
to be employed in preference to the other.
Notwithftanding the zealous advocates which have
lately introduced cauftic as a general remedy for ftric-
tures, we have no hefitation in declaring it as our opi¬
nion, that the fimple bougie is the inftrument to be pre«
ferred in the generality of cafes of this difeafe, and that
in all cafes where the cure can be accomplifhed by its
means, it fliould be adopted. Cauftic, however, is a
remedy by no means lefs beneficial, though its ufe ought
to be much more circumfcribed j for we certainly believe
that
3
hap. HI. ' S U R G
viaures. t1nat by Us proper application many of the worft cafes ot
ftriaure, cafes indeed which are quite incurable by the
bougie, may be benefited by its application.
In thofe cafes of fpafinodic ftn&ure where the com¬
mon bougie either cannot pafs the ftridlured part, or
where it has no effett in relieving the fymptoms, caulhc
may be ufed v\rith advantage.
It may be alfo employed whenever the ftn&ufe is at¬
tended with much pain and irritation or conftitutionai
fymptomsand in cafes where the contradlion of the
urethra is fuch, as entirely to clofe up the canal, and
the urine to come through fifiulous openings in the
fcrotum and perinseum, the ufe of caultic is attended
with the bell effeCls. We have met with cafes, where
during a fucceffion of years, urine has drilled through
fitlulous openings in the fcrotum, in which fix, eight, or
ten applications of the cauftic bougie have opened a free
paffage into the bladder, and allowed ail the fiitulas to
heal up.
From the rapidity of the cures performed by caultic
in comparifon to thofe of the bougie, the former a few
years ago came into very general ufe, and was tried by
different furgeons all over this ifiand m every potfible va¬
riety of the difeafe. In this extenfive field of experiment
the merits of cauftic have been fairly balanced, and its ex-
aggerated good cffedfs have fallen into difrepute, whilft
the calumnious reports of its fatal and dreadful confe-
quences in the hands of experienced men, have been fhown
to be without foundation. T hus in the m;dil of medi¬
cal rancour and difpute, cautious and intelligent men
have become acquainted with the good qualities of a
moft aftive application •, and an unprejudiced mind has
laid open before it a vaft field of obfervation on a dif¬
eafe which deeply interells a confiderable number of
83
SECT. II. Of StriBures in the Oefophagus.
E It Y. . . . 63
With a view to afeertain the true nature of the dif- ^Strictures.
eafe, it is ahvays neceffary to introduce a bougie. The v
bell mode of doing this, is that recommended by Mr Eve-
rard Home. The patient is defired to pulh the tongue
as far as pofiible out of the mouth, thus bringing the ori¬
fice of the ftri&ure as nearly as poffible in a line with
the middle of the pharynx. The bougie being oiled or
covered with mucilage, is then to be thruft down into
the cefophagus. When the bougie paffes down to the
diftance of eight inches, meafuring from the cutting
edge of the front teeth in the upper jaw, the furgecn
may be latisfied that it has gone beyond the ulual feat
of llrifture •, and if it is brought back without any re¬
finance, he may conclude that the aperture of the oefo-
phagus confiderably exceeds the fize of the bougie which
has been ufed. But if the bougie flops at fix inches or
even lower, he is to retain it there with a uniform Heady
preflure for half a minute, fo as to receive on its point
an impreffion on the furface to which it was oppofed.
If the end of the bougie retains its natural form, or
nearly fo, and there is an indentation like the mark of a
cord on its fide, whether all round or only partially, he
may decide that the difeafe is a ftridfure. But if, on tne
other hand, the bougie pafles without any difficulty to
the dillance of feven inches and a half, and when
brought back the point has an irregular jagged furface,
it is equally clear that the difeafe is an ulcer on the po-
fterior furface of the oefophagus.
When ftridlures of the cefophagus haVe been of long
continuance, ulceration takes place on the fide of the
ftriclure next the ftomach. When fuch ulceration
takes place, the character of the original difeafe is
loft •, and wffien the ulceration extends upwards, the
ftrifture itfelf is deilroyed. A bougie palled under
fuch circumftances, will, in general, have its point en¬
tangled in the ulcer 5 and when fo Ikiliully direfled as to^
go down into the cefophagus, it will meet with a difr.
The mucous membrane lining the oefophagus, like
that of the urethra, is liable to become contracted,
forming a ftrifture. Thefe contra&ions may be formed
at any part of the canal •, but it is obferved that there
is one fpot more liable than any other to become affedi¬
ed wdth it. The part alluded to is immediately behind
the cricoid cartilages of the larynx, where the fauces may
be faid to terminate, and the oeiophagus begin. I he
difeafe appears, on diffection, to confift of a tranfverfe fold
of the internal membrane of the oefophagus, filling up in
different degrees the aperture of the canal.
This part of the oefophagus is alfo liable to two other
difeafes, whofc Tymptoms are nearly alike, and therefore
may be miftaken for ftricture. One of thefe is a thick¬
ening of the coats of the ce'ophagus, which extends to the
ffirrounding parts, and in the end moft commonly dege¬
nerates into cancer. The other is an ulcer of the lin¬
ing of the cefophagus, which is commonly fituated a
little below the ordinary place of ItriCture, and upon the
pofterior or vertebral portion of the canal. Both of thefe
complaints produce a difficulty in deglutition, and in
their early ft ages are only to be diftinguifhed from (Vic-
ture, by an examination with a bougie. Stricture ap¬
pears to be a difeafe more frequent in the early periods
of life; while the two other difeafes are more commonly
met with at an advanced age.
culty while it is paffing from the found cefophagus to
the ulcer, and again when it leaves the ulcer and re¬
enters the found canal belowr; and in its return there wilt
alfo be tw^o parts at which a refiftance is felt. This
may miftead the moft accurate obferver, and create a
belief that there are two ftridtures, whereas in fa£t there
is none but an ulcer of fome extent, and a pow’er or
contraction in the upper and lowTer extremities of the
oefophagus where they terminate in the ulcer.
Treatment.—The treatment of ftricSture in the oefo¬
phagus is to be conducted on the lame general principles
as ftriCture in the urethra.. 8^
Bougies which are made much longer and of larger
dimenfions than thofe for the urethra, may be ufed
W’ith the greateft fafety. At firft, indeed, they lome-
times create a good deal of irritation and a febrile at¬
tack ; and in fuch cafes they muft be employed with
the greateft caution. Once in twenty-four or forty-eight
hours, according to the nature of the cafe* will be fuffi-
ciently often to introduce them ; and they may be dif-
continued in-proportion to the alleviation of the fymp¬
toms. The ufe of cauftic in this fpecies of ftriCture has
alfo been not only propofed, but adopted ; a praCtice
which is more a proof of the boldnefs of its inventor
than of his prudence *. It is not to be denied, that fome * Home on
defperate cafes of the difeafe may occur, where every
remedy proves ufelefs, and that in thefe, the cauft;c
bougie3
64 S U R
Stri&ures. bougie, introduced and applied to the ftri&ure with much
•'l""T" v " dexterity, may be beneficial. But thefe cafes are fo
rare, ami there are fo few able to ufe this a&ive remedy
properly, that we cannot help thinking it can never be
very generally introduced into pra£tice.
G E R Y.
Chap. Ill
po
Sect. III. StriElure of the ReElum.
As far as we know, there is no author who has given
any accurate account of the various morbid appearances
of the extremity of the reftum. Under the general name
of hcemorrhoids, a variety of tumors very different from
one another have been clalfed; whilft under the name of
fchirrus, have been confidered all cafes where the diameter
of the lower part of the inteftinal canal has been dimi-
nifhed. In a practical point of view, thefe obferva-
tions are of the greateft importance, as they lead the
furgeon to diferiminate between thofe cafes which are
likely to be aided by the ufe of medicines, and thofe
which are beyond the reach of art, or which the fame
mode of treatment might tend more to aggravate than
to alleviate.
In many cafes of the true feirrhus, or cancerous
affe&ion of the inteffine, the difeafe firft appears by
the formation of one or more griflly tumors on the
internal furface of the canal j and thefe by increa-
fing in number and in fize, and by involving the ad¬
jacent parts, contraft the canal, and at laft ulcerate,
forming true cancerous fores. But there is another
clafs of cafes, in which the diameter of the inteftines be¬
comes narrowTed by a thickening of its coats, and which,
rvere we to reafon from analogy, might be compared to
that thickening wdlich forms ftrifture in the other mu¬
cous furfaces, as in the cefophagus and urethra. It is the
ame cafes that we fufpeft Delfanlt treated with fo
* Oeuvres much fuccefs by the ufe of bougies*} and from the good
Chirur- effeUs of this mode of treatment in cafes of ftridture in
gicales. other parts of the body, it is reafonable to expert benefit
from their ufe in ftriftures of the reftum. Deflault,
however, wifhes it to be underftood that the practice is
to be employed in the true fchirrus *, but the two cafes
which are given in detail by Bichfit in his edition of
Deffault’s wrorks,in illuftration of the praftice in fchirrus,
are by no means conclufive. The firft is a cafe of tumors
of the internal membrane, which were much alleviated by
the comprcffion of a bougie } w-hilft the fecond was a
cafe which fhows the relief to be obtained by the ufe of
bougies in cafes of fchirrous contraftion in the difeharge
of the faeces, but by no means in the cure of the
difeafe.
In cafes, therefore, of contraction of the re&um which
are not of a feirrhous nature, befides the ftrift attention
to keep the bowrels regular, and render the faeces as li¬
quid as poflible by the ufe of laxatives and emolient injec¬
tions, bougies made of a proper fize may beufed with re¬
lief*, and, as w’e have mentioned in another place, the
pradtice is alfo highly ferviceable in fome cafes of tumors
which grow from this part of the inteftine.
$1
Sect. IV. Of Polypi.
When the mucous membrane of any part of the body
becomes elevated above its natural level, fo as to form a
circumfcribed fwelling, the difeafe is called a polypus.
4
Polypi have been found on all the different mucous Of Polypi,
furfaces ; in the nofe, frontal and maxillary finufes,l——y"—'
pharynx, gullet, mouth and gums, meatus externus, con-
jundtiva, ftomach, inteftines, redlum, uterus, vagina,
bladder, and urethra.
There are four different kinds of polypi, varying from
each other in their ftrudture. ill, The mucous ; 2d, the
flefnj, 3d, the carcinomatous; and 4th, the eneyfed po-
typi; ...
The mucous polypi have a fiippery furface, and are
conftantly covered with a quantity of mucus. They
are of a greyilh or dull white colour, and have a demi-
tranfparent appearance, refembling, particularly at their
extremities, a piece of foftened glue. They are eafily
torn and bleed freely } they are neither painful nor fenfi-
ble to the touch ; they fuffer remarkable alterations from
changes in the ftate of the atmofphere, extending prodi-
gioufty in cold and moift, and contradling in a dry and
warm air. They are of an irregular and angular (hape,
and often feem to take the particular form of the cavity
in w'hich they grow. They are commonly attached by
a narrow neck, and are quite moveable.
The flefhy or carcinomatous polypi are of a bright red
colour, their furface is fmooth and regular. They are
of a rounded form, and are attached by a narrow^ neck.
They are firmer and are not fo eafily torn, nor do they
bleed fo readily as thofe of the mucous kind.
The carcinomatous polypi are of a darker red or more
purple colour than thofe of the flelhy kind, and fome-
times they are of a livid hue. They are fupplied by a
great number of blood-veffels, which makes them bleed
profufely even when flightly injured, or gives them a
difpofition to bleed of themfelves. They are of a very
hard firm firufture ; fome of them are as hard as car¬
tilage. They are more or lefs painful, and are very
fenfible to the touch. Sometimes the pain is of that
flinging lancinating kind which carcinomatous tumors
have in other parts of the body. Their furface fome*
times ulcerates, and the ulcer affumes all the charafters
of a cancerous fore. They are commonly attached by
a firm broad bafis.
The eneyfed polypi occur leaft frequently. Rich¬
ter fays that they refemble a reticular fac, which
contains fluid fometimes refembling mucus \ at o-
ther times it is of a thick confiftence. In one cafe
■we found the mucous membrane covering the fupe-
rior fpongy bones extended, but not much thicken¬
ed } and between its folds there w7ere feveral round
femitranfparent veficles, containing a thick glairy
fluid.
Sect. V. Of Polypi of the Nofe.
All the four different kinds of polypi have been
found growing from the mucous membrane lining the
cavity of the nofe *, we have alfo feen the fuperior fpongy
bone fo increafed in bulk, as to form a tumor refem¬
bling the flefhy polypus.
The firft fymptom of a polypus in the nofe is a preter¬
natural degree of rednefs of its mucous furface. It be¬
comes fpongy and callous, and there is an increafed fe-
cretion of mucus. The patient has fome interruption
in breathing, and the voice is rendered more or lefs in-
difiin£lf j he feels as if ftifled, and he tries to get quit
of
Chap. HI.
Of Polypi, of fometMng which incommodes him by blowing his
—* nofe, for the fame realon as a perfon does who labours
under a cormnon catarrh ; the fenfe of fmell becomes
impaired, and all thefe fymptoms are more troublefome
in wet than in dry weather.
The fymptoms increafe till the extenfion of the mu¬
cous membrane increafes to fuch a degree, as to form a
diilinft circumfcribed tumor ; and the progrefs of the
complaint is generally fo flow, that its nature is fre¬
quently not fufpe&ed till it gets this length.
By degrees the breathing through the nofe and the
fenfe of fmell are entirely deftroyed from the mecha¬
nical obftruftion of the tumor •, and the patient hitnfelf
finds, that by a violent expiration or infpiration, the tu¬
mor can be puflied forward or backivard in the nofe.
The preflure which a ’polypus fometimes makes on
the nafal dudl prevents the tears from flowing freely in¬
to the nofe, and is the caufe of a watery eye.
When the tumor is large, the feptum of the nofe is
frequently prefled on, and puftied to the oppofite fide,
and then the refpiration is opprefled in both noftrils.
Sometimes the tumor defcends, and part of it projefts
through the noftril •, when this takes place, the furface
of the part expofed to the air becomes like common
fkin. This indeed happens when any mucous furface is
expofed. We have obferved it in the vagina when
it was inverted, and in the eyelid when the palpebral
membrane was turned outwards, from a tumor, or any
other caufe.
Morgagni takes particular notice that the natural po-
fition of the feptum is apt to be miftaken for difeafe, as
it very frequently divides the nafal cavity into two un¬
equal portions.
More frequently polypi extend backward into the
pharynx, and can be felt by introducing the finger be¬
hind the velum pendulum palati. In one rare inftance,
we have known a polypus fo large, as to defcend along
the cefophagus into the ftomach, and in another to fill
up the whole cavity of the mouth, and produce fuffoc^-
tion.
It happens alfo that polypi growing from an exten-
five bafe, feparate, difplace, and produce an abforption
'of the bones which furround them. The bones of the
nofe are puflied upward •, the maxillary bones and the
palate bones are disjoined, and carried outward ; the
arch of the palate deprefled •, the inferior margins of the
orbits are prefled upward, and pufh the eyes out of their
orbits.
Polypi are found to arife from every part of the nafal
cavity ; but moft frequently from the inferior fpongy
bones. Many furgeons have conceived that polypi arofe
from general difeafes of the conftitution, as fcrofula, fy-
philis, See. ; but it will in general be found to be a mere
local difeafe, and probably to arife from whatever tends
to prodhee a continued or repeated attack of inflamma¬
tion in the part.
^ Treatment.—If polypi are attached to the upper
fpongy bones, their removal will be more dangerous, as
the inflammation excited by an operation will be rea¬
dily conveyed to the brain. When they are attached to
the inferior fpongy bones, they can be removed with
perfect fafety.
The moft celebrated furgeons have never advifed any
operation when the tumor is fmall and gives no diftrefs ;
but whenever it becomes of fuch a fize as to fill up the
Vol. XX. Part I.
6,
cavity of the noftril, difturb refpiration, and aflume a Of Polypi,
malign afpeit, it ought to be removed. v~’"m
As long as polypi continue fmail, or Avhen the mu¬
cous membrane acquires that appearance which indi¬
cates the commencement of the difeafe, tonic and af-
tringent remedies are generally recommended, as de-
codtion of oak bark, with alum ; ftrong folutions of
white vitriol, faccharum faturni, or muriate of mer¬
cury, ardent fpirits, and vinegar. Either of thefe
folutions, which may be feledled, ought to be thrown
up a little warm into the nafal cavity with a fyringe,
retained there half a minute or more, and repeated
four or five times daily ; or a piece of charpee wet
with them may be put into the nofe with a probe, and
applied to the difeafed furface. Kino, galls, white vi¬
triol, &c. fabine in the form of powder, fnuffed up in¬
to the nofe, as ftrqng as the patient can fufter it, are
alfo ufeful in flopping the progrefs of the difeafe. Mer¬
cury has been found rather to make them worfe ; cauftic
and other corroding applications have been of ufe in the
fofter kind, though they have never produced a cure.
Bougies have been recommended by Mr B. Bell, and
are faid to have been ufeful •, and when the polypus is
fmall, they may adt on the fame principle as bougies do
on tumors of the redtum, a pradtice fo fuccefsful in the
hands of Deflault.
Polypi may be removed either by tying a ligature
round their neck, by tearing or twilling them, or by
cutting them out with a knife or feiflars.
Operation.—Profeflbr Richter of Gottingen, and fe- ^
veral eminent pradlitioners of this country, ufe, in gene¬
ral, the forceps •, and in thofe cafes where the polypus
is attached to the inferior fpongy bones, or to any of
the inferior parts of the nafal cavity, this mode of ope¬
ration is much more eafily performed, and has the belt
chance of fuccefs.
From the foft fpongy texture of the fuperior fpongy
bones, and ethmoid bone, with which they are connedf-
ed, there is a conliderable rifle of tearing and injuring
more parts than is neceflary for the removal of the
polypus \ and, as any inflammation excited on thefe
may fpread to the membranes of the brain, it is more
advifeable to remove polypi attached to thefe parts by
the ligature.
When polypi are completely within the reach of the
knife, adhering towards the external opening of the no¬
ftrils, they may be eafily cut away.
In performing any operation, or even making an exa¬
mination of the ftate of the nofe, it is of confiderable
importance to attend to the pofition of the forehead,
and to employ a proper light.
The head fhould be bent backwards *, and in order
to enlarge the external noftril, an afliftant, on whofe
breaft the head of the patient rolls, ought, with the
fore-finger of his right hand, to prefs upward the point
of the nofe j whilft, with a probe in his left, he fpreads
out the alse.
Of removing Polypi with the Forceps.—Forceps for
this purpofe ought to be fix inches or fix inches and a
half long, and the axis at two-thirds of their length
diftant from the extremity of the handle j lo that the
operator may have the advantage of a long lever. See
Fig. I. Plate DXV. Plate
The points of them ought to be blunt, rounded on DXV.
the outfide, perforated, and a concavity, made rough, K
I extending
SURGERY.
66 S U R G
Of Polypi, extending to near the axis. The two blades ought to
/ * be feparated at their union, when doled, and not to
become parallel till they are opened to a conliderable
diftance, in order that the polypus may be held very
firmly. The blades Ihould be ftrong, and pretty
broad.
Even this form of forceps is not always fufficient j
and it is ufeful to have a pair of fuch as has been recom-
* See Plate mended by Richter*. They are intended to be em-
DXV.fig.2.pl0yecl m thofe cafes, where the polypus is fo large
as completely to fill the noftril, and fo hard, that the
upper part of the blades of the common forceps cannot
fufficiently dilate to allow their extremity to pafs down
the noftril, and reach the bottom or neck of the
x tumor.
It is of great importance to fix the forceps as near the
root of the polypus as poffible ; for, when that is ac-
compliftied. the wb"!e mafs may he at once removed :
and *he haemorrhagy is never fo great as if the polypus
was torn through the middle.
Often, however, it happen-?, that the polypus is fo
large as to diftenl the noftrils in fuch a manner, that it
is impofti .ie to difeowr the root Rll ftie extremity is
removed. We mult, in fuch a cate, remove as much
as we are able, and even although the bleeding is pro-
fufe, perfevert in the operation as long as we can pull
any away with faiety.
When the operation is to be performed, the patient
ought, by his own efforts, to- puftv the body as far for¬
wards as poflible; then the furgeon, with a pair of
fmall forceps in his left hand, Hazes the point of the
polypus, and having kept fall hold of it, he cautioufly
int'-oduces the polypus forceps on the outfide of the
others. The more time that is beftowed on this ftep of
the operation, the more the polypus becomes elongated
and thinner, the more room is given for the forceps,
and therefore the higher up can the polvpus be gra'ped.
After it is completely fe-cured between the blades of the
forceps, it is to be twifted (lowly round, and at the
feme time pulled outwards If only a portion of the
polypus is removed, what remains is to be extrafied in
the feme manner. The hcemorrhagy is generally pro-
fufe, but ftldom requires the affillance of art to ftop
it.
Of Removing Polypi by the Ligature.—The liga¬
tures confift of wire, catgut, filk or cord ; and dif¬
ferent methods have been employed for palling them
round the root of the polypus. In order to remove
a polypus, the anterior part of which is fituated in
one of the noftrils, a ligature («) f is to be introduced
through a double canula (£), and one end fixed round
the ring (c) *, whilft the other end (e/) being loofe, al¬
lows the noofe at «, to be increafed or diminiftied, ac¬
cording to the fize of the polypus. The polypus is to
be grafped bv a pair of forceps put through the noofe,
and drawn forwards. The ligature is then to he carried
to the root of the polvpus, either by means of the forked
probe (fig. 4.), or by one of the porte-nceuds (fig. ^.),
taking care to tighten the wire gradually, the further
the inftrument is introduced. When the noofe ^reaches
the root of the polypus, the ligature is to be firmly
drawn, and feeured by being twifted round the ring of
the canula. If the polypus hang down behind the ve¬
lum pendulum palati, the doubled wire is to be flowly
infinuated through the noftril into the throat. The
96
f Plate
KX V.ti
E R Y. Chap. Ill,
finger of the furgeon is to be introduced into the mouth, of Poipyi,
and by opening its doubling the noofe paffed over the v-"—^
extremity of the polypus, and conduced to its root, by
gradually tightening the ligature, and then it is to be
firmly fixed. The ligature ihould be tightened once or
twice a-day, until the tumor entirely feparates. As
there is generally a confiderable degree of fwelling and
inflammation of the tumor before this takes place, if it
be fo fituated as to difturb refpiration, it may even be ne-
ceffary to perform bronchotomy as a preliminary ftep.
Should any part of the polypus remain, it may be de-
ftroyed by cauftic, or the actual cautery, if practicable.
Befides this, which is the common and molt Ample
mode of applying the ligatures, there are others which
are well adapted for partieular cafes. The apparatus
employed by Deffault is extremely ingenious and well-
fnited for its puipofe, but is moie particularly uieful in
polypi of the vagina and uterus. ^
Whet, this apparatus is to be ufed, two porte-nceuds Defiault'*
(»/?) ought to be procured, and having pufhed the aPParatus*
cylinder ever the branches of the llalk, fo as to Ihut the
ri gs [d') completely, a ligature of waxed thread, cat¬
gut, or fitver wire, is to be palled through them (£),
and the extremities may be either held along with the
canula or fecured at <?*. * See
The two canulas, thus armed, are introduced pa-PiateDXV.
rallel to one another b< tween the tumor and parities of 5-
the cavity in which it lies ; and when they reach its
b'ife, one is held firm, and the other carried round the
bafe, crofted over the other, forming a noofe round
it.
The ligature being pullt-d tight by an afliflant, the
two ends are to be put through the hole (£■) of the
other canula, and fi.xt-d to the axis at h.
The extremity (g) is then to be flipt along the liga¬
ture elofe to the polypus ; and ihe ligature being firmly
fixed to the other extremity, (he two porte-noeuds may
be at once removed, by allowing the ring to divide and
the ligature to efcape.
This being done, nothing remains to complete the
operation. The ligature is kept round the polypus till
it drops off. and as the parts begin to give way, it ought
to be retained always perfectly tight; and this may be
eafily aecomplilhed by turning the ferew at h.
The apparatus, too, (fig. 6. Plate DXV.) may alfo
be fometimes ufeful, from the flexibility of the canula,
which conveys and directs the ligature.
2. Of the Polypus of the ReElum. ^
Polypi of the re<ffum differ confiderably from the
common hcemorrhoidaltumor, in their fymptoms and ap¬
pearances. They relemble the flefhv polypi in other
parts of the body, in their colour and external form,
and they are alfo fometimes ulcerated on the furface.
On cutting through a large tumor of this kind, we
found it compofed of a vaft number of cells, feme of
them very large, and all of them filled with blood.
Their progrefs is flow, and we have feen them grow as
big as a large walnut. They do not alter their fize at
different times, as is obferved in the haemorrhoidal tu¬
mor, except that they are apt to (well, when allowed
to remain long external to the anus. They are moll
commonly fituated in the return, elofe to the anus; fo
that when the patient goes to flool they are puftied
downwards,
Chap. TIL
Of Polypi, downwards, and appear externally. When very large,
' ■ ”"y they are alfo apt to come through the anus by the Icaft
exertion in walking. 1 hey are generally attended with
more or lefs pain or unealinefs on going to ftool} and when
they become fo large as to come through the anus in
walking, the difeale becomes very diftrefling. They
are often accompanied with a difeharge of mucus.
Sometimes, too, haemorrhoidal tumors are formed con¬
tiguous to the polypus ; but the latter is generally point¬
ed out by the patient as the original fwelling, and that
which gives moft pain. T hefe tumors may alfo be rea¬
dily dill in gui died from one another by their difference
in colour and general form.
99 Treatment.—Aftringents, with opium, and bougies,
may alleviate the fymptoms ; but as they feldom give
permanent relief, the moft complete and fafeft mode of
cure is removing them with the knife, if they can be
readily reached j if not, the ligature is preferable, al¬
though it gives much more pain *, for it fometimes hap¬
pens, that a very profufe bleeding follows after they
have been cut away. The haemorrhoidal tumors which
accompany the polypus dilappear after its removal.
When they are tied with a ligature, this can be done
in moft cafes by Amply tying a ftrong filk thread firmly
round the bafe of the tumor. Often the bafe is larger
than the apex, and then it is neceffary to pafs through
the middle of the tumor a curved needle with two liga¬
tures, one to tie each half of it. To prevent any mif-
take, and accelerate the operation, furgeons make one
of the ligatures of black, and the other of white thread.
Whilft the mortified part is feparating, great attention
is neceffary to keep the furrounding parts from excoria¬
ting } and this is to be done by frequently wafhing with
warm water, or a faturnine folution, and anointing them
with faturnine ointments, or the unguentum refino-
fum. Fig. 7. Plate DXV. gives an outline of tumors of
this kind.
100 3. Toly pi of the Gums
Moft frequently are connedled with a carious tooth,
or of the alveolar procefies of the jaw bone j fometimes,
however, not. They are generally of a firm flefhy tex¬
ture, rounded form, polilhed furface, and are very apt
to bleed \ and they fometimes grow to a very large fize,
and become malignant. They are beft removed by the
knife j and, as they bleed profufely, it is often necef-
fary to ufe the aftual cautery to reftrain it. If the bone
is found carious, the difeafed part ftiould, if poflible, be
be removed, or means ufed to afiift and promote its ex¬
foliation 5 and when this has taken place the polypus
. often difappears without any operation.
-joi 4. Polypus of the Frontal Sinus.
This is a very rare difeafe, and it produces the fame
dreadful confequences as that of the antrum. Art can
perhaps venture to do little, as the clofe connection to
the brain would render any attempt to remove it dan¬
gerous.
so* 5. Polypus of the Antrum Maxillare.
The furgeon is feldom aware of the prefence of this
difeafe until it is far advanced, and has begun to diftend
the bony cavity in which it is fotmed. It fometimes
acquires a prodigious bulk, feparating and rendering ca-
iious the bones of the face, puftiing the eyeball ©ut of
67
the orbit, and filling up the cavity of the mouth. If Of Polypi,
the nature of the complaint is early fufpefted, by re- v
moving a portion of the external parietes of the antrum
with a trephine, the polypus may perhaps be removed
from its attachments j but if that is impracticable, ftrong
aftringent applications, cauftic or the aClual cautery, or
removing portions by the knife, may arreft the progrefs
of the difeafe.
6. Polypi of the Urethra. io3
Thefe are what have been called caruncles, and were
fuppofed to be the moft common caufe of ftriCture. It
is now, however, well known that they occur feldom.
If their growth is not checked by the ufe of a bougie,
and if they are not near the meatus urinarius, it may be
neceffary in fome cafes to cut in upon the urethra, in
order to get them extirpated j but that muft happen
rarely.
7. Polypi of the Bladder Io4
Are beyond the reach of the furgeon, but they occur
very rarely j and the diftrefling fymptoms which attend
this difeafe, can only be alleviated by thofe internal me¬
dicines which dilute the urine and allay the irritability
of the bladder.
8. Polypi of the Ear. 105
They fometimes grow from the membrana tym-
pani, but they generally arife from the cavity of the
tympanum, after the membrana tympani has been do-
ftroyed by ulceration. They referable the common
mucous polypi in ftruClure j and they are moft frequent¬
ly accompanied by a difeharge of puriform matter and
a total lofs of hearing. They miy be removed with a
ligature in moft cafes very eafily j or they may be torn
out with forceps •, and it is always neceffary to touch the
part to which they adhered repeatedly with cauftic, and
to ufe ftrong aftringent walhes, in order to prevent their
future growth.
9. Polypus of the ConjunEhva.
We have never obferved them on the conjun£liva co¬
vering the eyeball ; but they are formed on the inner
membrane of the eyelids, and moft frequently on the
upper one.. They are foft pendulous mafles, which,
being loofe, float between the eyelid and ball, and fome¬
times even pafs beyond the edge of the lids. They are
of the red colour of the inflamed mucous membrane \
but thofe portions which are expofed to the external at-
mofphere become dry, and often dropoff. 'I hey are
often formed in confequence of the membrane being in¬
flamed by the abfeefs burfting internally. They are
„ eafily removed by the knife j and they are prevented
from being regenerated, by flight fcarifications or the
application of lunar cauftic to the bafe.
10. Of the Polypus of the Uterus. toj
Thefe polypi are found to grow either from the fun¬
dus, the lower edge of the os uteri, or from the infide
of the cervix. The firft is the moft, and the fecond
the leaft frequent. The fhape of the uterine polypi is
generally pyriform, having a very narrow neck. They
are commonly of the farcomatous kind ; though it often
happens that polypi are formed in uteri affected with
I 2 cancer.
SURGERY.
68
SURGERY.
v'i 'la; cancer* Polypi protruding into the vagina are apt to
i be miltaken for prolapfed uteri ; and this mitlake is more
likely to take place in fome cafes where the polypus ac¬
quires a large bulk in the uterus, and is fuddenly pro¬
truded into the vagina, and ftrangulated by the os tinci.
Cafes, too, of prolapfed uteri have been miftaken for,
and treated as polypi.
The fateft mode of removing uterine polypi is with
the ligature. When it is lituated in the uterus, this
operation is impracticable 5 but when it defcends into
the vagina, it may be very readily done by the appara¬
tus of jbefiault (Plate DXV. fig. 5.).
Sect. VI. Of Aphtha:.
The formation of aphthae, when they are examined
writh care in their different degrees, may probably ex¬
tend our views of the intimate itruflure of the mucous
membranes. Boerhaave confidered them as fmall fupev-
ficial ulcerations, and Stahl regarded them as tubercles
or puftules. From the prefent ftate of our knowledge
it is difficult to determine whether aphthae arife from
the chorion of the mucous membrane, in its papilla, or
in its mucous follicles.
Aphthae are formed on the lips, the gums, the inte¬
rior of the mouth, the tongue, the palate, the amygdalae,
the cefophagus, and alfo in the ftomach and inteftines.
They are moft frequent in children and old people, and
they have been obferved in people who inhabit places
where the air is tainted, and who live on unvvholefome
food.
The aphthae of the adult may be confidered as a col¬
lection, more or lefs agglomerated or infulated, of white
fuperficial rounded tubercles, each about the fize of a
millet feed. Thefe tubercles difcharge a ferous humour ;
the pellicle which covers the mucous membrane is de¬
tached, and is progj-e{lively formed in the different parts
of the mouth, and even in the reft of the alimentary
canal. They are fometimes diffeminated in folitary pu¬
ftules over the tongue, the angles of the lips, or the
back part of the mouth, with a benign charafter. At
other times they are formed and feemingly propagated
from the interior of the oefophagus ; pafs the back part
of the mouth, forming a white, thick, and ftrongly ad¬
hering cruff •, and thefe are often dangerous from a com¬
plication of typhus fever.
The aphthous tubercles vary in colour. Sometimes
they are tranfparent; at other times they are white,
with a certain degree of thicknefs ; they are alfo fome-
. times of a deep yellow colour, and fometimes they are
livid or blackiih, a fymptom which always indicates a
greater degree of danger.
Aphthae may alfo be frequently obferved in people
who have taken many courfes of mercury. In thefe
cafes, the repeated aCtion of the mercury on the mouth
appears to leave on that organ a degree of fenfibility or
weaknefs which difpofes it to the difeafe. It happens
not unfrequently that thefe aphthae are confidered as
venereal fores, in confequence of the venereal difeafe
not having been properly cured $ on this fuppofition a
new mercurial courfe is employed, which only augments
the difpofition to aphthae, and makes the fores fpread
more rapidlv.
The aphthae of children are preceded by a profound
ileep, by agitation of the mufcles of the face and lips, dif-
Chap. III.
ficulty of refpiration, proftration of ftrength, feeblenefe OfHa;-
of the pulfe, and vomiting. In the mild form of the morrhagy
difeafe, white fuperficial {pots appear in different parts from‘vlu'
of the mouth, which are feparated from one another, C0“Sraneesm‘
and the interftices are neither red nor inflamed. The 1 - \- 'j
bottom of the mouth has often been difcoloured, and
the heat immoderate •, there is no difficulty in {wallow¬
ing, and the child can readily fuckle ; the deep is na¬
tural, and there is a flight diarrhoea. The fpots during
the firll days preferve their wbitenefs and tranfparency ;
they afterwards become a little ytllow, exfoliate in
flakes, and go away entirely about the ninth or tenth
day, particularly when the child has a nurfe.
1 he confluent or gangrenous aphthae have other cha-
radlers. The fmall puftules are contiguous to one an¬
other, and fpread not only over the lips, the gums, the
tongue, and the interior of the cheek ; but Are alfo fee
them at the bottom of the throat. The mouth of the
child is burning ; the lips are with difficulty applied to
the nipple, and fometimes it is excoriated by their contatff.
Deglutition is very difficult, and the moft fimpie drinks
given in fmall quantities, and with precaution, do not
enter into the ftomach but rvith pain. There is a con-
ftant purging of greenilh matter, rvhich inflames and
excoriates the fkin round the anus •, the child is very
feeble and heavy, and the eyes are funk and fliut, and
the child fcreams. The whole interior of the mouth
from the lips to the throat becomes at laft lined with a
rvhite thick cruft, refembling coagulated milk. This
cruft becomes yellow, and forms a Hough, which, after
it falls off, expofes gangrenous ulcers of a dark brownifli
yelloAv colour.
Treatment.—In the benign form of the difeafe in 10$
children, it is of great confequence to get the child a
good nurfe j and the affefted parts may be wafhed oA^er
five or fix times a-day Avith a piece of caddis dipped in
a little water gruel, to which has been added a feAv
drops of fulphuric acid. Borax, either in poAvder or
folution, has alfo been confidered by feme as a ufeful
application. When the cruft has feparated, if the re¬
maining ulcer be painful and irritable, its furface may
be rubbed over \yilh nitrate of filver, or any other cau-
fkc application. Sometimes very malignant looking
ulcers remain in the adult, after the feparation of the
cruft. In thefe cafes, cauftic may be employed ; and
Ave have often feen them heal rapidly by touching their
furfaces once a-day with a weak folution of corrofive
fublimate or muriatic acid. For the treatment of the
confluent aphthae, fee Medicine.
Sect. VII. General Remarks on the Heemorrhagij from llo
Mucous Membranes.
All the mucous furfaces are particularly fubjeft to
hoemorrhagy j and this may arife either from a rupture
of the veffels, or the blood may be poured out by the
exbalents.
I he iuperficial pofition of the veffels, and conlequent-
ly their want of firmnefs and fupport, expofes them much
to rupture by very (light concuflions. We have ex¬
amples of this in the bronchiae, brought on by coughing j
in the nofe, by flight bloAvs on the head, or by violent
fneezing; and in the redtum, by {training on going to
ftool. I he eftefts of ftones or gravel on the mucous
membrane lining the urinary organs are the fame; and
even. 1
ftiap.
in. . s u R
Of Kte- even the moft cautious xntroduflion of a found or bougie
norrhagy i^to the urethra, often caufes bleeding 5 or the flighteit
rom .'vlu- frj^jon 0f polypi of the nofe and gums, or the introduc-
0brane!m’ tion of a probe into the lachrymal paffages; When con-
—-v—^ fiderino- the difeafes of the fkin, we mentioned, that in
fome difeafes, particularly fome peililential fevers, the
exhalents of the Ikin poured out red blood. The fame
thing happens among the mucous membranes. We of¬
ten fee blood come from the nofe, from the bronchia',
ftomach, and inteftines, urinary bladder and kidneys,
where there has been no reafon to fuppofe ulceration
previouily to have taken place, or any thing to caufe a
rupture of any of the velfels.
xit 1. Hamorrhagy from the Nofe.
Hsemorrhagy from the nofe arifes from a variety of
caufes. We often obferve it after fevers, and then it has
been confidered as critical. In young people it occurs
very frequently, and from very flight caufes 5 and it has
been fometimes known to take place at the menftrual
period.
Hsemorrhagy from the nofe is generally preceded by
fymptoms of an increafed quantity of blood to the head,
pulfating motion of the temporal arteries, feeling of
•weight about the head, fymptoms which are preceded
or accompanied by other changes in more diftant parts5
fuch as fpontaneous laflxtude, pains about the belly.
When the means mentioned for this complaint in the
article Medicine have failed, recourfe mull be had to
compreflion. Doflils of lint introduced into the noflrils
are fometimes effeflual 5 or the gut of fome fmall ani¬
mal, tied at one end, then introduced by a probe into
the nofe as far as the pharynx, and filled with cold wa¬
ter, or water and vinegar, and fecured by a ligature, by
adapting itfelf to all Hie parts, and prefling equally on
them, has been attended with advantage. When thefe
remedies likewife fail in their effedt, a piece of catgut
or wire may be introduced through the nofe into the
throat, and brought out at the mrfuth \ a piece of fponge,
or a bolfter of lint of a fize fuflicient to fill the back-
part of the noftril, is then to be fixed to it 5 the fponge
is next to be drawn back and properly applied. An¬
other is to be applied to the anterior part of the noftril
and fecured. The fame may be done to the other
noftril, if it be neceffary ; or the fponge may be of fuch
a fize as to fill the ends of both noftrils at the fame
time. By this contrivance the blood not finding an
outlet, will foon coagulate, and prevent any farther eva¬
cuation.
xx2 2. Hcemorrhagy from the Re&um, or F/uxus Hatnor-
rhoidalis.
The difcharge of blood from the reiftum is a difeafe
chiefly confined to thofe advanced in life. It is often
occafioned by full living, change from an a£Hve to a
very fedentary life, the abufe of purgatives, particularly
aloes ; violent paflions, or habitual melancholy. The
fymptoms which precede and accompany this difeafe, are
bearing down pains, and a fenfation of weight in the
back and loins, fometimes a numbnefs in the limbs,
and a contradled pulfe, thirft, diminution of urine, fla¬
tulency, and fometimes a difcharge by ftool of a white
mucus. The difcharge returns commonly in a periodi¬
cal manner once a month, and thus becomes neceflary
G E R Y. 69
for the prefervation of health ; for if it be fupprefled, or
if it flops fpontaneoufly, it occafions a variety of nervous from* Mu-
afteftions, fuch as fpafmodic lightnings about the cheft, cous Mem-
colic and vertig®. brar.es.
Treatment—When the hsemorrhoidal difcharge has v ‘
become habitual like the menftrual difcharge, we not
only ought not to attempt curing it, but if it be from
any caufe fupprefled, it ought to be reftored. If it be
the effeft of general plethora, it is to be removed by a
vegetable diet and moderate exercife. In order to mo¬
derate the difcharge, the patient ought to lie in the ho¬
rizontal pofture on a hard bed, avoid all exerpife, keep
the belly open by cooling laxatives, or even to take
acids if the bleeding is exceflive, and apply cold to the
loins and perinseum. As a hidden fuppreflion of the
haemorrhoidal difcharge is the caufe of many difeafes, it
is of much importance to reproduce it. T o effedt this,
leeches applied to the anus, and warm fomentations, are
the moft efficacious remedies.
3. Hcemorrhagy from the Bladder (Hematuria).
Hsemorrhagy from the bladder is a difeafe moft fre¬
quent in old people \ it is often occafioned by a fuppref-
fion of the hsemorrhoidal difcharge, or any other accuf-
tomed difcharge of blood. It is fometimes the confe-
quence of excefs in living and drinking, and of a feden¬
tary life followed by great exercife. It alfo arifes from
a plethoric ftate of the fyftem, violent exercife on
horfeback, the internal ufe of cantharides, a contufion in
the region of the kidneys, or from ftone in the bladder.
Treatment.—The treatment to be employed is the
fame as in hsemorrhagy in general. Every thing ought
to be avoided which might tend to irritate the kidneys
or the urinary bladder. Laxatives, acid drinks, the ap¬
plication of ice to the lumbar region, hypogaftrium, and
perinaeum, or to the infide of the thighs, is of great im¬
portance. Under the articles MEDICINE and MID¬
WIFERY, we have confidered the hsemorrhagies from
the lungs and uterus. We may here remark the con¬
nexion and ftrong fympathy which fubfifts between
thefe organs, and alfo between them and the other or¬
gans of the body j for a minute acquaintance with thefe
may often lead to a fuccefsful mode of treating their dif¬
eafes. When the menfes are fuppreffed, there is often
a haemorrhagy from the mucous membrane of the lungs;
and there are alfo many cafes of obftruXion in the
bowels which bring on haemorrhagy both from the lungs
and uterus ; a haemorrhagy which never ceafes until the
primary affeXion be removed.
SECT. VIII. General Remarks on the Ulceration of Mu¬
cous Membranes.
Simple inflammation of a mucous furface feldom, if
ever, terminates in ulceration, moft ulcers of thefe parts
having a fpecific charaXer. The venereal inflammation
rapidly terminates in ulceration ; and aphthae have the
fame tendency, forming often what are called phagade-
nic fores.
The mucous membrane of the nofe is peculiarly fub-
jeX to ulceration ; ulcers alfo occur in the different
parts of the mouth 'd gums, in the inteftinal canal,
and alfo, though vevy feldom, in the urethra. It is
the-
lI3
114
7°
Of the the firfl; of tliefe only which are to be treated of in this
Difeafes of lace>
oerous r
Mem“ Of Ulcers of the Nofe, or Ozcena.
' branes.
'■"■—■v——' This fpecies of ulcer fometimes appears in the no-
I1[5 flrils, and fometimes in the frontal or maxillary finus.
It generally fucceeds a violent coryza. It all’o fome¬
times arifes from blows on the nofe, or from the appli¬
cation of very acrid fubftances. Ozaena is often accom¬
panied with inflammation, haemorrhagy, pains, caries of
the bones which fometimes deftroys the palate bones,
cartilages of the noftrils j and by hindering more or lefs
the free palfage of the air, it alters the tone of the
voice.
Treatment.-—In the Ample ozaena, much benefit ge¬
nerally arifes from the ufe of aftringent w'alhes, fuch as
a decodion of oak-bark and alum, folutions of fulphate
or acetate of zinc, or the acetate of lead. The bell
mode of ufing thefe is to injeft them a little warmed,
with a common fyringe, into the affedted noflril, three or
four times a day 3 and when the quantity of difcharge
diminiflres and becomes of a better quality, an ointment
compofed of the flowers of zinc or the like, fpread on a
piece of lint, fhould be introduced once or twice a day
into the noftril.
When the ozaena is of a more virulent nature, and
the bones affedted with caries, there is generally great
reafon to fufpedt a venereal taint. This can only be de¬
termined by the hiftory of the complaint and the confti-
tutional fymptoms of the venereal difeafe being prefent.
In fuch cafes mercury is the only remedy, and along
with its internal ufe the injedtion of mercurial lotions,
and the ufe of fumigations, will be ferviceable. In fuch
ulcers as are obftinate, and which do not partake of any
venereal taint, a liniment, with an eighth part of the
red precipitate of mercury, or a fmaller proportion of
the acetate of copper, has been recommended by Mr
Bell as an ufeful application. In fome cafes, too, where,
after the venereal taint is deftroyed by a proper mercu¬
rial courfe, there remains an obftinate fore, the above
liniment may be ufeful, and it has alfo been found in
fuch cafes of much advantage, a courfe of farfaparilla or
cinchona.
Chap. IV.
tt6 Of the Difeafes of Serous Membranes. '
General Remarks on the Pathology of Serous Membranes.
The phenomena of the difeafes of ferous membranes
are very different from any of thofe of the other textures
which have been mentioned. When they are attacked
with inflammation, the ferous furfaces often adhere to¬
gether, or if fuppuration lakes place, it is never accom¬
panied with ulceration or erofion of their fubftance.
However abundant thefe purulent colledlions may be,
the membranes always remain found, with only a little
additional thicknefs 3 the purulent fluid rejedled from
, them, being like the natural fluid formed" by exhala¬
tion.
1 he ferous cavities are alfo fubjedf to haemorrhagy,
and to preternatural colledlions of the exhaled fluid.
Under the article Medicine we have treated of in¬
flammation of the pleura, membranes of the brain and
Chap. TV.
peritoneum, and alfo of haemorrhagy from thefe organs. t)t Afcites.
In this place we {hall confider dropfy and haemorrhagy
from the vaginal coat of the teftes, as the only difeafes
belonging to furgery.
Sect. I. Dropfy of the Peritoneum, or Afcites. 11-7
When water colledts in a cnnfiderable quantitv with¬
in the cavity of the peritoneum, the {kin becomes dry
and fcurfy, and the fuperficial veins varicofe. In one
cafe they appeared like large tubes half filled with blood,
the anterior part of the canal thin and dry, and the po-
fterior portion hard and unyielding. The fldn at the
umbilicus is fometimes much diftended, and the ivater
feen ftiining through it as in a common blifter. The
water varies much in its appearance 3 molt frequently it
is yellow or browniftr. We have feen it as thick and
dark coloured as coffee grounds. In one cafe it was
vifeid and tenacious, refembling the white of an egg 3
and in other inftances it refembled milk and water, with
the milk partly curdled. Afcites is generally accom¬
panied with a difeafe of fome of the abdominal vifcera,
and moft frequently the liver.
It is not confined to any particular period of life,
but has been obferved more frequently in men than in
women.
The fymptoms of afcites are, 1. The fwelling and
fenfe of tightnefs over the belly. 2. Laborious and dif¬
ficult breathing, efpecially in the horizontal pofture.
3. The diftindt feeling of fluctuation, upon applying one
hand to one fide of the belly, and ftriking it with the
other hand on the oppofite fide. 4. The urine is in
fmall quantity, and of a dark red colour. There is
"alfo thirft, a dry {kin, often a feeling of heat, and very
frequently oedema of the inferior extremities. 118
Paracentefis.—When the fwelling becomes large, and Operation,
internal medicines have no effedt in diminifhing it, it is
advifeable to difcharge the water by an artificial open-
ing, an operation which feldom cures the difeafe, but. is
always attended with tefnporary relief, and may be re¬
peated as often as the water is found to colled!. Smucker
has performed it feventy times, and protradfed the pa¬
tient’s life for many years. The operation is to be per¬
formed by introducing a trocar* at the linea alba, as in * Plate
a hydrocele, about two or three inches below the umbi-^^^*
licus. Many furgeons now prefer this place, as it pre¬
vents all rilk of wounding the epigaftric artery, or any
other important part. It was formerly the common
pradlice to introduce the infirument on the left fide of
the abdomen, half way between the umbilicus and an¬
terior fuperior fpinous procefs of the ileum, in order to
avoid the liver and epigaftric artery. But thofe who
laid down this rule were not aware of the change in the
relative fituation of parts when difeafed 3 and it has fe-
veral times happened to Mr Cline and other eminent
furgeons, in performing the operation at this place, that
they have wounded the epigaftric artery, and the pa¬
tient has died of haemorrhage. The diffedtion of the ab¬
dominal mufcles in patients who have died of dropfy,
{hows how much the reSli are extended in breadth, and
the fituation of the epigaftric artery changed.
1 he place for entering the trocar being determined,
and marked with ink, the patient fliould be placed in
the horizontal pofture, and in fuch a fituation that the
water
SURGERY.
;liap. IV. S U R G
Of water can be run off readily into a veffel proper to re-
lydrocele. ceive as patients are very apt to faint if the
water is fuddenly removed, and no preffure applied to
fupport the belly as it is emptied, it is neceffary to
make an equal preffure during, and after the operation.
From negleding this in fome cafes, dangerous fymptoms
have arifen, and in one intfance the patient died three
days after the operation from this eaufe.
A piece of flannel as broad as the belly, and divided
into feveral pieces at each end, and thife drawn acrofs
f Plate each other by affiftants, or the bandage *, anfwers for
>XIV. t],js pUrpofe. By either of thefe modes the belly
may be gradually compreffed as the water is let out,
and the compreffion continued for feveral days after the
operation. Sometimes the water does not come out
readily, by a portion of omentum or inteftine coining
in contaft with the end of the canula; but the difcharge
may be affifted by introducing within the canula a blunt
probe, or a lefs canula within the firft, having fmail
perforations at the extremity and edges. After all the
water is difcharged, a piece of plafter ffiould be applied
to the wound, and every caution taken to exclude the
admiffion of the external air. The bandage tliould alfo
be kept applied, and it may be wprn for feme time.
jrp SECT. II. Water coHeeled in the cavity of the Vaginal
Coat, or Hydrocele.
The effuli m of water in the tunica \raginalis, frequent¬
ly accompanies hernia, the fcrophulous fchirrus, vene¬
real and other enlargements of the tefliclej but in fuch
cafes, it is merely to be conlidered as a fymptom accom¬
panying thefe diforders. Mr Horae mentions caies
where it was a fymptom of ftritdure. It occurs alfo
during the abatement of inflammation of the teflicle',
and fometimes more or lefs of the water icmains after
the inflammatory fymptoms have oifappeared. In cafes
of this kind the tunica vaginalis is generally found
thickened, and there is an effufion of lymph over its furface
and over the furface of the albuginea. In many cafes,
the water is collefted where there is no apparent altera¬
tion in the ftru&ure of the parts. The difeafe in fuch
cafes moft probably arifes either from a diminifhed ab-
forption or from an increafed exhalation. If the difeafe
has been of long duration, the tunica vaginalis is gene¬
rally thickened, to a great degree fometimes : and par¬
ticularly in old people it becoraes hard or cartilaginous.
We have feen feveral preparations where it was converted
into a fhell of bone. We have met with two cafes where
a round fubftance refembling cartilage was found float¬
ing loofe in the water of a hvdrocele. It is not uncom¬
mon to find the veffels alfo of the fpermatic veins be¬
come more or lefs varicofe. Collections of water
of a very confiderable fize form fometimes after birth
(windrupture'); but in old people they are moflfrequent.
The water is ufually colledted only in one cavity; but it
fometimes happens, that in confequence of adhefions be¬
tween the tunica vaginalis and tefticle, feveral irregular
ftiaped bags are formed in which it is contained. The
water ufually collects in one fide of the fcrotum, fome¬
times alfo in both. The water is generally clear and
ftraw-coloured, fometimes it is coloured with blood,
fometimes yellow or brown, and fometimes thick, and
like coffee grounds. See Morgagni, Ep. xxxviii.
%
E R Y. 71
The quantity of water varies. In the Aft. Erud. Lip- t t
fienfis 1725. p.492, there is mention made of a cafe -v roce,e-i
which contained forty pounds of fluid. Doight faw one
which contained four pounds. There are fometimes al¬
fo hydatids found along with the water. Richter has
met with four cafes of this kind.
Symptoms.— 1. The fcrotum is commonly of a pyrami- *20
dal form, and the corrugations of the external Ikin
are deftroyed in proportion to the bulk of the fwelling.
The fhapeof the tumor however varies; in fome cafes, it
is very globular, and in others it appears like two fwel-
lings joined. It is even altered from the manner in
which it is fufpended; if a bag trufs has been worn it is
ufually oblong. 2. The fwelling generally begins at
the lower part of the fcrotum, and as its bulk increafes,
it gradually afcends towards the abdominal ring. 3. It
appears pellucid when held between the eye and a can¬
dle; but this is not a certain prognoftic, as the tranfpa-
rency is deilroyed when the tunica vaginalis is thick
and hard, or when the water is turbid and dark. 4. It
gives the diflindf fenfation of fludluation. In fome
cafes, however, the degree of thickening of the tunica
vaginalis renders the fluctuation obfcure or impercep¬
tible, and alfo deftroys its tranlparency. 5. The tumor
cannot be made to recede or change its fituation from
preffure or change of pofture of the body. 6. The tef¬
ticle is involved in the fwelling, and can be diftinguiihed
like a firm unyielding mafs at the pofterior part of it.
In cafes where adhefions have been formed, the polition
v-ries; but the patient generally knows where it lies,
and preffure applied to the part of the fwelling where
it is fituated gives pain. Sometimes the tefticle is pla¬
ced at the under part of the fwelling, fometimes in
the middle. Mr Bell felt it twice forwards. Some¬
times along with the water there are hydatids float¬
ing in the cavity ot the vaginal coat. Somering favs,
that he has often obferved this appearance. 7. the
fpermatic cord can be readily diftinguiihed unaltered.
8. The tumor gives little or no pain, and the patient
fuffers merely irom its bulk. 9. The growth of
the fwelling is generally very flow, and fometimes
years elapfe before it becomes a great inconveni¬
ence; fometimes, however, it forms rapidly. When
it grows very large, the integuments become thick,
and the veins varicofe ; if the iwelling extends up to
the inguinal ring, the cord cannot be felt, and the
penis is fometimes fo much involved in the tumor, that
it appears like an umbilicus or piece of corrugated
Ikin.
Ireatment.—In children, the water generally difan- lt
pears in a fhort time, by the application of ftrong aftfm-
gent or difeutient applications. In lome cafes, the diftafe
advances fo flowly, that it is fuflicient to wtarafufpemory
bandage. Richter mentions a cafe where it was twenty
years old before it was neceffary to remove the water.
When the fwelling becomes fo large as to render it
neceffary to difeharge the water, the operation may be
either palliative or radical. The objedt of the firft
is metely to remove the water, after which ihe
difeafe commonly returns ; and by the fecond, an ad-
hefion is intended to be produced between tire furface
of the vaginal coat and albuginea, and conlequently the
cavity in which the water was colledftd entirely oblitera¬
ted. In making choice of thefe modes of treatment,
it
)
S U R G
Of it is neceffary to attend to tlie following rules. I. When
Hydrocele. ^ hydride is large, it is fafer to perform the palliative
operation ; and afterwards when it has again colluded
in lefs bulk, the radical one may be employed. 2. When
the ft ate of the tefticle is not accurately afcertained, it
is better firft merely to difcharge the water, which al¬
lows it to be completely examined. 3. The palliative
operation ftiould be employed in all cafes where the dif-
eafe is conneded with a morbid ftate of any contiguous
organ. 4. In all other cafes, the radical operation is
preferable.
x22 Palliative Operation.—The matter may be difchar-
ged either by a pundure made with a lancet or by a
fmall trocar.
* See Plate When the trocar * is to be introduced, the pofte-
DXIV. rior partmf the tumor ftiould be firmly grafped in the
left hand, fo that the fluid is puftied to the anterior
and inferior part of ft. A pundure is to be made, with
a lancet, through the integuments at the moft prominent
part of the fwelling, large enough to admit readily the
trocar, taking care to avoid any large fuperfieial vein.
The trocar is then to be puftied through the coats of
the tumor perpendicularly 5 but when it has entered the
cavity, which is known by the feeling of a fuddcn want
of reliftance, the point ftiould be direded upward, and
carried forward a fufficient way \ fo that the furgeon is
affured of its being within the cavity fo far that there is
no rilk of its falling out.
After all the matter has been allowed to flow out,
and the canula withdrawn, the wound fhould be cover¬
ed with a piece of flicking plafter, and the fcrotum fup-
ported by a fufpenfory bandage. If the operation is to
be done with a lancet, an incifion ftiould be firft made
through the fkin, rather larger than what is necelfary
into the cavity. Then a pundure is to be made through
the tunica vaginalis, which will allow the water to
flow out \ and the difcharge may be aflifted by the in-
trodudion of a probe, diredor, or hollow tube, into the
opening. The trocar fhould always be employed for this
operation, except when the hydrocele is fo fmall that the
tefticle would be in danger of being wounded by it, or
when there is any enlargement of the tefticle accom¬
panying the hydrocele, which is not well underftood, or
if the tunica vaginalis is extremely thick and the fluc¬
tuation not diftind.
123 Radical Operation.—An obliteration of the tunica
vaginalis may be produced either by an infufion of lymph
on the furfaces of the tunica vaginalis and albuginea,
or by the procefs oigranulation. The firft; is effeded
by injeding into the cavity a ftimulating fluid to pro¬
duce inflammation and adhefion *, the fecond is by lay¬
ing open the cavity to produce inflammation and fup-
puration, and to allow it to fill by granulation.
124 By InjeSlion.—Dr Monro primus firft propofed and
adopted this ingenious, yet Ample mode of cure •, and
it is now that which is moft generally pradifed in all
cafes not attended with any peculiarity or puzzling
fymptom. The fluid contained in the tunica vaginalis,
is to be difcharged by a trocar, in the manner recom¬
mended in the palliative treatment. The trocar for
this purpofe fhould be of a rounded form, which is ei¬
ther altogether cylindrical, or only a fmall flit at its
extremity •, for that of Andre, which is flat and flit up
p.t both fides, is apt to allow the fluid to be effufed into
E R Y. Chap. IV.
the cellular membrane of the fcrotum *, an accident Of
which we have feen repeatedly happen, and always fru- Hyd^ceie.
ftrates the objed of the operation. v—
The fluid is then to be injeded through the canula
either by a fyringe (Plate DXIV.)* which has a move-
able Jlop-cock, that it may be filled as frequently as is
neceffary, or by an elaftic bottle, which has a valve in
its pipe, fo as to allow the fluid to pafs forward, but to
prevent its exit. It is not neceffary to injed as much
fluid, as there was water in the hydrocele 5 it anfwers
well to fill the cavity moderately, and by gentle ftrokes
on the fcrotum agitate it over the whole furface. The
fluid moft commonly employed is port wine. Some
recommend it to be diluted, but it is better to ufe
it pure, and allow it to remain a longer or fliort-
er time according to the degree of pain it excites,
and the general irritability of the patient. In hofpi-
tals, other fluids are ufed, as being lefs expenfive. Mr
Cline of St Thomas’s hofpital employs a folution of
the fulphate of zinc 5i- ad Ibi. From five minutes
to a quarter of an hour is in moft cafes a fufficient
length of time to allow the wine to remain. If
it excite fevere pain in the tefticle or cord, it may
be detained more or lefs time. A confiderable degree
of uneafinefs is always to be wiftied for in order to fe-
cure fuccefs in the operation. After the wine is with-
drawn, the wound thould be covered with a piece of
flicking plafter or caddis ; the fcrotum well fupported
with either pillows or a trufs, and the patient put to
bed. The operation excites more or lefs fwelling in a
longer or ffiorter period. The medium effed on the
tefticle is to eaufe it to fwell about the bulk of a tur¬
key’s egg in four or five days ; and the furgeon ffiould,
by purfuing the antiphlogiftic regimen, moderate as far
as in his power the inflammatory fymptoms to that
pitch, and by an oppofite treatment bring them up
to that degree ffiould they be too mild. Low diet,
local or even general blood letting, purging, the ho¬
rizontal pofture and fomentations, are the moft powerful
means to arreft inflammation j but if the patient has
little pain, he fliould live on a nouriffiing diet, and fome
local ftimulant may be applied over the fcrotum until
a fufficient degree of inflammation comes on. If the
inflammatory fymptoms abate, the fwelling difappears ;
and it is advifable to -wear always afterwards a bag trufs
to fupport the whole fcrotum. In fome cafes the water
again colleds, and then the operation fliould be re¬
peated •, but it requires caution, as the relative fituation
of parts is fometimes altered from fome partial adhefions
having formed between the tunics.
We have feen frequently cafes where it was thought
that the water has been regenerated a few days after
the operation, which fwellrng afterwards difappeared.
This probably arifes from an effufion in the cellular
membrane, but it requires no particular treatment
By Incijion.—After grafping the tumor firmly, an in- 4
cifion is to be made through the fkin with a fcalpel, from
its fuperior to its inferior part. A punfture is to be made
towards the upper part, with a lancet, large enough to ad¬
mit the point of the fore finger 5 the fluid is allowed gra¬
dually to efcape through the opening; and the tunica
vaginalis is to be laid open its whole extent with a probe-
pointed biftoury in the fame direction as the incifion
through the integuments. Pledgets of lint dipped in
Chap. IV. ' _ S U R G
oil, or covered with limple orntment, are to be put be-
Hydroce'e. tween t]ie iipS Qf the wound, down to the bottom of the
v " cavity, one on each fide of the tefticlej and the edges
of the fcrotum are. to be brought together either by
ftraps or future. A fingle ligature put through the in¬
teguments oppofite the tefticle, anfwers belt, and pre¬
vents the tefiiele from being puflhed without the edges
of the wound in confequence of the degree of fvvelling
the operation occafions. I he whole fiiould be covered
with a pledget of ointment, and fufpended in a tight
bandage.
In three or four days after tho operation, the external
dretlings flrould be removed *, and in one or two days
more, the pledgets interpofed between the tunica vagi¬
nalis and tefticle may be taken away and renewed. The
ligature iliould be cut out whenever the fwelling of the
parts begins to abate, or at any time when it appears to
create irritation. During the cure, great care fhould
be taken, firft, by the introduftion of flips of platter,
to prevent the union but from the bottom ; fecondly, to
guard again ft the collection of matter in any cavity;
thirdly, to prevent the lips of the wound feparating far,
thus expofing the tefticle and protracting the cure *, and
fourthly, to lay open freely any finufes which may form.
The cure goes on much more rapidly by perfevering in
the horizontal pofture, and keeping the fcrotum well
fupported. The bowels fhould be always kept open
and regular, and when fuppuration has begun, the pa-
Ia5 tient’s ftrength fhould be fupported by a nourifliing diet
When to be and bark or port wine, if neceflary. The cure takes from
adopted. three to eight weeks in moft cafes. This mode of ope¬
rating is the moft eligible when there is any ambiguity
in the cafe, as it allows the tefticles to be accurately
examined, and caftration performed if necefl’ary. It
ought alfo to be performed when the tunica vaginalis is
much thickened and hardened, and it is fometimes ne¬
ceflary, even to cut away fome of the hardeft portions.
The modes of curing hydrocele by a feton, caujlic^ &c»
are now generally given up.
127 Sect. III. Dropfy of the Thorax, or Hydrothorax.
The fluid is fometimes confined to one, and fometimes
affe&s both fides of the cheft. It is commonly of a
brown or yellow colour; fometimes it is reddith from
a mixture of blood. Its chemical qualities are thofe of
ferum. When it is accumulated in a large quantity,
the lungs are more or lefs compreflfed. Dr Baillie has
feen a lung not larger than the clofed lift. It is alfo in
fome inftances accompanied with adhefions between the
iurface of the lungs and pleura.
The exiftence of water is known by the following
lymptoms. Refpiration is ftiort and difficult; and the
patient cannot reft in bed, except the head and trunk
be elevated from the horizontal pofture. The fleep is
often interrupted by alarms and difagreeable dreams,
and tlm patient fuddenly ftarts from it with a fenfe of
iuffocation : he is unable to ftoop much forward, or raife
any tiling from the ground. There is fometimes a leaf¬
ing cough, with little expeftoration. During the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, the pulfe is very variable ; but it is
generally irregular. I he countenance is pale, and the
lips and cheeks of a purple hue. The urine is dimi-
nifiled in quantity, and of a high colour. The bowels
are generally conftipated. The feet and legs are com-
Vol. XX. Part I,
E R Y. - 73
monly anafarcous. The undulation of a fluid may be
heard by the patient himfelf, and moving the body by ^Kn?‘’'t0'
fudden jerks will fometimes affift in difcovering the dif-
eafe. The affedted fide has in fome cafes been obferved
to be enlarged.
This difeafe is treated by the exhibition of internal
medicines, where the quantity of water is fmall; but
when it collects in fuch a quantity as to threaten fuffo-
cation, it ought to be difcharged by an opening made
into the cavity of the thorax. The incifion ought to
be made between the fifth and fixth ribs, half way be¬
tween the fternum and fpine ; two inches in length
through the Ikin. The fubjacent parts ought to be
cautioufly divided 5 and the incifion ffiould be dire&ed
rather towards the upper part of the fixth rib, to avoid
wounding the intercoftal artery and nerve, which creep
along the inferior edge of the fifth rib. The pleura,
which is dlftiiiguimed by Its bluiih colour, ffiould be
carefully cut with the point of the knife; fo, that, in cafe
of adhefion, the lung is not wounded: and if the water
flows out, a canula ffiould be introduced into the open¬
ing. If it does not, in confequence of adhefion, another
incifion muft be made. Great care ftiould be taken to
prevent the admiffion of air, and for that purpofe, the
opening ffiould be made valvular, by pulling up the
fkin which is to be cut through. If the quantity is very
great, it may be drawn off at two different intervals ;
or if it is collected in both cavities of the thorax.
SECT. IV. Dropfy of the Pericardium.
Water is fometimes found in the pericardium when
there is none in any other cavity of the thorax, but it is
generally accompanied with a collection of water in
fome of them. The fymptoms of tliis difeafe are nearly
fimilar to thofe of hydrothorax ; and we find that Def-
fault and other very eminent furgeons have not been
able to diftinguiffi them. Dr Baillie fays, “ that the
feeling of oppreffion is more accurately confined to the
fituation of the heart; and the heart is more difturbed
in its funflions in dropfy of the pericardium than in
hydrothorax.” It is alfo faid, that a firm undulatory
motion can be felt at every ftroke of the heart.
li the exiftence of this complaint is afeertained, and
if the quantity of water is fufpe&ed to be great, it may
be perhaps advifable to difeharge it, as pra&ifed in one
cafe by Deffault, by making an opening between the
fixth and feventh ribs of the left fide, oppofite to the
apex of the heart.
SECT. V. Blood effufed in the Tunica Vaginalis. r
(Hsematocele).
The effufion of blood within the cavity of the va¬
ginal coat is chara&erifed by the fudden appearance
of the tumor, by its wanting the tranfparency of a hy¬
drocele, by its greater weight, and by its being moft
commonly occafioned by fome accident. It is ufualiy
produced by the trocar ufed in performing the palliative
operation wounding a veffel which pours its blood into
the vaginal cavity; it is ftill more apt to happen when
a lancet is ufed and a varicofe veffel punflured. It aln>
takes place from the rupture of a varicofe veffel by the
fudden depletion of a large hydrocele.
If the fwelling is fmall, it may difappear by the local
K ufij
74 S U R G
Of ufe of difcutieiVts and ftiniulauts, fucli as folutions of
Ganglions. facchannn faturni, or that of alum, vinegar, &c. If it
W does not yield to thefe, and if it has acquired a confi-
derable bulk, the blood Ihould be diicharged by an^ in-
cilxon j and any bleeding veflel either fecured by a liga¬
ture, or by ftrong ftimulants, and the wound afterwards
treated as in common hydrocele.
E R Y.
move them. In fome inftances they have been removed
by the application of blitters; but the mott certain me¬
thod is, to make a fmall punfture into the fac, or to
draw a cord through it •, or, after the pun dure is made,
to prefs out the contents, and then injed fome gently
ftimulating fluid, as port wine and water heated blood-
>. V.
Of
Collections
in the
Joints.
Chap. V.
Sect. III. Of Collections within the Capfulur Ligaments
of the Joints.
DifeafeS cf the Sinovial Membranes.
130 Sect. I. General Ohfervations on the Pathology of
Sinovial Membranes.
The difeafes of the finovial membranes are much
CTinrt. li.vill-t.rl ov.rl "r.A*rfh)od thai) thofe of the tCX-
tures which we have examined. They do not A
to be fympathetically affeded in the difeafes of other
parts. In the acute difeafes of the important vifeera,
the Ikin, the mucous farfaces, the cellular membrane,
the nerves, &c. are more or lefs fympathetically affed¬
ed, whilft all the finovial membranes remain undifturbed.
In this refped they refemble the bones,^cartilages, and
fibrous membranes. Neither is the finovial fluid fubjed
to the different alterations, which we obferve of the
ferous fluid. We never find any preternatural mem¬
branes formed on the articulating furfaces} and the pre¬
ternatural colledions of finovia never contain any of
the white fioculcnt matter fo frequent in ferous collec-
tions.
The finovial membranes are fubjed to inflammation,
and are probably the feat of many of thofe pains about
the joints which are fo frequent. Their fluids.are alfo
fometimes increafed to a preternatural quantity, and
chalky or earthy denofitions are alfo occafionally found
in them.
I31 Sect. 11. Of Ganglions.
An increafe of the finovial fluid in the burfae, or ten¬
dinous (heaths, forms a fpecies of dropfy called * ganglion.
It is not, however, probable that tbefe tumors are al¬
ways formed in a natural finovial capfiffe : moft com¬
monly they are accidental* and are formed in the cellu¬
lar membrane ; for they are frequently found in parts
where no natural capfule exifts. They are moft frequent¬
ly met with over the tendons upon the back of the
wrift, and often likewife about thofe of the ankle and
other parts of the extremities. When preffed, they are
found to poffefs a confiderable degree of elafticity, from
which, and from their fituation, they may generally be
diftinguifhed from other encvfted tumors. They feldom
arrive at any great bulk, are not often attended with
pain, and commonly the (kin retains its natural appear¬
ance. On being laid open, they are found to contain a
tough, vifeid, tranfparent fluid, refembling the glaire of
eng, which is alfo fometimes of a reddifh colour.
They are generally produced by fprains or contufions
of the joints, or by rheumatifm. In many inftances,
they go off infenfibly, without any afliftance from art 5
but as this is often not the cafe, means ought to be ufed
for removing them. For this purpofe, friftion frequent¬
ly repeated, or gentle compreflion applied to them by
means cf thin plates of lead and bandages, fometimes re-
5
Colledions here may confift of ferum, blood, or pus
and fynovia combined. 1 hey are moft frequently met
with in the joint of the knee, and may be produced
either by internal or external caufes. Thefe kinds of
coliedlions may in general be diftinguiflied from each
other. ^ ,r
Watery effufions, commonly called dropjical fwellings
of the !g:*'*s* at'ifc chiefly in coniequence of fevere rheu¬
matic complaints ; ana the tumor is not very
large, the fluduation of the fluiu IT?? ks *6^ Fu*
fure. When a large effufioh appears immediately after
a violent bruife, it is probable that it confifts chiefly of
blood : but when it fucceeds a violent fprain, attended
with great pain, inflammation, and fwelling, termina¬
ting in an effufion, there is every reafon to think that
the" contained fluid confifts of pus mixed with fynovia.
Swellings of the joints are moft apt to be confounded
with colledions in the burfse mucofie, or with matter
effufed in the adjacent cellular fubttance. I fom the
firft of thefe they are generally diftinguiftied by the con¬
tained fluid pafling readily from one fide of the joint to
the other, and from its being diffufed over the whole of
it j whereas, when it is contained in the burke, the tu¬
mor is confined to a particular part, and is felctom at¬
tended with much pain.
When fuch colledions can fafely be allowed to re¬
main, the capfular ligament ought never to be opened,
as they can often be removed by difeutients. Even con¬
fiderable colledions arifing from rheumatifm may com¬
monly be difeuffed by fridion, fomenting the parts with
warm vapour, keeping them conftantly moift with (a-
turnine folutions, covering them properly with flannel,
and applying blifters. When thefe fail, fupporting the
part with a laced (locking, or with a roller, has fre¬
quently been of fervice. But whether a rheumatre tu¬
mor can be difeuffed or not, it ought not to be opened 5
for the inconvenience attending it is more tolerable
than the pain and inflammation which may enfue. But
when the matter would do mifehief by lodging, it (hould
be difeharged. Effufed blood and matter which fuc-
ceed high degrees of inflammation are ot this kind.
Blood is frequently extravafated among foft parts with¬
out much detriment •, but when in contad with carti¬
lage or bone, it foon injures them. The matter ought
to be difeharged fo as moft effedually to prevent the ad-
miflion of air into the cavity of the joint. For this pur¬
pofe the opening fhould be made with a trocar *, and
the (kin, previoufly drawn tight to the upper part of the
tumor, (hould be pulled down immediately on withdraw¬
ing the canula. A piece of adhefive plafter (hould be
immediately laid over the opening, and the whole joint
(hould be firmly fupported by a flannel roller carefully
applied. If the patient be plethoric, he (hould be
blooded to fucli an extent as his ftrength will bear •, he
fhould
132
Chap. VI.
S U R G
Bones.
J33
Of the Dif-fhould be put upon a ftria: antiphlogiftic regimen, and
tales of the }n every refpecf fliould be managed with caution •, for
inflammation being very apt to enfue, we cannot too
much guard againft it.
SECT. IV. Of Moveable Bodies which are found within
the Sinovial Capfules.
Moveable bodies have been found in many of the
fi no vial capfules of the human body. But they aremoft
frequent in the knee joint; and it is there only where
they require furgical afliftance. Thefe bodies are gene¬
rally compofed of cartilage in the form of lamellae, and
there is often an ofleous concretion in their centre. The
caufe of their formation is not known \ but it is probable
that they are formed by a gradual depofition of the car¬
tilaginous matter on the articulating furface. They
have been often met with, attached by narrow necks to
the finovial cavity j fo that when this attachment is de-
ftroyed, they float loofe in the cavity, and undergo per¬
haps but little future change. •
When they occur in the knee joint, and acquire fuch
a bulk as to obftruft or derange the motions of the joint,
it then becomes neceflary to remove them. This ought
to be done by bringing the moveable body to the outer
part of the joint, and making a valvular incifion of fuch
a fixe as to admit of its extraction. Sometimes much in¬
flammation fucceeds this operation, which ought to
make us careful in choofing a proper time for perform¬
ing it, and in ufing every endeavour to reprefs any in¬
flammatory fymptoms afterwards.
*34 Sect. V. Of the Spina Bifida.
Spina bifida is a tumor which fometimes appears upon
the lower part of the fpine in newr-born children. A
fluctuation is diftinCtly perceived in it, and the fluid it
contains can in fome meafure be prefled in at an opening
between the vertebrae. In fome cafes this opening is
owing to a natural deficiency of bone ; in others, to the
feparation of the fpinous procefles of the vertebrae.
The difeafe proceeds from a ferous looking fluid col¬
lected within the coverings of the fpinal marrow. It is
alwrays fatal. Children labouring under it have been
known to live for two or three years j but, in general,
they linger and die in a few weeks. All that art has
been able to do is to fupport the tumor by gentle pref-
fure with a proper bandage. When a tumor of this kind
is laid open or burfts, the child generally dies in a few
hours. A tumor nearly of the fame nature with this is
fometimes met with upon different parts of the head in
new-born children : it is formed by a fluid lodged be¬
neath the membranes of the brain, which have been
forced out at fome unoffified part of the fkull. What
•we have faid -with refpeft to the former is exaClly appli¬
cable to this difeafe.
Chap. VI.
Of the Difeafes of the Bones.
*35 Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology of the
Bones.
The difeafes of bones are remarkable for their flow
progrefs, in comparifon with what is obferved in the
other organs. Inflammation proceeds extremely flowly,
and callus is remarkable when compared with the cica-
E R Y. 75
tri/.ation of other parts, for the length of time neceflary Of the Di£~
for its formation the origin and progrefs too of an ex-erl£s ot t^c’
oftofis is very different from a tumor of the foft parts, ■ 0”cs‘ .
as we obferve in phlegmon. Suppuration too, which
requires only a fevr days in other organs, takes months
before the fame procefs is completed in bones. There
is alfo a linking difference between a gangrene of the
foft parts and a caries or necrofis of the bones. In the
natural ftate the bones have no fenfibility, but when
difeafed, they are often the feat of acute pain ; we ob¬
ferve this in the fpina ventofa, in caries, necrofis, &c.
Befides the changes to which the bones are fubjeCt from
inflammation and various accidents, they alfo fuffer al¬
terations in their hardnefs and foftnefs. Preternatural
growths alfo form upon them ; and they are liable to
abforption.
Sect. II. Of Particular Difeafes of the Bones.
136
The bones, as well as the fofter parts, are liable to
be fwelled, either throughout their whole length, or to
have tumors formed on particular parts of them. 137
Exoftofis is one fpecies of tumor of the bone. Ac-Exoftolis.'
cording to Mr Bromefield, no fwelling fliould be called
fo, but an excrefcenee continued from a bone, like a
branch from the trunk of a tree. Under this head there¬
fore is ranked the benign node, which may be produced
by external injury, fuch as contufions and fradlures : it
can hardly be called a difeafe, as pain feldom fucceeds,
but rather a deformity.
There are rifings or tumors obfervable on the bones Tophus,
which are often the confequents of venereal virus, and
are termed tophi, gummi, or nodes.—Tophus is a foft tu¬
mor in the bone 5 and feems to be formed of a chalky
fubftance, that is intermediate between the offeous
fibres. Thefe cretaceous extravafations are fometimes
found on the ligaments and tendons, as well as on the
bone ; and may fometimes be taken out by the knife.
We have many inftanees where chalk ftones in gouty
people make their way out through the fkin of the
fingers and toes.
Gummi is a foft tumor on the furface of the bone, be-Gummi.
tween it and the periofteum j and its contents refemble
gum foftened, from whence it has taken its name. I40
The confirmed venereal node has the appearance of a VenercaJ
divarication of the offtous fibres. When the periofteum no(l«*
is thickened, but the bone not affefted, a eourfe of mer¬
cury will often produce a perfeft cure : but when the
bone itfelf is difeafed, this method will often fail. But
here the divifion of the extended periofteum has beca
known to give perfect eafe.
The ufual method, formerly, was to apply a cauftlc
equal to the extent of the node, which being laid bare,
required exfoliation before it could be cicatrized. If
the incifion is made early, that is, before matter be
formed under the invefting membrane, it feldom requires
exfoliation ; and, as we often find that the bone itfelf is
not affe&ed, but only the periofteum thickened, we
may be deceived even after a careful examination ; it is
therefore proper that the patient fliould be pretty far
advanced in a courfe of mercurial un&ion before evert
the incifion is made $ for, ftiould the tumor decreafe,
and the pain abate during the courfe, chirurgical af-
fiftance, with the knife, moft likely may become un-
neceffary.
K 2
A
I4I
Carus.
142
Abfcefs.
76 S U R G
Of the Dif- A bone may become carious firil in its internal parts j
eafes ol the arM} t]iat from external injury, as well as from a vitiated
liones. ftate tjie an]mai fluids. Authors feem not to agree
as to the technical term for this kind of difeafe of the
bones 5 feme calling it cancer atgangreena ojjis ; others,
fpina ventofa, from the pointed extuberances ulually at¬
tendant on this diforder of the bone j and fome again,
teredo, from the appearance of the carious bone, like
wood that is worm-eaten.
It is univerfally allowed, that this difeafe takes its
rife from matter being formed either in the diploe, or in
the marrow : whenever obftru&ion is begun in the vef-
fels expanded on, or terminating in, the medullary cyfts,
the confequence will be inflammation, and, if not early
removed, matter will form j for this reafon this cafe
may be called abfcejfus in medulla. Whenever, then, a
patient complains of dull heavy pain, deeply fituated in
the bone, confequent to a violent blow received on
the part fome time before, though the integuments
appear perfeflly found, and the bone itfelf not in the
leaft injured, we have great reafon to fufpeft an abfcefs
in the medulla. Children of a bad habit of body, though
they have not fuffered any external injury, will often be¬
come lame, and complain of the limb being remarkably
heavy •, and though not attended with acute pain, yet
the dull throbbing uneafinefs is conftant. If rigors hap¬
pen during the time the patient labours under this in-
difpofition, it generally implies that matter will be form¬
ed within the fubftance of the bone. If the extremities
of the difeafed bone fwell, or if it becomes enlarged
throughout its whole extent, it may be known to be an
abfcefs in the medulla, or the true fpina ventofa, as it is
called : if neither of thefe fymptoms take place, the
great infenfibility of the bone in fome fubjedls will pre¬
vent that acutenefs of pain ufual in other parts where
matter is formed, though the acrid matter is eroding the
bone during the whole time it is contained within it.
This matter at length having made its way through, ar¬
rives at the periofteum, where it creates moft violent
pain. The integuments then become fwelled and in¬
flamed, and have a fort of emphyfematous feel. On
being examined by preffure, the tumor will fometimes
be lefiened, from part of the matter retiring into the
bone: from this appearance to the touch, moft. likely
the name of ventofa was added to the term fpina.
When we are affured or matter being under the peri¬
ofteum, we cannot be too early in letting it out, as it
will fave a confiderable deal of pain to the patient,
though probably it may not be of any confiderable ad¬
vantage in refpeft to the carious bone j for, where the
fluids in general are vitiated, no chance of cure can be
expefted from topical remedies ; but where the confti-
tution is mended, nature will fometimes aftonifti us in
her part, as the carious bone will be thrown off from
the epiphyfes, or the teredines will be filled up by the
oflific matter that flows from the parts of the bone where
fome of the fpinoe have come away.
If proper medicines are given, the children well fup-
ported, and the parts kep* clean and dry, patience and
perfeverance will frequently give great credit to the fur-
geon In cafe it fliould have been thought advifeable to
apply a trephine, to give free difeharge to the matter,
the wafh'ng it away, as well as the fmall Grumblings of
the carious bone, by, means of deterfive and drying in-
E R Y. Chap. VI.
je&ions, has been known to contribute greatly to the 0* die Diu
curing this kind of caries, after the habit of body ineaf“°^th*
general had been mended. < i, j
JBefides thufe above mentioned, the bones are liable
to two oppofite difeafes ; the one termed friabilitas, the
other moltities ; the former peculiar to adults, the latter
more frequent in infants, though fometimes feen in
adults, from a vitiated ftate of their juices. I43
From repeated falivations, the bones in old people Rickets,
have been rendered extremely brittle j infomuch that in
many fubje&s they have been fraftured merely from
their weight and the a&ion of the mufcles : but in fuch
cafes, this is not owing to the friability of the bones,
but to the lofs of fubftance, from the erofion of the bone
by an acrimonious humour thrown on it: to which
caufe perhaps may be attributed the difeafe called rickets
in children. The effe£ts of fcorbutic humour in render¬
ing the bones foft in many inllances, have often been
remarked.
By proper diet, gentle fridlion, exercife, and cold
bathing, rickety children will frequently get their con-
ftitution fo much changed, as that, by the time they ar¬
rive at the age of 20 years, there (hall not remain the
leaft veftige of their former difeafe. The epiphyfes are
generally moft affected in this fpecies of the diforder.
For want of early attention to invalids of this fort, we
find that their bones not only become foft, and yield to
the powers of the mufcles, but remain diftorted during
the reft of life, though they have acquired a perfect de¬
gree of folidity. In fuch cafes, therefore, the afliftance
of a fkilful mechanic is neceffary both to lupport the
parts improperly afted on, and to alter the line of direc¬
tion of the diftorted offeous fibres.
Though the curvature of the extremities, or thick-
nefs of the ends of the bones near their articulations,
may give the firft alarm to tbofe who are conftantly
with children, yet there are other fymptoms that give
earlier notice \ which if they had been timely difeover-
ed, it is highly probable that the curvature of the limbs
in many children might not have happened. The belly
generally becomes larger in this difeafe, from the in-
creafed fize of the contained bowels j the head then be¬
comes enlarged ; then a difficulty of breathing fucceeds,
which is generally fuppofed to be the efft&s of taking
cold. The fternum is elevated and ftiarp, and the tho¬
rax becomes contracted ; the fpine is protruded in feve-
ral parts •, the pelvis altered, according to the preffure
of the parts within, and habitual inclination of the pa¬
tient to obtain that line of direction in which the per¬
pendicular from the centre of gravity naay fall within
the common bafe of the body, the extremities of the
cylindrical bones, and the ends of the ribs next the fter¬
num, become enlarged \ foon after this the bones in ge¬
neral become foft and flexible, yielding in fuch direc¬
tions as the ftrongeft mufcles determine.
Where the affeCtion of the mefenteric glands is evi¬
dent, Mr Bromefield afferts, that after a dofe or two of
the pulvis bafilicus to empty the inteftines thoroughly,
the purifiedferude quickfilver is by much the moft effi¬
cacious medicine to remove obftruCHons in thofe glands.
When the belly begins to foften and fubfide, the chyle
paflfes without interruption, and the child begins to get
fleih *, then the cold bath becomes truly ftrviceable, and
the decoClion or cold infufion of the Peruvian bark is a
proper
ihap. VI.
'the Dif- proper reftorative ; but the eold bath ufed too early, or
fes of the the barj, given before there is a free circulation of chyle
Bones' , through the ladeals, would be very injurious.
Among the difeafes of the bones we may likewife
ilfy of the take notice of that pulfij of the lower extremities which
wer ex- tajces place, as is generally fuppofed, in confequence of
eaiities. ^ curvature in fome parts of the fpine. To this diftem-
per both fexes and all ages are liable. When it attacks
an infant of only a year or two old or younger, the true
caufe of it is feldom difcovered until fome time alter the
effect has taken place. The child is laid to be uncom¬
monly backward in the ufe of his legs* or it is thougot
to have received fome hurt in the birth. \v hen the
child is of an age fufficient to have already walked,
and who has been able to walk, the lofs of the ufe of
his legs is gradual, though in general not very flow.
He at firft complains of being very foon tired, is lan¬
guid, liftlefs, and unwilling to move much or at all
brifkly. Soon after this he may be obferyed frequently
to trip and (tumble, though there be no impediment in
his way *, and whenever he attempts to move brifkly, he
finds that his legs involuntarily crofs each other, by
which he is frequently thrown down without (tumbling }
and when he endeavours to (land (till in an ere£t pof-
ture without fupport, even for a few minutes, his knees
give way and bend forward. As the diitemper ad¬
vances, it will be found that he cannot, without much
difficulty and deliberation, direct either of his feet ex¬
actly to any one point j and very foon after this, both
legs and thighs lofe a good deal of their natural fenfibi-
lity, and become quite ufelefs. In adults, the progrefs
of the -difeafe is much quicker, but the fymptoms nearly
the fame.
Until the curvature of the fpine is difcovered, the
complaint generally paffes for a nervous one •, but when
the ftate of the back bone is adverted to, recourfe is al-
moll always had to fome previous violence to account for
it. That this might have been the cafe in fome few in-
flances might be admitted ; but in by far the greateft
number, fome predilpofing caufe mufl be looked for.
Mr Pott, who has written a treatife upon this difeafe,
recommends it to our obfervation, that though the lower
limbs are rendered almofl ufelefs, or even entirely fo,
yet there are fome circumflances in which it differs from
a common nervous palfy. The legs and thighs, though
fo much affefted, have neither the flabby feel of a truly
paralytic limb *, nor have they that feeming leofenefs at
the joints, nor the total incapacity ofrefiftance, Avhich
allows the latter to be twifted almoft in all direffions :
on the,contrary, the joints have frequently a confider-
able degree of ftiffnefs, particularly the ankles*, by which
iliffnefs the feet of children are generally pointed down¬
ward, and they are prevented from fetting them flat up¬
on the ground.
At firfl: the general health of the patient feems not to
be at all, or at leail not materially affefted ; but when
the difeafe has continued for fome time, and the curva¬
ture is thereby increafed, many inconveniences and com¬
plaints come on ; fuch as difficulty in refpiration, indi¬
gestion, pain, and what they call tightnefs at thejlomach,
obfiinate conftipations, purgings, involuntary flux of
urine and faeces, &c. with the addition of fome nervous
complaints, which are partly caufed by the alterations
made in the form of the cavity of the thorax, and partly
by impreffions made on the abdominal vifcera.
77
Mr Pott was led to a knowledge of the true caufe Of the Uif-
and cure of this diflemper, from obferving the cafe of a
youth of 14, who was reftored to the ufe of his limbs syfteITli
immediately after a feemingly accidental abfcefs near u.>
the part. From this he was inclined to think, that the
curvature of the fpine was not the original caufe of the
diforder, but that the furrounding parts were predifpof-
ed towards it by fome affection of the folids and fluids
there j and he was confirmed in thefe fufpicions by a
variety of appearances, which he obferved both in the
living body and upon diffe£iion of the fubjedt after
death *, all of which are narrated at full length in his
treatife upon this fubjedt.
“ The remedy (fays he) for this moft dreadful difeafe
confifts merely in procuring a large difcharge of matter,
by fuppuration, from underneath the membrana adipofa
on each fide of the curvature, and in maintaining fueh
difcharge until the patient (hall have perfedlly recovered
the ufe of his legs To accomplifh this purpofe, I have
made ufe of different means, fuch as fetons, iffues made
by incifion, and iffues made by cauflic *, and although
there be no very material difference, I do upon the
whole prefer the laft. A feton is a painful and a nafly
thing : befides which it frequently wears through the
fkin before the end for which it was made can be ac-
complifhed. Iffues made by incifion, if they be large
enough for the intended purpofe, are apt to become in¬
flamed, and to be very troublefome before they come to
fuppuration ; but openings made by cauflic are not in
general liable to any of thefe inconveniences, at leaf! not
fo frequently nor in the fame degree : they are neither
fo troublefome to make or maintain. I make the efchars
of an oval form, about two-thirds of an inch in diame¬
ter on each fide of the curve, taking care to leave a fuf¬
ficient portion of fkin between them. In a few days,
when the efehar begins to loofen and feparate, I cut out
all the middle, and put into each a large kidney-bean :
when the bottoms of the fores are become clean by fup¬
puration, I fprinkle, every third or fourth day, a fmall
quantity of finely powdered cantharides on them, by
which the fores are prevented from contrafling, the
difcharge increafed, and poflibly other benefit obtained.
The iffues I keep open until the cure is complete *, that
is, until the patient recovers perfe&ly the ufe of his legs,
or even for fome time longer : and I fliould think that
it would be more prudent to heal only one of them firft,
keeping the other open for fome time ‘y that is, not only
until the patient can walk, but until he can walk firm¬
ly, brifkly, and without the affiftance of a flick : until
he can (land quite upright, and has recovered all the
height which the habit or rather the neceffity of (loop¬
ing, occafioned by the diflempers, had made him lofe.”
Chap. VII. 145
Of the Difeafes of the Arterial System.
Sect. I. General Remarhs on the Difeafes of the Arte¬
rial SijJlem.
The difeafes of the vafcular fyflem form an important
clafs in fyftems of Nofology. In the difeafes of every
organ, the a£lion of the arteries and veins is more or
lefs influenced, though the changes of ftru£lure to which
thefe veffels are fubjed are very limited. The only
difeafes.
S U R G E R Y.
7»
Of difeafes to be confidered in a fyfteta of fuvgery, are aneu-
Aneunfms. j-jfjjj anj varix,
14^ ' Sect. II. Of Aneurifm.
The term aneurifm was originally meant to fignify a
tumor formed by the dilatation of the coats of an ar¬
tery ; but by modern practitioners it applies not only to
tumors of this kind, but to fuch as are formed by blood
effufed from arteries into the contiguous parts. I here
are three fpecies generally enumerated j the true or
encysted, the falfe or dijfufed, and the ‘varicofe aneu-
,47 rifm.
Of the en- The true or encysted aneurifm, when fituated near
eylted a- furface of the body, produces a tumor at firit fmall
aeunfm. and c;rcurafcr;bed ; the (kin retains its natural appear¬
ance : when preffed by the fingers, a pulfation is evi¬
dently diftinguifhed ; and with very little force the con¬
tents of the fwelling may be made to difappear ; but
they immediately return upon removing the preflure.
By degrees the fwelling increafes, and becomes more
prominent; the fkin turns paler than ufual, and in more
advanced ftages is cedematous : the pulfation ftill con¬
tinues ; but parts of the tumor become firm from the
coagulation of the contained blood, and yield little to
preffum; at lafl the fwelling increafes in a gradual
manner, and is attended with a great degree of pain.
The lki?i turns livid, and has a gangrenous appearance.
There is an oozing of bloody ferum from the integu¬
ments ; and, if mortification do not take place, the Ikin
cracks in different parts ; and the artery being now de¬
prived of the ufual refiftance, the blood burfts out with
fuch force as to occafion the almoft immediate death of
the patient.
When affeCHons of this kind happen in the larger ar¬
teries, the foft parts not only yield to a great extent,
but even the bones frequently undergo a great degree
I4g of derangement.
Of the dif- The falfe or diffufed aneurifm confifts in a wound or
fufed aneu- rupture in an artery, producing, by the blood thrown
trim. ouj. 0£ a fyvelling in the contiguous parts. It is moft
frequently produced by a wound made direftly into the
artery. A tumor, about the fize of a horfe-bean, gene¬
rally rifes at the orifice in the artery foon after the dif-
charge of the blood has been flopped by compreflion.
At firft it is foft, has a ftrong pulfation, and yields a
little to preffure, but cannot be made entirely to difap¬
pear ; for the blood forming the tumor being at reft,
begins to coagulate. If not improperly treated by
much preffure, it generally remains nearly of the fame
fize for feveral weeks. The enlargement however pro¬
ceeds more rapidly in fome cafes than in others. Iu-
flances have occurred of the blood being diffufed over
the whole arm in the fpace of a few hours; while,
on the contrary, fwellings of this kind have been many
months, nay even years, in arriving at any confiderable
fize.
As the tumor becomes larger, it does not, like the
true aneurifm, grow much more prominent, but rather
fpreads and diffufes itfelf into the furrounding parts.
By degrees it acquires a firm confiftence ; and the pul¬
fation, which was at firft confiderable, gradually dimi-
nifhes, till it is fometimes fcarcely perceptible. If the
blood at firft thrown out proceed from an artery deeply
feated, the fkin preferves its natural appearance till the
diforder is far advanced: but when the blood gets at
Chap. VII,
firft into contaft with the fkin, the parts become inftant- Of
ly livid, indicating the approach of mortification ; and Aneunfe.
a real fphacelus has fometimes been induced. The tu-
mor at firft produces little uneafinefs ; but as it increafes
in fize, the patient complains of fevere pain, ftiffnefs,
numbnefs, and immobility of the whole joint; and thefe
fymptoms continuing to augment, if the artery be large,
and afliftance not given, the teguments at laft burft, and
death enfues. X49
When an artery is pun&ured through a vein, as in Of the vs,
blood-letting at the arm, the blood generally ruflies intoricole a-
the yielding cellular fubftance, and there fpreads fo asneunfm’
to flint the fides of the vein together. But in fome in-
flances where the artery happens to be in contact with
the vein, the communication opened has been preferved;
and the vein not being fufficiently ftrong for refifting
the irnpulfe of the artery, mull confequently be dilated.
This is a varicofe aneurifm. Soon after the injury the
vein immediately communicating with the artery begins
to fwell, and enlarge gradually. If there be any confi¬
derable communications in the neighbourhood, the veins
which form them are alfo enlarged. The tumor difap-
pears upon preflure, the blood contained in it being
chiefly pufhed fonvards in its courfe towards the heart;
and when the tumor is large, there is a lingular tremu¬
lous motion, attended with a perpetual hiffing noife, as
if air was pafling into it through a fmall aperture.
If a ligature be applied upon the limb immediately’
below the fwelling, tight enough to flop the pulfe in
the under part of the member, the fwelling difappears by
preffure, but returns immediately upon the preffure be¬
ing removed. If, after the fwelling is removed by pref¬
fure, the finger be placed upon the orifice in the artery,
the veins remain perfectly flaccid till the preflure is ta¬
ken off. If the trunk of the artery be compreffed above
the orifice, fo as effectually to flop the circulation, the
tremulous motion and hiffing noife immediately ceafe ;
and if the veins be now emptied by preffure, they re¬
main fo till the compreffion upon the artery be removed.
If the vein be comprefled a little above, as well as be¬
low the tumor, all the blood may generally, though not
always, be pufhed through the orifice into the artery ;
from whence it immediately returns on the preffure be¬
ing difeontinued.
When the difeafe has continued long, and the dilata¬
tion of the veins has become confiderable, the trunk of
the artery above the orifice generally becomes greatly
enlarged, while that below becomes proportionably
fmall ; of confeqlience the pulfe in the under part of the
member is always more feeble than in the found limb of
the oppofite fide. j so
Aneurifms have frequently been miflaken for abfeef-Diagnofis <
fes and other collections of matter, and have been laidaneujif»»
open by incifion ; on which account great attention is
fometimes required to make the proper diftinClion. In
the commencement of the difeafe the pulfation in the
tumor is commonly fo ftrong, and other concomitant
cireumftances fo evidently point out the nature of the
diforder, that little or no doubt refpefting it can ever
take place ; but in the more advanced ftages of the dif¬
eafe, when the fwelling has become large and has loft:
its pulfation, nothing but a minute attention to the pre¬
vious hiftory of the cafe can enable the praClitioner to
form a judgment of its nature.
Aneurifms may be confounded with foft eneyfted tu¬
mors.
SURGERY.
1SI
jgnofis,
iap. VII. • S U R G
Of mors, fcrofulous Avellings, and abfcefles lituated lo near
.eurifms. to an artery as to be affe&ed by its pulfation. _ But one
fymptom, when conneaed with itrong pulfation, raay
always lead to a certain determination that the fwelling
is of the aneurifmal kind, viz. the contents of the tumor
being made eaiily to difappear upon preiTure, and their
returning on the compreffion being removed. 1 he
want of this circumftance, however, ought not to con¬
vince us that it is not of that nature ; for it frequently
happens, efpecially in the advanced llages of aneurifms,
that their contents become fo firm that no efFedt is pro¬
duced upon them by preffure. Hence the propriety, in
doubtful cafes, of proceeding as if the difeafe was clear¬
ly of the aneurifmal kind.
In the prognofis, three circumftances are chiefly to
be attended to ; the manner in which the difeale appears
to have been produced, the part of the body in which
the fwelling is Atuat^d; and th$ age »p.d habit of bo-
dy of tbr patient.
If an aneurifm has come forward in a gradual man¬
ner, without any apparent injury done to the part,, and
not fucceeding any violent bodily exertion, there will be
reafon to fuppofe that the difeafe depends upon a gene¬
ral affe£lion either of the trunk in which it occurs, .01
of the whole arterial fyftem. In fuch cafes art can give
little afhfiance ; whereas if the tumor has fucceeded an
external accident, an operation may be attended with
fuccefs.
In the varicofe aneurifm a more favourable prognofis
may generally be given than in either of the other two
fpecies. It does not proceed fo rapidly; when it has
arrived at a certain length, it does not afterwards ac¬
quire much additional fize •, and it may be fuftained
without much inconvenience for a great number of
years. As long as there is reafon to expeft this, the
hazard which almoft always attends the operation ought
to be avoided.
Treatment.—In every cafe of aneurifm, the ufe of pref¬
fure has been indifcriminately recommended, not only in
the incipient period of the difeafe, but even in its more
advanced flages. In the diffufed or falfe aneurifm, as
preffjre cannot be applied to the artery alone, without at
the fame time affecting the refluent veins-, and as this,
by producing an increafed refiftance to the arterial pul-
fations, muft force an additional quantity of blood to the
orifice in the artery—no advantage is to be expelled
from it, though it may be productive of mifehief.
•preflure. In the early flages of eneyfted aneurifm, while the
blood can be yet prelTed entirely but of the fac into the
artery, it often happens, by the ufe of a bandage of foft
and fomewhat elaftic materials, properly fitted to the
part, that much may be done in preventing the iwelling
from receiving any degree of increafe } and on fome
occafions, by the continued fupport thus given to the
weakened artery, complete cures have been at lafl ob¬
tained. In all fuch cafes, therefore, particularly in every
inflance of the varicofe aneurifm, much advantage may
be expeCled from moderate preffure.
But preiTure, even in eneyfted aneurifm, ought never
to be carried to any great length ; for tight bandages,
by producing an immoderate degree of rea&ion in the
containing parts to which they are applied, inftead of
anfwering the purpofe for which they were intended,
have evidently the contrary effeCt. Indeed the great-
eft length to which preffure in fuch cafes ought to go,
E R Y. 79
fhould be to ferve as an tafy fupport to the parts af- of
Aneurifms*
Of late years the fubjeCI of aneurifm has attracted
the notice of feveral eminent furgeons of this country j
and arterial trunks have been fuccefsf fily tied, which
had been often propofed, but never executed. Mr
John Bell feveral years ago, tied the trunk of the glu¬
teal artery. Mr Abernethy of St Bartholomew’s hof-
pital, tied the common femoral. Mr Aftley Cooper
of Guys, tied the common carotid $ and Mr Ramiden
of St Bartholomew’s hofpital, has lately tied the iub-
clavian artery.
Sect. III. Of the Popliteal Aneurifm. 153
We are indebted to Mr John Hunter for the ingeni¬
ous operation for popliteal aneurifm. The operation
confiits in expofing the femoral artery about the middle
of the thigh, and putting a ligature round the velfel.
An incifion is to he made through the integuments, two
inches and a half in length on the inner edge of the
fartorius mufcle (Tee Plate TXVI. fig. 1.). An in¬
cifion is to be made through the {heath containing
the artery with its accompanying vein and nerve, and
a double ligature is to be introduced underneath it, by
means of a blunt needle ; care being taken not to in- * gee Plate
elude either the femoral vein, or crural nerve. One li- DXIII.
gature is to be tied as high up, and the other as low as
the artery is feparated from the contiguous parts ; the
diltance between the two being rather more than half
an inch. The artery fhould then be divided by a
probe-pointed biftoury, (Plate DXIII.) in the inter-
fpace between the two ligatures, but nearer to the lower
ligature than to the upper one. The ligature (hould be
moderately thick, in order that the- noofe may be drawn
as tightly as poflible, without rifk of tearing, or cutting
the coats of the veflel. The limb may be kept warm
after the operation, by artificial heat if neceftary and
the wound treated in the ufual manner.
Sect. IV. Of the Femoral Aneurifm.
*54
The external iliac artery was firft tied by Mr Aber¬
nethy * ; and there are now eight cafes on record where * See Mr
the practice has been followed, fix of which, were fuceefs- Abernethy s
ful. Mr Abernethy’s operation confifts in making an
incifion through the integuments of the abdomen, a-
bout three inches in length in the direction of the ar¬
tery, beginning juft above Poupart’s ligament, (fee Plate
DXVI. fig. I.) and half an inch on the outfide of the
abdominal ring, in order to avoid the epigaftric artery.
The aponeurofis of the external oblique mufcle is then
to be divided in the direction of the wound. 1 be lower
margin of the internal oblique and tranlverle mufcles is
to be cut with a crooked biftoury. I he finger may
then be palled between the peritonaeum by the iide of
the pfoas mufcle, fo as to touch the artery. A double
ligature is to be put underneath the veffel, and tied as
in the operation for popliteal aneurifra.
Sect. V. Of the Carotid Aneurifm, *55
It had been repeatedly propofed to tie the carotid
artery ; but the operatipn was firft performed by Mr
Aftley:
8o S U
Of Varicofe Ailley Ccopfer. Thete are tliree inHances of this ar-
, ^ e,n3‘ tery having been fuccefsfully tied, fo that there is fufli-
cient eneouragement to adopt the praftice in future
cafes, where there is room to tie the artery above the
fternum. The operation is to be done by making an
incifion on the fide of the artery next the trachea, laying
bare the veffel, and carefully avoiding the par vagum
and the recurrent branch in placing the ligature.
R G £ R Y.
nating direftly in the vena cava,
gent
but
Chap. IX.
in the emul-Of the Dif-
eafes of the
Treatment.—The ufe of aftringenls, along with a pro-
per fufpenfory bandage, will generally afford relief. It
has alfo been propofed to tie a ligature round one or
more of the varicofe velfels. In one cafe this vras done
with complete fuccefs.
Sect. III. Of Hemorrhoidal Tumors.
15*
*■56 Sect. VI. Of the Axillary Aneurfm.
Mr Keate of St George’s Hofpital, tied rvith fuccefs
the axillary artery, where it paffes over the firft rib ;
and Mr Ramfden has lately tied the fubclavian artery
for an axillary aneurifm. The patient however died.
A fimilar operation was attempted by Mr Cooper, but
he failed in tying the ligature round the artery, from
the bulk of the tumor. The great difficulty felt in
thefe operations was the paffing of the ligature below
the veflel on account of its depth. Some contrivance is
therefore neceffary in order to facilitate this part of the
operation.
Chap. VIII.
Of the Difeafes of the Venous System.
*57 Sect. I. Of Varicofe Veins.
WHEN the veins of any organ become preternaturally
dilated, they are faid to be varicofe. This ftate of the
veins is moft ufually met with in thofe which are fuper-
ficial, and feems to arife either from fome mechanical
caufe preventing the ready flow of blood through them,
or from the veins themfelves lofing the neceffary fup-
port of the fkin and adjacent parts. The gravid uterus,
by preffing on the iliac veffels, frequently renders the
veins of the lower extremity varicofe. Various tumors
produce fimilar effefts. We atfo fee the veins of the in¬
teguments of old people become tortuous and fwelled
from no mechanical preffure.
Varicofe veins are a frequent attendant on ulcers of
the leg, and it has been obferved that the ulcer feldom
or ever heals until the varix is cured.
Varicofe veins of the extremities may generally be
much relieved by the application of a proper bandage,
from the toes upwards and in cafes where this does not
give relief, the venous trunk fhould be tied with a liga¬
ture as direfted in aneurifm.
S58 Sect. II. Varicofe Spermatic Veins (Variocele).
The veins of the fpermatie cord often remain vari¬
cofe after inflammation of the tefticle, and alfo in early
life without any known caufe. The difeafe is generally
eafily diftinguiffied by the tortuous irregular fwelling.
It fometimes, however, acquires a large fize $ but even
then its nature may be readily diftinguiffied by placing
the patient in a horizontal pofition, and applying pref¬
fure to the tumor. By this the fwelling difappears, and
if the upper part be grafped fo as to allow nothing to
pafs out of the abdomen, the fwelling will neverthelefs
be again formed.
The difeafe occurs moft frequently in the left fide,
apd this may arife from the vein in that fide not termi-
The hsemorrhoidal tumor confifts in a dilatation of
the veins about the anus and extremity of the rectum.
They are round fmooth tumors of a purple colour, and
more or lefs painful. They vary in their fize and num¬
ber. Sometimes they are accompanied by a regular
periodical difcharge of blood (bleeding piles), and in
other cafes no fuch difcharge takes place (blind piles),
and then they are more fubjedt to inflammatory at¬
tacks.
Haemorrhoids occur more frequently in women thaa
in men, and they commonly arife from a long continued
preflure on the redtum 5 as obftinate coftivenefs, pro-
lapfus, geftation, calculus or tumors about the bladder,
uterus, or vagina.
Treatment.—When they are inflamed, local bleed¬
ing, fomentations and poultices give much relief, care
being taken at the fame time to keep the tumors within
the anus, and to keep the bowels very open by mild
laxatives and clyfters.
In fome cafes the piles acquire a very confiderable
bulk, and form a number of large and loofe tumors
round the anus, which prevent the free difcharge of
faeces. In fuch cafes the tumors ought to be removed,
and this may be beft done with the knife ; or, as fome¬
times happens, if they be fo fituated as to render this
dangerous, they may be removed by a ligature.
Chap. IX.
Of the Difeafes of the Glandular System.
General Remarks on the Pathology of the Glands.
WrE obferve a vaft variety of difeafes of the glandular
fyftem, and the greater number of thefe arife from a
morbid ftate of their fecretions. We fee ftriking ex¬
amples of an increafed fecretion in diabetes, in the mer¬
curial falivation, and in many bilious diforders : on the
other hand the natural fecretion is diminiffied in fuppref-
fion of urine, in drynefs of the mouth, &c.
An alteration in the fecretory funftion is not, how¬
ever, the only difeafe of this fyftem; there are a great
number of organic alterations of ftrutture with which
they are affe£led, and a variety of tumors are alfo found
to form in them. As, however, moft of the principal
glands of the body are fituated within the larger cavi¬
ties, few of their difeafes come within the province of
the furgeon.
Sect. I. Of the Difeafes of the Teficle.
x. Of the Schirrus and Cancer of the Teficle, (Sarcocele).
1 his affeftion is liable to a confiderable variety in its
appearances ; and as in the defcription of it which has
been given by authors, they have included fymptoms of
difeafes
iliap. IX. • S U R G E R Y.
' the Pif- difeafes which are very different from the true fchir-
itJS of tuC
I'efticle. mo^ reinarkable fymptom of fchirrous tefticle is
' f ' a gradual enlargement and induration of the body of
the gland or epididimis, advancing from one point, with¬
out marks of inflammation or pain. Along with its in-
creafe in bulk it acquires additional hardnefs, and its
furface, from being fmooth, turns by degrees unequal and
rxnptoms. knotty. The integuments become of a purplifh red, at
laft ulcerate, difcharge a foetid ichor, and a cancerous
fungus grows from the wound. I he fpermatic chord
alfo becomes enlarged, knotty, and hard, and the glands
of the groin fwell, the health of the patient becoming
entirely deftroyed, and at laft carrying him off in the
greateft mifery.
The progrefs of this difeafe is in general flow, and is
commonly attended with an aching fenfation about the
tefticle, and fevere pain darting from it to the loins*
particularly when the tefticle is not fupported. The
difeafe is moft frequent in the advanced ftages of life. It
commonly arifes from an unknown caufe. It has at
times been known to fucceed a venereal affe&ion, but
this is by no means common, and it is fometimes pre¬
ceded by a blow or fome accident which excites inflam-
163 mation.
Appear- When the fchirrous tefticle is examined by diffe&ion,
inces on jyr Baillie obferves that “ it is found to be changed into
lifTedtion. a maps Gf a bnmmfh colour, which is generally
more or lefs interfered by membrane. In this there is
no veftige of the natural ftrufture, but cells are fre¬
quently obfervable in it containing a fanious fluid, and
fometimes there is a mixture of cartilage.” Sometimes
water is found collefted in the cavity of the tunica va¬
ginalis, but more frequently the tunics adhere to each
other. When the fpermatic chord is aftefted, that exhi¬
bits the fame changes of ftrufture as the tefticle itfelf.
r^4 Treatment.—When a tefticle is known to be affeded
with the true fchirrus, all profper of a cure by the ex¬
hibition of internal or external remedies becomes hope-
lefs, as there is no faft better known and more feverely
felt in the hiftory of fchirrus and cancer in every organ
of the body, than its refilling all means of relief, but by
the complete removal of the difeafed part. In a few
rare cafes, by a moderate diet, keeping the bowels open,
fufpending the tumor, avoiding violent exercife, or any
thing which may prove a fource of irritation, the dif-
order has been faid to be not only prevented from in-
creaftng, but has in a gradual manner entirely difap-
pearedj but we much fufpeft that thefe cafes whofe
termination was fo favourable, have not been of a febir-
rous nature. This is probable from what is knowrn of the
termination of fchirrus in other organs of the body, and
alfo from the difficulty we have in forming an accurate
diagnolis in the difeafes of the tefticle. There are, we
liefitate not to fay, many tefticles extirpated which
might have been faved; for ourimperfedl knowledge of
the various morbid changes of this organ, has made it
too much an eftabliftied practice to extirpate all tefticles
which are enlarged and hard, and which do not yield
to mercury.
When, however, by an attentive examination of the
hiftory and fymptoms of the difeafe, no doubt is enter¬
tained of its febirrous or cancerous nature, the more
fpeedily the tumor is removed, the better chance there
is of a permanent cure. In performing the operation,
Vox. XX. Part I.
care ftiould be taken to’remove completely every part Of the Dif-
fufpedted to be difeafed, and no part of the Ikin fliould ea^sft?^he
be left with a view of covering the wound more com- . ... ^ .
pletely which has the leaft difcolouration or mark of dif¬
eafe.
Mode of extirpating the TeJHcle. 155
The parts being previoufly Ihaved, the patient is to
be laid upon a firm table covered with a blanket or mat-
trefs. His legs fhould hang over the table, and be fup¬
ported by afliftants. An incifion is to be made through
the integuments with a common fcalpel, extending from
a little above the external abdominal ring to the bottom,
of the ferotum. The cellular membrane around the
fpermatic chord is to be differed back, and the chord
laid fairly barej and this part of the operation is much
more eafily accomplifhed when the incifton through the.
Ikin is very free. A ligature of confiderable thicknefs
is to be put underneath the chord, and it may be intro¬
duced with a blunt-pointed needle or inftrument (fig. 17.
Plate DXIIL). The extent of the difeafe in the
chord Ihould now be examined as accurately as poftible,
and the ligature Ihould be tied firm with a running
knot, as far above the difeafed part as poflible. If any
hardnefs extends to the external abdominal ring, the
chord may be even differed up along the inguinal ca¬
nal, and the ligature put on at that place. The chord
may be divided one-fourth of an inch below where the
ligature has been applied, and then the whole of the
tefticle and its vaginal coat may be readily differed
awav, taking care not to cut into the vaginal cavity of
the oppoftte fide of the ferotum. After the tefticle is
removed, the ligature ftiould be loofened, and the fper¬
matic artery and veins. included in feparate ligatures.
The ligature upon the fpermatic chord is to be left
loofe, fo as to a£l as a tourniquet if a haemorrhagy
ftiould enfue. Much care ftiould alfo be taken to fecure
any arteries of the integuments of the ferotum which,
are feen bleeding; as we once met with a very trouble-
fome hgemorrbagy from one of thefe retracing among
the loofe cellular texture, and not being feen after the
operation. It therefore will be a good general rule
to tie thofe with ligatures immediately after they are di¬
vided.
The wound is to be dreffed, fo as to be healed if pof-
fible by adhefion; and this may generally be accomplifh¬
ed, except at the upper part where the ligatures come
through. With this view the wound and ferotum are to
be carefully waftied, and two or three flitches, as may be
thought moft expedient, are to be put through the edges
of the wound; for in a part like the ferotum, where the
fkin is loofe and puckered, it is hardly poftible to ap¬
ply adhefive ftraps with fufficient accuracy, fo as t«
ferve the purpofe. Small pieces of adhefive plafter,
however, fhould be neatly placed between each of the
flitches, along the whole extent of the wound, and a pled¬
get of fimple ointment and comprefs afterwards to be
laid over it, the whole being fecured with a T ban^-
dage.
After the operation, the patient is to be put to bed,
being direfted to lie on his back with a pillow between
the thighs, fo as to fupport the ferotum.
Opiates fhould be given to allay pain, and if any in¬
flammatory fymptoms fupejrvene, bleeding at the arm
fhould be bad recourfe to without the kail hefitation;
L for
82
Of the Dif- for we have made a general remark, that after almoft
cafes of the ^ farg5cal operations, there has fcarcely ever an in-
, Ieftlcle- , ftance occurred where the patient died from lofs of
~v blood, and on the contrary, that almoft all patients who
have loft much blood, or who have been previoufly much
emaciated, have recovered more quickly than thofe in
full health. The antiphlogiftic regimen in almoft every
cafe fhould be rigidly purfued, until at leaft all inflam-
matory appearances of the wound are gone, and a healthy
Mode of fuppuration commenced. About four, five, or fix days,
dreffing according to circumftances, the drefiings fhould be re-
the wound, ancl if the wound has healed by adhefion, the
flitches may be withdrawn, and the edges of the wound
kept together by adhefive plafters. The ligature on
the fpermatic chord may now be fafely taken away, and
that round the fpermatic artery and veins generally
comes readily away before the tenth dreffing. In this
manner the wound fhould be dreffed daily until it is
cicatrifed. When the wound, inftead of healing by ad¬
hefion, fuppurates, the flitches may be taken away as
foon as it appears that the edges of the wound can be
accurately kept together with the adhefive plafters; for
if the flitches are allowed to remain long, they general¬
ly ulcerate the contiguous Ikin, and form finufes, which
continue to difcharge matter after the reft of the wound
has healed. The wound fhould be dreffed once or even
twice in twenty-four hours if the difcharge be profufe,
and care (hould be taken to wafh away with a fponge
any matter which may be depofited on the found fkin
of the fcrotum or groin. The edges of the wound
fliould be brought accurately together at each drefling,
any matter collefted in different parts of it fhould be
gently fqueezed out, fo as to prevent any lodgement
from taking place. Should the patient become weak
from the continuance of the difcharge, he fhould be or¬
dered a nourifhing diet, with a proper proportion of
wine ; and if the difcharge be at any time thin and very
profufe, wre have found much benefit in fuch a cafe from
the internal ufe of bark (cinchona).
2. Injlammcttion of the TcJUcle (Hernia humoralis).
itfy
Symptoms. Inflammation is one of the moft frequent difeafes of
the tefticle. Sometimes the inflammation is confined to
the fubftance of the tefticle, at other times it affefts the
epididimis, and in fome cafes it fpreads to the albuginea
and vaginalis. The furface of the inflamed tefticle is
uniform and fmooth, more or lefs fenfible to the touch,
equally firm and tenfe throughout when preffed upon,
and the integuments are generally difcoloured, having a
blulh of rednefs, and interfperfed with varicofe veins.
When examined by diffeclion, the tefticle exhibits, ac¬
cording to Dr Baillie, precifely the fame appearances as
the inflammation of the fubftance of other parts. The
vas deferens fometimes partakes of the inflammation, its
coats becoming confiderably thickened, and in other in-
ftances the veins of the fpermatic chord become varicofe.
Inflammation of the tefticle moft frequently is preceded
by gonorrhoea, but it alfo occurs from a variety of caufes.
It occurs fometimes from expofiire to cold, from violent
exercife, and is often excited' from blows, riding on
horfeback, &c.
The inflammation of the tefticle concomitant of go¬
norrhoea generally begins by fpreading along the vas
deferens from the proftate gland through the inguinal
Chap. IX
canal till it comes to the tefticle ; it is in moft cafes at-Of the Di
tended with excruciating pain from the rapidity of itseafesof tl
progrefs ; and as it commonly comes on when the gonor- feftide.
rhoeal difcharge diminifties or difappears, and fubfides * * —
when the difcharge returns, many authors have fup-
pofed that it was a true metaftalis of the venereal mat¬
ter.
If the difeafe be left to itfelf, the body of the tefticle
becomes more hard and painful, with all the fymptoms
of local inflammation, and the tumor fometimes acquires
an enormous bulk. Sometimes the inflammation is ac¬
companied with violent fever, with a pulfe hard and
ftrong in the plethoric, and feeble and rapid in conftitu-
tions which are delicate and irritable. The patient alfo
often complains of pains in the loins, and has naufea and
vomiting. In general the difcharge from the urethra
diminilhes confiderably, and often it ceafes altogether
before the tefticle becomes affedted ; but lometimes that
does not happen in any remarkable degree till one or
two days after the fwelling has begun to appear. It
never happens that both tefticles are affedled at the fame
time, but when the fwelling of one dilappears, often the
other one begins to be attacked.
The tefticles fometimes fwell and inflame from the
abforption of the matter of a chancre, and as the pro¬
grefs of the fwelling is in fuch cafes flow, and generally
more irregular, it has fometimes been miftaken for a
fchirrous tefticle ; but an inveftigation into the hiftory of
the cafe, and particular attention to the appearance of
the ikin of the fcrotum, and any fymptoms of the vene¬
real difeafe in other parts of the body, will generally lead'
to a knowledge of the true nature of the cafe. It fome¬
times happens that inflammation is chiefly confined to
the fpermatic chord, and in many cafes it affedls the
epididimis alone. The extent of the difeafe is always
eafily afcertained by a careful examination of the parts.
It feldom happens that both tefticles are inflamed at
once ; we have, however, remarked this to take place.
Inflammation, fuch as has now been defcribed, generally
abates by the application of proper remedies : in fome
cafes, however, an induration of the tefticle remains.
It terminates, though rarely, in fuppuration.
Treatment.—When an inflammation has arifen from
a blow, from expofure to cold, or from any injury done
to the tefticle, it ought to be treated according to the
general plan laid down of treating inflammation of other
organs. Local bleeding by leeches is a moft ufeful re¬
medy, and ought to be the firft thing employed if there
is the flighteft pain, tendernefs, or rednefs of the fcro¬
tum. Fomenting the fcrotum with warm water, or a-
decoflion of poppy heads, chamomile flowers, or tobacco
leaves, often gives much relief, and great attention
fliould be paid in fupporting the tefticle with a filk net
trufs (Plate DXIV.). Some have alfo ufed with fue-
cefs the application of ice or fnow to the part. If the
fymptoms and pain are very violent, bleeding at the arm
may be neceffary. The bowels fhould be kept open,
and even purged ; the patient ftiould be confined to a-
low diet, and he ftiould keep as much as poflible to the
horizontal pofture, as this is found to be of the greateih
importance in promoting the cure.
When the inflammation arifes from gonorrhoea, par¬
ticular attention nmft be paid not only to the difeafe iu
the tefticle, but to that of tile urethra. Indeed it is of
much importance in the treatment of gonorrhoea to ufe
means
SURGERY.
•ericnnes.
Dliap.IX. SURG
)f the Dir. means to prevent t!,e tefticles from beconnng inflamed;
ales of the and as every thing which caufes a fuppreflion ot the dii-
Teftide. ch tends to produce a fwelling of the tefticle, it is
^   natural to fuppofe, that in order to prevent this trouble-
fome diforder, every thing ftiould be avoided capable ot
increafing the irritation and inflammation of the urethra,
as expofure to cold, violent exercife, ill chofen injec¬
tions, and balfamic medicines ; but, above all, the ule ot
. . a fufpenfory is moft efficacious, and Swediaur recom-
one to be worn in every cafe of gonorrhoea from
a dies Ve- the commencement of the difeafe, to prevent all rifle of
the tefticles becoming inflamed. When the inflamma¬
tory fymptoms are fevere, the treatment ffiould be
adopted as we have recommended in common inflamma¬
tion of the tefticle. If the difeharge from the urethra
is ftopt, means Ihould be ufed to reftore it. Whenever
the inflammatory fever is rendered more mild, Swediaur
recommends, with this view, a dofe of opium to be
given, and according to circumftances, an injedion com-
pofed’of two or three ounces of oil of linfeed and decoc¬
tion of barley, along with fifty or fixty drops of the vi¬
nous tinaure of opium. This may be repeated every
ten or twelve hours, taking care always to have the
bowels well opened before ufing it. Swediaur has
found the extraa of hyofeyamus in many cafes anfwer
better than opium. Fomentating the penis and adjacent
parts with warm vinegar and water, injefting warm oil,
and the ufe of bougies, may alfo be advantageous in pro¬
moting the difeharge from the urethra.
170
Treatment.
3. Induration of the Tejhcle.
After the inflammatory fymptoms have abated, it ge¬
nerally happens that a degree of fwelling and hardnefs
of the body of the tefticle, but ftill more frequently of
the fpermatie cord or epididimis, remains, and iti many
cafes continues for months, or even during life. I his
effeft takes place from whatever caufe the inflammation
may have arifen. In many cafes the tefticle itfelf re¬
mains quite found, and the epididimis is converted into
a very hard unyielding mafs, which feels as if it were
injefted with quickfilver. Sometimes the tefticle, whilft
it remains hard, diminithes in fize, and becomes much
fmaller than natural. When the tefticle is examined
by difie&ion, it is found to have loft its natural ftruc-
ture, and is fometimes changed into a hard brown-co¬
loured mafs (Voigtel), interfered more or lefs by mem¬
branous bands •, fometimes parts having a cartilaginous
quality appear in it* ahd fometimes cells are formed which
contain matter. The feminal veflels are fo changed
and hardened, that they cannot be diftinguiffied from
each other. In fume cafes the whole tefticle has been
found converted into a cartilaginous mafs, and in a few
inftances fome parts of it have been converted into
bone.
The treatment ufually recommended in cafes of in¬
duration of the tefticle preceded by inflammation, are
ftrong ftimulating and aftringent applications •, fuch as
folutions of the muriate of ammonia, acetate of lead, ful-
phate of zinc, Stc. either applied by moiftening with
them apiece of linen, which is to be kept conftantly wet,
or by ufing them in the form of a poultice. Fri£lions
with mercurial ointment, either fingly or combined with
camphor, over the ferotum and perinseum, fometimes
produce a good effect ; mercurial fumigations to the
■genital organs have alfo been recommended. In foxne
E R Y. ^ 83
cafes the internal ufe of mercury has been found neeef- Of tne Dif-.
fary. A mercurial plafter with camphor, or the com-®^?^.^ ®
mon foap plafter, is alfo a good application, and is very
ufeful in defending the tefticle.
The internal and external ufe of the hemlock {co-
nium maculatum) has been much recommended by
Plenk. Electricity has alfo been fuceefslully employ¬
ed. The muriate of lime, and the muriate of barytes,
have been ufed by fome authors. Swediaur fays that he
has known fome affedtions of the tefticle produced by
gonorrhoea, and alfo fome difeafes of the eye from the
fame caufe, cured by the patient getting a freffi infec¬
tion. In a few cafes of induration, and fwelling of the
tefticles, w'e have employed bliftering with good effects.
The ferotum ffiould be ffiaved before this is done •, and
it is often neceflary to repeat the blifter feveral times be¬
fore the hardnefs or fwelling begin to abate.
4. Abfcefs of the Tejlicle.
It fometimes, though rarely happens, that the tefticle Symptomr.
fuppurates. The matter which is formed, is commonly
a tough, thready, yellow-coloured fubftance, which ad¬
heres to the furface of the cavity in which it is contain¬
ed. Sometimes there is only one abfcefs; in other cafes
the matter is contained in feveral fmall irregular-ffiaped
cavities. Sometimes the matter is formed in the very
middle of the body of the tefticle ; in other cafes we
have obferved fmall abfeeffes in different parts of the
epididimis, the body of the tefticle remaining quitefound.
When an abfcefs is formed in the tefticle, the ftrutture
of the gland becomes more or lefs changed 5 generally
inftead of being foft, and the tubes of which it is com-
pofed being eafily feparated, it degenerates into a hard
firm mafs. 172
Abfeeffes of the tefticle ffiould be opened as foon aS Treatment*
poffible, in order to prevent the fubftance of the tefticle
from being deftroyed. The prefence of matter is learnt
by a fludluation which can be felt externally j but it is
often extremely difficult to determine the true fituation
of the abfcefs, whether it is formed in the body of the
tefticie, in the epididimis, or between the albuginea and
tunica vaginalis, or in the cellular membrane external
to the tunica vaginalis ; for when fuch a degree of in¬
flammation has taken place as to terminate in the for¬
mation of an abfcefs, the accompanying fwelling deftroys
the natural form of the parts, and involves the whole
into a undetermined ftiapelefs mafs. Richter remarks,
that there are fometimes foft fpots in the tefticle, In
which it is believed there is a fludluation. When fuch
fwellings are opened no matter is difeharged, nothing
but blood appears, and the inflammatory fymptoms are
afterwards increafed. The more matter which is dii-
charged from an abfcefs of the tefticle, the fmaller the
tefticle. grows, as the matter is fometimes formed partly
of the thready fubftance of the tefticle. Cafes have oc¬
curred where the whole tefticle has been pulled away, the
furgeon having miftaken the feminiferous tubes for floughs.
Abfeeffes of the fubftance of the tefticle feldom heal,
and generally a fiftulous opening remains, through which
there is a conftant oozing of the feminal fluid.
5. Fiflulous Sinus of the Tejitcle. 173
As far as we know, no author has taken notice of this
appearance. In sne cafe we obferved it very remark¬
able. The epididimis alone was fwelled, and there was
L 2 a
§4
S U R G E & Y.
Of the Dif- a thickened portion of ferotum adhering to one part of
*Teftkleie w^‘c^ there was a finall finus, and through which
e 1 e' the feminal fluid conftantly oozed. In a fimilar cafe
the finus was laid open, but with no good effect ; for a
fraall opening remained unhealed, through which the
femen continued to be difcharged.
„ I74
Symptoms.
^ 175
Treatment.
6. Scrofulous Tejlicle.
When the tefticle is aflFe£led with fcrofula, it prefents
fome of thofe general charafters of fcrofula in other
glandular parts. Its tubular appearance is deftroyed ;
it becomes enlarged ; and when cut, it is found to be
compofed of a dull white fub .ance, of the confidence of
curd, which in fome parts is mixed with a thin puriform
fluid. The fcrotum.is in almoft all cafes involved in
the difeafe ; it becomes red and inflamed, and the vagi¬
nal coat adheres to the albuginea. Abfcefles alfo form in
various parts of the cellular membrane of the ferotum,
which fometimes communicate with the body of the
tefticle. This difeafe generally occurs during the early
periods of life, end moft commonly only one tefticle is
affe&ed with it. Sometimes, however, when one reco¬
vers, the fame difeafe attacks the other.
In moft cafes of this kind furgical aid does not avail
much, for the progrefs of the difeafe cannot be checked
by any internal and external remedies. All that can
be done is to relieve the inflammatory fymptoms, to al¬
lay pain, and to prevent the formation of finufes. With
a view to alleviate the fymptoms of inflammation, no¬
thing is fo beneficial as the application of leeches to the
ferotum, and the ufe of fomentations and poulticing, or
folutions of the acetate of lead. Opiates and laxatives
may be alfo freely given, unlefs in cafes where from ex¬
perience thefe are known todifagree. When matter has
once formed, the fooner it is difcharged the better, and
this fhould be done by a fmall incifion. After one ab-
fcefs has healed, others are very apt to form in fuccef-
fion ; thefe fhould be treated in the fame manner, and
if at any period of the difeafe finufes form, they Ihould
be at once laid completely open to the bottom ; or if
they are very deep and extenfive, a feton may be intro¬
duced } if this, however, does not produce an adhefion
of the cavity, they fhould be laid open with a biftoury
in the manner direfted when treating off nufes.
7. Tejlicle preternaturally fmall, or wanting.
After violent attacks of inflammation, or in cafes of
abfeefs, the tefticle fometimes diminifhes greatly in fize,
is almoft entirely abforbed ; and in a few inftances
people have been born with them much fmaller than
natural (Baillie). Sometimes a tefticle has been known
to wafte away without any known caufe, fo as to dif-
appear altogether. Sometimes one tefticle, and fome¬
times both remain in the cavity of the abdomen through
life j fo that a perfon appears to have only one tefticle
or to be without them altogether. Mr Hunter fufpe&s
that in thefe cafes they are not fo perfect as when they
defeend into the ferotum ; and if we were to reafon
from what is obferved in other animals, in the horfe
particularly, where this by no means unfrequently takes
place, it is highly probable that when the tefticles do
not defeend into the ferotum, they are not capable of
performing their functions.
Thefe cafes, though they cannot be relieved by medi¬
cal aid, yet they are worthy of the notice of medical men,
3
Chap. 1}
8. Fungus of the Tejlicle. eafeof d
There fometimes arifes from the tefticle a fpecies of,
fungous tumor, which was firft accurately deferibed by
Mr Lawrence, demonftrator of anatomy at Bartholo¬
mew’s hofpital, in London.
The patient generally afligns the origin of the com- SympwnK
plaint to fome injury. In fome cafes, it is the confe-
quence of hernia humoralis, and in others it appears
fpontaneoufly. The ferotum, after a certain length of
time inflames, and adheres to the tefticle already fwell-
ed } at laft the Ikin ulcerates, and the opening thus
formed, inftead of difeharging matter, is filled up with
a fungous tumor, which is of a firm texture, and gene¬
rally infenfible. Whilft the fungus is increafing, the
inflammation of the ferotum diminiflies ; and if the fun¬
gus is at this time removed, a cicatrix is formed in the
Ikin, which adheres to the tefticle. There is fometimes
a copious and very feetid difeharge from the whole fur-
face of the fungus. On dilfeftion, the fungus is found
to arife from the pulpy fubftance of the tefticle, more
or lefs of which remains according to the duration and
extent of the difeafe.
It may be worth while to remark here, that we have
met with one cafe, where, from an abfeefs and ulcera¬
tion of the ferotum, the tefticle itfelf flipt out at the ul¬
cerated orifice, and exhibited very much the appearance
of the fungus above deferibed. r „
This fpecies of tumor may be fafely removed by theTreatmen
knife, by ligature, or by efcharotics 5 the removal by the
knife is perhaps the fafeft, and certainly the moft expe¬
ditious method.
For an account of Fungus Hcematcdes in the tefticle,
we refer to War dr op's Obfervations on Fungus Hee~
matodes.
SECT. II. Of the Difeafes of the Mamrna.
From the changes which take place in the female £^,4 (
breaft at the age of puberty, during the menftrual dif- fer vat ions
charge, and before and after the birth of the child, we
ought to expe£t a confiderable variety in the difeafes of
this organ •, and, in confidering thefe, we fhould always
keep in view the powerful fympathy between that gland
and the uterine fyftem.
The gland of the mamma is fubjeft to inflammation
and abfeefs. Scrofulous tumors alfo form in it; it is
fubjedl to a particular difeafe, called milk abfeefs, to
feirrhus, and to other fpecies of indurations, the nature
of which is not well afeertained.
The nipple and integuments around it are alfo fub-
jedt to particular kinds of excoriations and ulcerations j
the lymphatic glands which lie clofe to the mamma,
are alfo frequently difeafed, and the contiguous cellular
membrane is fubjedt to thofe difeafes which are met
with in the cellular membrane of other parts of the
body.
At the age of puberty, when the uterine fvftem be¬
comes fully developed, the female breaft fwells, turns
hard, and becomes tender, or even painful. A change
alfo takes place during pregnancy j the breaft enlarges,
becomes very tender and painful, and a dark-coloured
zone is obferved round the nipple. In women who are
fuekling about the ninth or tenth month after parturi¬
tion, and fometimes fooner, the menfes reappear j and
if
hap. IX. ' . S U R G
the Dif- if the woman afterwards continues to fuckle, at each
, 'es of the monthly return a remarkable change takes placp in the
lamma. . jJ. lo{-es jts fvveetnefs, acquires a bitterifti tafte, be-
comes of a reddifh colour, and excites a temporary de-
rano-ement in the fyftem of the child. Obftruaions of
the°menfes, their final ceflation, and all the difeafes of
the womb, affe£t more or lefs the mamma; and it is at
the ao-e of puberty, at the time of menftruation, during
pregnancy, in the early months of fuckling, and at the
time of the ceffation of the menfes, which are the pe¬
culiar periods when blows and other injuries are moft
apt to produce difeafe in the mamma.
This confent between the mamma and uterine fyftem
ought to be always kept in view when forming our opi¬
nion of any difeafe in thefe organs*, and it is particular¬
ly worthy of the notice of furgeons when operations on
that organ become neceffary.
I. Of Inflammation and Abfcefs of the Mamma.
This diforder occurs moft frequently in nurfes by the
ftoppage of the milk, which is always occafioned by fud-
l8o den or imprudent expofure to cold.
[reatiuent. In the early ftages of the affeftion, refolution is to be
attempted, unlefs the fwelling appears to have an evident
tendency towards fuppuration. The remedies ufed in
inflammation, in general, feem ufeful in every cafe of in¬
flammation of the breads. When the patient happens
to be nurfing, a fudden evacuation of blood is apt to
diminilh the quantity of milk : In fuch cafes, therefore,
blood is to be extradted in fmall quantities at a time.
The application of cooling faturnine poultices is advife-
able. When fuppuration is taking place, fomentations
and poultices are to be ufed, and the matter is to be dif-
charged by making an incifion in the moft depending
part of the tumor.
2. Of Scirrhus and Cancer of the Mamma.
1S1
Symptoms.
Cancer has been met with in the female breaft more
frequently than in any other part of the body. We
have alfo feen an example of it in that gland of the
male j but fuch inftances are extremely rare.
The commencement and progrefs of a fcirrbous tu¬
mor in the female breaft, is extremely various in differ¬
ent people ; and has been often the caufe of feirrhous
tumors, and tumors of a more benign nature, being mif-
taken for one another.
Scirrhous tumors have generally made fome progrefs
before they are taken notice of. Sometimes they are
firft felt like a pea underneath the Ikin, and lying loofe
over the gland of the mamma ; in other inftances, a
portion of the central part of the gland is found indu¬
rated. Of whatever bulk, and in whatever fituation
the fwelling be difcovered, it is remarkable for its un¬
yielding and incompreflible hardnefs, and its rugged
unequal feel.
When the tumor is fmall it feldom gives any pain,
and the patient generally difcovers its prefence by ac¬
cident. In fome cafes its exiftence is difcovered by an
acute pang darting through the breaft leading to its
examination ; but in many cafes it acquires the bulk of
a large hazel nut or walnut, particularly when the pa¬
tient is fat, before any circumftance leads to its difeo-
very.
As the tumor increafes in bulk, it advances towards
the furface of the body and adheres to the Ikia* The
E R Y. 85
Ikin then becomes thickened, inflamed, and ulcerated. If Of the n,f.
the tumor be fituated near the nipple, the difeafe fpeedi- e^^mta d
ly affedts that part, fometimes enlarging and hardening . ^ f
it} and in other cafes puckering it and drawing it in¬
wards. When the nipple becomes involved in the dif¬
eafe, the fanious fluid formed in the tumor often efcapes
before the Ikin ulcerates, by the ladliferous tubes.
The pain which accompanies the tumor in its more
advanced form, is generally of a lancinating kind j but
its frequency and degree is fufceptible of great variety.
Sometimes (harp flinging pains pafs frequently from the
tumor as a centre, and extend through the whole breaft \
in other cafes there is more of a burning heat in the part.
The progrefs of the difeafe is generally very flow, and
in many cafes three, four, or more years elapfe before
it ulcerates. When ulceration has taken place, the
appearance of the ulcer is fimilar to that we have de-
feribed when treating of cancer of the ikin * j and the * gee Chap,
progrefs of the ulceration is often fo flow, as that many II. fed. iv»
years elapfe before the difeafe proves fatal.
Scirrhous tumors have been met with in the mamma,
from the age of twenty or twenty-five, to a very advan¬
ced period of life} but they occur about that period,
when the catamenia difappear, much more frequently
than at any other.
Treatment.—There is no part of praftice about which 184
lefs has been fatisfaftorily eftabliihed, than the treatment
of feirrhus in the mamma. The good effedls of an early
extirpation of cancer in the ikin is very generally ad¬
mitted ; but the want of fuccefs in removing feirrhous
mammae in the hands of many, has not only led fome
furgeons to defift performing an operation, except in
very recent cafes, but has even deterred others from at¬
tempting their removal in the firft ftages. There are
no doubt many patients who fubmit to a painful opera¬
tion from which no relief can be reafonably expected
on the contrary, the irritation and fever occafioned by it
feem to haften the progrefs of the difeafe. But there are
others where this practice has had a happier effe6t, and
where the patients have lived for many years without a
return of the difeafe. Whenever, therefore, a feirrhous
tumor appears in the mamma, which is moveable and
diftindlly circumfcribed, paft experience warrants us
in removing it. On the other hand, when any of the
abforbent glands have become enlarged and hardened,
or when the Ikin has ulcerated, rve believe the opera¬
tion in all fuch cafes ftiould not be reforted to. Some,
folitary examples of the difeafe, affuming this form, may
have occurred to individuals, where an operation has ar-
refted the progrefs of the dileafe ; but thefe oppofed to
the vaft number of unfuccefsful cafes, are by no means
fuflicient to warrant us in propofing the operation.
Method of Extirpating the Mamma.—In extirpating lS;>
the mamma, which we {hall firft fuppofe is to be done
where the fkin is found, and where the tumor has no
uncommon adhefion to the pedloral mufcle, the patient
ought to be placed horizontally in a bed, or upon a
table covered with a mattrefs. Two incifions are to be
made with a common fcalpel through the {kin and cel¬
lular fubftance along the whole extent of the tumor, in¬
cluding a fmall portion of Ikin. When the longeft dia¬
meter of the tumor is acrofs the body, inftead of a lon¬
gitudinal incifion, a tranfverfe one is to be made. The
integuments being differed from the mamma on both
fides of the iucifions, the patient’s arse is to be extend¬
ed-
S U R G
j and the whole glandu-
86
to fave the pedtoral rnufcle 7     & 
*Mammaie^ar Part to ^etac^e^ from the tnufclej though a
c - t- fmall portion only fhould be difeafed, beginning at the
upper fide, and feparating downwards. After the dif-
ejfed parts are removed, the wound is to be cleaned
with a fponge wrung out of warm water, which will ge¬
nerally render the fmall bleeding vefl'els more confpicu-
ous. Thefe are to be tied, and the integuments are to
be clofely applied to the parts underneath, and retained
there by adhefive (traps. A large pledgit of fimple
ointment is now to be laid over the whole j and this is
to be covered with a comprefs of lint, tow, or foft li¬
nen ; and the dreffings to be kept in their place, and
moderate preflure made by a circular roller and fcapu-
lary bandage.
■184
3. Of Sore Nipp/es.
Women are more generally affected with fore nipples
in fuckling their firft child than at any future period.
This may, in fome meafure, be owing to the fmallnefs
of the nipples j but very often it arifes from their being
unaccuftomed to the irritation of fucking. In fome
cafes, the nipples are fo flat, and fo much funk in the
bread, as to render it difficult for the child to lay hold
of them. Here afiiflance can fometimes be given, by the
mother prefling back the prominent part of the bread,
fo as to make the nipple project between two of her fing¬
ers. Should this be infufficient, the nipple may be made
to project by applying to it a flout child feveral months
* See Plate °^:: ku1 when this cannot be done, breafl-glafles * may
DXV. anfwer the fame purpofe. By applying thefe to the
nipple, and fucking out the air, the child will com¬
monly be enabled to lay hold of it.
T. he nipples at this time are liable to excoriations,
cracks, or chops ; which, though not attended with a
formidable appearance, are frequently more diftrefling
than large ulcers. Mild, aftringent, and drying appli¬
cations are moft to be depended upon in luch complaints,
faturnine water, or lime-water, will anfwer ; and either
ought to be applied warm. After bathing the parts
with any of theie, the nipple ftiould be covered with
Goulard’s cerate. Even a little foft pomatum frequently
tubbed upon the part, and covered with a (lift linen
rag, is fometimes found to give confiderable relief. But
tjie nipple (hould be perfectly cleared of thefe applica¬
tions before the child is laid to the bread ; and this may
be done with a little port wine, or equal parts of brandy
and vinegar.. If proper attention be paid to thefe reme¬
dies, they vvill commonly be found to have the defired
effe£t ; but if the contrary (hould happen, another re¬
mains to be mentioned, which, in different inftances,
has given great relief: it confifts in the application of a
thin (kin to the nipnle, as the neck and part of the
body of a fwine’s bladder with an aperture in it 5 which,
being properly moiflened and fixed to the bread, will
completely proted it in the time of fucking. As long
as the nipples remain any way affeded, fmall cups of
glafs or tin are ufeful for retaining the dreflings, de¬
fending the nipples from the fridion of the clothes, and
l8s receiving any milk which may fall from the bread.
Anomalous
fwellings of  
die mam- Swellings and hardneffes are found in the breaft
vhicii are not of a fcirrhous nature. Scrofulous indura-
^ R Chap. IX
tions are particularly frequent. They often become Oi the d
old and hard, and are then commonly confidered as®af*soft>
fcirrhus. If the furgeon fucceeds in difcufling them by r<^fl1,a:
means of any kind of remedy, he is apt to think that he
has difcuffed a fcirrhus. Thefe fcrofulous fwellings ^
fometimes inflame, and the progrefs of the inflammation
is very tedious. The breaft is long painful before any
foftening or fluduation can be perceived. The furgeon
then perhaps confiders it as an occult cancer, extirpates
it, and thinks that he has (iiccefsfully cured a cancerous
affedion. If the furgeon opens fuch a fuppurating knot
before all the hardnefs is diffolved by the fuppuration,
and if he makes a large opening, then commonly fol¬
lows a very malignant ulcer, which may be alfo mif-
taken for a cancerous fore. Many cafes, where ulcer¬
ated cancers have been fuppofed to have been extirpated
with fuccefs, may have been of this kind.
Venereal indurations are not unfrequent in the breaft,
and alfo caufe fimikr miftakes in pradice. Encyfted
tumors are alio met with in the breaft, and are moft
Commonly of that kind called me lie er is.
In the breaft of young girls, ten or twelve years of
age, hardneffes fometimes appear, which difappear as
foon as tnenftrUation takes place. Sometimes they do
not go away until the firft delivery. Sometimes the
breaft fvvells to an enormous fize, and becomes indeed
not hard, but throughout firm, like mufcular flefli. In
(uch a cSie the extirpation has been (uccefsfully per¬
formed.
Sometimes confiderable and often quite bard fwell-
ings appear in the breads, which proceed merely from
blood. In fueh cafes blood flows from the nipple at
each menftrual period. When the menfes difappear
with years, the difeharge of blood no longer appears
from the breaft j but then there is a hard not painful
fwelling arifes, which often acquires a confiderable fize.
If it is opened, coagulated and fluid blood is difeharged,
and a fiftula follows, which difeharges a purulent fluid,
and fometimes pure blood, and often continues feveral
years, without giving great uneafinefs. The fwelling,
which was at firft quite hard, (ometimes becomes foft,
and then the furgeon is commonly induced to open it.
Sometimes fuch fwellings are obferved in women who have
the menftrual difeharge 5 and in fuch cafes the fwelling
always becomes greater at each period. Sometimes heftic
fever and death follow the opening of thefe tumors.
(Monro). The mamma is alfo fubjeft to fungus hce-
matodes ; for an account of which, we refer our readers
to Wardrop’s Obfervations on Fungus Hccmatodes.
Sect. III. Of the Difeafes of the Tonjils and Uvula. i8!F
I. Of the Enlargeme?it of the Tonfils and Uvula.
The tonfils fometimes grow fo large and hard as to
become incurable, and even to threaten fuffocation.
The tumors have been commonly confidered to be of a
fcirrhous nature ; but they are neither attended with
(hooting, pain, nor are they apt to degenerate into can¬
cer •, neither do fwellings return after the tonfils have
been extirpated : hence they ought not to be removed
till by their uze they effentially impede deglutition or
refpiration j but whenever they do this, they may be lg7
removed with .fafety. The only proper method of re-Treatraer
moving them is by ligature, which is not only void of
danger,
Jvula.
liap. IX. S U R G
the Dif- danger, but feldom fails to perform a cure. If the bafe
js of the Qf t]ie tonf,i be fmaller than the top, the ligature is to
)fi!s and be u{-ed ag £or p0iypj the throat; but however broad
the bafe of it may be, much difficulty will feldom occur
in fixing it, for the fwelling is always very prominent.
In difeafes of this kind both tonfils are generally affett-
ed ; but if the removal of one of them forms a fufficient
paflage for the food, the other may be allowed to re¬
main. When, however, it is neceffary to extirpate
them both, the inflammatory fymptoms produced by
the extirpation of the firft ffiould be allowed to fubfide
before any attempt be made to remove the other.
When the form of the tonfils happens to be conical,
fo that the ligature would be apt to flip over their ex¬
tremities, Mr Chefelden has recommended a needle
(Plate DXV.) with an eye near the point: a double li¬
gature being put into the eye, the inftrument is to be
pulhed through the centre of the bafe of the tumor,
and the ligature being laid hold of by a hook and pulled
forwards, the infirument is to be withdrawn 5 then the
ligature is to be divided, and fo tied that each part
may furround one half of the tumor. T. his method,
however, is fcarcely ever found to be neceflary.
Enlargements of the uvula, from inflammation or
from other caufes, may generally be removed by the
e uvula. £reqUt.nt ufe of aftringent gargles, as of ftrong infufions
of red rofe-leaves or of Peruvian bark. But when thefe
fail, and the enlargement is fo confiderable as to give
great uneafinefs by impeding deglutition, irritating the
throat, and fo caufing cough, retching, and vomiting,
extirpation is the only thing upon which any depend¬
ence can be placed. Excifion is the readieft method
when the uvula is only elongated; but when the fize is
confiderable, dangerous haemorrhagies fometimes-attend
this method j on which account a ligature is prefera-
jgp able.
reatment. In performing the operation, the fpeculum oris (Plate
DXV.) is neceflary to keep the mouth fufficiently open,
and the uvula ffiould be laid hold of by a pair of for¬
ceps or a fmall hook, fo as to keep it firm, and prevent
it from falling into the throat. After the operation, if
the bleeding be confiderable, it may be checked by
aftringent gargles, or by touching the part with lunar
cauftic ; but this will feldom be neceflary.
When a ligature is to be employed, it may be readily
done according to the method recommended in the ex¬
tirpation of polypi. A double canula with a ligature,
may be pafled through the nofe, or the ligature may be
applied according to Chefelden’s method in extirpation
of the tonfils.
18S
ilarge-
ents of
*90
2. Of Scarifying and Fomenting the Throat.
In inflammatory affeftions of the throat, the means
commonly employed are gargles, fomentations, fcarifi-
cation, or topical bleeding. Gargles are ufeful for
cleaning the fauces from mucus, or in cafes of ulcera¬
tion. In relaxation of the parts, they are employed with
advantage, when made of aftringent materials. Fomen¬
tations may be of fome ufe when externally applied j
but the fleam of water, &c. drawn into the throat,
Plate ky means of Mudge’s inhaler (fig. 1.) is preferable.
BXV. Sometimes it is neceflary to draw blood from the part
fig. 11. affe&ed. Here recourfe may be had to fcarifying, which
zaay be readily done by the fcarificator (Plate DXIV-
E B Y. 87
fig. 14.). After a fufficient number of punffures have Of the Dif-
been made, the flow of blood may be promoted by theea^e*0^ t*le
patient’s frequently applying warm water to the punc-. ^ 1
tures. When an abfcefs forms, notwithflanding the ufe
of thefe remedies, the matter may be difcharged with the
fcarificator already mentioned.
Chap. X.
Of the Difeafes of the Eye and its Appendages. ipi-
In the account of the difeafes of the eye, we ffiall
follow the fame principles of arrangement as we have al¬
ready adopted, and treat of the difeafes of each particu¬
lar texture of which the eye is compofed, in the order
in which they appear moft natural 5 as the difeafes of
the conjunBiva, cornea, iris, crystalline lens, &c.
Sect. I. Of Inflammation of the ConjunBiva.
192
The general phenomena of inflammation of the con-Gerieral re*-
junftiva, are analogous- to thofe which have been al-111111^3,
ready enumerated, when treating of the inflammation of
mucous membranes*. Along with the fymptoms there * See Chap,
enumerated, there are others which arife from the pecu-W-
liar functions of the organ. The eye cannot endure the
ufual quantity of light, vifion becomes obfcured, and
there is an increafed fecretion of tears. The inflamma¬
tion is fometimes confined to the palpebrse, fometimes
to the conjundliva covering the white of the eye, in
fome cafes to that portion of it which forms the external
layer of the cornea, and in others it fpreads over the
whole of thefe furfaces. Thefe differences merely re¬
gard the extent of the inflammation : but there are
others which arife from a difference in the fpecific na¬
ture of the difeafe, forming three diftindl fpecies ; 1.
The purulent ophthalmia ; 2. The purulent eyes of
new-born children y and, 3. The gonorrhoeal ophthal-
mia»
I. Of the Purulent Ophthalmia.
ip3
The purulent ophthalmia appeared in this country asSymptomsi-
an epidemic after the return of our troops from Egypt
in the year 1801. Since that period, it has fpread
with the greateft violence over moft part of Britain.
This difeafe generally begins with a peculiar purple-
coloured rednefs over the whole eyeball and inner mem¬
brane of the eyelids. There is a ludden pain produced
in the eye, as-- if fand or fome foreign fubftance Avas
lodged between it and the eyelid. As the rednefs in-
creafes, the eonjun&iva becomes fwelled, from the effu-
fion of a tranfparent fluid in the loofe cellular mem¬
branes, between it and the fclerotic coat. There is at
firft a profufe difcharge of tears from the eye, and the
eyelaffies are glued together when the patient awakes.
There is foon created intenfe pain in the ball of the eye,
and a dull aching pain in the forehead. The cornear
fometimes becomes opaque ; and if the violence of the
inflammation continues, it ulcerates and ruptures, al¬
lowing the aqueous humour to be difcharged ; after
which, an abatement of the inflammatory fymptoms ge¬
nerally takes place.
Before the difeafe advances thus far, the eyelids ar-e-
generally eonfiderably fvvelled; and, befides the flow of
tears,,
BS
of ihe Dif-
eafes of the
Eye.
m
SURGERY.
Chap. X
tears, there is a pfofufe diicharge of a puriform fluid.
The inflammation ufually attacks both eyes, and it be¬
gins in one feveral days before the other.
Treatment.—In {lighter cafes of the difeafe, foment¬
ing the eye with a decoflion of poppy heads, and a
briik purge, have been found fufficient to abate the in¬
flammatory fymptoms. In other cafes, however, it has
been neceffary to draw blood to a very great extent.
When the difeafe occurs in a ftrong plethoric perfon,
recourfe fhould be immediately had to the lancet, and
the operation repeated on any recurrence of the fymp¬
toms. It has been the ufua] practice of Dr Veitch, and
of thofe who have had extenfive opportunities of treat¬
ing this difeafe, to draw the blood from the arm. A
fmaller quantity, however, taken from the temporal ar¬
tery or external jugular vein, would be found to have
an equally good effedl.
When the purulent difcharge becomes profufe, fome
have recommended the ufe of collyria, in the form of
injedlions. The aqua camphorata is recommended by
Mr Ware 5 and a weak folution of corrofive fublimate,
with opium, has been found to have equally good ef-
fe£ts. In thofe cafes where there are much pain and ten-
lion in the eyeball and brow, along with a turbid date
of the anterior chamber, and ulceration beginning in the
cornea, the difcharge of the aqueous humour has been
attended with much fuccefs *. This operation may be
eafily, and at all times fafely performed, by making a
punfture with a common extra£ling knife, through the
found part of the cornea, near its junction with the fcle-
rotic coat.
2. Of the Purulent Ophthalmia in Children.
The fymptoms of the purulent eyes of children are
very flmilar to thofe which have been mentioned. The
difeafe generally appears a few days after birth by an
increafed rednefs of the palpebral membrane, more or
lefs fwelling, and a puriform difcharge. Sometimes the
membrane fwells fo much as to evert the eyelids, and
render it impoflible to examine the eye-ball. The cor¬
nea becomes obfcure, ulcerates, and allows the aqueous
humour to be difcharged. The difeafe generally affefts
both eyes. From what we know of the origin of puru¬
lent ophthalmia, and from fome ingenious obfervations
* See The of Mr Gibfon of Manchefter,* it appears probable, that
Edinburgh the origin of this difeafe is communicated by the lodge-
^mtsul i ment an acr*moni°us difcharge upon the eyes of the
jouf-' child, from the vagina of the mother. In a great pro-
nal, vul. iii. portion of cafes, Mr Gibfon found the mothers of thofe
children, affedled with purulent ophthalmia, had leu-
corrhoea •, and it is probable, that this, as well as other
acrimonious difcbarges, which we know to take place
from the mucous membranes of thefe parts, produces
the difeafe.
-«r96 Treatment.—Solutions of faccharum faturni and
opium, injedled between the eyelids, or the aqua cam-,
phorata of Beates, ought to be employed in the firft
ilage of the difeafe j and the eyelids ought to be like-
wufe covered with fome mild unftuous application.
When ulceration has advanced fo as to endanger a rupl
ture of the cornea, that may be prevented by difehar-
ging the aqueous humour. In the fecond ftage of the
inflammation, fcarifying the eyelids, and applying the
red precipitate ointment, will generally be found to
be ufeful in allaying the inflammation and fwelling of
the eyelids, and in reftoring tlie tranfparency of the of the Dif.
J eafes of the
cornea.
* See Mr
Ware's
Treatife on
the Puru¬
lent Oph¬
thalmia.
IPS
3. Of the Gonorrhoeal Ophthalmia. v
The gonorrhoeal ophthalmia occurs very rarely $ and
it has been known to arife from the liippreflion of a go¬
norrhoea, or from the accidental application of the go¬
norrhoeal matter to the eyes. In this refpeft, its origin
is very fimilar to the common purulent or Egyptian
ophthalmia, and to the purulent ophthalmia which oc¬
curs in children.
The fymptoms and progrefs of the difeafe are alfo fi¬
milar, only that its progrefs is much more violent, and
it generally completely deftroys the organ.
Treatment.—When it is fufpefted that the difeafe has
arifen from a fupprefled gonorrhoea, fuch means ought
to be employed as are moft likely to rellore the dif¬
charge from the urethra $ fuch as the introduction of a
bougie, the injeCling of warm oil, and the application
of poultices and fomentations to the perinaeum. If the
inflammatory fymptoms run high, powerful evacuants
(hould be employed. Befides purgatives, blood fhould
be taken from the arm or temporal artery.
The local applications fliould confifl of weak injec¬
tions of corrofive fublimate and opium, or acetate of
lead and opium •, and the fwelling and rednefs may be
alfo relieved by the application of the red precipitate
ointment, or the ointment of Janin.
Sect. II. Of the Pterigium.
The word pterigium denotes all thofe morbid changes
in which that portion of the conjunCliva covering any part
of the cornea or fclerotic coat becomes thickened, vafcu-
lar, and opaque. If the difeafe be confined to a particu¬
lar part of the conjun&iva, the difeafe is obferved at its
commencement like a fmall globule of fat, or condenfed
cellular fubftance, fituated moft. frequently near the junc¬
tion of the cornea and fclerotic coat; and this fpot ex¬
tending imperceptibly along the furface of the conjunc¬
tiva at length pafles over the cornea, the conjunfliva on
the adjoining part of the fclerotic coat becomes puckered,
and as if it were forcibly drawn over the cornea. The
portion of it which lies on the fclerotic coat is common¬
ly loofe, and can be eafily elevated, but that which is
on the cornea adheres more firmly. This fpecies of pte¬
rigium has generally a triangular form •, one of the
angles of the triangle advancing towards the cornea, or
covering a portion of it, and the bafe lying on the fcle¬
rotic coat. Sometimes the thickening of the conjundli-
va is firft perceived on the cornea ; the conjunctiva co¬
vering the fclerotic coat remaining quite found. A pte¬
rigium is always confiderably elevated above the adja¬
cent cornea *, but the degree of its thicknefs varies from
that °f a .thin, membrane to that of a flelby mafs.
Pterigia arife moft commonly at the nafal angle of
the eyeball. They are formed, alfo, at the temporal
angle j and they fometimes occur at both places in the
fame eye. In one cafe there were two pterigia in each
eye. Ihey are formed very rarely on the upper and
under parts of the eyeball.
Treatment.— Ihe only mode of removing this diftafe
is by excifion. I his may be done by elevating the dif-
eafed poition of the conjunCliva with a pair of forceps j
and feparating it at its bafe by cutting it through with a
pair
Eye.
197
198
199
Chap. X. ' . . S U R
Of the Dif-pair of fciffars *, and then carefully dktfe&ing it off to _iti
ealeb of theapex> jf any portion of it has been allowed to remain,
, £>'e or if the wound thews any tendency to form a fungus,
lunar cauftxc ought to be applied to it, and the appli¬
cation repeated "as often as may appear neceflary. Any
flight inflammation or weaknefs in the eye which may
continue after the operation, may be fpeedily removed
by the application of the vinous tindlure of opium.
Sect. III. Of PuJIules (Ophthalmia puflulofa).
Symptoms. Puftules are fmall tumors which are formed both on the
cornea and fclerotic coat, but they occur moft frequent¬
ly near the jun&ion of thefe membranes. A puftule
commonly firfl: appears like a dulky yellow or reddifli
fpot, a little elevated above the furfaee of the cornea
or fclerotic coat *, and in a fliort time it becomes a di-
ftinct conical tumor. The adjacent part of the cornea
is always more or lefs dim-, and a confiderable degree of
inflammation accompanies it, which is either confined
to the white of the eye contiguous to the puftule, or is
fpread over the whole eyeball. Whilft the puftule is
forming, the inflammation is generally confined to that
part of the white of the eye which is in its immediate
vicinity. The blood veffels are of a pale livid hue j
they appear fuperficial, and can be readily elevated by a
pointed inftrument; each trunk can be diftinguifhed,
for they are never fo numerous as to appear confufed, or
like one red mafs. They fometimes run in various di¬
rections, anaftomofe freely with one another, forming
net-works upon the wdiite of the eye.
If the inflammation and puftule remain for fometime,
the puftule generally advances to fuppuration. When
fuppuration takes place, the apex of the puftule ulce¬
rates, and frequently a chalky white fpot appears at the
centre of the ulceration ; and the opacity of the cornea
at the fame time daily inereafes around it. In other
cafes, the opaque matter feparates, and leaves behind it
a deep ulcerous excavation.
Sometimes the fuppuration proceeds more like a com¬
mon pimple or phlegmon of the fkin ; a fmall quantity
of a thick matter colleCls within the puftule, and when
it is difeharged, a conical tumor remains, which has a
depreflion at the apex. When the puftule contains a
Avatery fluid, the fluid is moft frequently abforbed in a
, gradual manner ; but at other times the paflule breaks,
and an ulcer is formed.
If, in either of thefe cafes, the contents are artificially
difeharged, all the accompanying inflammatory fymp-
toms are jrmch increafed.
Moft frequently there is only one puftule, and only
one eye affe&ed ; but in fome cafes there are feveral
both on the cornea and fclerotic coat of each eye.
The difeafe, at its commencement, is almoft inva¬
riably accompanied with the fenfation of a mote in the
eye, and the whole conjunctiva covering the fclerotic
coat has often a yellowith and fhining glaffy colour be¬
fore the rednefs appears. There is often alfo a degree
of rednefs and fAvelling, chiefly of the upper eyelid j and
the tarfi are found adhering together in the morning,
from the exudation of a yelloAv matter among the ciliae.
There is frequently an unufual drynefs felt in the eye ;
but if it be expofed to a bright light, or if an attempt
be made to ufe it, the fecretion of tears is increafed.
This fpecies of inflammation is always accompanied
Vol. XX. Part I.
G E R Y.
89
with a much greater degree of general fever, in proper-Of the Dif-
tion to the feverity of the local fymptoms, than any ot the
other ophthalmia. The pain is rarely acute till the pu- ^e' ,
ftule ulcerates ; but, if that takes place, it is commonly
very fevere.
An eye which has been once affeCted with puflule, is
very fubjeCt to repeated attacks of the difeale. Puflules
of the cornea are met with in people of all ages ; but
they are more common in young people than in thofe
advanced in life.
Treatment.—Sudorific medicines, cooling diluent
drinks, and purgatives, ought to be employed in the firft
ftage of the difeafe \ and given according to the vio¬
lence of the conftitutional fymptoms. The eye, and
parts around it, fliould be fomented three or four times
a-day, with a deeo£tion of poppy heads to which may
be added a fmall quantity of fpirits. When the fymp-
tomatic fever abates, and the rednejs affumes a more
purple hue, the vinous tindlure of opium may be applied
to the eye once or twice a-day ; and this will be found
equally ufeful whether the puflule is in a ftate of fup¬
puration or not •, and it ought to be continued as long
as there are any remains of the difeafe.
Sect. IV. Of Matter colleSled between the Larnel/ce 10*
of the Cornea.
Purulent matter is fometimes collefted between the
lamellge of the cornea, Avhen the difeafe is termed unguis
or onix; or in the anterior chamber, when it is called
hijpopion.
When the matter is collected between the lamellae of
the cornea, it appears in the form of a yelloAv fpot j and
as the quantity increafes, the fpot becomes larger, but
does not alter its fituation from the pofition of the head.
When the matter is colle&ed in the anterior cham¬
ber, it generally appears like a fmall yellow globule be¬
tween the iris and cornea, occupying the inferior part of
the cavity. Thefe abfeeffes are commonly the effedfl of
violent ophthalmia, oecafioned by a blow, or injuries of
the eyeball 5 they are alfo formed, though rarely, with¬
out any accompanying inflammatory fymptoms.
Treatment.—Though the purulent matter may be
more or lefs abforbed on the abatement of the accom¬
panying inflammatory fymptoms 5 yet it would be found
a good general praftice to evacuate the matter when¬
ever it appears, by making an incifion through the cor¬
nea. The difeharge of the aqueous humour along with
the matter, never fails to diminifh the inflammation ;
and this perhaps may be the reafon why the pradlice is
fo ufeful. Befides this, fomentations, brifk purges, and
cupping at the temples, may be neceffary if the inflam¬
matory fymptoms are fevere.
Sect. V. Of Ulcers of the Cornea.
Ulcers of the cornea have been divided by fome au¬
thors into a number of fpecies, from differences in their
fize, in their duration, in the degree of the feverity of the
accompanying fymptoms, and from the various caufes
from Avhich they have been fuppofed to originate.
The moft frequent variety of ulcer is that which re¬
mains after the cornea has fuppurated and burft j either
in confequence of a puftule or of an abfeefs.
When a puftule fuppurates, the central part of it ge-
M nerally
9o S U K G
Of the Dif- nerally gn?es way ; and as the difeafe continues, the ul-
eafes of the ceratjon extends in all directions from that point. Ul-
. “k'6, cers of this kind are generally circular, and the edges
rounded and fmootb 5 having fometimes the appearance
of a fmall artificial dimple : in other inftances they
have an irregular fhape, and their edges are jagged and
acute. The fize of ulcers is very various ; in fome
cafes they do not appear larger than a depreflxon made
by the point of a pin, whilft in others they cover a large
furface. Moft frequently the part of the cornea conti¬
guous to the ulcer becomes more or lefs dim j and in
fome cafes red veflels may alfo be traced in it.
Treatment.—The acute pain which generally attends
inoft ulcers, particularly thofe which are the confequence
of puftules, will generally be much relieved by the ap¬
plication of the vinous tinClure of opium, repeated two
or three times a day. When this produces no good ef-
fed, and the ulcer fpreads rapidly, attended with acute
pain, much relief will be obtained by touching the fur-
face of it with lunar cauftic, or if there is a rifk of the
ulcer eroding the whole thicknefs of the cornea, and a
prolapfus of the iris to take place, it may be advifable
to prevent this by difcharging the aqueous humor.
204 Sect. VI. Of Specks of the Cornea.
There are three forms of the corneal fpeck ; the frfl
and moft fimple variety, is when a particular part of the
cornea lofes its natural tranfparency, and appears cloud¬
ed *, obje&s being feen by the patient as if looked at
through a mift or fmoke. Some of thefe fpecks are un¬
defined, others diftinftly circumfcribed, and they have
each an equal degree of opacity throughout, or one part
Is more opaque than the reft. They are moft commonly
of a circular form •, but in fome cafes their fhape is very
irregular. This fize varies from the fmalleft fpot, to
fuch an extent as occupies the whole cornea.
In the fecond form of the corneal fpeck, the opacity
is of a darker {hade, giving the cornea a bluifh, or in
fome parts a milky appearance. It is feldom equally
opaque through its whole extent ; being generally more
fo at the centre, and becoming gradually of a lighter
fliade towards the margin. In fome inftances the (hade
is very unequal in the different parts of the fpeck.
In the third form of the corneal fpeck, the cornea
becomes of the opaque gliftening white colour of com¬
mon pearl, and the opacity generally extends through the
whole of the lamellae of the cornea ; fo that if even fe-
veral of thofe layers which are external be removed, the
remaining ones completely interrupt vifion. Specks of
this defcription fometimes produce a flight thickening of
the cornea, and are accempanied by adhefions between
the cornea and iris. They are almoft always diftin&ly
circumfcribed, though generally not fo opaque at the
edge. When they are of any confiderable fize, they are
nourifhed by one or more red veflels.
In the firft form of fpeck, the iris can be feen through
the difeafed portion of the cornea ; but in the fecond and
third form of the difeafe, the degree of opacity is fuch,
that nothing can accurately be diftinguifhed behind it!
It there is an external inflammation accompanying the
ipeck, the red veffels will be feen in a clufter on that
part of the fclerotic part neareft to it; and fome of the
©ranches can often be traced pa fling over the edge of
4,
E R Y. Chap. X
the cornea, and terminating in the fubflance of the Of the Di
fpeck. As the accompanying inflammation abates, theeafes d
number of the red veffels on the cornea commonly dimi- . £ye'
nifties; but fometimes one or more trunks remain, and
are diftributed on the fpeck. In fome cafes, there are
large fpecks with numerous blood-veffels fupplying them
during the continuance of adtive inflammation ; and al¬
though the opacity remains extenfive after the inflam¬
mation abates, yet no red veffels continue to nourilh it.
The number of blood-veffels is in no cafe in proportion
to the degree or extent of the opacity during any ftago
of the accompanying inflammation. For we frequently
obferve a net-work of blood-veffels on a cornea which
has very little obfcurity, and at other times there is a
large opaque. fpot, with only one, or even without a
fingle red veffel fupplying it. Specks appear on every
part of the cornea, but moft frequently towards its
centre.
Specks appear to be formed moft frequently on the
external lamella of the cornea ; but it is difficult to de¬
termine accurately their fituation. They vary in num¬
ber. Commonly there is only one 5 but it frequently
happens that there are two, three, or more diftindt fpots
on one cornea, all of which differ in their fize, fhape,
and in degree of opacity.
Specks impede vifion in proportion to the degree of
their obfcurity, and according to their fituation. Even
a fpeck of the flighteft fhade, which is hardly percep¬
tible to a common obferver, if it be placed diredfly op-
pofite the pupil, materially injures the fight j whereas
thofe of the opaque kind, if placed beyond its circumfer¬
ence, diminifh the fphere, but not the diftindtnefs of vi¬
fion. In thofe cafes where the fpeck is of a moderate
fize, and placed towards the centre of the cornea, the
patient fees better in a dull, than in a clear light. For
in a clear light the pupil contradls fo much, that it be-,
comes covered by the fpeck, and the rays of light are
prevented from entering ; but in a dull light it becomes
larger, fo that the rays of light enter by its edge.
Specks, moft commonly, are either preceded or ac¬
companied by inflammation of the cornea. Likewife
wounds, if they do not unite without fuppuration, and
ulcers of the cornea, are followed by a fpeck.
Specks are formed at every period of life ; but they
occur moft frequently in young people ; probably be-
caufe in them the cornea is much fofter, and more
fpongy 5 and alfo as they are more fubje6t to inflamma¬
tory complaints of the eye than adults.
Treatment.—Thofe fpecks which have been defcribed 20S
under theyf/y? and fecond form of the difeafe, generally
difappear either by the ufe of remedies, or in fome cafes
after the inflammatory fymptoms abate.
^ \v hen the eye is inflamed, and the eyelids turgid with
biood, flightly fcarifying the eyelids, and immediately
after the bleeding ceafes, applying a quantity of an oint¬
ment compofed of the red oxide of mercury (ten grains
to a dram of fimple ointment), will be found a very ac¬
tive remedy. And the fcarifications along with the oint¬
ment fliould^ be repea'sed every fecond or third day as
long as any inflammation continues. When there is n©
inflammation accompanying the ipeck, the ointment may
be applied alone. The unguentum citrinum, and various
powders compofed of the fulphate of alum, fulphate of
zinc, fub-borate of foda, diluted with from a fourth to an
eighth
Cliap. X.
SURGERY.
Eye.
)f the Dif- eighth part of fugar, may alio be advantageoufly employ-
afes of the jn fpeeleS 0f long duration, it will be found ufeful to
vary the application, and to employ two or three of the
above medicines ten days or a fortnight alternately.
Thofe (peeks of the third form, feldom become more
tranfparent, even by the ufe of the moil active reme¬
dies. In thofe cafes where only a fmall central portion
is of that defeription, the fize of the fpeck may be di-
miniilied by the treatment already mentioned ; and in
fome cafes, much benefit has arifen from cutting away
an external layer of the moil opaque part ; and after¬
wards ufing the above applications. It often happens,
however, that if portions of a very old and opaque fpeck
be cutaway, the part is regenerated by an equally opaque
matter.
The fpecks which are formed rapidly, are in general
moil fpeedily removed. They go away, too, much more
quickly in children than in old people •, and in them,
alfo, a much greater degree of obfeurity can be made
entirely to difappear. When a part of the cornea has
become opaque, the opacity begins to difappear at the
circumference of the fpeck, or at that portion of it
neareft to the circumference of the cornea. In fome
cafes it may alfo be obferved, that the external laminae
of the cornea iiril regain their tranfparency.
06
(JI
Of the Dif-
eaies of the
Eye.
Z07
Sect. VII. Of the Staphyloma.
When the cornea, befides lofing its tranfparency,
fwells to fuch a degree, that its internal furface comes
in contaft with, and adheres to the iris, and when it
forms a prominent tumor externally, the difeafe has ge¬
nerally been called Jlaphi/loma. When the whole cor¬
nea is affedled, it generally affumes a more or lefs coni¬
cal form ; lofes entirely its natural tranfparency j and
vifion is completely deftroyed. The opacity is generally
moil remarkable towards the apex of the tumor, and is
generally of a pearl white colour diffufed through the
whole corneal fubitance. The internal furface of the
cornea adheres to the iris, and the pupil is in moil cafes
altogether obliterated.
In many cafes the cornea does not projefl beyond
the eyelids •, but in others, particularly in children, a
large tumor is formed, which projedls beyond the eye¬
lids, and is attended with pain and inflammation, which,
in fome inftances, renders the other eye weak and ir¬
ritable.
Treatment.—When a part of the tumor gives way,
and allows the contents of the tumor to be difeharged,
the patient always experiences a fpeedy relief, but the
tumor is foon formed again ; fo that in order to prevent
its growth, it is neceffary not only to difeharge its con¬
tents, but alfo to remove a portion of the difeafed cor¬
nea of fuch a fize as to prevent the humors from again
collecting. A common extracting knife may be pafled
through the tumor, fo as to divide a fegment nearly
equal to half the cornea, and the other half may be
readily cut away with feifiars. Inflammation and fup-
puration fucceed ; and the eyeball finally collapfes if
there be not a fufficient degree of inflammation excited.
A pointed inftrument may be introduced through the
Wound, fo as to allow the cryltalline lens, or any por¬
tion of the vitreous humour which may have remained,
to be prefled out.
Sect. VIII. Of inflammation of the Iris.
Inflammation feldom afteCts the iris alone, though in
fome cafes it appears to be the principal difeafed part of
the organ. The diteafe is accompanied with intenfe
pain on expofure to light ; difcoloration of the iris
from the addition of red blood ; difpofition of the pupil
to contraCt 5 and lymph to be effufed on the furface of
the iris and pupil.
Treatment.— Copious bleedings from the arm, or tem¬
poral artery, are generally iieceffary ; and in order to
prevent any permanent contraction of the pupil from
taking place, much benefit will be derived from keep¬
ing it dilated by the aCtion of an infufiori of beliadona.
Sect. IX. Of the mode of Making an Artificial Pupil. 20?-
The iris, whether from previous inflammation or other
caufe, has been often found with the pupil fo much con¬
tracted, and adhefions formed between it and the capfule
of the cryitalline, to fuch a degree, as to prevent vifion.
The pupillar edge of the iris, too, fometimes adheres to
the cornea, and is contracted; and fometimes a portion
of cornea oppofite to the pupil is a caufe of blindnefs. In
all fuch cafes it has been repeatedly attempted to make
an artificial pupil j but this operation has feldom been,
fucceisful. Various modes have been propofed to perform
it, but that recommended by Scarpa is entitled to moil
attention. This method confiits in introducing a curved
couching needle (Plate DXVII. fig. 20.), as in the
operation of couching the cataraCt, pafling its point
through the iris at the place where it is intended the
new opening fhould be made, and then forcibly tearing
down a portion of iris from its connection with the cili¬
ary ligament. After the operation it will be found ufe¬
ful to keep the iris for fome time under the influence of
beliadona. We underhand that Mr Gibfon, an inge¬
nious furgeon in Manchefter, has operated with great
fuccefs in a new manner. He makes the punCtuation of
the cornea at its tranfparent part with an extracting
knife (Plate DXVII. fig. 1.), and prefles the eye¬
ball fo as to fqueeze the iris through the incifion of the
cornea 5 or if any adhefions render that impracticable,
he drags it out with a hook (Plate DXVII. fig. 19.),
and afterwards cuts away with a feiflars the prolapfed
portion. Then immediately the perforated iris falls back
into its natural fituation, leaving a proper opening.
Sect. X. Of the CataraEt.
The molt common difeafe of the lens is a lofs of its
natural tranfparency ; and this arifes either from a
change in its itruCture, or from a depoiition of new mat¬
ter. The capfule of the lens is alfo fubjeCt to opacities.
Thefe difeaies are known by the name of cataraSl.
There are four fpeeies of cataraCt generally enumera¬
ted. In the firft, the cryitalline lens itfelf becomes
opake [pataraEia crystallind). In the fecond, the cap¬
fule is changed in its ftruCture [cataraEla membranacea').
In the third, the liquor Morgagni becomes opake {cata-
raEla interfitir.lis') ; and when all thofe parts are affected
at the fame time, it has been denominated the mixed
cataraCt, {cataraEla mixta).
M 2 When
211
Colour of
cataradb.
2ta
Diagnofis
between
hard and
foft cata-
rads.
92
Of the Dif- When the cryftalline lens becomes opake, the opacity
e.ifes of the generajjy begins towards the central part of the lens,
and extends towards its circumference j in other cafes a
general obfcurity extends over the whole lens.
The confidence of the lens varies very much in the
different kinds of cataraft. Sometimes it is converted
into an aqueous or milky fluid, or like thin jelly 3 at
other times it becomes harder and firmer than natural ;
and in fcveral cafes it has been found converted into
bone or into a chalky looking fubflance. It has been
generally remarked, that the fluid or milky cataract is
moft frequent in children, but we have alfo met with it
in thofe advanced in life. 1 he folid or concrete cata-
ra£t, on the other hand, has been generally found in
adults. At the fame time, we have obferved the lens of
young people converted into a hard and white fubftance
refembling chalk.
The colour of different catarafts is very various ; and
they never appear of the fame colour in the eye as when
removed from it. The moft ufual colour of them in
the eye is a bluilh white or gray 3 fometimes clouded in
different parts or ftriated, fometimes of a lead colour,
fometimes greenifh, and fometimes of a yellow or amber
colour. When taken out of the body, thofe which ap¬
peared white or gray are generally dark yellow or am¬
ber ; and thofe of a yellow tinge in the eye often ap¬
pear white when extracted.
There is fcarcely any diagnoftic mark of a fort and
hard cataraft which can be altogether depended on. The
colour proves nothing, thofe of a milky colour being
often quite hard, and fometimes thofe of a pearl colour
are quite foft. Neither is there any thing to be learnt
from the degree of the opacity 3 for it will be found that
t.hofe who fee no more than to be able to diftinguifli light
from darknefs have the lens quite foft, whilft thofe who
can diftinguifh colours and large objefts have the lens
quite hard. Richter, however, has remarked two fymp-
toms, which he fays have feldom deceived him in afcer-
taining this point. The fofter the lens is, the larger and
thicker it is in general, and therefore approaches nearer
to the plane of the iris or to the edge of the pupil.
Hence he always concludes that the cataraft is fott
when it is near the pupil. In order, however, to judge
of the fpace between the pupil and lens, the furgeon
muft look into the patient’s eye from one fide 3 and in
genera] it requires much experience to judge of this with
accuracy.
We are alfo able, in fome cafes, to difcern points,
ftreaks, or inequalities, in the fliade of a cataraft. If,
after having obferved the place, figure, and difpofition of
them, we find that in fome days afterwards, or upon
rubbing the eye pretty hard, they have undergone any
change in their figure, fituation, or fliade of colour, we
may then conclude with certainty that the cataradt is
foft ; only we muft be cautious not to draw an oppolite
conclufion, viz. that we are not to conceive the cataraft
to be hard if thefe changes ftiould not be perceptible.
* See Be- “ A perfedlly hal'd cataradt,” fays Recr,* “ {hows it-
merkuiigen, felf very plainly before the operation 3 the pupil is
equally opake in its whole circumference 3 there are not
to be obferved any points, ftreaks, or fpots, of a clearer
or darker colour 3 the lens is evidently feparated from
the iris, fo that a fufficient number of rays of light can
enter, and the patient is ftill capable of diftinguiftiing
fome objedts from the fide of the eye 3 the motions of the
5
SURGE It Y.
Chap. X.
jibe - dejt
Grauer
Star.
pupil are extremely lively, and it never remains confi- Of the Dif.
derably enlarged. The opacity behind the pupil at theeafes the
commencement of the difeafe is firft obferved in the , c^e' ^
middle, and it then extends, but very flowly, towards
the circumference. Such patients, if the middle part of
the pupil is completely opake, can for the moft part
read writing by the aflitiance of a magnifying glafs, and
diftinguiih linall objedts. The colour of the hard cata-
radt is gray, palling more or lefs to a greenifh hue 3 and
the fmooth level of the lens may be very plainly re¬
marked.” 2x3
In moft patients the cataradl is to be confidered as aCataradl
local difeafe, though there are alfo many cafes where angentralb
opacity of the lens comes on after or along with other
difeafes of the eye. It has been obferved in gouty and
rheumatic conftitutions, and in fuch people there is rca-
fon to fufpect that it is more or lefs connedled with the
general conftitutional affedlion. This obfervation is of
importance ; for when an operation is performed in fuch
cafes, a total blindnefs is ufually the confequence. Rich¬
ter operated on a man who had been much troubled with
gout, and his fight was reftored. In feven months after¬
wards the pupil gradually contradled, at laft clofed, and
a fecond blindnefs followed. In one cafe of a fimilar
kind on which we operated, an attack of gout fucceeited
the operation, the eye fuppurated, and the inflammation
has never altogether difappeared, though two years have
elapfed fince the operation. Even in fuch cafes the ope¬
ration is not to be entirely forbidden : the fuccefs is lefs
certain, and the patient will require a very careful pre¬
paration before it, and much attention after it. 214
There are fome varieties of eataraft which are confi-Hereditary
dered to be hereditary. Richter extrafted a catara£tcatarai^-
from a man whofe father and grandfather were both
blind from that complaint. Maitre Jean and Janin have
both met with fimilar cafes. Richter alfo faw three chil¬
dren, born of the fame parents, who had all catarafts at
the age of three years. We have known feveral fimi¬
lar fafts, and particularly one of twins, who both were
affe&ed with cataradt when one year old. 2IC.
When the cataradl is feated in the capfule above, it in Cataradil
general arifes from a blow or wound with a pointed in- of the cap*
ftrument. Sometimes the whole anterior portion is opake ^u'e’
and very much thickened, whilft that which is pofterior
remains tranfparent 5 and in fome cafes the capfule has
been extradled in the form of a bag, having become al¬
together opake, and containi’1'" within it the cryftalline.
Such cafes have been called by Richter the cataratta
ci/stica. He fays he has only met with one cafe of that
form of the difeafe 3 Beer, however, mentions many ;
and from meeting with them he has been led to propofe *
the extraftion of the capfule along with the cryftalline
in all cafes of the difeafe.
I he cataraSia membranacect primitiva of Scarpa is
alfo another form of the difeafe. In this variety the
lens difappears, and leaves the caplule opake, or at moil
in its interior a fpeck not larger than a pin-head. This
kind ofcataradl, Scarpa remarks, occurs moil frequently
in infants, or xn people under twenty years of age. It
may be diftinguiihed by its refemblance to a very thin
fcale, or by a very white point, at the centre or at the
circumference of the cryftalline. 2i6
\ \\& tremulous cataradt (catarable tremblante of the Trembling
French), is another variety of the difeafe which defervesca^ara<^‘
to be noticed. It is generally of a very opake white
colour,
lap. X.
he Dif. colour, and fe'.dom large. It moves about on every mo-
j:S of the tion of the eye, and the whole iris trembles and tiuttu-
E've- ates to and fro. Sometimes they altogether difappear,
' at times palling behind the iris but they foon regam
their fituation. In one example of this difeafe we obier-
ved that the opake lens fometimes fell into the anterior
chamber through the pupil. In this form of the difeafe
it generally happens that the fundions of the retina are
; impaired or loll *, though this is not always the cafe.
2I7 Catarafl is often accompanied with a complete amau-
( nbined rolls. In fome cafes ofjhis kind there is a great dilata-
■ th amau-tion and immobility of the pupil, and the opake lens
! ;s> is obferved of a very large fize behind it. The patient
can feldom dillinguilh light from darknefs 5 and the
want of fight generally precedes any obfcurity of the
lens. In fume cafes, where there is a combination of
cataraft and amaurofis, the pupil remains of its natural
form, and alters according to the quantity of light.
But, as in the former variety of the difeafe the opacity
of the lens moll commonly precedes the amaurofis, it
generally too comes on fuddenly, preceded by fparks of
fire appearing before the eyes, or clouds flying before
them, or headach, and pains about the brow or temples.
We have feen an inftance of a Ample cataraft in one
eye, and in the other cataraft and amaurolis combined.
Commonly cataract affeds both eyes fiinultaneoully 5
but there are alfo many examples of the difeafe affeding
only one eye. It alfo happens, that firft one eye is affed-
ed, and many years afterwards the fecond. We have in
general obferved, that when the catarad takes'place
only in one eye in young people, or when it fucceeds
a blow, the other eye is feldom affeded. But on this
we Ihould not trull much, for it is an undeniable fad,
that a great fympathy exifts between the two eyes } and
that when one of them becomes difeafed, the other is
very apt to become fimilarly affeded. \\ e have feen
a cafe where a llaphyloma arofe in one eye in confe-
quence of a wound, and in a few years afterwards the
other eye became ilaphylomatous. A man who received
a blow "on one eye, which produced amaurofis, had foon
afterwards a catarad formed on the other. Richter men¬
tions an analogous cafe. St Ives mentions^ a very re¬
markable cafe of a man who was wounded in the right
eye with a fmall Ihot, and Ihortly after that eye Avas
affeded ivith a catarad. Some time afterwards the
fame difeafe took place in the left eye, but which gra¬
dually difappeared after the catarad had been extraded
from the right eye. Thefe obfervations on the connec¬
tion between the two eyes, have led fome furgeons to ad-
vife operating for catarad ivhen only one eye is affeded,
in order to prevent the fecond eye from becoming
difeafed. There are a few cafes where this pradice has
been fuecefsfully adopted, and there are others ivhere it
has failed. We know of one gentleman, now upwards
of feventv years of age, who Avas couched for a catarad
in one eye Avhen twenty years old, and the difeafe has
never attacked the other eye. Richter once performed
the operation on a Avoman who had a complete pearl-
coloured catarad in the left eye, and an incipient one in
the right, Avhich, before the operation took place, Avas
beginning to advance rapidly. After operating on the
left eye, the progrefs of the difeafe in the right feemed
to be checked, and for years after the operation it had
not made the fmallell progrefs. On the other hand, avc
A~A JL l Ju 4
93
have operated in feveral cafes where the difeaie Avas juil Te (Jit-
commencing in one eye, and when the operation did not ea‘the
appear to arrell its progrefs in the fecond one. It is t ■
therefore a point not yet determined in Avhat cafes it
would be advifable to operate when only one eye is af¬
feded j fur in thofe where the prsgrefs of the difeafe
in the fecond eye cannot be arrefted by an operation on
the firlt, no operation ihould be performed on either eye
until vifion is nearly altogether deilroyed. 2Is
The pvogrefs of this difeafe is very various; fome- Progrefs of
times it proceeds fo flowly as not to deltroy vilion for the difeafe.
many years, at other times a complete obicurity of the
lens lias been known to take place almott inllantaneouf-
ly. Richter and Efchenback .both relate cafes Avhere
people labouring under gout, Avhich fuddenly retroced¬
ed, Avere entirely deprived of their fight in one night.
We have obferved analogous cafes, though avc could
not determine the exiilence of any confiitutional af-
fedion.
From the found cryllalline being chiefly compofed of
albumen and a fmall quantity of gelatine, Avhatever
might produce a coagulation of thefe, Avould deftroy
the pellucidity of the lens. Whatever too would pro¬
duce inflammation of the capfule of the lens might alfo
render it obfeure \ for Avhen any ferous furface is in¬
flamed, and to that clafs belongs the capfule of the lens,
its tranfparency is deftroyed, and it becomes thickened
from an effufion of albuminous matter on its furface.
Catarads arifing from wounds are probably produced in
this manner.
In old people there is often diftinguifhable a flight
obfcurity of the lens, and fometimes it even forms a
complete catarad. In fuch cafes the obfcurity pro¬
bably arifes from a Avant of balance in the feereting and
abforbent fyftems, or the neceffary perfedion of thefe
fundions to preferve the natural ilate of parts, Avhieh
avc obferve to decay in many other organs, as Avell as the
eye, in thofe far advanced in life. _ 2t9
Befldes the fymptoms which are to be obferved in an Symptoms
eye affeded Avitb catarad, there are others remarked by remarked
the patient. Objeds appear to him as vieAved through by the pa-
a mill or cloud \ and as the opacity of the lens increafes,uent-
the cloud appears greater until it finally prevents even
the largeft objeds from being diftinguifhable.
The patient, at the commencement of the difeafe, can
diftinguifh objeds better in a moderate than in a bright
light ; and the fame thing happens if the light be in¬
terrupted by the interpofition of the hand or any other
{hade. The reafon of this is obvious ; becaufe the pupil
is more dilated in a moderate than in a bright light,
and thus Hill admits a certain number of rays of light
by means of the pellucid circle of the lens.
When the exterior part of the lens is lefs obfeured
than the centre, the patient fees thofe objeds mucli bet¬
ter Avhich are placed by his fide, than thofe which are
oppofite to him.
If the obfcurity has not affeded the middle of the-
lens, but fome part of its edge, any circular body look¬
ed at by'the patient, appears to have its edge imperfed.
It has been alfo remarked that fome patients fee every
thing Avith perforations in them. The catarad is fel¬
dom accompanied with any pain. When it is brought
on froip internal caufes, both eyes are generally affed¬
ed.
94
Of the Dif-
eafes of the
Eye.
SURGERY.
Chap.
Of the Treatment of Qatar a ft.
* See his
Surgical
, In the treatment of cataract, recourfe has generally
been liad to a furgical operation. Some have pretend¬
ed to cure cataract by internal medicines. Small dofes
of calomel, eleftricitij, cxtrachan hyofoyami, aqua laaro-
ceraf, have been extolled •, but their ufe is now very ge¬
nerally given up. In foine cafes of oataraft which have
arifen from an injury of the eye, Mr Ware has feen
them difappear by an external application of aether,
which promoted the abforption of the opaque body*.
- - . There are two operations which have been propofed
‘for the cure of the cataraft j the one called extra ft ion,
and the other couching. In the fird, an incifion is
made into the cornea, and the lens removed by pulhing
it through the pupil. In the fecond, the lens is taken
out of its capfule, and lodged in fome part of the vitre¬
ous humour, where it may be entirely out of the axis of
the eye. Each of thefe methods has been much prac-
tifed •, and though a decided preference feems at prefent
to be given by the mod diflinguilhed furgeons to the
mode by extraction, yet there are alfo cafes attended
with peculiar circumftances, in which the operation of
couching may be fuecefsfully employed. Both opera¬
tions ought therefore to be well underltood by every
furgeon.
221
!^haratory It was formerly the cuftom, before performing either
of thefe operations, to confine the patient for feveral
weeks, or even months, to a ftrict antiphlogiftic regi¬
men ; but this precaution, except in very particular
cafes, may be generally difpenfed with. People who
have become blind, generally lead a quiet life, and are
not expofed to any of thofe diffipations which are likely
to affeft the conftitution. It will therefore general¬
ly be found fufficient precaution, before attempting
an operation, to enjoin the patient to live moderately ;
to avoid fpirituous liquors, and take a few dofes of any
of the common laxative medicines. If he be dronrr
and plethoric, it will be neceffary to purfue fuch u
courfe a little turtner } to give dofes of laxative medi¬
cines for a longer period, and even to bleed the patient
in the arm. Many furgeons lay it down as a general
rule, to take fome blood on the morning of the1 day of
the operation, either from the arm, from the temples,
or from the neck by cupping ; and either of thefe me¬
thods is to be preferred, according to the quantity of
blood which is intended to be taken. In old people of
a healthy conftitution, we have often found it unnecef-
lary to ufe any of thefe means, no inflammatory fymp-
tom having arifen during the progrefs of the cure. In
many cafes, inftead of bleeding before the operation, we
have preferred doing it after the operation wras perform¬
ed, when the patient was put quiet in bed. Blood
taken at this period may be reafonably fuppofed to have
a more powerful effeft in giving check to any inflam¬
matory attack which might be apt to fucceed the ope¬
ration, than if an equal quantity had been taken away
before, it. The bleeding too, immediately after the
operation, we have, often obferved, renders the patient
calm, and more difpofed to reft, whereas at the fame
time any of thofe difagyeeable fymptoms are avoided
during the operation, wh'ch are apt to remain for feve¬
ral li ours after bleeding, when the patient is in the ereft
poiture. It is alfo of importance before the operation is
performed, the patient being fo lituated, that he can be
eafily put to bed. The operation ihould therefore be Of the ;
performed in the fame chamber in which he is to re. eaies of
main, or in one immediately adjoining j and he ftiould
be clothed in a bed-gown or fome loole drefs, fo as to ^
enable him to get into bed without much trouble. The
bed ftiould be placed in fueh a pofition in the room that
the light does not fall dirc£13y on the patient’s face, fo
that during the cure, all glaring lights may be eafily
avoided.
Of the Extra ft ion of the Qatar aft,
In this operation the objeft of the furgeon is to make
a wound in the cornea, and to extradl through it the
opake lens. In performing it there are four fteps which
require to be particularly confidered. The frfl o£
them is the means to be employed for fecuring the eye
during the operation. The fecond is the mode of
making the incifion through the cornea ; the third, the
mode of opening the capfule of the cryftalline lens 5 and
the fourth is the extra&ion of the lens. All thefe fliall
be confidered feparately.
Mode of fecuring the Eye and Eyelids. 22^
One of the. great improvements in modern furgery
is the fimplicity of the mechanical means employed in
performing operations. A great variety of contrivances
have been propofed, in order to fecure the eyeball and
eyelids during the extra&ion of the cataraft. Experience,
however, ftievvs, that almoft all thefe are completely
ufelefs, and moil of them extremely hurtful. To dif-
penfe, therefore, with thefe inftruments, and to be able
to execute with the fingers alone thofe parts of the
operation for which they were employed may be juftly
confidered as a material improvement. The eyeball
and eyelids may be completely fecured in almoft all
cales, by the fingers of one hand of the operator, and
thofe of an afliftant. 1 he afliftant will generally find
that, with the forefinger of one or of both hands placed
upon the tarfus, one upon the internal, and another to¬
wards the external angle of the eye, he will be eafily
able to raife the upper eyelid, fo as to expofe the cor¬
nea ; and by the finger being placed towards the inter¬
nal angle he will be alfo able to affift the operator in
preventing the eyeball from being turned inwards,
when the incifion into the cornea is about to be made.
I he operator is to feeure the under eyelid by the fore
and middle fingers of his left hand. They are to be
placed in fuch a manner over the edge of the tarfus,
that they may come in contatt with the eyeball; and
the middle finger is to be prelfed pretty firmly in the
internal angle of the eye, between the eyeball and
lachrymal caruncle, fo as effe<51ually to prevent the mo¬
tion of the eye towards the nofe. In this pofition of
the fingers of the operator and afliftant, thofe who are
accuftomed to perform operations on the eye, find that
they are completely mafter of the motions of the eye¬
ball j and by altering the pofitions of the points of the
fingers, and applying more or lefs prefiure, they are able
to counteraft any untoward motion of the organ. Be¬
fore attempting to fecure the eyeball, the operator
thould be prepared to advance in every ftep of the ope¬
ration ; for it will be generally found, that if an at¬
tempt lias been made to open the eyelids forcibly, a
certain degree of irritation and watering of the eye
takes place; fo that, when a fecond attempt is made,
with
r> * ' S U R G
lap. A.
hc D.r- with a view of proceeding to the other Heps of the ope-
:s of the ration, more difficulty is met with m holding the eye
£ye- than at firft would have been the cafe. It is a good
^   precaution, however, for the furgeon to take an oppor¬
tunity, before the day of the operation, to try to fix the
eye, and to explain to the patient this ftep of the ope¬
ration ; for it often happens, that patients ftart, and
make great refiftance by fqueezing the eyelids, when
the operation comes to be performed •, fo that by habi¬
tuating them to the mode of fecuring the eye, it is
more eafily accompliffied. The firft thing to be attend¬
ed to, before attempting to fix the eye, is a proper
licffit, the pofition of the patient’s head, and the
height of the chair in which he is to fit. The light
of the room ftiould come from one window, and the
patient fit in fuch a manner that the light falls oblique¬
ly over his nofe upon the eye to be operated on. U
he be placed fo that the rays of light from the win¬
dow fall in the direft line of the eye, the furgeon will
find that he is obliged, either to fit in his own light, or
that the refleflions upon the cornea tend to embarrafs
him. As foon as the other eye is covered, fo as.to pre¬
vent it from having any motion, and communicating
that motion to the eye on which the operation is to be
performed, the affiftant is to be placed behind the pa¬
tient, and the patient’s head to be fupported firmly on
his breaft. The height of the chair on which the pa¬
tient is to be placed, will depend on the height of the
patient, and always ffiould be fo low, that the affiftant
is able to look over the head, and completely command
the motion of his own fingers. The operator and affift¬
ant ffiould open both eyelids at the fame time, which will
more readily fecure the eyeball in a proper pofition. The
eyeball, however, is apt to be turned upwards, fo that
the cornea is thrown out of view. When this happens,
the upper eyelid ffiould be firft raifed, and the affiftant
ftiould be always ready with the points of his fingers, to
prefs in fuch direftions, that when the eyeball at any
moment places itfelf in a proper pofition, he may be
ready to fecure it. When, on the other hand, the eye¬
ball is thrown downwards, the operator himfelf muft
place it in a proper pofition, and in this manner both the
operator and affiftant are to co-operate with each other,
and the one or the other placing his fingers in fuch a
manner as to counteract moft effectually any awkward
pofition of the eyeball. When the eyeball appears
Heady, the incifion of the cornea ought to be immediate¬
ly performed. But before entering the knife, it will be
found a uffiful precaution to touch the cornea frequent¬
ly with its back, and fee if the patient ftarts, or if the
eyeball remains quite fteady. It will often happen,
that whenever the point of the inftrument touches the
eyeball, it is fuddenly thrown into motion ; and was the
incifion of the corner to have been begun at this mo¬
ment, much difficulty would have arifen. If, however,,
the eye be repeatedly touched with the knife, the ftart-
ing motion will fooner or later ceafe, and then the inci¬
fion of the cornea may be begun with everv poffible ad¬
vantage. When the knife has paffed through both fides
of the cornea, there is no danger of any motion of the
eyeball hindering the operation.
It fometimes happens that the eye is extremely fmall,
and that it is funk deep in the orbit. In fuch people the
operation becomes much more difficult*, and we have
aoet with cafes, where, from thefe circamftanees, it was
E r Y. 95
almoft impoffible to fecure the eyeball with the fingers j Of the Dif-
the room which the fingers neceffarily take preventing ea 1 e
the knife from being properly managed, and covering a
portion of the cornea. In fuch cafes, the fpeculum con¬
trived by M. Pellier will be found to be a ufeful in¬
ftrument. See Plate DXVII. fig. 8. The fpeculum
coniifts of a piece of filver wire, bent in the manner
reprefented in the plate j and though in itfelf extreme¬
ly fimple, it requires a good deal of management and
nicety in ufing it. The curved edge of the wire («) is to
be placed upon the infide of the cilice on the horizontal
plate of the tarfus •, the fkin of the upper eyelid being
previoufly ftretched upwards. The affiftant is then to
move the fpeculum upwards, imitating, as it were, the
natural motion of the eyelids-, and, when the eyeball
is fufficiently expofed, the fpeculum, with the handle
{b) refting on the brow of the patient, is to be kept
firm and fteady in the fame pofition. In ufing the fpe¬
culum, it is neceffary to make a confiderable preffure on
the eyeball, in order to prevent the eyelid from flip¬
ping from underneath the fpeculum. At the fame
time as little preffure ftiould be employed, as will pre¬
vent this from taking place. Many furgeons, in ufing
the fpeculum, place it behind the cilue ; and whenever
any watering of the eye takes place, from the irritation
of the inftrument, it is very apt to flip from the moifture
of the ikin. In order to prevent this, we have found
very material benefit from limply folding round the
fpeculum a thin fold of crape, which, from its rough-
nefs, effe&ually prevents the rilk of the fpeculum flip¬
ping. The operator is to manage the under eyelid in
the fame manner as if the upper eyelid was covered by
the fingers of an afliftant and it more particularly refts
with him to prevent the eyeball from rolling inwards,
the fpeculum merely ferving to fupport the upper eye¬
lid.
After the knife has penetrated both lides of the
cornea, the afliftant is to be aware that no preflure is
to be made upon the eyeball. When, therefore, this-
ftep of the operation is completed, the affiftant, if he be
ufing the fpeculum, is to be particularly careful in
taking off any preffure which it may make, and merely
to fupport the eyelid.
Mode of making the Incifion of the Cornea.
The great object to be kept in view in making an in-
cifion of the cornea is, that it be of fufficient fize to allow
the eafy extra&ion of the cryftalline lens, and that any
cicatrix which may remain may not interrupt the en¬
trance of the rays of light through the pupil. The mode
which has been recommended to effect thefe purpofes,
is to make a femicircular incifion, parallel to the circum¬
ference of the cornea, and about half a line diftant from
the jun&ion of the cornea and fclerotic coat. One of the
knives (Plate DXVII. fig. I, 2, 3.) is to punfture the
cornea half a line diftant from its circumference, to be
carried acrofs the anterior chamber to the oppofite fide,
and brought through the cornea at the fame diftance
from the fclerotic coat to where it was entered after¬
wards the incifion is to be finiffied by puffiing the knife
forwards till the incifion is-completed.
Inftead of making the incifion in this manner, Mr # See .&/«?-
James Wardrop has propofed another form of incifion, burgh Me-
in order to remove feveral objections to which the othei Qhirurgicai
operation wasliable *. The diladvantages which Mr War- yournaiy
drop yol. hv
oS
Of the Dif-drop fuppofes to arife from tlie ufual mode recommend-
eafesof theedare?
, e' , i. The cornea being of very confiderable thicknefs,
a great part of the femicircular incifion will be carried
through between its laminse, and therefore the length
of the incifion of the internal lamina will be much lefs
than that of the external one. This he explains by two
plans, Plate DXVII. fig.n. and 12. where befides the
external form of the incifion (««a), there is drawn a
fecond line (£), intended to reprefent the incifion of the
internal lamina. The dark fpace, therefore, included
between thefe two lines {b and a) is intended to re¬
prefent that portion of the incifion which is made be¬
tween the laminae.
2. The external form deceives us in the extent of
the internal incifion, and much more difficulty is met
with in bringing the lens through it, than from its ap¬
parent length could have been expefted ; for, as the line
of the internal incifion has a very flight curvature, the
thicknefs and tenfion of the cornea allow the edges of
the wound from being feparated only a little way from
one another.
3. When the cornea is divided nearly at its union
with the fclerotic coat, and when the aqueous humour
and lens have efcaped, the portion of the iris oppofite to
the centre, and moll depending part of the wound, lofes
its natural fupport given to it by the cornea, and is
pufhed forward, fo that it comes in contact with the
cornea, and even infinuates itfelf between the edges of
the incifion. The greater the opening is, the more
danger there is of a prolapfus, both of the iris and vi¬
treous humour 5 for it would feem as if thefe two parts
of the eye were pulhed forwards in confequence of the
contraflion of the coats of the eye, which takes place
as foon as the incifion is made ; and if two thirds of the
cornea be cut, there is certainly much lefs refiftance
than when the half only has been divided. Thus, the
iris and cornea form permanent adhefions in confequence
of the inflammation which always follows the operation.
The pupil becomes of an irregular form, is draw n from
the centre of the eyeball; is fometimes very much con-
trafled, and retains but a very limited fphere of con¬
traction and dilatation.
4. The contraction of the mufcles of the globe of
the eye preffing forward the contents of the pofterior
chamber, are very apt to pufli a portion of the vitreous
humour through the pupil and wound of the cornea.
When this happens, the pupil becomes irregular, and
drawn down towards the incifion, the form of the eye¬
ball is fomewhat altered, and the prolapfed vitreous hu¬
mour inclofed in its capfule, appears externally in the
form of a round tranfparent tumor.
5. As the external edge of the femicircular flap of
the cornea is very thin, and lies loofe, the fmallefl; move¬
ment of the eyelids, particularly of the upper one, is
apt to catch and raife it out of its proper fituation, and
thus that fpeedy union is prevented which wmuld take
place if the two divided furfaces had been kept in accu¬
rate and conflant contaft.
6. and laftly •, As the internal edge of the incifion
is often unavoidably made, from the fmallnefs of the
anterior chamber, and the flatnefs of the cornea, nearly
oppofite to the inferior margin of the pupil ; and as all
the extent of the cut furface ab (Plate DXVII. fig. 12.),
fometimes remains opaque after the wound is healed’
SURGERY. Chap, x,
the opacity of the cicatrix muft dimimffi the fphere of Of the Dif
yifion. cafes of th
All thefe difadvantages in the ufual mode of making , E^e'
an incifion of the cornea, appeared to Mr Wardrop to '
arife chiefly from the want of a fufficient portion of the
cornea being left at the inferior part of the wound, to
fupport the iris, and to prevent the preflure of the parts
contained within the eyeball, and the occafional adion
of the mufcles puftnng forward the iris towards the
wound of the cornea ; he therefore conceived that if the
incifion could be made in fuch a manner that a larger
portion of the cornea could be left at the inferior part of
the wound, being at the fame time made of fuch a form
as to allow the eafy extraction of the cataraCt, and the
cicatrix not afterwards to interfere with vifion, a confi-
derable improvement would be made in the operation.
With this view he made the incifion in the following
manner. .
The belt knife for the purpofe is of the fame fize and of the cor.
ftiape with that delineated in Plate DXVII. fig. i.nea knife,
The blade is of a fimple triangular form, the back be¬
ing one continued line with the handle, except merely
the point. The point, though extremely {harp, fhould
be made firm, and the blade ffiould turn gradually thick¬
er from the point towards the handle. The point of
the knife muft be fharp on both edges for at leaft the
breadth of a line, in order that it may penetrate the
.cornea quickly and eafily. The back of the knife
ftiould not be left angular, but the edges rounded off
and made fmooth, fo that it be convex on both fides.
Particular care ought to be taken that the point of the
knife be well conditioned •, and it is not only neceffary
that it be {harp, but that the metal of which it is made
be neither too hard nor too foft. This may be eafily
afeertained by preffing the point upon the nail ; for if
it bend readily, not being fo brittle as to break through,
and fufficiently elaftic to recover the ftraight line, we
may be confident that it will anfwer the purpofe. It is
alfo a good precaution to have the knife fliarpened the
day before, or the morning of the operation ; and in
cafe of any accident happening to the point, the opera¬
tor himfelf ffiould carefully examine by trying how it
penetrates a thin piece of leather, immediately before
ufingit. From the point of the knife being too brittle,
we have known a cafe where the point of it was broken
off, when attempting to penetrate the inner part of the
cornea ; and from the point being too foft, we in one
cafe, after punfluring the cornea, found it impoffible to
penetrate with the knife the oppofite fide, and this we
found had arifen from the point of the knife bending
round.
Having previoufly fmeared the knife with oil, or
fmoothed the edge of it upon the palm of the hand, in
order to make it cut more keenly, its point is to be
thruft through the cornea at its tranfverfe diameter, and
at leaft half a line diftant from the fclerotic coat, and in
a direflion as if it was to wound the iris, or nearly per¬
pendicular to the fpherical furfaee of the cornea (fee
Plate DXVII. fig. ig. and 15. o). When the point of
the knife reaches the plane of the iris, it is to be turned
towards the oppofite fide of the cornea, by moving the
blade upon the ineifion already made, as a fulcrum. It
is then to be carried forward, fo that the cornea is again
punflured at its tranfverfe diameter b, at the fame diftance
fioru the fclerotic coat at which it had been entered on
the
lap.
the. Dif-the oppofite Tide (fig. 13.). By tfiefe two incifions the
es of the,blade of the knife has cut perpendicularly, or very nearly
^ to t{ie fpherical furface of the cornea, and the gradual
thickening of the knife, by filling up the wound as fait
‘thl in- as it is made, prevents any of the aqueous humour from
ion of the making its efcape. The eye is now completely fecured
rnca. the knife, and the affiftant who has been fupport-
ing the upper eyelid, iliould receive a fignal from the
operator, to take away all preffure from the eyeball, and
merely to fupport the eyelid fufficiently to allow the in¬
ferior half of the cornea to be feen. When the knife
has been puified forward a little way, as is re prefen ted
in fig. 15. the incifien is to be finiihed, by turning
round the blade on its axis, and thus keeping the edge
turned outwards, in fuch a manner, that the remaining
part of the incifion is made a ftraight line, and there¬
fore nearly perpendicular to the lamella; of the cornea
( fig. 13. c). Whenever the laft Itep of the operation
*. is begun, the aqueous humour begins to efeape, which
allows the knife to cut the cornea readily and in any
dire&ion.
Suppofing, therefore, that the cornea, inftead of being
fpherical, were a plain furface, the incilion now de-
feribed would be reprefented by th« lines «, b, and c,
fig. 13.; but as it is a fegment of afphere, the form will
more referable.that reprefented in fig. 14.: at leaft this
is the form of the incifion which the operator fhould
have in view when performing the operation. By the
infpe&ion of thefe figures (13 and 14), it appears,
1. That a large portion or ring of the cornea is left
attached to the felerotic coat, and mull form, from its
thicknefs, a complete fupport to the iris.
2. That as the inctfion is made throughout nearly per¬
pendicular to the lamellae of the cornea, the length of
the incifion of the internal lamella will be nearly equal
to that of the external one, and will be greater than
when it is made in the ufual manner, by the femicircular
incifion 5 and confequently the catarat! will be more
eafily extracted through it.
3. The upper edge of the internal incifion is at a
greater difiance fi'om, or further below the edges of the
pupib
4. As the flap of the cornea is very imall, the exter¬
nal edge thick, and not eafily moveable, or apt to be
caught by the motion of the eyelids, the edges of the
incifion are not liable to be difplaced, and confequently
the wound has a much better chance of uniting by ad-
hefion.
Laftly, the cicatrix which remains is fearcely percep¬
tible, and cannot even be diftinguifhed when the cornea
is looked upon in a direftion perpendicular to its fur¬
face. The incifion fhould be made fo that the inferior
edge of the wound (fig. 3. c) is half way between the
circumference of the cornea and the edge of the pupil,
luppofing the pupil to be in a moderate ftate of dilata¬
tion. If it be made nearer to the felerotic coat, then the
advantages to be expected from this mode of operating
will be loft ; and on the other hand, if it be made at
too great a diftance from the felerotic coat, and confe¬
quently too near the pupil, the edge of the pupil will
be apt to pafs through between the lips of the wound.
In one cafe in which this accident happened, partly on
account of the incifion being at too great a diftance
from the felerotic coat, and alfo from the knife having
been entered too far above the tranfverfe diameter of
Vol. XX. Part I,
.
the cornea, the wound was long in uniting, and after it Of the
was healed, the pupil remained very irregular and con-eafe^ the
trailed.
In making the incifion of the cornea in the manner
that has been directed, another circumftance alfo parti¬
cularly deferves notice, which is, that after having punc¬
tured both fides of the cornea, in giving the knife the
motion round its axis, feme of the aqueous humour
efeapes, and there is a great rifk of the iris turning over
the cutting edge of the knife. An operator, who meets
with this for the firft time, is apt to think an wound
of the iris is inevitable ; but if he cautioufly flops the
progrefs of the knife by gliding the point of the fore¬
finger over the cornea, and prefling the iris from its
edge, the incifion will be completed with perfeft fafety.
It fometimes happens that after the knife has entered
the cornea, the eyeball makes a hidden motion inwards,
towards the nofe, and a confiderable part of the cornea
is thus thrown out of view. This accident happens
cither from a fault in the operator or his affiftant, and
ought to be particularly guarded againft ; for when it
has taken place, it is irremediable. The operator muft
not attempt to proceed any further, but immediately
withdraw the knife, allow the wound of the cornea to
heal, the aqueous humour to be regenerated, and after
any flight inflammation which might fucceed, has gone
off, the operation may be a fecond time attempted with¬
out any additional rifk.
It fometimes happens that, on pumffuring the cornea
on the nafal fide, the point of the knife does not come
through at the proper diftance from the fclerotic coat. If
it pafs through too near the centre of the cornea, as is
reprefented in Plate DXVII. fig. 17. confiderable difad-
vantage arifes; for befides the incifion being too final],
fo that the lens is extrafted with difficulty, the eye is
apt to receive confiderable injury, and the cicatrix after¬
wards to interfere with vifion. When this accident hap¬
pens, it will be the moft prudent praftice to proceed no
further in the operation, but to allow the wound to heal
by adhefion, fo that a fecond operation might be after¬
wards attempted with all the advantages of the firft. It
is aftonifhing the rapidity with which a wound of the
cornea made by a cutting inftrument heals, and except
it be very large, fearcely can the moft acute eye deleft
any cicatrix. It is therefore much more prudent when¬
ever any fault in the incifion arifes, that the wound be
allowed to reunite, fo that afterwards a fecond operation
may be fuccefsfully performed, inftead of attempting by
feiflars or other inftruments to correft any bungling.
If the knife paffes through the cornea too clofe to the
fclerotic coat, it is not attended with fuch bad effects
as when it paffes near to the pupil; and was it not for
the danger in wounding the iris, it would be advifable
in all cafes to lay it down as a general rule to make the
knife come out very clofe to the felerotic coat. See fig. iS.
Of the Mode of opening the Capfuls of the Lens,
After the operator has completed the incifion of the
cornea, he ftiould make a paufe, and allow the patient
to compofe himfelf a little, in cafe of any involuntary
motion of the eyeball injuring any part of Its ftrufture.
It femetimes happens, indeed, that the moment tire in-
cifion of the cornea is finiihed, the lens fuddenly follows
the knife •, but this is a circumftance never to be wifhed
for, as the fame caufe which throws out the lens may
N alio
SURGERY
93
22S
Mode of
pufh after it fome of the vitreous humour. When
liye ethe incifion of the cornea is finithed, and nothing has
u—efcaped but the aqueous humour, the patient fhould be
direfted to turn his eye from the light, and to keep his
eyelids fliut, taking great care not to fqueeze them, fo
that the pupil may be allowed to dilate. In moft fur-
gical operations, particularly thofe attended with much
pain, it is of importance to finifh them as quickly as pof-
nble. I his, however, is not the cafe in the extraction of
thecataraCt. It will be in general found that the feverity
of an injury done to any part of the body depends, not
only on its extent, but on the hidden manner in which it
is inflicted, i hus, a fmall drop of blood fuddenly effufed
on the furface of the brain, often produces a feries of
much more diltrelTing fymptoms than a large collection
of purulent matter in that organ. It is therefore rea-
fonable to expeCt that if the different fteps of the opera¬
tion for the extraction of the cataraCt are gone through
in a rapid manner, the eye will be much more injured
than if the fame operation be performed more flowly.
1 here is another advantage too, derived from perform¬
ing the operation in a cautious manner ; by holding the
eye firmly for fome time, the mufcles become fatigued,
and during the latter Heps of the operation, when there
is the greateft danger of injuring the organ, the power
of refiftance to the operator is much diminifhed.
The next ftep of the operation is to make a punfture
the caijfule. ^ the caPfule of the CI7ttaU>ne lens, fo that the lens is
L allowed to pafs through the pupil. On opening the
eyelids, it will generally be found that the pupil has a
very irregular appearance, which a beginner may often
fuppofe to be in confequence of a wound of the iris,
though no fuch accident has happened. Some furgeons
empioy an afliftant to fupport the upper eyelid, whilft
others take both eyelids completely under their own
management ; and when the operator finds that he can
ealily accomplilh this laid mode, he fhould always prefer
doing fo. When the eyelids are opened in fuch a man¬
ner as to expofe the incifion of the cornea and pupil, the
* See Plate point of the inflrument called the curette *, is to be in-
f »XVII. troduced through the wound of the cornea and pupil, to
punCture the capfule of the lens. Richter advifes that
the capfule fhould be punCtured feveral times with the
point of this inflrament, in order that a large opening
may be made into it. When the lens is foft and milky,
tills may be necefifary, but when it is of a firmer texture,
if one pondure is made, it fufficiently tears the capfule
fo as to allow itfelf to come away eafily. Before intro¬
ducing the curette, moderate preffure fhould be made on
the eyeball, which has theeffed not only of keeping the
*ye Heady, but alfo of dilating the pupil. The convex
part of the indrument (a) is then to be introduced through
the wound of the cornea, and conduded to the central
part of the pupil, men it reaches the pupil, from the
curvature of the inHrument, a very fmall turn of the
handle will place the point upon the capfule of the
cryHalline lens, and by pufhing the point upwards, the
capfule will be readily pundured. It is not neceffary
that the point of this inflrument be very thin; a round¬
ed point will anfvver all the purpofes of punduring the
capfule; whilfl from this form there will be lefs danger
of wounding the iris from any unexpeded motion of the
eyeball. Very little force is neceffary to pundure the
capfule, and when the point of the curette paffes through
f,g-1>
(and the pradice has certainly been attended
with
2 2f
s V R G E R Y, Chap.
it, it gives the fenfation a$ if punduring a piece of very Of the
fine paper with a pin. J eafes of
This part of the operation we have often found to be Eye
one of the moil difficult; for in many patients the eye v’""
becomes extremely unfleady, and whenever an attempt is
made to hold it firm, or introduce the point of the cu¬
rette, the eyeball is immediately rolled upwards under
the roof of the orbit. The eyeball, too, is apt to make
fome untoward motion, after the point of the curette has
been introduced into the anterior chamber ; fo that if
the operator be not on his guard, the iris may be caught
and torn by the point of the curette. In one <fafe
where, after the point of the curette was introduced
through the pupil, the eye turned fuddenly upwards,
and the hooked part of the inHrument catching the edge
of the iris, pulled it a good way downwards, though for¬
tunately it did not tear it.
Mode of Extracting the Lens.
Whenever the capfule of the lens is pun&ured, the
lens in many cafes begins to move forward, and the pu¬
pil to dilate. The operator carefully watching this ef-
feft, fliould keep up an equal and moderate preffure
upon the eyeball, which will affifl the lens in getting
through the pupil. WhilH the lens is making its efcape,
and appears to prefs very much on the inferior part of
the pupil, the iris fliould be fupported by the back of
the fpoon, (£ Plate DXV1I. fig. ip.) which is gene¬
rally for conveniency, fixed upon the oppofiteend of the
handle of the curette. _ In applying the preffure on the
eyeball, it is .of great importance that it be kept up uni¬
formly, and.it fliould always be proportioned to the ef¬
fects which it appears to produce on the dilatation of
the pupil. In moft cafes a very moderate preffure will
be found to anfwer the purpofe. We have met with
others, however, where it was neceffary to comprefs the
eye with a good deal of force, before it was poffible to
remove the lens.
Any fmall portion of opaque lens which now remains
in the capfule, or on its furfaee, mult be extrafted by
means of a fmall fcoop. When the fragment lies on
the furface of the capfule, or in any part of the anterior
chamber, it is in general eafily removed ; but when the
opaque body remains within the capfule, it becomes ne¬
ceffary, that the feoop fhould enter the capfule through
the opening which was made in it. When this opening
is large and wide, the fcoop will eafily get in, and reach
the opaque fragment; but, on the contrary, when the
opening is fmall, the fcoop may be moved about in
every direftion, in hopes of laying hold of it, for
the fcoop is on the outfide of the capfule, and can¬
not procure an entrance. It has happened accordingly,
that every endeavour to.extraa the remaining fragment
has been fruitlefs, and in fuch cafes it was fuppofed by
the operator to adhere to the capfule. It was more
probable, however, that the capfule had not been fuf-
ficient’y opened, and that the fcoop could not reach the
fmall fragments. In all cafes, however, it is an ob-
jea of importance, completely to remove the opaque
body ; for though any remaining portions be ultimate¬
ly abforbed, yet in the mean time the operation is by
no means fo complete as it would have been, had no¬
thing been allowed to remain. It has been advifed by
fom" * - - - j
X
Dili
thi
;hap. X.
f the Dif-witli good effefts), that after the principal part of the
iesof the|ens js removed, any fragments which may remain, and
£ye' vvhich are not vifible, may be brought into view by (hut¬
ting the eye-lids, and cautioufly rubbing them with the
finger.
2.0 Of the Extraction of the Capfule.
When, after the cryftalline lens is removed, the cap¬
fule is found to be opaque, it is abfolutely neceffary that
it be at the fame time taken away. Opacities of the
capfule are generally fituated in its anterior parts, which
renders the removal of them much more practicable.
The forceps for this purpofe (Plate DXVII. 9-)
are to be cautioufly introduced through the wound of
the cornea and pupil, and any opaque portion laid hold
of, and cautioufly removed. It has been obferved that
though the capfule did not appear opaque during the
operation, yet in confequence of inflammation, which
occurs more or lefs afterward®, the capfule has become
opaque. This circumftance has led to a propofal, that
in all cafes the capfule (hould be extracted along with
the opaque lens. From the natural ftruCture of the eye,
and the ftrong adhefion which exifts between the pofte-
rior part of the capfule of the lens and the anterior por¬
tion of the capfule of the vitreous humour, it would ap¬
pear impracticable to feparate them from each other, fo
as to extraCt the capfule entire. Many cafes, however,
are recorded by different authors, where, in performing
the common operation, the lens inclofed in its capfule
has made its efcape. In thefe cafes, however, it is
probable, that the natural adhefion between the capfules
of the two humours had been deftroyed by fome mor¬
bid alteration of ftruCture. Such cafes have probably
been the caufe of the propofal to extraCt in all cafes
the capfule of the lens. Mr Beer, a celebrated oculift
Prafttfche in Vienna, has publilhed a work*, in order to recom-
eobacb- mend and defcribe the mode in which fuch an operation
'mSen- ftmuld be performed. After fome general obfervations
on the bad confequences which arife from portions of
the capfule remaining behind after the lens is remov¬
ed, he defcribes his mode of operating in the following
words.
“ Immediately after dividing the cornea, I dilate the
pupil as much as poflible, by a gentle preffure on the
eyeball with the finger. I then introduce the lancet
(Plate DXVII. fig. 4.) through the wound of the
cornea, and plunge it into the lens ; one furface being
turned upwards, and the other downwards, fo that none
of the lancet is vifible. It is particularly to be recom¬
mended to the inftrument-maker, that this lancet have
a pretty thick body, by which means, the moment of
introducing it, the lens will be fomewhat preffed back,
and its weak anterior adhefion will be feparated. I he
lancet muft now, when in the middle of the lens, be
moved upwards and downwards, in order to divide its
connections above and below. Laftly, the inftrument
muft be turned fuddenly on its axis, and moved to the
inner angle of the eye, and then drawn out in a ftraight
direction. The lens often follows with its capfule, im¬
mediately after the lancet is withdrawn, or at leaft it
comes out quite eafily, along with its capfules, on a
continued preffure of the finger. There is not merely
a Height of hand, which muft be carefully obferved in
the ufe of the lancet; experience has taught me many
precautions which muft not be negleCled the moment
S U R G E R Y. 99
that the lens comes out, otherwife the capfule may be O*' the Dif*
very eafily rubbed off from the lens, either in palling ea^es ot the
the pupil, or in the wound of the cornea. ■
“ In order to avoid this, the opening of the cornea
{hould be made as large as poflible, and it is belt to di¬
vide two-thirds of it j thereby the operator has the fol¬
lowing advantages.
“ I. The pupil dilates of itfelf after the divifion of
the cornea by the prefling forward of the lens ; and
this dilatation may be eafily increafed by the flighteft
preffure.
“ 2. The more the pupil is dilated, the better the ope¬
rator can obferve the management of the lancet $ he can
move his inftrument more freely in different direClions
in the lens, and conlequently feparate more quickly and
more furely, the lens along with the capfule, from all
its conneCtions.
“ 3. The lens with its capfule paffes more eafily
through the pupil, the wider the opening in the cornea,
(which indeed requires in moft cales much fpace), and
the further and more eafily the pupil dilates, the lei*
danger there is of the capfule being feparated on com¬
ing out. If the wound of the cornea is fmall, the cap¬
fule will be either feparated from the lens in the pupil,
or in the wound of the cornea, or paffed back again
either entirely, or at leaft partly, into the pofterior
chamber of the eye.”
To thofe who are accuftomed to perform operations
on the eye, the method which we have detailed will at
once appear to be difficult, extremely dangerous, and in
many cafes totally impracticable. The caufes of failure
in the operation for the cataraft feldom arife from an
opacity of the capfule of the lens, and when this does
occur, it is always in confequence of a violent or long-
continued inflammation of the eyeball. Whenever,
therefore, the inflammation which takes place after the
operation is checked by proper remedies, a cataraCl of
the capfule will feldom be met with.
Of the Treatment after the Operation.
After the lens has been extracted, and the eyelids al¬
lowed to remain (hut for a ftiort time, the eye ought to
be examined, in order to afcertain that the edges of the
wound of the cornea are in their proper place ; that no
portion of the iris has paffed through it, and the pupil is
quite regular. When the incifion of the cornea is made
in the manner and fize already defcribed, the edges of
the wound, from their firmnefs and thicknefs, accurate¬
ly apply themfelves to each other ; and if -».o iris has
fuftained no injury, it will remain in its natural fitua-
tion, and the pupil will become perfeclly circular.
When the pupil is not regular, it has been generally re¬
commended to expofe the eye to a bright light, in order
to make it contrail, and thus detach it from any part to
which it might have adhered. When a portion of the
iris protrudes through the wound, this generally atifes,
not from any injury in that part, but*in confequence of
the incifion of the cornea having been made too large.
If the ineifion be more than femicircular, (or two-thirds
of the circumference of the cornea as dire&ed by Mr
Beer) this accident will almoft conftantly happen ; and
when it does take place, can never, as far as we know,
be remedied. In fuch cafes the operator ffiould be care¬
ful not even to attempt with the fpoon, nor any fuch in¬
ftrument, to replace the prolap fed iris j for it has always
S U H G
Difi been obferved, that attempts of’this kind are fruitlefs,
theand never fail to increafe the inflammation which fuc-
‘m. ceeds the operation.
In applying the neceiTary compreffes and bandages on
the eye, the objedts to be held in view are, to keep the
eyelids in fuch a pofition, that they eannot difturb the
wound of the cornea by their motion, and that the eye
be not expofed to any light. The upper eyelid will be
completely fecured, by placing over it, and in the hol¬
low of the orbit, a fmall ftripe of wet caddis. The piece
of caddis fliould not be fo large as to prefs much upon
the eye, and from its being wet, it will be readily kept
in its fituation. Above the caddis fliould be placed a
piece of linen covered with Ample ointment, largeenough
to cover both eyes*, and this may be fecured by one
turn of a bandage round the head. In applying the
bandage, care fliould be taken to place it fo that the
pins are put in at the forehead and temples. The con-
veniency of this will be afterwards found, the bandage
being eafily removed without moving the patient’s
head from the pillow. The patient fliould now be put
eautioufly to bed, and his head kept extremely low.
The room in which he fleeps fliould be made fo dark,
that no light may pafs through the bandage to the eye.
In an hour or half an hour after the operation, after the
patient has become compofed, he fliould be bled in the
arm, if from the previous flate of the patient’s health that
fliould be deemed a proper precaution. Reft, quiet-
nefs, and abftinence, ought to be rigidly adhered to for
the firft day after the operation j the patient fliould be
allowed no food except that which is liquid, in order
that any motions of the jaw may be avoided, and the
food fliould be given through a tea pot, in order to pre¬
vent any motion of the head. Sixteen or twenty hours
are fufticient to produce an adhefion of the cornea in fa¬
vourable cafesj and after this period, the comprefs of
wet caddis placed upon the upper eyelid, becomes no
longer neceflary $ for if it be alloived to remain any
longer, it becomes hard and dry, and will be apt to ir¬
ritate. The bandage and plafter ought therefore to be
loofened, and the piece of caddis removed. The eye¬
lids will now be found to adhere, and the patient will
find much relief by cautioufly wetting the ciliae with
cold water, in order to liberate the eyelids. From
this period it is advifeable to keep the eyelaflies con-
ftantly greafy with an unftuous application.
In all cafes, the fymptoms which we are particu¬
larly to guard againft after this operation, are thofe
of inflammation: for when thefe arife, various efFetfts
may be produced which might fruftrate all our endea¬
vours to reftore the patient’s fight. If the wound in
the cornea, inftead of uniting by adhefion, goes through
a tedious procefs of fuppuration, the pupil becomes irre¬
gular and contra&ed; or if there is an effufion of lymph
in the pupil, or if an opacity of the caplide takes place,
thefe effeefts, all of which may arife in confequence of
inflammation, might either greatly impair, or entirely
deftroy vifion. The patient, therefore, ought to be
carefully watched every fix or eight hours for feveral
days, and on the evening of the day of the operation,
or at any future period, if fymptoms arife which indi¬
cate the commencement of inflammation, he ought to
be freely bled. The fymptoms which are to guide us
in adopting fuch means, are pain and uneafinefs darting
through the eye or head, and a frequent and full pulfe.
E R Y. Chap. X.
We have often remarked, after this operation, that even Of the Dif
in thofe cafes where no bleeding is neceflary, the pulfe eafe^0‘tiu
becomes unufually full. Thisfymptom alone would not,
therefore, be fufticient to warrant us in proceeding far
in adopting fuch a pra&ice. We have long believed,
that the fuccefs of all furgical operations, depends much
on the adoption of the means to prevent any inflamma¬
tory adtion. It is well known the danger of amputa¬
tion, and fuch operations in a vigorous and healthy con-
ftitution; it is equally well known the fpeedy recovery
of patients from operations, who have been much debili¬
tated from previous difeafe; and we have repeatedly re¬
marked that patients who have loft much blood from
fome accident, after an operation, have recovered much
more fpeedily than thofe to whom no fuch accident had
happened. Aware of thefe circumftances, we have in¬
variably adopted rigoroufly the depletive fyftem after
the operation for the cataraftj and in many of thofe
patients from whom a very confiderable quantity of
blood has at different periods been taken, we have ob¬
ferved that the fuccefs of the operation has been more
fpeedy and more complete. The furgeon will fometimes
find cafes where, from the mildnefs of the fymptoms, he
is led to hefitate on the propriety of bleeding. In fuch
a fituation it is the fafeft plan to have recourfe to it j
for in general, wherever no fymptoms have arifen which
may indicate the impropriety of fuch a praftice, if it be
not ufeful, it is at leaft never followed by any bad con-
fequences.
Venefeiftion at the arm is the eafieft and beft mode of
extracfting the blood j but fliould any circumftances occur
which render the operation at this place impracticable,
or ftiould it be thought necefl'ary to take away the blood
nearer to the inflamed organ, an opening may be made
in the temporal artery. For the firft two or three nights
after the operation, the patient’s arms fhould be watch¬
ed, or fecured in fuch a manner, that when he is afleep,
he {hall not be able to raife his hand towards his eye}
for the moft gentle ftroke upon the eye, even feveral
days after this operation, is attended with moft excru¬
ciating pain, and is generally fucceeded by violent in¬
flammation. The patient fliould be enjoined to lie on
his back, or on the found fide of the head} and after
the firft twelve hours he may be allowed to raife his
head to the ufual height. Moft authors who have laid
down rules to be followed after this operation, have di¬
rected that the eye (hould be kept ftiut up, and in total
darknefs for many days after the operation. We have,
however, found an oppofite praCtice attended with the
moft beneficial effeCts, and we have always confidered it
as a general principle to be followed, that the eye, from
the very day after the operation, be gradually reftored
to its natural ftate, that the globe of the eye and eyelids
be allowed to move, and that day after day the quantity
of light to which it is expofed be gradually increafed.
In regulating the quantity of light, and the motion of
the eye and eyelids, we fliould be entirely guided by
the patient’s feelings. Whatever be the quantity of light
to which the eye is expofed, or its extent of motion,
if it does not create uneafinefs or pain, it will never be
found to prove injurious } but on the contrary, if fuch
a quantity of light be admitted as to create uneafinefs,
or if any motion of the eyes or eyelids gives pain, thefe
circumftances will all tend to increafe the inflammatory
fymptoms.
It
v S U R G
iap. A.
the Dif- It has been already mentioned, that on the firft day
js of the ajter. operation, the wet caddis thould be removed,
* and the eyelids feparated and covered with fome unftu-
'ous fubftance, To that the patient may, from time to
time cautioufly move the eyelids, provided it gives
him no uneafinefs. The pledget of ointment covering
the eyes will prevent, daring this day, any light from
entering. .
On the fecond day the pledget of ointment may be
removed, and both eyes covered with two or three folds
of old linen, the patient being dire&ed to bathe his eye
frequently with a little warm water, fo as to remove any
glutinous or concreted matter from the eyelids. He
ihould alfo continue frequently to move the eyelids, and
by opening them, to expofe the eye to the fmall quan¬
tity of light which palfes through the linen. On the
following days, the light is to be admitted more and
more freely into the room, and by degrees the patient
will find that he is able to look down upon the bed¬
clothes, or any large objedt, without uneafinefs. People
are often apt, from the joy which they feel in having
their fight reftored, to make too much ufe of the eye,
and to render it weak and painful. Too much care,
however, cannot be taken, to avoid any accident of
this kind j and though the patient may feel his. eye
perfedlly eafy, and has no other complaint, yet it is al¬
ways prudent to confine him to his bed for the firft fix
or eight days. After the fecond or third day he may
raife the head or body fafely in bed ; but we have re¬
peatedly obferved that when patients began to fit up
early, and particularly when they approached too near
a fire, they have been feized with a peculiar head-
ach and inflammation of the eye, which were at¬
tended with much diftrefs, and very difficult to remove.
In ten or twelve days after the operation, the patient
is commonly able to ufe the eye with confiderable free¬
dom, and to look even at minute obje&s without pain
or uneafinefs. It fometimes happens that after this pe¬
riod, a flight irritability of the eye remains, but this in
general is fpeedily removed by the ufe of the vinous
timfture of opium, or fometimes by the application of a
weak ointment compofed of the red oxide of mercury.
The application of the vinous tindlure of opium will be
found peculiarly ufeful; and we have known many in-
ftances of patients who have undergone this operation,
who were frequently, for a long time afterwards, attack¬
ed with flight pain or inflammation of the eye, which
were always fpeedily and completely removed by the
ufe of this medicine. It is fcarcely neceflary to obferve
that during the whole of the after treatment, the anti-
phlogiftic regimen fhould be rigidly purfued, and that
the patient fhould avoid every kind of food which from
experience he knows to be apt to difagree with him ;
and that above all he ffiould abftain from the ufe of wine
and fpirituous liquors of every defcription.
Of Couching.
By this operation the lens is deprefled from its natu¬
ral fituation behind the pupil, by introducing a needle
into the pofterior chamber.
The operation may be performed by introducing a
needle (Plate DXVII. fig. 20.) through the fclero-
tic coat, about two lines diftant from its junftion with
the cornea. The point of the needle is to be directed
immediately over the opaque lens, and the lens to be
Eye.
23J
E R Y. 101
deprefled a little with the convex furface of the end of Of tlie Dif-
the needle. The point is to be puffied in a tranfverfe eafe^ 0 the
direftion as far as the inner edge of the lens. Then the
operator is to incline the handle of the inftrument to¬
wards himfelf, by which means its point will be diredf-
ed through the capfule into the fubftance of the opaque
lens, and by inclining the needle downward and back¬
ward, the former will be lacerated and conveyed witlx
the latter deeply into the vitreous humour. The treat¬
ment to be employed after couching is fimilar to that
after extraftion.
Sect. XI. Of the Fiftula Lacnjmahs.
When the lacrymal fac is diftended with a puriform
fluid, or when it has ulcerated, and the tears do not
pafs freely down the nafal du&, the difeafe is called^
tula lacrymalis. In the firft ftage of the difeafe, a.di-
ftinft tumor is formed in the fituation of the fac, which,
when comprefled, a quantity of puriform fluid flows up¬
on the eyeball through the pundure, or fome of it paffes
through the nofe. In the fecond ftage of the difeafe,
the integuments covering the fac ulcerate, and the puri¬
form fluid and tears are conftantly oozing through the
fiftulous opening. The eyelids are affefted moft com¬
monly in the fecond ftage of the difeafe, and fometimes
alfo in the firft, though not always. From the affeftion
of the internal palpebral membrane, Scarpa has fuppof-
ed that all the puriform fluid contained in the fac was
fecreted by it, but this does not always happen.
Treattnent.—When the difeafe has originated in the
mucous membrane of the eyelids, applications to it alone
will be fufficient to remove the accumulation in the fac.
A collyrium of the muriate of mercury, and the daily
application of the ointment of Janin, or of an ointment
compofed of the red oxide of mercury, are well fuited
for this purpofe. WFen the fac has been the original
feat of the difeafe, a folution of corrofive fublimate, ace-
tite of zinc or of lead, will be ufeful, and thefe may be
ufed by allowing them to be abforbed by the pun&a in¬
to the fac, along with the tears,.or by injetting them
into the punfla by a proper fyringe, (fee Plate DXVII.
fig. 23.).
If there be a complete obftru&ion in the nafal du£i,
thefe remedies generally fail, and it becomes neceffary
to open the fac, and remove the caufe of obftruftion
in the duft. The fac may be readily opened by bold¬
ly plunging a common lancet into it while diftended
with matter. The fac ffiould then be examined with
a probe, and the probe palled down into the nofe in the
dire&ion of the natural canal. A furgeon well acquaint¬
ed with the fituation and dire£Hon of the du6t, can
never fail in introducing the probe ; for we never met
with any cafe where the obftruflion could not be over¬
come. A ftyle, (Plate DXVII. fig. 24.) fuch as has
been recommended by Mr Ware, is to be introduced in
place of the probe, and allowed to remain until the ca¬
nal is quite open. When the parts around the fac ap¬
pear healthy, the ftyle may be withdrawn, and the
opening of the fac then heals. In many cafes the dil-
eafe returns, and in fuch after the parts are a fecond
time healthy, a tube (Plate DXVII. fig. 25.) may be
introduced and allowed to remain during life. This
operation requires that there be a free external opening,
and that the head of the tube be preffed completely
down
io2 S U R
Of the Dif-down below the edge of the fkin. Generally the ex-
ea!e= or tl»e Vernal opening heals in a few days. When the fac has
» ulcerated, there will generally be found fume finufes in
tire integuments covering the fac, all which fhould be
freely laid open, and the ftyle introduced as in the
former cafe. After the Ikin and fac are apparently
healthy, the tube may be introduced as in the former
c&fe. Belides the ufe of the ftyle, it is alfo requilite to
apply the eye-waters and ointments recommended in the
firft ftages of the difeafe.
534 Sect. XII. Of the Pfor ophthalmia.
In this difeafe there are numerous fmall brown co¬
loured eminences formed at the roots of the ciline of
both eyelids, and generally both eyes are affe£led. The
adjacent Ikin has a brownilh red tinge, and becomes
fcurfy 5 the ciliae drop out, and the patient has a difficul¬
ty and uneaftnefs in opening the eyelids, particularly in
candle-light. The blood-velfels of the internal palpe¬
bral membrane are alfo turgid, and preternaturally nu¬
merous. This difeafe affects often many branches of the
fame family.
Treatment.—The unguentum citrinum is a fpecific re¬
medy in this difeafe. When there is much inflammation
of the eyelids, they ought to be fcariiied, and the oint¬
ment applied immediately after. A collyrium compofed
of a weak folution of corrofive fublimate is alfo fome-
times ufeful.
Of the Ophthalmia Tarf,
In many people who ufe their eyes much, particukr-
ly in candle light, and in thofe who live freely, the in¬
ternal membrane of the eyelid often becomes gorged
with blood ; a thick puriform fluid glues the cilia? to¬
gether in the morning, and the patient complains of an
inability to move the eyelids, or to look at an objedl
in a bright or dazzling light, rvithout much uneafinefs
being excited. In other inftances the eyelids become af-
fedled with fcrofulous inflammation, the glands of Mei-
bomius fwell and fuppurate, the cilise drop out, and the
eyelids lofe their natural form.
Treatment.—Scarifying the inflamed veffels, and ap¬
plying immediately afterwards a quantity of the red
precipitate ointment, feldom fails in bringing relief, and
in many inftances alone the ointment will anfwer. In
iome cafes the difeafe in the eyelid is much aggravated,
and connedled rvith affeftions of the ftomach and
bowels, and in fuch the greateft attention becomes re-
,quifite to keep the belly regular, and even to purge.
^36 Of the Entropion.
When the eyelids are inverted, fo that the taffus with
its ciliae come in contadl with the eyeball, the difeafe is
called entropion. This difeafe, Mr Crampton has fhown,
arifes in feme cafes from a thickened and difeafed ftate
of the internal palpebral membrane. In others the ci-
lia? are turned in upon the eye from repeated and tedious
inflammation altering the form of the tarfus, and in
fome old people where the integuments are very loofe
the whole tarfus is inverted by the aaion of the orbicul
lari mufcle.
Treatment.—In the firft cafe, Mr Crampton has in-
gemoufly recommended that tk tarfi be divided at their
jutnSion towards the external canthus, and that the eye
lids thus liberated be kept in their proper fituation by
G E R Y. Chap. XI,
plafters, compreffes, and when in the upper eyelid byOi theDif
fixing the fpeculum of Pellier, until fuch time as the of ^
wound has healed. In the fecond cafe little can be done syfUm5
but pulling out from their roots any of the cilise which v—
may have taken a wrong direction, and repeating the
operation whenever they grow again. In the third
cafe the difeafe may be cured by removing an oval por¬
tion of the fkin the whole length, and clofe to the tar¬
fus, and uniting the wound by one or two flitches and
adhefive plafters. This operation may be alfo advife-
able along with that of Mr Crampton, when one is not
Efficient to cure the complaint.
Chap. XI.
Of the Difeafes of the Ear.
2.S-7
The fumffions and ftruflure of the internal nieim.
brane of the external meatus, and alfo of the euflachian
tube and cavity of the tympanum, prove that it belongs
to the mucous fyftem, and that it is not a continuation
of the periofteum as many anatomifts have fuppofed.
The analogy in the difeafes of this organ prove the
fame. In catarrhal affeftions of the pituitary membrane
of the pharynx, the ear is always more or lefs affefttd,
and often the funftion of the organ is much impaired.
Polypi alfo grow from the cavity and membrane of the
tympanum of a fimilar ftrufture to thofe found in other
mucous furfaces. See Polypi. It is alfo fubjeft to bte-
morrhagies, and when it becomes inflamed, inftead of
fuppuration taking place, there is a difeharge of a puri¬
form fluid from the furface, the fame as what is obferv-
ed in inflammation of the urethra, nofe, &c. * * See In-
T he internal membrane of the ear is alfo fubjeft toJlammatk
the fame kind of thickening and contraftion of the ca- °ftbe^Iu
nal, as what takes place in the urethra and lacrymal ^anesT
fac, &c. in confequence of long continued inflamma¬
tion f. I his we might conclude from analogy, but thep SeeStri
faft has been proved in one inflance. Bichat diffeftedLm •}
the body of a perfon who had been expofed during his Mucous
life to a puriform difeharge from the ear, in which he ¥lem~
found a very remarkable thickening of the membrane™™"’
of the tympanum, but no mark of erofion could be de-
tefted.
j-.iv mull V.UUIUJU11 uueaie or the ear, and almoit the
only one which the furgeon can relieve, is a colleftion
of wax in the meatus externus. Its prefence can always
be determined by the infpeftion of the ear 5 and it cau
be removed by direfting the patient to drop fome warm
water into the ear for a few fucceffive nights, and after¬
wards fyringing out the foftened wax, an operation
winch may be performed with a fyringe (fuch as is re-
prefented in Plate DXVII.), having fitted for it a pipe
of conliderable length.
Chap. XII.
Of the Difeafes of the Nervous System.
Sect. I. General Remarks on the Pathology cf the
Nerves.
A great number of difeafes have been confidered
under the clafs of nervous ; and much obfeurity has
been thrown on this department of medical feience,
from
mp. XII. ' SU RG
the Dif- from our Imperfea knowledge of the laws which regu-
| s of tiielate ^ part 0f the natural fyftera, and from mere fymp-
e™ toms having often been conlidered as primary affec-
Pathological inveftigations have been alfo unfuc-
cefsful •, and in only a few cafes has the knife of the
moft fkilful anatomift been able to deleft any morbid
alteration of ftrufture in nerves, which, during life,
had been the feat of agonizing difeafe. In a few cafes,
where tumors have been found growing in their fub-
ftance, it is not unlikely, that the cellular ftrufture,
connefting their fibrillae, has been the firft part, affefted.
Their arteries and veins are fubjefl to the difeafes of
thefe fyftems in other organs 5 and we have feen an
aneurifmal tumor as big as a hazel nut formed in the
nutrient artery of the popliteal nerve ; and Bichat men¬
tions having feen the veins of the fciatic nerve varicofe
in a paralytic limb. Mr E. Home has defcribed in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions a particular tumor of one of
the axillary nerves, in which it is difficult to afcertain
if the medullary portion be affeaed 5 and in the Ency-
clopedie Methodique there is a defcription of a cafe of a
difeafe, refembling in fome refpefts the cafe of Mr
Home’s. The difeafe was in the middle of the radial
nerve ; and as the hand had neither loft its fenfibility
nor the movement of any of the fingers, this circum-
ftance led to the fuppofition, that the medullary portion
of the nerve was not affe&ed, but merely its neurilema.
In the fungus luematodes, it is by no means improbable
that there is a morbid alteration in the medullary mat¬
ter of the nerves; though this fad can only be deter¬
mined by an accurate examination of the difeafe in va¬
rious organs.
Moft difeafes belonging to this fyftem have been fully
treated of in the article Medicine. There is only one
which becomes an object of furgical treatment,
3,39 Sect. II. Of the Tic Doleureux (Nevralgie).
Affeftions of this kind are diftinguiflied by the na¬
ture of the pain, which is ffiarp, gnawing, and, particu¬
larly at its commencement, accompanied with torpor,
and fometimes with pulfations. It is attended with no
heat or rednefs, or any tenfion or fwelling of the part.
It comes on in paroxyfms, more or lefs long, and at
different intervals. Sometimes the attack is periodi¬
cal.
The pain is always fixed in the trunk or branch of
a nerve •, and, during the paroxyfm, it darts from the
part firft affefted through all the ramifications of the
nerve.
Many nerves of the body have been found affefted
with this difeafe. The firft pair of the loins (nevralgie
ilio-fcrotale), the poflerior crural (ifchias nervofa pofti-
c'a), the crural, but particularly the nerves of the face
are fubjett to it. When the difeafe affe6ls the face, it
is generally fituated either in the frontal nerve, in the
infra-orbitar m-rve, or in the fubmental nerve. Some¬
times the pain affefts not only all the branches of thefe
nerves, but it extend^ to their anaftomofing branches,
and fpreads to one or more of the trunks.
This difeafe appears to be produced from a variety of
caufes, according to which its fymptoms are varied.
Sometimes it has been known to fucceed a local irrita¬
tion, iuch as an injury on the trunk of the nerve j and
E R Y. 103
in other cafes, the affection of the particular neiVe is Of Heraiae,
fympathetic of a difeafe in fome diftant organ.
In fome inftances we have obferved this difeafe arife
from an affeftion of the primae vise ; fo that in all cafes
it becomes the firft objeft of the furgeon to trace the
caufe of the difeafe.
Treatment.—When the ftomach or inteftinal canal
are difordered, along with the particular ajffedtion of the
nerve, the nervous affection will often ceafe when they
are reftored to their natural ftate. This is to be ac-
complift.ed in moft cafes by emetics, and a courfe of
laxative medicines, purfued according to the qualities
and quantity of the evacuated matter.
In fome cafes, particularly in the affe&ion of the
frontal nerve, we have found great relief from the re¬
peated application of fmall blifters over the nervous
trunk. In fome inftance'-, too, the patients have expe¬
rienced great relief, and have even completely recover¬
ed, by a continued attention to a very fpare vegetable
diet, or to a milk diet. The celebrated Marmontel
was a remarkable inftance of this kind.
There are, however, cafes where thefe means fail,
and where the difeafe appears to depend on fome fixed
caufe of irritation in the affefted nervous trunk. In
fuch caffes, it is the ufual prattice to divide the trunk
of the nerve. This operation generally gives inftant
relief; but its effects have, we believe, in moft cafes,
been but of ffiort duration. It is a fa£t completely
eftabliftied, that the ramifications of the nervous as well
as of the vafcular fyftem, though divided, are gradually
regenerated. The numerous anaftomofes preferve the
life of the part on which the divided trunk was diftri-
buted, and the divided edges of the trunk gradually
coalefce *, fo that the nerve is again able to perform its
natural fumflions. This reunion of the nerves does not
take place fo rapidly as we obferve it in the arteries, in
the tkin, cellular membrane, or mufcle ; and months
elapfe before it is completed : but, from this reunion,
it is probable, that the morbid adlion in tic doleureux,
of the nature of which we are ignorant, the operation,
in moft cafes at leaft, briugs merely temporary re¬
lief.
When the operation is to be performed, the neceffary
fteps are extremely fimple. Some have contented them-
felves with introducing a (harp-pointed biftoury through
the integuments towards one fide of the exit of the
nerve, paffing the point underneath it, and then dividing
it j thus leaving only a fmall punflure of the (kin.
When, however, the operation is done in this man¬
ner, the divided extremities, from being feparated only
a little way, are apt immediately to reunite j a circum-
ftanqe which fliould be prevented. We could therefore
advife that a free incifion be made immediately above
the nerve ; that the nerve be completely divided, and
either a portion cut altogether away, or the divided ex¬
tremities feparated to a diftance, and the wound allowed
to heal by fuppuration.
Chap. XIII,
Of Hernhe.
540
The word hernia has been ufed to fignify a protrufion
of any vifcus, from its proper cavity; but we (hall only
treat in this place of abdominal hernia. The vifcera of
this cavity are moft frequently protruded at the inguinal
and
3 04
Of Hernias and mu-al rings and the umbilicus. They, however,
protrude alfo at the foramen ovale, at the perinceum,
through the ifchiatic notch, and diaphragm.
The names that have been given to different kinds
of hernia, have been derived both from the contents of
the hernia, and from its fituation. If they contain omen¬
tum only, they are called omental hernia, or epiplocele;
if only intefline, intejlinal hernia 5 if both, omentum
and inteftine, entero-epiplocele ; if the ftomach is con¬
tained in the tumor, gajlrocele; if the liver, hepatocele;
if the bladder, cystocele; if the uterus, hysterocele.
The peritonaeum generally protrudes prior to any of
the vifcera, forming a bag called the hernial fac, in
which the protruded vifcera are afterwards contained.
The protruded portion of peritomeum is not dragged
from its natural fituation, but becomes elongated by
gradual diftenfion; and it is ufually not only lengthen¬
ed, but more or lefs thickened.
241 Sect. I. Of the Inguinal Hernia.
In an inguinal hernia, the protruded vifcus enters the
abdominal ring, pafles along the inguinal canal, and
comes out either at the inguinal ring, and goes into the
fcrotum (fcrotal hernia), or burfts through the tendon
of the external oblique mufcle (inguino-abdominal).
Or, it pafles through the tendon of the tranfverfalis,
and internal oblique, and appears at the inguinal ring
(abdomino-inguinal).
Inguinal hernia is more frequent in men than women,
the round ligament of the uterus being of a fmaller fize
than the fpermatic chord. It fometimes appears on both
242 fides, but moft frequently on the right fide.
Appear- When the fkin of the fcrotum of an inguinal hernia
is removed by diflfe&ion, a fafcia is found lying under-
-1 e ion. neath it, which varies in thicknefs, according to the
bulk and duration of the tumor. This fafcia comes off
from the tendon of the external oblique mufcle above
the abdeminal ring. Below this fafcia is the cremafter
mufcle, which is united both to the fafcia and hernial
fac, though eafily feparable from them by difledlion.
When the fafcia and cremafter mufcle are removed, the
hernial fac is expofed. The epigaftric artery is fituated
on the pubic fide of the fac. The fpermatic cord lies
generally behind the fac; fometimes to one fide, and
fometimes on its anterior part. Often the veflels of the
cord are fplit, the epididimis palling along one fide of
the fac, and the artery, veins, and abforbents, on the
other. Sometimes there are more than one hernial fac
on the fame fide. Mr Cooper found, in one cafe, two
within the inguinal canal. This arifes in fome cafes
from wearing a trufs.
In the inguino-abdominal her nice, the fac enters the
abdominal ring; and, inftead of being continued along
the inguinal canal, it paffes through the tendon of the
external oblique mufcle. The hernial fac, in this cafe,
is compofed of two diftinfl layers; the one internal and
peritoneal, the other external, and produced by an
elongation and gradual thickening of the aponeurofis of
# Merry the external oblique mufcle *.
and Petit. In the abdotmno-inguinalherma, the fac pafles through
the tendon of the tranfverfalis or the tendons of both
the tranfverfalis and oblique mufcle, enters the inguinal
canal, appears at the inguinal ring, and then pafles
Chap. XU
down into the fcrotum. In this cafe, Mr Cooper ob-Of Hern;
ferves, that the fpermatic cord lies on the upper or out-
er part of the fac. The epigaftric artery lies on the
outfide of the fac f. f Xd&ftr
The inguinal hernia is generally pyriform, fmall to-Vefaitir,
wards the ring, and enlarging as it defcends. It may^^'
be diftinguiftied from other fwellings of thefe parts, by
the following fymptoms: 1. When the patient is defired
to ceugh, the tumor becomes immediately diftended,
owing to the preffure of the abdominal muicles forcing
into the fac more of the vifcera or of their contents.
2. When the patient can remember that the tumor ufed
to dilappear when in the horizontal pofition. 3. W7hen.
the progrefs of the tumor has been from the groin to
the fcrotum. 4. Wrhen the tumor contains inteftine, it
is elaftic and uniform; and, when pulhed up into the
abdomen, it returns with a gurgling noife. When
omentum is contained, the tumor is lefs equal on its
furface, receives an impreflion with the fingers, and
does not return with a gurgling noife. Moft common¬
ly, however, both inteftine and omentum are contained
in the fac. 5. The functions of the vifcera are fome-
what interrupted, producing emulations, ficknefs, con-
ftipation, colicky pains, and diftenfion of the abdo¬
men.
The inguinal hernise ought to be carefully diftin¬
guiftied from hydrocele of the vaginal coat, from encyft-
ed hydrocele of the fpermatic cord, from enlargements
of the tefticle, from haematocele, and from varicocele.
Hydrocele and hernia, too, are often combined, particu¬
larly omental herniae.
Sect. II. Of Reducible Inguinal Hernia, and of Trufcs. 243
Herniae are either reducible, irreducible, or ftrangu-
lated. In the reducible ftate, the parts may be return¬
ed into the cavity of the abdomen. To prevent the ef-
cape of the bowels, and the danger of fuch an accident,
a conftant preflure fhould be applied at the part where
the hernia opens into the abdomen, to ftmt the mouth
of the fac, and thus oppofe an effectual refiftance to the
protrufion of its contents. To accomplifti thefe pur-
pofes, various truffes have been contrived. The trufs
fhould be made of fteel, and the fpring not ftronger
than what is fufficiert to keep up the bowels ; for, if the
preflure be great, the abdominal mufcles, where it is
applied, are weakened, and even abforbed. Mr Cooper
advifes the pad to be made of a conical form, the apex
of which ftiould reft on the mouth of the fac. But, as
there will be found much variety in the fituation and
fize of the opening through which the hernia pafles, it
will often be neceflary to vary the form and bulk of the
pad. Ihe trufs ought to be applied fo that it makes
preflure not on the inguinal ring where the hernia comes
out, but upon that part where the fpermatic cord, and
with it the hernia, firft quit the abdomen ; and this
point may always be determined, by making the patient
cough after the hernia has been reduced, and afeertain-
ing the furtheft part from the inguinal ring, where the
hernial fac is found to protrude. On this point the pad
fhould reft. If the pad be too large, and prefs merely
on the inguinal ring, it will allow the bowels to pais
through the internal or abdominal ring, and enter into
the inguinal canal. On the other hand, the pad ftiould
not
SURGERY,
hap.
XIII. ' s U R
Inguinal not be too fraall, fo as to prefs into the mouth of the
Herniae. fac an(j piUg up^ for that would prevent all chance
of a permanent cure ; the bowels may be prevented
from entering into the fac ; but the pad will adl as a
dilater or bougie, keep the mouth of the fac conftantly
open, and even increafe its diameter. The pad, there¬
fore, ought always to be made of fuch a fize and thape,
as to make a prelfure on the abdominal ring, inguinal
canal, and inguinal ring.
Sect. III. Of Irreducible Hern ice.
Hernite become irreducible when the protruded parts
are fuffered to remain long in the hernial fac and in¬
creafe much in bulk, when membranous bands form
acrofs the fac and entangle its contents, or when an ad-
hefion takes place between the fac and its contents, or
amongfl the contents themfelves.
Treatment.—In fuch cafes, a bag trufs ought to be
worn, fo as to keep up a uniform and Heady preffure on
the fcrotum. The application of ice, too, has been
known to procure the return of a hernia which appear¬
ed irreducible.
Sect. IV. Of Strangulated Her nice.
A hernia is faid to be ftrangulated when not only the
inteftine and omentum are irreducible, but when the
protruded bowels are inflamed, and when the pafiage of
the faeces through the ftrangulated portion is complete-
ly interrupted.
fmpterns. The tumor is attended with confiderable pain, which
fometimes extends through the abdomen, and is often
fttuated at the umbilicus. Hiccup and vomiting fuc-
ceed *, at firfl; the contents of the ftomach only are eva¬
cuated, but afterwards thofe of the louver portions of the
alimentary canal. The bowels are completely obftrudl-
ed, except that portion below the feat of Hrangulation.
The pulfe is commonly quick and hard ; fometimes,
hoAvever, it is full. If the difeafe continues, the Ikin
covering the tumor becomes difcoloured and flightly
oedematous, and the abdomen tender and tenfe 5 the
pulfe becomes fmall and thready, the countenance has
an expreflion of anxiety j and all thefe fymptoms are
fubjedt to exacerbations. They are greatly mitigated
for a while, but foon recur with increafed violence.
After having fuffered great pain during the firfl; flage
of the difeafe, the patient becomes fuddenly eafy, and
the tumor becomes of a purple colour, and has a crack¬
ling feel. The abdomen becomes more tenfe, a cold
fweat covers the body, and the pulfe is -weak and infer-
mittent. At laft the patient, deluded with the hopes
246 a recovery> finks under the complaint,
ppear- diffedlion, the hernial fac is generally found to
: ces on contain a quantity of dark bloody ferum. The inteftine
fedtion. is of a dark chocolate brown, with black fpots inter-
fperfed over it, which are eafily torn on being touched
with the finger. 1 he furface is covered with a layer
of coagulated lymph. Even when the inteftine is not
mortified the colour is extremely dark, but then the
black fpots do not appear. Within the abdomen the
whole inteftinal canal fometimes appears quite natural;
at other times portions of the inteftines appear inflamed,
and in fome rare cafes they are glued together by an ef-
fufion of lymph.
Vol. XX. Part I. '
G E R Y* . . 105
On examining the feat of ftricture, it will be found Of Ingms al
to take place either at the abdominal or inguinal ring. . *elJ‘ .
In large herniae, Mr Cooper has remarked that the ftric-
ture is moft frequent at the external opening, and then
it may be often feen from the particular ftiape of the tu¬
mor, a conftriclion being diftinguifhable at that part.
In other cafes the ftridlure is feen -it the entrance of the
fpermatic veffels into the inguinal canal ; fo that, in
operating for hernia, it is not fufficient to dilate the ex¬
ternal ring, but it becomes neceffary to dilate the upper
part of the canal.
Treatment.—In the treatment of ftrangulated hernia,
the leading objeift which is to be kept in view, is to re¬
turn the difplaced vifcera as fpeedily as poffible, and,
at the fame time, while doing this, to diminilh the
fymptoms of inflammation or prevent their acceffion. 247
The firft thing to be attempted, except when the tumor taxis,
is much inflamed and painful, is the reduBion of the
hernia. In doing this, it is neceffary to attend to the po-
fition of the patient and the mode of applying the pref¬
fure. The body of the patient fhould be placed on an
inclined plane, with the head downwards, and the
thighs bent towards the trunk of the body. The pref¬
fure which is employed on the tumor ftiould always be
directed upwards and outwards along the courfe of the
fpermatic cord,/and it may be perfevered in from a
quarter to half an hour. Befides thefe mechanical
means, tobacco clyfters and cold have been ufeful in
accomplifhing the redudfion. Ice is the eafieft and beft
mode of applying cold to hernial tumors ; but, when
this cannot be procured, Mr Cooper ufes a mixture of
equal parts of fal ammoniac and nitre. To one pint of
water in a bladder, ten ounces of the mixed falts are
added, the bladder tied up, and then laid over the tu¬
mor. If, after four hours, the fymptoms become miti¬
gated, and the tumor leffens, this remedy may be per¬
fevered in for fome time longer ; but if they continue
with equal violence, and the tumor refift every attempt
to reduiftion, no further trial fhould be made of the ap¬
plication. 24S
The operation which it is now neceffary to perform, Operation,
conlifts in making an incifion through the integuments
along the upper,part of the tumor, making an opening
into the hernial fac, and extending it, fo as to allow
the contents to be examined, and the fore finger to
reach the feat of ftrifture. The ftridlure will be readily
detedled by the pioint of the finger, and may be eafily
divided by introducing the biftoury along the finger,
till the point of it paffes below the ftri&ure *. A very
flight preffure of the edge of the inftrument will be fuf¬
ficient to divide the ftrifture, and allow the bow'els to
be returned into the abdomen. If merely the ftriflure
is divided, and it is never neceffary to extend the inci¬
fion further, it is of little importance in which direction
the incifion is made ; though furgeons have been at
great pains to point out the dangers which might arife
were it of too great an extent.
* See Plate
DXIX.
Sect. V. Of Femoral Hernice.
24$
In femoral hernia, the hernial fac lies beneath the
crural arch, being puflied through an opening between
the edge of the broad infertion of Poup^art’s ligament
and the pubic fide of the femoral vcinf. As the tumor f See Plate
enlarges, inftead of falling downwards like the inguinal DXX*
O hernia,
io6
Of Femoral hernia, it pafles forwards, and often turns over the an-
t IIerniae- terior edge of the crural arch. As it proceeds, the
fwelling increafes more laterally than upwards or down¬
wards 5 fo that it affinnes an oblong fliape. In the cru¬
ral hernia, the fac has two coverings befides the inte¬
guments; the fuperficial fafcia of the external oblique
mufcle, and the fafcia propria of Mr Cooper, which is
formed by the protrufion of the fafcia which naturally
covers the opening through which the hernia palfes, and
the fafcia of the crural iheath. The taxis and ufe of
trufles are the fame in femoral as in inguinal hernia ;
and the fame feries of fymptoms indicate the neceffity
of an operation in both when ftrangulated.
Operation.—Mr Cooper recommends that the inci-
fion of the integuments be made in the form of a T, be¬
ginning one incilion about an inch and a half above the
crural arch, in a line with the middle of the tumor,
and extending it downwards below the arch, and
meeting a iecond incifion nearly at right angles with the
other, the whole length of the tumor. The two fafcias
are next to be divided, and the hernial fac opened at
its lower part, fufficiently large to admit readily the
finger. The feat of the ftridlure is to be afcertained by
the introduction of the point of the fore finger under
the crural arch, and it may be readily divided in a di¬
rection upwards and inwrards, of a fufficient extent to
liberate the inteftine ; generally a very flight motion of
the edge of the biltoury -will be found fufficient for that
purpofe.
350 Chap. XIV.
Of Hare-lip.
The hare-lip is a fiffure in the upper lip, very fel-
*^ee/^iatedom in the under one. * It is attended with want of
fubftance, and has its name from a refemblance to the
lip of a hare. In general it is only a fimple fiffure,
though fometimes it is double.
In proceeding to the operation, the patient, if a
child, ffiould be fecured upon a table; but if an adult,
he is to be feated upon a chair, in a proper light. The
fraenum conneding the gums to the upper lip is to be
divided ; if a fore-teeth projeCt fo much as to prevent
the parts from being brought properly together, it is to
be extraCled; or when the fiffure runs through the
bones of the palate, if a fmall portion of the bone pro¬
ject, this mult be removed. The operator is then to
lay hold of one fide of the fiffure between the thumb
Plate and fore-finger, or between the forceps f, then with a
DXXIV, pair 0f fharp and very ftrong fciffars, or with a fcalpel,
to cut off a thin portion of the lip, and to repeat the
fame thing upon the other fide of the fiffure, fo as to
render the whole edges of the fiffure completely raw ;
by which, if the operation be properly performed, a
piece will be feparated in form like an inverted V. Af¬
ter the incifions have been made, the veffels ffiould be
allowed to bleed freely to prevent inflammation ; and
wfien the bleeding has ceafed, the fides of the wound
are to be brought accurately together, and kept in that
flaie by the twitted future. The fijit pin ought to be
as near as poffible to the red edge of the lip ; another
is to be inferted near the upper angle; and if the pa¬
tient be an adult, a third pin will generally be necefla-
ry^ half way between the other two. In paffing them,
4.
Chap. Xv,
they ought to go rather deeper than half through the Ampun.
lip, that the edges of the wound may be kept properly t>on-
in contaft. An affiftant now keeps the parts together,
while the operator applies a firm w'axed ligature firlt to
the under pin; and having made three or four turns
with it in the form of an eight figure, it ffiould then be
carried about the fecond, and in a fimilar way about the
third, care being taken that the thread be drawn of a
proper tightnefs. When, from a great want of fub-
itance, the retraClion has. been confiderable, fome ad¬
vantage is derived from the ufe of adhefive plafters ap¬
plied to the cheeks and tied between the pins. During
the time of the cure the patient ftiould be fed upon
fpoon-meat, and prevented from making any exertion
with the lips, otherwife the cure might be confiderably
retarded. At the end of five or fix days the pins may¬
be taken out, when the parts will commonly be found
completely united.
In the cafe of a double hare-lip, the operation ffiould
be firft done upon one fiffure; and when a cure is com¬
pleted there, it may be done fafely upon the other.
Chap XV.
Of Amputation. 251
There are two modes generally employed for per¬
forming amputation ; the common operation by two cir¬
cular incifions, and the f.ap operation. We ffiall
deferibe in detail both thefe modes of operating in the
thigh.
1 he patient ffiould be placed on a table of a conve- Amputa-
nient height, in fuch a manner that the difeafed limb tior of the
may hang over the edge of it, and be fecured by an af-
fiftant feated on a low chair before him ; the other
limb and the arms are alfo to be fecured by proper af-
fiftants. The tourniquet (fee Plate DXVI.) is to
be placed on the thigh, three or four inches below
Poupart’s ligament, where the femoral artery may be
moft eafily and completely compreffed. Deflault pre¬
ferred to the tourniquet, the finger of a ftrong and
intelligent affiftant. A cufhion fixed on a handle
anfwers very well for making preffure on the artery
when a tourniquet is not to be ufed ; and it is a ufeful
inftrument to have in readinefs, in cafe the tourniquet
ffiould go wrong ; or when it becomes neceffary to am¬
putate the thigh fo far up, that a tourniquet cannot be
fafely fixed.
After the operator has determined on the place for
the incifion of the integuments, an affiftant ffiould grafp
the limb with both bands a little above the place where
the fkin is to be divided, and draw it upwards as far as
poffible. 1 he operator then with the knife (fee Plate
DXXII. fig. 10.) makes a circular incifion through
tne 1km and cellular membrane, down to the mufcles;
and this may be done, either by one ftroke of the knife,
or by firft making, one lemicircular incifion round the
under part of the limb, and afterwards another ineifion
upon the. upper part correfponding with the former..,
\v hen this is made, the integuments retraft eonfiderably
from their natural elafticity, and they are to be fepara¬
ted from the mufcles and differed with the point of the
mfe, as far back as to leave a fufficient quantity of Ikin
to cover the ftump. The ikin being turned back, the
operator^
S U R G E R Y.
»hap. XV.
S U R G
mputa- operator, by a fecond incxuon carried dole to its invert¬
ed edge, cuts the mufcles perpendicularly down to the
bone. During this part of the operation, care fhould
be taken to avoid wounding the edge of the Ikin, by
tracing attentively the edge of the knife during the
whole courfe of the incifion. After the mufcles are di¬
vided, a confiderable retradfion takes places, and any
mufcular fibres attached to the periotteum fhould be fe-
parated from it by the point of the knife, in order to
allow the bone to be fawn through as high as poffible,
and thus fecure to it a firm flelhy covering. All the
foft parts are next to be drawn upwards as far as their
feparation from the bone will admit of. They are to
be kept in this fituation by an inftrument called the re-
traBors, until the bone is fawn through. The retrac¬
tors may be either made of iron plates (fee Plate
DXXII. fig. ?.), or a piece of linen or leather cut a^
reprefented in fig. 6. The affiflant who ufes either
of thefe inftruments, fhould take care when he ap¬
plies them, that the foft parts are completely out of
the reach of the faw, and that they are held back as-
far as the place where the bone is to be divided. Any
lharp edges which may be left on the end of the bone
after it has been fawn through, fhould be taken away
with pliers, Plate DXXII. fig. 8. The arteries are
next to be tied, and both the femoral artery and vein
may be included in one ligature. The bleeding being
flopped, and the wound cleaned, the tourniquet is to
be altogether taken away, and the foft parts drawn
down, fo as to cover the extremity of the bone. In or¬
der to keep them in this fituation, a bandage of thin
flannel or cotton cloth, not exceeding two inches and a
half in breadth for an adult, is to make one or two cir¬
cular turns round the body above the ilium j it is then
to be carried obliquely over the groin, and turned round
the upper part of the thigh pretty firmly two or three
times, forming as it were at this place a point of fupport
to the mufcles and fkin. It is afterwards to be paffed
in a fpiral manner downwards to near the edge of the
wound, taking care to pull the foft parts towards the
flump, whilfl applying each turn of the bandage. I he
turns fhould not be fo tight as to caufe pain, but fuflici-
ent to keep the parts in the fituation in which they are
placed. The furface of the mufcles and the edges of the
ikin are now to be accurately brought together in fuch
a diredlion, that the wound forms a ftraight line, extend¬
ing from the anterior to the poflerior afpeft of the limb.
Strips of adhefive plafler, about half an inch in breadth,
and eight or ten inches in length, fhould be applied, in
order to keep the lips of the wound in this pofition.
Thofe over the middle part of the wound ought to be
put on firfl; and great attention is neceflary in their ap¬
plication, to prevent the edges of the fkin from over¬
lapping and puckering. They fhould be of fuch a
number as completely to cover the furface of the wound,
leaving only a fmill nooning for the ligatures of the ar¬
teries to be brought out at that part of the wound near-
eft the place where the arterv is fituated. The wound
is to be afterwards covered with a piece of linen or cad¬
dis fpread with fimple ointment, and a comprefs of fine
tow laid over it, the whole being fecured by a few turns
of the roller.
The bedclothes fhould be kept from prefling upon,
and coming in contact with the flump by a frame or
cradle, as it is called. (See Plate DXXIIL fig. u.).
E R Y. 107
When this operation is to be performed, the incifion Lithotomy,
of the integuments may be made, either with a com- '■J
mon fcalpel, or with the end of the amputating knife, F1^^,era<_
as reprefented in Plate DXXII. fig. 10. After the fkin
is divided, it is of importance to allow it to retraft as
much as poflible, by cutting the fibres of cellular
membrane which connedl it with the fafeia of the
thigh, before dividing the mufcles. If the limb be
much emaciated, the diviiion of the mufcles may be alfo
made with the fcalpelj if* on the contrary, the limb be
bulky, the incifion ought to be made by a common am¬
putating knife, in order that the furfaee of the flaps be
plain and uniform. After dividing the mufcles ob¬
liquely upwards down to the bone, they fhould be fe-
parated from it a fufficient way, fo as to leave enough
to cover the end of the bone, and they fhould be
allowed to contradl as much as pofiible before the
bone is fawn through. After the limb is ampu¬
tated, and the circular bandage applied, the flaps
will be found to meet very accurately together,
and to form a round and fmooth flump. From the
angles of the fkin being removed, no puckering or cor¬
ners are left, and the two furfaces and mufcles being
applied to each other, and covering the end of the bone,
give it a firm and fleihy covering, whereas in amputa¬
tions performed in the common mode, the bone is co¬
vered by integuments alone. The adhefive plaflers
are to be applied in the fame manner, and the patient
is to be treated afterwards as in'the other modes of ope¬
rating.
The general rules to be attended to in amputation
in other parts of the body, are the fame as thofe already
mentioned ; and in Plate DXXII. and DXXIII. wo
have delineated the place and diredliou of the incifions.
Chap. XVI.
Of Lithotomy.
The manner of preparing the patient for this opera¬
tion depends upon a variety of circumfiances. If he be
plethoric, a few ounces of blood fhould be taken away,
and at proper intervals the bowels ought to be emptied
by any gentle laxative which will not gripe. The diet
fliould confifl of light food for fome time previous to the
operation. If the pain be violent, opium is neeefiary.
Sometimes it is relieved by keeping the patient in bed
with the pelvis railed, fo as to remove the Hone from
the neck of the bladder. He ought not to fit up, or
take any exercife, in the time of preparation. The ,
warm bath ought to be ufed two or three times, and
the patient fhould remain in it half an hour at each
time. A laxative ought to be given on the day preced¬
ing the operation, and an injedlion a few hours before it
is performed. The patient ought to drink plentifully
of fome diluent liquor, and to retain the urine feveral
hours previous to the operation. If this cannot be rea¬
dily effeifled, a flight compreflion, by means of a liga¬
ture, may be made upon the penis, fo as to have the
bladder fuffieiently diftended, that there may be no
danger of the pofterior furface being hurt by the end of
the gorget. The perinseum and parts about the anus
fliould be well fliaved.
A table fpmewhat more than three feet in height,
and of fufficient ilrength, is to be firmly placed,
O 2 and
254
i o8
S U II G
Lithotomy, and properly covered with blankets, pillows, &c. Up-
on this the patient is to be laid and properly fecured ;
and for this purpofe there ought to be two pieces of
broad firm tape, each about five feet in length, which
are to be doubled, and a noole formed upon them. A
noofe is to be put upon each wrift, and the patient de-
fired to lay hold of the middle of his foot upon the out-
fide. One end of the ligature is to go round the hand
and foot, and the other round the ankle and hand, and
crofs again, fo as to repeat the turns in the reverfe way.
A running knot is to be tied, by which the hand and
foot will be properly fecured. The buttocks are then
to be made to projeft an inch nr two over the table,
and to be raifed confiderably higher than the {boulders
by a couple or more pillows, and one pillow ought to
be put under his head.
The operator is now to introduce a grooved ftaff
(Plate DXXI. fig. 5.) of proportionable fize, and open
to the end, through the urethra into the bladder ; and
having fully fatisfied himfelf of the exiilence of a Hone,
he inclines the Hafir, if he be right-handed, obliquely over
the right groin, fo that the convex part of the ilaff may
be felt in the perinaeum on the left fide of the raphe.
He then fixes it, and delivers it to his afliftant, who is
to hold it with his right hand, defiring him to prefs it
gently, in order to make the fulcus of the ftaff project
in the diredfion in which he received it. With his
left hand thfe fame afiiftant is to raife and fupport the
ferotum.
The thighs of the patient being fufficiently feparated
by the afiifiants, and the furgeon being feated upon a
chair of a proper height, and in a convenient light, he
makes an incifion with a common convex edged fcalpel
through the {kin and cellular fubfiance, below the fym-
phyfis of the offa pubis, which is a little below the fero¬
tum, and where the crus penis and bulb of the urethra
meet, and on the left fide of the raphe, and continues it
in a flanting direction downwards and outwards to the
fpace between the anus and tuberofity of the ifehiunt,
ending fomewhat lower than the bafis of that procefs,
by which a cut will be made of three or four inches in
length. 'Phis incifion ought not to be fiiorter than is
here directed, otherwife there will not be room for the
reft of the operation. As foon as the integuments are
divided, he ought to introduce two of the fingers of the
left hand. With one he keeps back the lip of the
wound next the raphe, and rvith the other he prefles
down the redlum. He ought likewife particularly to
guard againft cutting the crura of the penis, which he
can readily feel, and feparate at their under part with
one of his fingers. He next makes a fecond ineifion al-
mofl in the fame diredfion with the firif, but rather
nearer to the raphe and anus, by which he preferves the
trunk of the arteria pudica. By this incifion he divides
the tranfverfalis penis, and as much of the levator ani
and cellular fubftance within fhefe as will make the
proftate gland perceptible to the finger. If any confi-
derable veffel be cut, it is immediately to be fecured
though this is feldom necefiary. He is now to fearch
for the groove of the ftaff with the fore finger of his
left hand, the point of which he prefies along from the
bulb of the urethra to the proftate gland, which fur-
rounds the neck of the bladder. He keeps it there •, and
turning the edge of the knife upwards, he cuts upon the
groove of the ftaff, ^nd freely divides the membranous
E R Y.
Chap. XVI,
part of the urethra, till the ftaff can be felt perfedlly Lithotomy,
bare, and that there is room to admit the nail of the
finger 5 and as the finger aflifts in keeping the parts
ftretched, and effedfually prevents the redlum from be¬
ing hurt, the incifion into the urethra may be made
with perfedt eafe and fafety.
The next part of the operation, viz. dividing the pro¬
ftate gland and neck of the bladder, might, by a dexte¬
rous operator, be fafely performed with a common fcal¬
pel, with the edge turned the oppofite way. But to
guard againft accidents, a more convenient inftruinent,
called the cutting gorget, is now in general ufe. It was
originally invented by Mr Hawkins of London, and
fince his time has undergone various alterations *. The * see pjat6
membranous part of the urethra being now divided, and* DXXI.
the fore finger ftill retained in its place, the point of the %•
gorget, previoufly fitted to the groove, is to be diredfed
along the nail of the finger, which will ferve to condudl
it into the groove of the ftaff; and as this is one of the
niceft parts of the operation, the moft particular atten¬
tion is required that the point of the gorget be diftindlly
felt to rub in the bare groove.
The operator now rifes from his feat, takes the ftafF
from the afliftant, raifes it to near a right angle, and
preffes the concave part againft the fymphyfis of the offa
pubis ; fatisfies himfelf again that the point or beak is
in the groove, and then pulhes on the gorget, following
the diredlion of the groove till the beak flip from the
point of the ftaff into the bladder. The gorget is not
to be puftied farther than this, otherwife it may wound
the nppoftte fide of the bladder, &c.
The gorget having now entered the bladder, which
is readily known by the difeharge of urine from the
wound, the ftaff is to be withdrawn, and the finger in¬
troduced along the gorget to fearch for the ftone, which,
when felt, will point out the diredlion to be given to
the forceps; at any rate, the introduction of the finger
ferves to dilate the wound in the bladder } and this be¬
ing done, a pair of forceps -}- of a proper fize, and with f Plate
their blades as nearly together as their form will allow, DXXI.
are to be introduced, and the gorget withdrawn {lowly, 6-
and in the fame diredlion in which it entered, fo as to
prevent it from injuring the parts in its return. After
the forceps are introduced, and paffed till they meet
with a gentle refiftance, but no farther, the handles
ought to be depreffed till they are fomewhat in an hori¬
zontal diredfion, as this will moft correfpond with the
fundus of the bladder. One blade of the forceps is to
be turned towards the fymphyfis of the pubes, to defend
the foft parts there 5 the other of confequence will guard
the return. After they have diftin&ly touched the
ftone, by moving them a little in various diredlions,
they are then to be opened, and the ftone laid hold of,
which may generally be done with confiderable eafe. It
frequently happens, however, that when the ftone is
fmall, it is not readily felt with the forceps 5 and in-
ftances may happen where the under and back part of
the bladder may be fo depreffed as to conceal the ftone.
. n a Situation, nothing will more readily bring it
in the way of the forceps than to introduce the finger
into the reflum, and elevate this part of the bladder,
straight forceps are generally ufed j crooked ones, in
ome very rare cafes, however, may be neceffary, and
t^iere ore the furgeon ought to be provided with
After
[ lap. XVI.
J hotomy. After the forceps has laid hold of the ftone, if it be
^ fmall and properly placed, it may readily be extraded:
but if, on the contrary, the handles of. the forceps are
now obferved to be greatly expanded, it is certain the
ftone is improperly fixed, or that it is remarkably
large : in either cafe it (hould not be held fall, but al- ,
lowed to move into the moft favourable fituation ; or
the finger is to be introduced fo as to place it properly
for extra&ion. If this cannot be done with the finger,
109
it ought to be alloyred to flip out of the forceps, in or- Lithotomy..
der to get it more properly fixed ; and as the moft com- ^^
mon form of the ftone is flat and oval, or fomewhat
like a flattened egg, the forceps ftiould have hold of the
fmalleft diameter, while an end prefents to the neck of
the inftrument. The ftone ftiould be grafped with no
greater firmnefs than is merely fufficient to bring it
fairly out, and it fliould be extrafted in a flow gradual
manner. »
SURGERY.
EXPLANATION
Plate DXIII.
Fig. I. and 2. Common fcalpels. Fig. 3. A blunt-
edged filver knife for diffe6ting clofe to important parts.
Fig. 4. and 5. A fharp and blunt-pointed biftoury.
Fig. 6. Richter’s hernia knife. Fig. 7. Differing for¬
ceps. Fig. 8. A blunt hook. Fig. 9. and 12. Direc¬
tories. Fig. 10. and 11. Differing hooks. Fig. 13.
Lancet. Fig. 14. 15. and 16. Seton-needles. Fig. 17.
and 18. Sharp and blunt-pointed needles. Fig. 19.
Outline of a fteatomatous tumor, the dotted line point¬
ing out the direttion in which the incifion of the inte¬
guments ought to be made for its extirpation.
Plate DXIV.
Fig. I. 2. and 3. ftiew the different forms of the
points of bougies. Fig. 4. 5. and 6. are different fizes
of filver balls ufed by Mr C. Bell for introducing into
the urethra, in order to determine the form and length
of ftri&ures. Fig. 7. an outline taken from a call of
the urethra, to fhew the difference of the diameter at
different parts of that canal. Fig. 8. and 9. fhew the
form of itri&ures in the urethra. Fig. 10. thews a
ftricfure in the cefophagus. Fig. 12. and 13. Male and
female fyringes. Fig. 14. Scarificator for the throat.
Fig. 15. is the apparatus for inje£ting hydrocele.
Plate DXV.
Fig. I. and 2. Forceps for removing polypi defcribed
in Chap. III. Seift. V. Fig. 3. 5. and 6. Inflruments
for removing polypi by ligature. Fig. 7. Outline of
one large and two fmall polypi in the reftum. Fig. 8.
A breaft-glafs. Fig. 9. Chefelden’s needle. . Fig. 10.
A fpeculum oris. Fig. II. Madge’s inhaler.
Plate DXVL
Fig. 1. Drawing of a femoral aneurifm given by Mr
Freer, a is the dire&ion and extent of the incifion as
made by Mr Abernethy. The a; iry, however, may
be more eafily tied by making an incifion parallel to
Poupart’s ligament (£). c is the place and direction
where the incifion ought to be made in the high opera¬
tion for popliteal aneurifm. Fig. 2. is the inftrument
ufed for comprefling the artery or aneurifmal tumor.
Fig. 3. The common tourniquet.
Plate DXVII.
Fig. 1. 2. and 3. Different forms of extracting knives.
Fig. 4. Beer’s lancet for extracting the capfule of the
lens. Fig. 5. Inftruments for fcarifying the eyelids.
Fig. 6. A thin fcalpel for paring the cornea. Fig. 7.
Inftrument for holding down the under eyelid. Fig. 8.
of the PLATES.
Pelier’s fpeeulura. Fig. 9. Capfule forceps of Wenzel.
Fig. 10. Eye fciffars. Fig. 11. 12. 13. 14. and 15.
have been referred in N° 224. Fig. 16. reprefents
the wound of the cornea where the knife has been en¬
tered too near the inner edge of the pupil j Fig. 17^.
where it has been brought out at too great a diitance
from the fclerotic coat*, Fig. 18. where it has been
brought out too clofe to the fclerotic coat. Fig. 19. A
curette and Daniel’s fpoon. Fig. 20. Scarpa’s needle :
Fig. 21.. (hews its point magnified. Fig. 22. Common
fpear pointed couching needle. Fig. 23. Fiftula lachry-
malis fyringe. Fig. 24. The ftyle for introducing into
the lachrymal duct. Fig. 25. Tube for introducing
into the lachrymal duCt j and fig. 26. Inftrument for
introducing the tube.
Plate DXVIII.
Shews the external appearance of hernise. Fig. 1. is
a femoral hernia, the tumor being unequal and divided
into two portions at«; the iliac portion is formed of
fwelled glands, and the pubic contains the inteftine.
Fig. 2. is a Ipecimen of inguinal hernia j and fig. 3. of
inguino abdominal.
Plate DXIX.
Fig, 1. Common inguinal hernia, copied from Mr
Cooper’s plate, a, The abdominal ring, b, Poupart’j
ligament, r, The femoral artery, d, The epigaftric
artery, e, Hernial fac below the ring, f, Hernial fac
above the ring, g, Sharp part of the knife introduced
between the ring and the fac, with its fide placed to¬
wards the fac. Its edge ftiould be turned forwards to
divide the ftrifturot Fig. 2. The hernia on the inner
fide of the epigaftric artery, a, The abdominal ring.
b, Poupart’s ligament, The femoral artery, d. The
epigaftric artery. f>, Internal oblique and tranfverfe
mufcles palling over the fac. f, Tendon of the tranf¬
verfe mufcle pafling under it. g, Fafcia from Poupart’s
ligament, from which the cord has been withdrawn to
ftiew the place through which it paffes. 4, z, The her¬
nial fac. k, Knife introduced to {hew the manner of
dilating the ftri&ure, which Mr Cooper direfts always
to be done forwards and upwards, oppofite to the mid¬
dle of the mouth of the hernial fac, in all the varieties
of inguinal hernia. Fig. 3. Form of the hernial truls j
and fig. 4. Mode in which it ftiould be applied.
, Plate DXX.
Fig. I. Crural hernial fac removed to ftiew the hole
by which it defcended in the female, rr, Seat of the
pubes, b, Crural arch extending towards the ilium.
ccj Abdominal mufcles. d, Crural arch. *>, Fafcia
lata.
ITO
SURGERY.
Explan a- lata. Semilunar edge of tlie fafcia lata, g, Third
tl0piateshe ^ni'ert‘on °f t’116 external oblique, h, Crural artery, z,
. ^ cs‘ . Crural vein, k, Crural (lieath. /, Abdominal ring.
/«, The orifice by which the crural hernia defcends form¬
ed on the outer Ijde by the crural (heath •, on the inner
by the femicircular infertion of the tendon of the exter¬
nal oblique : and above, in part, by the crural, and in
jrart by the femilunar edge of the fafcia lata. Fig. 2.
A fmall crural hernia in the female 5 (hewing its paffage
through the crural (heath, and its diftance from the
crural arch. «, Seat of the fymphyfis pubis, b, Spi¬
nous procefs of the ilium, c, Crural arch, cl, Abdo¬
minal ring, e, Fafcia lata, f, Semilunar edge of the
fafcia lata, g, Portion of the crural (heath, h. Sa¬
phena major vein palling into the crural (heath. 1, Her¬
nial fac inclofed in its fafcia, which is extremely denfe,
and is proportionably fo as the hernia is fmall. k, The
hole in the crural (heath through which the hernia pafles.
Fig. 3. A fmall crural hernia difl'cdled. a, Seat of the
fymphyfis pubis, b, Seat of the fpinous procefs of the
ilium, c, Tendon of the external oblique mufcle. d,
Internal oblique and tranfverfalis. e, Fafcia of the
tranfverfalis. f, Tendon of the tranfverfalis. g. Inner
portion of the fafcia tranfverfalis, palling to unite itfelf
with the tendon, h, The crural arch, it, Round li¬
gament. b. The round ligament palling into the abdo¬
men. /, Crural artery, m, Crural vein. «, Origin
of the epigaftric artery. 0, Courfe of the epigaftric ar¬
tery behind the round ligament, p, Crural nerve, q,
Superficial fafcia. r, Fafcia propria of Mr Cooper, the
hernial fac having been drawn into the abdomen to
(hew this fafcia di(tin£lly. Fig. 4. (hew's the form and
mode of applying the trufs in femoral hernia.
Plate DXXI.
Fig. 1. An umbilical hernia trufs. (a), The pad.
(b). The fpring added to the pad. (c), An elaftic band
to affift the preffure of the pad ; the lower (b) points to
the belt which is added to keep this trufs in its place in
corpulent people. Fig. 2. 3. 4. Different forms of the
gorget, as ufed by Hawkins, Cline, and Cooper. Fig. 5.
The ftaff. Fig. 6. and 7. Different forms of the for¬
ceps for the extra&ion of ftones from the bladder.
Plate DXXII.
Fig. I. A lateral view of the thigh and leg j the
dotted lines (hewing the direction of the incifion in am¬
putation. Fig. 2. An anterior view. Fig. 3. Form of
the (tump ; and, Fig. 4. Mode of applying the circular
bandage. Fig. 5. 6. and 7. Retradlors. Fig. 8. Pliers
for removing any (piculte of bone. Fig. 9. Head of
a trephine, two thirds of the cutting teeth being remo¬
ved. This inftrument is intended for removing the
ends of bones, particularly thofe of the metatarfus and
metacarpus. Fig. 10. and 11. Amputating knives.
Fig. 12. Amputating faw.
Ettplaast*
tion of tli*
Plates.
Plate DXXIII.
Fig. x. Lateral view of the arm and hand, the dot¬
ted lines (hewing the diredtion of the incifion, in ampu¬
tation at the (houlder joint and laft joint of the fore¬
finger. Fig. 2. and 3. Saws ufed in amputations of the
hands and feet. Fig. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. and 9. (hew the dif¬
ferent parts of an artificial leg. Fig. 11. Cradle ufed
after amputation in order to prevent the bedclothes pref-
fing upon the limb.
Plate DXXIV.
Fig. 1. (hews the hare-lip with a fiffure of the pa¬
late. Fig. 2. The fimple hare-lip. Fig. 3. A double
hare-lip with two irregular teeth. Fig. 4. (hews the
part of the lip into which the pins ought to be introdu¬
ced. Fig. 5. (hews the mode in which the ligatures
ought to be applied. Fig. 6. The lip after the opera¬
tion. Fig. 7. and 8. Pins for the lip. Fig. 9. Lip
forceps. Fig. 10. Lip forceps, with one blade broader
than the other, which is covered with wood in order to
make refiftance, and not injure the edge of the knife.
Fig. 11. Strong fciffars for dividing the lip. Fig. 12.
Sciffars with curved blades, to be ufed when the lip is
very thick, and not eafily grafped by the common fcif¬
fars. Fig. 13. Shews the appearance of the club-foot.
Fig. 14. Machine invented by Scarpa for the cure of
club-feet. Fig. 15. Diftorted foot from a relaxed (late
of the ligaments, a deformity which may, in general, be
removed by wearing a boot, fig. 16. to which is fixed a
(leel-rod, extending from the foie of the foot to the knee.
INDEX.
. A.
JT.BSCESSES treated by Celfus, page 26
nature of, 32
opening of, . 33
by cauftic, 34
by incifion, ib.
by the feton, 3 5
Abfceffus in medulla, nature of, 76
JEfculapms, a Greek lurgeon, 25
JElius writes on furgery, 27
Albucafis, an Arabian furgeon, ib.
his horrid operations, ib.
Amputation^ 106
Angina, fymptoms of,
treatment of,
Aneurifnis, varieties of,
encyfted,
falfe or diffufed,
varicofe,
diagnofis of,
prognofis of,
treatment of,
Anthrax, fee Carbuncle.
Antrum maxillare, polypus of,
Aphthce, fymptoms of,
treatment of.
Paffe 55
ib.-
78—80
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
79
ib.
67
68
ib.
Archagathus, a Greek, praftifes furgery
in Romtq page 26
is banifhed from the city, ih
Arrangcznent of furgical difeafes, 29
obje&ed to, ib.
of Bichat, ib.
Arfenic employed in cancer by Celfus, 27
Arterial fyftem, difeafes of, 77—80
Afclepiades pradlifes medicine in Rome, 26
Afcites, fymptoms of, 70
operation for, ib.
Atheroma, a kind of tumor, 39
Avicenna revives medicine in the eaft, 2)
Av:cennok
1 ,dex.
^ icenna, his fyftem of furgery, page 27
j. Mary aneurifm,
B.
2 rbers praftife furgery in Britain, 28
in Holland and Germany, ib.
2 er, his method of extra&ing the ca-
!tara6l, 99
//, Benjamin, his fyftem of furgery
the completeft, 2^
arrangement of furgical dif-
eafes according to textures, ib.
£ adder, polypi of, 67
hemorrhage from, 69
nature and treatment of, ib.
1//, nature and treatment of, 45
wgie, nature and method of ufing, 60, 61
•Qomfield, an Englifti Jurgeon, 29
meS) difeafes of, 75—77
C.
mcer of the fkin, 46
fymptoms of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
ipfular ligaments, collection of fluid
in, 74
treatment of, ib.
ipfules, finovial, moveable bodies in, 75
how removed, ib.
irotid aneurifm, 79
irbuncle, nature of, 38
treatment of, ib.
irpus, a writer of 16th century, 28
itaraft, nature of, 91
four fpecies of, ib.
conftftence of, 92
colour of, ib.
diagnofis of, ib.
a local difeafe, ib.
fometimes hereditary, ib.
of the capfule, ib.
trembling, ib.
combined with amaurofis, 93
progrefs of, ib.
fymptoms of, obferved by the
patient, ib.
treatment of, 94
extraftion of, 94—101
treatment of, after extraftion, 99
—101
couching, method of perform¬
ing, 101
itaraEis couched by Celfus, 27
xtarrh of bladder, nature of, and
treatment, 55
Iiujlic applied in opening abfcefles, 34
in ftrifture of urethra, 61
bad effefts of, 62
ufe of, in ftridture compared
with bougie, ib.
method of applying, ib.
llular membrane, difeafes of, 30
enumerated, 31
ZfuS) his work on furgery recomraended, 26
SURGERY.
Chilblains, nature of, page 45
how treated, 46
Conjun&iva, polypi of, 67
inflammation of, 87
Cornea, difeafes of, 89, 90
ulcers of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
fpecks of, 9°
mode of treating, ib.
Corgis, nature of, 47
treatment of, 4^
Coryza, fymptoms of, 53
treatment of, 54
Couching of the cataraft, 101
Croup, nature and treatment of, 55
Cupping glafles employed by Celfus, 27
dry, 33
Cystocele, 104
Cysts, nature of, 39
D.
Deafe on wounds of the head, 29
Divifion of furgical difeafes, 30
E.
Ear, inflammation of mucous membrane
of. See Otitis.
polypi of, 67
uifeafes of, 102
Elfe writes on hydrocele, 29
Emphysema, nature and fymptoms of, 43
Encysted tumors, treatment of, 40
by the feton, ib.
by an operatifm, 41
Entropion, nature and treatment of, 102
Epiplocele, or omental hernia, 104
Erysipelas, nature and fymptoms of, 44
treatment of, 45
Eyes, difeafes of, treated by Celfus, 26
of, 87—102
Exojlajis, nature of, 75
F.
Fabricius ab Aquapendente, a writer
on furgery of 16th century, 28
Femoral aneurifm, 79
Fijlula lacrymalis, nature and treatment
of, 101, 102
Fiji nice, nature of, 36
caufes of, ib.
treatment of, by injection, ib.
by compreflion, ib.
by incifion, ib.
Fluxus hemorrhoidalis,. nature and treat¬
ment of, 69
Fomentation, method of applying, 32
French writers on furgery, 29
Frontal finus, polypus of, 67
Furuncidus, nature and treatment of, 45
G.
Ganglions, nature and treatment of, 74
Gajlrocele, 104
German waiters on furgery, 29
Glandular fyftem, difeafes of, 80—89
Gleet, a form of gonorrhoea, 50
nature and cure of, 53
III
Gonorrluea, nature and fymptoms of, p. 49,50
• - virus, of, 51
treatment of, ib.
in women, 52
treatment of, ib.
inje&ions for, now ufed, ib.
Greek furgeons, 25, 26
Gums, polypi, nature and treatment of, 67
Gummy, a difeafe of the bones, 75
H.
Hemorrhage from mucous membranes, 68,
69
Hemorrhoidal tumors, nature and treat¬
ment of, 80
Hematuria, fymptoms and treatment
of, 69
Harelip, 106
Hematocele, nature and treatment of, 73
Hernia, deferibed by Celfus, 27
Hernie, different kinds of, 103, 105
Hepatoce/e, 104
Hill writes on cancer, 29
Hippocrates, a Greek phylician, 25
method of treating furgi¬
cal cafes, 26
Hydrocele, nature and fymptoms of, 71
treatment of, ib.
palliative operation for, 7a
radical operation for, ib.
cured by injedlion, ib.
different folutions for, ib.
cured by incifion, ib.
mode of treatment by inci¬
fion preferred, 73
Hunter, William and John, eminent
furgeons, 29
Hydrothorax, fymptoms and treatment
of, 73
Hysterocele, 104
I.
Inguinal hernia, nature and fymptoms
of, 104
reducible, ib.
irreducible, ib.
ftrangulated, ib.
Iris, inflammation of, 9l>
treatment of, ib.
L.
Lens, cryftalline, method of extrafl¬
ing, IOI
capfule of, method of
opening, 97
Lithotomy, operation for, by Celfus, 27
performed by females among
the Arabians, 28
modern operation for, 106
M.
Mamma, difeafes of, 84—86
inflammation and abfeefs of, 85
fchirrus and cancer of, ib.
treatment of, ib.
method of extirpating, ib.
anomalous fwellings of, 86
Maturation 1
I 12
Maturation of a tumor, page 33
Me/iceris, a kind of tumor, 39
Monro leftures on furgery, 28
his treatife on ofteology recom¬
mended, ib.
Mucous membranes, difeafes of, 48
pathology of, ib.
extent of, ib.
inflammation of, 49
haemorrhage from, 68
ulceration of, 69
N.
Ntcvi materni, defeription of, 48
how removed, ib.
Nervous fyftem, difeafes of, 102, 103
Nipples, fore, nature and treatment of, 86
Nodes, venereal, 75
how treated, ib.
Nofe, inflammation of mucous mem¬
brane of. See Coryza.
polypi of, 64
treatment of, 65
removed by an operation, ib.
with forceps, ib.
by ligature, 66
haemorrhage of, ‘69
ulcers of, 70
how treated, ib.
O.
'Oedema, fymptoms of, 48
treatment of, ib.
Oefophagus, ftri&ures in, 63
how treated, ib.
Opjhthalmia, purulent, fymptoms of, 87
treatment of, 88
in children, nature and
treatment of, ib.
gonorrhoeal, ib. •
puftulofa, fymptoms and
treatment of, 89
tarfi, nature and treatment
of, 102
Otitis, fymptoms of, 34
treatment of, ib.
Ozeena, fymptoms, and treatment of, 70
P.
Palfy in lower extremities, 77
Pancreatic farcoma, 42
Paracentejis, operation of, 70
Parey, a French furgeon, 28
Paronychia. See Whitloe.
Paulus Egineta treats of furgery, 27
belt furgical writer among the
ancients, ib.
Pericardium, dropfy of, 73
Peritoneum, dropfy of, 70
Phlegmon, fymptoms of, 31
refolution of, 32
terminates in abfeefs, ib.
SURGERY.
Phlegmon, treatment of, Page 32
Pott, an Englilh furgeon, 28
greatly improves the art, ib.
Polypi, different kinds of, 64—67
Popliteal aneurifm, 79
Pfor ophthalmia, fymptoms and treat¬
ment of, 10 2
Pterygium, nature and treatment of, 83
Pus, nature of, 3°
Pupil, artificial, method of making, for
the eye, 91
Mr Gibfon’s method, ib.
R,
Re Bum, flricfures in,
treatment of,
polypi of,
how treated,
htemorrhagy from,
treatment of,
Refolution, what,
Rhazes revives medicine in the call:,
Rickets, nature and treatment of, / .
Romans, hiftory of furgery among, 26, 27
Rofe. See Eryfpelas.
64
ib.
66
67
-69
ib.
d2
27
76
S.
Sanies, nature of,
Sarcoma, nature of,
pancreatic,
mammary,
tuber culated,
Sarcomatous tumors, treatment of,
by cauftic,
by incifion,
Sarcocele. See Tef icle.
Schirrus of tefticle,
Serous membranes, difeafes of,
Smovial membranes, difeafes of, 74,
StnBures, remarks on,
in urethra,
fituation of,
fymptoms of,
diagnofis of,
caufes of,
treatment of,
by Wi fern an,
bougies applied to,
method of ufing, 6o,
Sedative remedies in inflammation,
Seton, ufed in opening abfeefles,
Sharpe, an Englifh furgeon,
Sinufes, nature of,
method of treating,
Skin, difeafes of,
pathology of,
Spina bifida, nature and management of,
ventofa, nature of,
Steatoma, a kind of tumor,
defeription of,
treatment of,
Suppuration in the cellular membrane,
3°
41
42
ib.
ib.
42
ib.
ib.
80
7°
75
56
ib.
57
ib.
58
ib.
59
ib.
60
61
32
35
28
3 6
ib.
43
ib.
75
76
39
4i
ib.
30
Index.
Staphyloma, nature and treatment of, page^i
Surgeon, qualifications of,
Surgery, definition of,
different from medicine,
departments of,
hillory of,
among the Greeks,
pradUfed in Britain by bar¬
bers, farriers, &C. in 16th
century,
-greatly improved in the 18th
century,
T.
b,
80-J
Tejlicle, difeafes of,
mode of extirpating, 81
inflammation of, 81
induration of, 8;
abfeefs of, h
- fcrophulous, 84
preternaturally fmall, ib,
fungus of, it,
Thorax, dropfy of, ^
Throat, method of fcarifying and fo¬
menting, 8;
Tic doloureux, nature and treatment
of, . 103
Tophus, a difeafe of the bones, 73
Tonfils, difeafes of, 8b
treatment of, ib,
Trujfes, nature and application of, to
herniae, 104
Tumors, nature of, 38
eneyfled, ib,
fymptoms of, 35
mode of formation, ib,
Varicofe aneurifm,
V.
fpermatic veins, nature and
treatment of,
Varicocele, nature and treatment of,
Venereal difeafe brought from America,
Venous fyllem, difeafes of,
Urethra, inflammation of. See Gonor¬
rhoea.
polypi of,
Uterus, polypi of,
Uvula, difeafes of,
treatment of,
W.
Wat 'tier, his writings on furgery,
Warts, defeription of,
of two kinds,
treatment of,
White, his works on furgery,
Whitloe, fymptoms of,
treatment of,
finufes in, to be avoided,
Wounds treated of by Celfus,
SURINAM,
-
PLATE I)IUL
surgery:
' ' • •
4
s"
plate um7:
Mitc/i ell /r/rJ/t /
PLATEDJC17I.
23
PLATE DXVm
SURGERY
Tvy. /-
Femora/JTerrua
F.Af/fc/u’///ra/n (
PLATE DIM.
/'. .l/'f r/i ?//yGu. //V f
v.
£.2 VfilrAt'l//cu/fi
S U R [ 113 ] S U R
rinam
SURINAM, a country of Guiana, which extends
|| about 75 miles along a river of the fame name, in
Tiullet. ^ JLat. 6. 16. This river is navigable for 90 miles up
"V"-*' jhe country. The chief produ&ions of Surinam are,
wood for dyeing, indigo, cotton, fugar, tobacco, gums,
and different fpecies of fruit. Prodigious numbers of
monkeys infeft the woods, as well as very large ferpents.
This lettlement was ceded to the Dutch in 1674, as an
equivalent for New York, but v/as retaken by the Bri-
tiih in 1799* Paramaribo is the capital. N. Lat. 6. 16.
W. Long. 56. O. The productions of this country,
when in the hands of the Dutch, yielded, in the year
1775, the fum of 822,905!. fterling j and it may be
prelumed that the value of thefe will not diminifft in the
hands of its prefent proprietors. Population about
100,000 perfons.
Demerara.—ConneCted with Surinam we may notice
the colony of Demerara, which furrendered to the Bri-
tilh troops in 1781 ; was taken foon after by a French
frigate, and afterwards recaptured by the forces of Great
Britain. Its productions cleared from the port of De¬
merara from January 1806 to the fame month of 1807,
were 19,337 hoglheads, 474 tierces, and 801 barrels of
fugar j 4722 puncheons and 17 hogfheads of rum j
23,604 bales, two bags of cotton; 1 2,390,102 pounds
of coffee ; and 1694 calks of melaffes; a produce which
we hope will be conftantly increafmg under the mild
and humane conduCt of the Britilh government, by the
troops of which it was laft taken in 1796, under Sir
Ralph Abercromby. It is deemed a valuable acquifi-
tion, on account of its flourilhing condition. Stabroek
is the capital of Demerara.
Eflequibo, on the banks of a river of the fame name,
was firtt founded in 1698, but came into the hands of
the Britilh much about the fame time with the preced¬
ing. The unaccountable negleCt Ihewn by Holland
towards her colonies rendered them an eafy conqueft.
Berbice is fituated between Demerara and Surinam,
containing about I04fmall plantations, fcattered at con-
fiderable didances from each other, the produce of
which was long ago valued at 50,000!. fterling, but
may be expeCled to have a rapid increafc. Population
between 8000 and 9000 perfons of various defcrip-
tions.
Pomaroon is a country which has a rich and fertile
foil; yet the inhabitants chiefly confine themfelves to
the cultivation of cotton, for the produce of which it is
found to be admirably adapted. It is not fo well fitted
to yield good crops of coffee or fugar, as the land is by
far too rich, and ftrongly impregnated with faline mat¬
ters. In 1799 and 1800; a thirft for planting cotton
was greatly increafed. as the crops of that article were
then the largeft ever known to be produced in the co¬
lonies.
SURMOUNTED, in Heraldry, is when one figure
is laid over another.
SURMULLET. See Mullus, Ichthyology
index.
Vol. XX. Part 1.
SURNAME, that which is added to the proper ^
name for diftinguiftung perfons and families. It was
originally diftinguilhed from Jirname, which denotes the
name of the /ire or progenitor : thus Macdonald, Ro-
bertfon, are iirnames exprefftng the fon of Donald, the
fon of Robert. The wmid furname, again, fignified
fome name fuperadded to the proper name to .diltinguifn
the individual, as Longimanus, Harold Hare-
foot, Malcolm Canmore. From this it is evident that
every firname rvas a furname, though the reverfe was
not fo. In modern times they are confounded ; and as
there is now no occafion to preferve the diftinftion, Dr
Johnfon has reje&ed the word Jirname altogether. See
Name.
Surnames were introduced among all nations at an
early period, and feem to have been formed at firft by
adding the name of the father to that of the fon. This
wras the pra&ice among the Hebrews, as appears from
the feriptures. Caleb is denominated the fon of Je-
phunneh, and Jofhua the fon of Nun. That the fame
thing was cuftomary among the Greeks, every one who
has read the poems of Homer muft remember. We
have an inftance of it in the very firft line of the Iliad :
“ Achilles the fon of Peleus.”
This is perhaps the general origin of furnames, for it
has been common among moft nations (a).
The Romans generally had three names. The firft
called preenomen anfwered to our Chriftian name, and
was intended to diftinguifti the individuals of the fame
family ; the fecond called nomen correfponded to the
word c/an in Scotland, and was given to all thofe who
were fprung from the fame ftock ; the third called cog¬
nomen expreffed the particular branch of the tribe or
clan from which an individual was fprung. Thus Pub¬
lius Cornelius Scipio, Publius correfponded to our names
John, Robert, William ; Cornelius was the name of the
clan or tribe, as Campbell was formerly the name of
all the duke of Argyle’s clients, and Douglas the name
of the retainers of the duke of Hamilton’s progenitors.
Scipio being added, conveyed this information, that
Publius, who rvas of the tribe of the Cornelii, was of
the family of the Scipios, one of the branches or fami¬
lies into which that tribe w'as divided. Refpe&ing the
three names which were common among the Romans,
we may fay that the firft was a name and the other two
furnames.*
Du Chefne obferves, that furnames were unknown in
France before the year 987, when the lords began to
aflume the names of their demefnes. Camden relates,
that they were firft taken up in England, a little before
the conqueft, under King Edward the Confeffor : but
he adds, they were never fully eftablifhed among the
common people till the time of Edward II. ; till the*
they varied with the father’s name ; if the father, e. gr.
was called Richard, or Roger, the fon was called Rich-
ardfon, or Hodgson ; but from that time they were fet¬
tled, fome fay, by aft of parliament. The oldeft fur¬
names are thofe we find in Domefday-Book, moft of
P them
(a) This might be fupported by examples borrowed from many nations. I he old Normans ufed Fittz, whicn
fignifies fon ; as Fitzherbert, Fitzfimmons, the fon of Herbert, the fon of Simmons. Ihe Irilh ufed 0; as 0‘Neal,
the fon of Neal. The Scotch Highlanders employed Mac ; as Macdonald, the fon of Donald. The Saxons add-
*d the word fon to the end of the father’s name, as Williamfon.
sun [ 114 ] s u r
Surnr.ruc,
5urplice.
them taken from places, with the addition of de; as
I Godefridus de Mannevilla, Walterus de Vernon, Ro¬
bert de Oyly, &c. Others from their fathers, withyf-
HuSi as Gulielmus filiui Ofberni; others from their of-
iices, as Eudo Dapifer, Gulielmus Camerarius, Gifle-
bertus Cocus, &c. Eut the inferior people are noted
/imply by their Chriftian names, without any furnames
at all.
Surnames feem to have been introduced into Scotland
in the time of William the Conqueror by the Englitli who
accompanied Edgar Atheling when he tied into that
kingdom. T hefe had their proper furnames, as Mou-
bray, Lovell, Lule, ufrng the particle de before them j
which makes it probable that thefe furnames had been
derived from the lands which their anceftors or they
ihemfelves had pofieffed. In Kenneth II.’s time in 800
the great men had indeed begun to call their lands by
their own names \ but the ordinary dillinftions then
ufed were only perfonal, and did not defeend to fuc-
ceeding generations, fuch as thofc employed by the He¬
brew's and Greeks : For example, John the foti of Wil¬
liam; or the names of office, as StewTart •, or accidental
ditlinftionS from complexion or Ration, as Black, White,
Long, Short j or the name of their trade, as Tailor,
Weaver.
It was long before any furnames were ufed in Wales,
except that ot fon, as Evan ap Rice, Evan the fon of
Rice j Evan ap Howel, Evan the fon of Howel: but
many of them have at length formed feparate furnames,
as the Englilh and Scots, by leaving out the a in ap,
and joining the p to the father’s name : thus Evan ap
Rice becomes Evan Price ; Evan ap Howel, Evan
Powel—We are told, furnames were unknown in Swe¬
den till the year 1514, and that the common people of
that country ufe none to this day \ and that the fame
is the cafe with the vulgar Iriffi, Poles and Bohe¬
mians.
When we come to inquire into the etymology of fur-
r.ames, we mull allow' that many of them were origi¬
nally figni/icant of the qualities of mind, as Bold, Har¬
dy, Meek ; fome of the qualities of body, as Strong,
Low', Short; others expreffive of the trade or profeffion
followed by the perfons to whom they rvere applied, as
Baker, Smith, Wright; Butler, Page, Marffial. But
the greateft number, at lead: of the ancient furnames,
were borrowed from the names of places. Camden fays,
that there is not a village in Normandy but has given
its name to fome family in England. He mentions as
examples, Percy, Devereux, Tankervil, Mortimer,
Warren, &.c. They were introduced with William the
Conqueror. Several have been derived from places in
the Netherlands, as Gaunt, Tournay, Grandifon •, and
many from the names of towns and villages in England
rtnd Scotland, as Wentw'orth, Markharn, Murray, A-
berdeen. Many have been formed from the names of
animals, as quadrupeds, birds, fiffies; from vegetables,
and parts of vegetables, as trees, ffirubs, flowers, and
fruits 5 from minerals of different kinds. Others are
formed from fuch a variety of accidents that it is impof-
fible to particularize them.
SURPLICE, the habit of the officiating clergy in
the church of England. By Can. 58, every minifter
laying, the public prayers, or miniftering the facrament
or other. rjt<*s of the church, {hall wear a decent and
comely furplice with fleeves, to be provided at the
charge of the parifh. But by 1 Eliz. c. 1. and 13 and Surplice
14 Car. II. the garb preferibed by aft of parliament, in , II
the fecond year of King Edward VI. is enjoined ; and ,Slirren^r-
this requires that in the faying or finging of matins and
even fongs, baptizing and burying, the minifter in pa-
rilb churches and chapels ftiall uie a furplice. And in
all cathedral churches and colleges, the archdeacon,
dean, provofts, mafters, prebendaries, and fellows, be-
ing graduates, may ufe in the choir, beftdes their fur-
plices, fuch hoods as pertain to their feveral degrees.
But in all other places every minifter ftiall be at liberty
to ufe a furplice or not. And hence in marrying,
churching of w'omen, and other offices not fpecified in
this rubric, and even in the adminiftration of the holy
communion, it feems that a furplice is not neceffary.
Indeed for the holy communion the rubric appoints a
white alb plain, which differs from the furplice in
being clofe-fleeved, with a veftment or cope.
SURREBUTTER, \n Law, is fecond rebutter 5 or
the replication of the plaintiff to the defendant’s rebut¬
ter.
SURREJOINDER, is a fecond defence of the plain¬
tiff’s declaration, by way of anfwer to the defendant’s
rejoinder.
SURRENDER, in Common Law, a deed, or inftru-
ment, teftifying that the particular tenant of lands and
tenements, for life or years, doth fufficiently confent
and agree, that he wko has the next or immediate re¬
mainder or reverfion thereof, (hall have the prefent
eftate of the fame in poffeffion j and that he hereby
yields and gives up the fame to him, fo that the eftate
for life or years may merge or drown by mutual agree¬
ment of the parties. Of furrenders thei'e are three
kinds ; a furrender properly taken at common law; a
furrender of copyhold or cuftomary eftates j and a (ur-
render improperly taken, as of a deed, a patent, &c.
The firft is the ufual furrender, and it is ufually divided
into that in deed, and that in law'.
Surrender, in deed, is that which is really made
by exprefs words in writing, where the words of the lef-
fee to the leffor prove a fufficient affent to furrender his
eftate back again.
Surrender, in Law, is that wrought by operation
of the law, and wffiich is not aftual.—As if a man have
a leafe of a farm for life or years, and during the term
he accepts a new leafe j this a£l is, in law, a furrender
of the former.
Surrender of a bankrupt. See Commission of
Bankruptcy.
SURRENDER of Copyholds is the yielding up of the
eftate by the tenant into the hands of the lord, for fuch
purpofes as are expreffed in the furrender: as to the ufe
and behoof of A and his heirs, to the ufe of his own
will, and the like. This method of conveyance is fo ef-
fential to the nature of a copyhold eftate, that it cannot
poffibly be transferred by any other affurance. ^oBladJl-
feoffment, fine, or recovery (in the king’s courts) hath Comment.
any operation upon it. If I would exchange a copyhold70*' u‘
with another, I cannot do it by an ordinary deed of ex¬
change at the common law, but we muft furrender to
each other’s ufe, and the lord will admit us accordingly.
If I w'ould devife a copyhold, I muft furrender it to the
ufe of my laft will and teftament ; and in my will I
rmift declare my intentions, and name a devilee, who.
will then be entitled to admiffion.
Surrender
S U R [ 115 ] S U R
Si sJender SURRENDER of Letters Latent and Offices. & fur-
■ II render may be made of letters patent to the king, fo
li S' cym5', that he may grant the eftate to whom he pleafes, &c.
* U 7 and a fecond patent for years to the fame perfon for the
fame thing is a furrender in law of the firft patent.
10 Rep. 66. If an officer for life accept of another
grant of the fame office, it is in law a furrender of the
firft grant ; but if fuch an officer take another grant
of the fame office to himfelf and another, it may be
otherwife.
SURREPTITIOUS. See Subreptitious.
SURROGATE, in Lavo, denotes a perfon that is
fubftituted or appointed in the room of another.
SURRY, a county of England, bounded on the weft
by Berkfture and Hamplhire, on the fouth by Suflex,
on the eaft by Kent, on the north by Middlefex, from
which it is parted by the Thames, whence it had the
name of Suth-rey from the Saxons, i. e. the country on
C c l!en<s the fouth fide of the river. It is 38 miles in length
5 j$ unnia from eaft to weft, 23 in- breadth from north to fouth,
‘ * ough. and 112 in circumference. It contains 13 hundreds,
140 parifties, of which 35 are vicarages, 13 market-
towns, 450 villages, 592,000 acres, and about 269,043
inhabitants. The members fent from it to parliament
are 14, of which two are fent by each of the following
boroughs, viz. Southwark, Bleechingley,Ryegate, Guild¬
ford, Gallon, Haffemere, and two for the county.
The air of this county, towards the middle, which
confifts moftly of hills and heath, is fliarp, but pure and
wholefome. About the fkirts, where it is more level,
and the foil richer, the air is milder, but alfo falubrious.
In the middle parts the foil is barren enough in general;
but towards the extremities, and where the country is
open and champaign, it is fruitful in grafs and corn, par¬
ticularly on the fouth fide in Holmfdale, in which mea¬
dows, woods, and corn-fields, are agreeably intermixed.
The foil is alfo very fertile along the Thames, efpecially
towards London, where it greatly contributes to main¬
tain plenty in the London markets. It has feveral ri¬
vers, abounding with fifli, the chief of which are the
Wye, the Mole, and the Wandle.
SURSOLID, or Surdesoi.id, in arithmetic, the
fifth power of a number, or the fourth multiplication of
any number, confidered as a root.
[ t edsof SURVEYING. That part of praftical mathematics
1 i eying, which teaches the method of afcertaining the limits and
extent of lands or eftates, and of reprefenting thefe in
maps or plans, is called furveying, or /and furveying ;
but this term, in a more extended fenfe, includes the
valuing of landed property, the buying and felling of
eftates, and the dividing or laying out of landed pro¬
perty to the beft advantage.
Confidered as a branch of pra£tical mathematics, fur¬
veying depends for its principles on Geometry and
Trigonometry, and as far as it is confined to the
xnenfuration of plain furfaces, has already been confider¬
ed under the article Mensuration. It is the objefl of
the prefent article to explain and illuftrate the moft ap¬
proved methods of applying thefe principles to pra&ice,
and in particular to point out the ufe of the field book,
and the mode of furveying large eftates, towns, counties,
or fimilar extenfive trails of land. We ffiall alfo point
out the moft approved mode of furveying fubterraneous
works, as coal-pits, mines, &c. a fubjeft which has hi¬
therto been entirely negle&ed in works of this nature.
Before entering on the practical part of the fubjeft, Surveying.,
it may be proper to mention the previous knowledge
which a furveyor ought to poflefs, and to notice the in- prei;minaiy
ftruments which he is to employ in his operations. knowledge.
As a furveyor has perpetual occafion for calculation,proper for
it is neceffary that he be familiar with the four firfta hu'e)or*
rules of Arithmetic, and the rule of Proportion, both in
’whole numbers, and in Fractions, efpecially Decimals,
with the nature of Logarithms, and the ufe of Loga¬
rithmic Tables ; and with, at leaft, Algebraic Nota¬
tion. As it is his bufinefs to inveftigate and meafure
lines and angles, and to defcribe thefe on paper, he
fhould be well acquainted with the elements of Geome¬
try and Trigonometry, and with the application of
thefe principles to the Mensuration of Heights, Di-
Jlances, and Surfaces. In particular, he Ihould be fa ¬
miliar with the beft practical methods of folving the or¬
dinary geometrical problems, and ftiould be expert in
drawing lines and defcribing figures. He Ihould be ac¬
quainted with the principles and praftice of Levelling;
Ihould know fomething of the principles of Optics and
Magnetism, and ftiould poffefs at leaft a fmattering of
the arts of Drawing and Painting. 3
The inftruments ufually employed in furveying, haveln^ru-
been enumerated under Mensuration, vol. xiii. pp.ments,r
511, 519, and of thefe the chain, \\\z plane-table, the
crofs, and the theodolite, are there fufficiently deferibed,
and the Circumferentor, the Compass, Levels, the
Perambulator, and Protractors, are deferibed, and
their ufes explained under their proper heads in the ge¬
neral alphabet of this work.
The moft fimple methods of furveying, are thofe in which
the chain or the plane-table are employed, and of thefe
methods a general idea has been given under Mensu¬
ration. It may be neceflary in this place to defcribe
a little more at large the ufe of the plane table, as this
inftrument is one of the moft convenient for furveying
fields, or other finall plots of ground. ^
In preparing the plane table for ufe, a ftieet of paper Praiftical
that will about cover the plane-table, is to be wetted, then directions
fpread flat on the table, the marginal frame of which
is to be preffed down on its edges, fo as to keep it^^/
fmooth and even. On this paper thus ftretched, the
plan of the field or other plot is to be traced in the fol¬
lowing manner.
Suppofe it be required to make a plan of a field that H'ate
has the figure reprefented at A, B, C, D, E, F, fig. 1 • j
Plate DXXV. and in fuch a fituation, that all its angles ‘ l' a
are acceffible.
The plane table is to he fixed at one of the angles,
as at A, in the pofition reprefented at fig. 2. and its fur-
face muff be brought to a horizontal plane. A point is
then to be made on the paper with a pencil, as at a, to
reprefent the point A, where the plane table is ftation-
ed. Fixing a needle perpendicularly at this point, the
index of the table is to be applied to the needle, on that
fide which correfponds with the fight vanes, and is to be
turned round this point, Aiding on the table, till the
eye looking through the fights, perceives a mark fet up
at the point B. A line is now to be drawn from a
along the edge of the index. In the fame manner a
line is to be drawn from a, marking the dire&ion of
the fide AF. Thus the angle b a f (fig. 2.) will he
fimilar to the angle BAF (fig. 1.)': the plane table is
now to be removed from the point A, to another corner
P 2 of
Fk
SUll [ii
Surveying. 0f the field, as B, and a pole or other mark is to be left
at A, The length AB is to be meafured by the chain,
and a proportional length marked off on the paper, in
the diredtion a, by from a plotting fcale, or icale of
equal parts. Proceeding as at firff, a line is to be
drawn from b towards c, in the direction of the fide
EC, and marking m ifure of the angle CBA. In
this manner, by p ig the plane table fucceilively at
each corner of the field or plot of ground, the outline
figure of the whole will be transferred to the paper,
and a, b, c, d, e,f} will be the plan of the field A, B,
C, D, E, F.
If it be not convenient to place the plane table at the
corners of the ground to be furveyed, the plan may be
taken by placing the inffrument anywhere within the area,
Fig. 3. as at E (fig. 3.) in the middle of the field A, B, C, D.
In this cafe w'e can readily find the direftion of the lines
EA, EB, EC, ED, and the angles which they form at
the point E. By meafuring the biftances from E to the
feveral angular points, and transferring the proportional
diltances from the plane fcale upon the paper, and then
joining the points thus found, there is eafily traced the
outline of the whole field.
It may happen that no part of the ground to be mea¬
fured is acceffible, except one line, as the line AE in
Fig. 4. the fpace A, B, C, D, E, F, G, (fig. 4.).
In this cafe, the plane table is to be fixed at the
point A, of the bafe line AE, and a point made on
fome part of the paper at pleafure, to reprefent the fta-
tion A, and the bafe line AE is in the ufual manner to
be afcertained and laid down. Then from the ffation
A, the fituation or direffion of the points B, C, D, E,
F, G, are to be obferved through the fights of the in¬
dex ; and lines correfponding to the lines AB, AC, AD,
AE, AF, AG, are to be laid down on the paper, but
of an indefinite length. When this is done, great at¬
tention muff be paid to preferve the table Heady and
perfe&ly horizontal. The length of the bafe line AE
being determined, the table is now to be removed to
the other extremity E, and fo difpofed that the bafe
line on the paper may be exactly over the bafe line EA
of the field •, and proceeding as before, the dire&ions of
the lines EA, EB, EC, ED, EF, EG, are to be de¬
termined, and correfponding indefinite lines drawn on the
paper. The points where thefe laft lines crofs thofe
before traced, are to be carefully noted, and the outline
joining all thefe points of feclion, will correfpond to the
outline of the plot to be furveyed.
The following general diredlions to be obferved in
ufing the plane table, are given by Dr Hutton. 1. Let
the lines on which ftations are made be diredled towards
obiefts as far diflant as poffible j and when any fuch
objeft is fet, go round the table and look through the
fights from the other end of the index, to fee if any
other remarkable objeft be dire&ly oppofite •, if there be
none fuch, endeavour to find another forward objeft,
fuch as fhall have a remarkable backward oppofite one,
and make ufe of it, rather than the other; becaufe the
back objtft will be of ule in fixing the table in the ori¬
ginal pofition, either when you have meafured too near
to the forward objeft, or when it may be hid from
your fight at any neceffaiy ftation by intervening hedges,
&c.
2. Let the faid lines, on which the ftations are taken,
be purfued as far as conveniently can be done} for that
6 ] S U R
will be the means of preferving more accuracy in the Surveying,
wrork. ' v—■
3. At each ftation it will be neccffary to prove the
truth of it, that is, w hether the table be ftraightin the line
towards the objedh, and alfo whether the diftance be
rightly meafured and laid down on the paper. To
know whether the table be fet dowm ftraightin the line,
lay the "index on the table in any manner, and move the
table about, till through the fights you perceive either
the fore or back objeft } then, without moving the
table, go round it, and look through the fights by the
other end of the index, to fee if the other objedl can be
perceived ; if it be, the table is in the line ; if not, it
muft be ftrifted to one fide, according to your judge¬
ment, till through the fights both objefts can be feen.
The aforefaid obfervation only informs you if the ftation
be ftraight in the line ; but to know if it be in the
right part of the line •, that is, if the diftance has been
rightly laid down : fix the table in the original pofi¬
tion, by laying the index along the ftation line, and
turning the table about till the fore and back obje&s
appear through the fights, and then alfo will the needle
point at the lame degree as at firft. Then lay the in¬
dex over the ftation point and any other point on the
paper reprefenting an objeft which can be leen from the
ftation ; and if the faid objedl appear ftraight through
the fights, the ftation may be depended on as right j if
not, the diftance Ihould be examined and corredfed till
the objeft can be fo feen. And for this very ufeful
purpofe, it is advifeable to have fome high objedt or
two, which can be feen from the greatell part of the
ground accurately laid down on the paper from the be¬
ginning of the furvey, to ferve continually as proof ob«
jedls.
When from any ftation, the fere and back objedts
cannot both be feen, the agreement of the needle with
one of them may be depended on for placing the table * See Hut-
ftraight on the line, and for fixing it in the original' j7' s Mc‘‘'
pofition *. 1
The foregoing examples are extremely fimple, as the Method of
bounding lines are ftraight and regular. Here, there- meafuring
fore, it is not requifite to meafure what furveyors caliotlsets'
the offsets, or the perpendicular diftances between a
bafe line, and the feveral angles which it fubtends. It
feldom happens, however, that the work can be carried
on in fo regular a tvay, as the bounding lines, even of
fmall pieces of ground, are generally more or lefs
crooked.
Let us fuppofe A, /, m, n, o,p, q, r, (fig. 5.) to be a
crooked hedge, or other boundary of a piece of ground,
and A B the general bafe line fubtending its feveral
angles. In meafuring along this bafe, when the furvey-
or comes oppofite to any of the bendings or corners of
the fence, as at c, a, e, &c. be meafures the perpendicu¬
lar offsets c lyd e «, &.c. either with the offset ftaff,
or, if they are of confiderable length, with the chain.
Thefe offsets are to be noted down, as will be explained
immediately.
When the offsets are not very large, their places may
be determined pretty exaflly by the eye, efpecially wEen
affrfted by laying down the offset ftaff in a direiftion per¬
pendicular to the bafe, and oppofite to the angles •, but
when the offsets are very large, their pofitions are beft
determined by the crofs, or the plane table, in the fol¬
lowing manner. In meafuring along A B (fig. 5.),
when
Fig. 51
' S U R [II
in?. ,vh=n coming nearly oppofite to /, where an offset is
 >|ikeiy to Hand, the croft or plane-table is mere to be
fixed, as at c in the line A B, and its index is to be
turned till the extremiues of the bale A and B can be
feen through the fights, both backward and forward.
Then looking along the crofs fights ol the crols, or the
crofs line on the index of the plain table, it is eaty to
obferve whether the ftation of the inftrument be exactly
oppofite to the corner. If it be not, the inftrument mull
be moved backward or forward along the line A B, pre-
ferving the index in the fame fituation till the ftation
and the point / be exa6tly oppofite to each other. 1 he
exa£l meafured diftance between A and c, is then to be
noted and regiftered, and the meafure of the offset cih
to be fet down oppofite to the former, and on the leit
hand of it, as the work is advancing from A to B. In
the oppofite dire&ion the offsets would of courfe appear
on the right hand. In this method, no field book or
regifter is ufually neceffary, but where the fiarvey is more
extenfive, and where the theodolite or other complex in-
ftruments are required, it is neceffary to have recouile to
fome method of regiftering the fucceflive operations.
If( :the The field book employed on thefe occafions is va-
ei wok. riouily conftruaed, according to the tafte or^ particular
objecl of the furveyor. The following is a ipecimen ot
the ufual field book, as defcribed by Dr Hutton.
Offsets and remarks on
the left.
92
Crofs a hedge, 24
Stations,
Bearings,
and
Diltances.
© I
IO50 2j'
OO
73
248
610
954
Offsets and remarks on
the rirfit.
25 corner.
Brown’s hedge.
35
CO
Houfe corner, 51
34
A brook,
Footpath,
Crofs-hedge,
3°
16
18
0 2
53° 10'
oc
25
I 20
734
O 3
67° 20'
6t
248
639
81c
973
00
21
29 a tree.
40 a ftile.
35
i6 a fpring.
20 a pond.
J
the angle or Surveying,^
links in the v-—-v'-"--'
Of the three columns which compofe this field book,
the middle or principal column is for noting down the
llations, angles, beatings and diftances, as they are al-
certained, and the columns on the right and lei;, are lot
the offsets to the right and left of the principal couvfe,
which are placed againft their correfponding diftances
in the middle column, as alfo for occafional reraancs or
memorandums, to which it may be uielul to refer in
drawing the plan of the furveyed lands.
Fig. 6,
7 ] S U R
Here © 1 is the fir ft ftation, where
bearing is 105° 25k On the leit, at 73
diftance or principal line, is an oftset of 92 ;• and at
610 an offset of 24 to a crofs hedge. On the right, at
O, or the beginning, an offset 25 to the corner ot the
field j at 248 Brown’s boundary hedge commences;
at 610 an offset 35 •, and at 945> ^ie en^
line •, the o denotes its terminating in the hedge. And
fo on for the other ftations. A line is" drawn at the end
of every ftation line, to prevent confufion. 7 ,
Various improvements have been made on the field* Crocker s
book, efpecially by Mr Abraham Crocker, and Mr heid-b00li'
John Bodham. We (hall give a fpecimen of each.
Fig. 6. reprefents a page of Mr Crocker’s field-book,
exhibiting a part of the lurvey of an eftate called the
Mill Eftate *, the outlines of which were furveyed with
the theodolite, and the interior parts filled up with the
chain. In this book the operations are noted down, lo
as to begin irom the foot of the page, carrying tnem on
upwards.
In furveying after this method, Mr Crocker adviies
to choole two or more eminences, as principal ftation;.,
and meafure a general bafe line from one ftation to the
other, noting each hedge, brook, or other remaikable
objeft as it is paffed by } meafuring alfo inch (hart per¬
pendicular lines to fucli bends of hedges as may be near
the bafe. From the extremities of this bale-line, or
from any convenient parts of it, the furveyor muft pro¬
ceed with other lines to fome remarkable object fituated
towards the fides of the eftate, without regarding the
angles they make wuth the bafe-line or wiih one ano¬
ther, remembering to note every hedge, brook, or other
obje£t by which he paffes. Thefe lines, when laid down
by interfeftions, will with the bafe-line form a principal
triangle on the ground to be furveyed j feveral of which,
if neceffarv, being thus laid down, the (urveyoi may
proceed to'form other fmaller triangles and trapezoids,
on the fides of the former; and fo on till the feveral
enclofures are finiftied. .
This principal triangle being completed, and laid
down on the rough plan paper, the parts, exterior as
well as interior, are to be completed by fmaller triangles
and trapezoids.
When the whole plan is laid down on paper, the con¬
tents of each part of the eftate may be calculated by the
methods already explained under Mensuration.
In countries where tss lands are enclofed witn high
hedges, and where many lanes or roads pafs through an-
eilate, a theodolite may be employed with advantage,
in afeertaining the angles or fuch lands ; ^and oy theie
means an outline of the eftate may be ^obtained, and the
lane lines ferve as the bafes of luch triangles and trape¬
zoids as are neceffary to fill up the interior parts.
To illuftrate this'method, let us take AB in the plan
of the eftate, (fig* 8.) for the principal bafe line, rrom
B go oft to the tree at C, noting down in the field boox. J)XXV f
every crofs hedge as you meafuxe on, and from C mea- Hs- ®•
fure hack to A, noting down every thing remarkable,
as before dire&ed. This figure alfo illuftrates the me¬
thod of meafuring the crols lines, offsets, and interior
parts and euejofures. s
Fig. 7. reprefents a page from Mr Rodham’s field Rodham':^
book? His method of procedure is as follows :—Like field-book,
Mr Crocker, he begins from the bottom ot the page, ^g-7- ani1
and writes upwards; denoting the crofting of fences,_ by
lines-
Flare
S U R [I
jurveynig.^ lines drawn acrois the middle column, or only a part of
<”“Tv luch a line on the right and left oppolite the figures, to
avoid confufion, and the corners of fields, and other re¬
markable turnings in the fences, towards which offsets
are taken, by lines joining like the fences, as will be
belt feen by comparing the fpecimen at fig. 7. with f;he
plan at fig. 9.
The marks called a, b, c, &c. are bed; made in the
fields, by making a fmall hole with a fpade, and placing
there a chip or fmall piece of wood, with the par¬
ticular letter marked on it, to prevent one mark being
taken for another, on any return to it, though in gene¬
ral the name of a mark is very eafily feen, by referring
in the book to the line in which it was made. After
the fmall Italic letters have been gone through, the ca¬
pitals may be next employed, and the Roman letters af¬
terwards, and fo on. Perhaps it would be preferable to
diftinguilh the marks by figures.
The letters in the left hand corner at the beginning of
each line, denote the mark or place meafured from; and
that at the right hand corner of the end, is the mark
meafured to. But when it is not convenient to go ex-
a&ly from a mark, the place meafured from is deferib-
ed fuch a dijlance from one mark towards another ; and
where a mark is not meafured to, the exaft place is af-
certained by writing, turn to the right or left hand,
fuch a diflance to fuch a mark, it being always under-
ftood that thofe diftances are taken in the chain line.
The chara&ers ufed are f for turn to the right hand,
1 for turn to the left hand, and A placed over an offset, to
fhew that it is not taken at right angles with the chain
line, but in the line with fome ftraight fence, being
ufed chiefly when crofling their direftions, and is a bet¬
ter mode of afeertaining their true places than by offsets
at right angles.
When a line is meafured whofe pofition is determin¬
ed, either by former operations (as in the cafe of pro¬
ducing a given line or meafuring from one known place
or mark to another) or by itfelf (as in the third fide of
a triangle) it is called a fqfi line, and a double line is
drawn acrofs the book at the conclufion of it j but if its
pofition be not determined (as in the fecond fide of a
triangle) it is called a loofe line, and a fingle line is
drawn acrofs the book. When a line becomes deter¬
mined in pofition, and is afterwards continued, a double
line is drawn half through the book.
When a loofe line is meafured, it becomes abfolutely
^ neceffary to meafure fome line that will determine its
*£>• 9’ pofition. Thus, the firft line a b, (fig. 9.) being the
bafe of a. triangle, is always determined, till the third
fide j b is meafured ; then the triangle may be con-
flrufted, and the pofition of both is determined.
At the beginning of a line to fix a loofe line to the
mark or place meafured from, the fign of turning to the
right or left hand muft be added (as at j in the third
line) j otherwife a ftranger, when laying down the work,
may as eafily conftru& the triangle hjb, on the wrono^
fide of the line a h, as on the right fide ; but this error
cannot be committed, if the fign above named be care¬
fully obferved.
In choofing a line to fix a loofe one, care muft be
taken that it does not make a very acute or obtufe
angle, as in the triangle/> Br j by the angle at B being
very obtufe, a final! deviation from truth would make
Fie. i>
18 ] S U R
the error at B when conftru&ed very confiderable; but Survey!;
by conftrufting the triangle p B^, fuch a deviation is of u““y-
no confequence.
When the words leave off are written in the field * Hvtto\
book, it is to fignify that the taking of offsets is fromAfcrt'i)
thence difeontinued ; and of courfe fomething is wanting
between that and the next offset *. ' ?
The general ufe of the theodolite in meafuring fepa- FrafticaJ
rate plots, has been deferibed under Mensuration.^ire<^i‘311
The following practical directions for the ufe of this in- i
ftrument are given by Mr Crocker, and apply to hisodolite.'|
field book, exemplified at fig. 6. and the plan at fig. 10.
Suppofe the furveyor to plant his theodolite in the
road ©1, and having duly adjufted it, by placing its
head exactly horizontal, by the levels ; and letting the
index part of the limb exadtly at 360° j and by moving
the whole head about till 360° in the compafs-box comes
to the line in the north end of the needle there fixing
all faft, by the ferew under the head, between the legs,
he will have his inftrument completely adjufted.
The theodolite thus adjufted, the furveyor fends one
of his aftiftarits forward as far as he can conveniently
fee how to meafure a ftraight line, as at © 2. Taking
then his angle of obfervation, by his telefcope, to the
picket at that flation, he finds it to be 69° from the
north part of his magnetic meridian line towards the
eaft, which he enters in his field book, noting it with
NE, as a memorandum on which fide of the magnetic
meridian it lies. He is now to fatten his limb to the
other part of the head, by a ferew for that purpofe.
His chain-man having laid the chain in the direction
to the picket © 2, in order to meafure the line, he makes
fuch offsets to the right and left, in this firft chain’s
length, as may be neceffary. At his firft ftation, he
finds that on the right, the general road fence is 39
links, and alfo a nook of 40 links more, and 30 links
broad j and that on the left of his ftation he has an off*
fet of 10 links, all of which he muft note in his field
forward on this line, he finds at 30c?
25 on the right, where is a gate,
which he has to notice ; and, on the left 20, which de*
termines the breadth of the road at that fpot. At 400,
he will find 10 on the right and 20 on the left to be
the breadth 5 and at 700 (the end of the line) he will
find 35 on the right and 15 on the left to be the breadth
of the road j where alfo he will find a fmall road branch¬
ing off to the right. Thus the firft ftation line is finifh-
ed.
To this fpot (which is his fecond ftation) he brings
the theodolite j and after felting it level, he unlocks
the under ferew, and turns the whole head about, till,
through the telefcope, he fees the back picket or ftatiou
ftaff to be cut by the crois hairs. Here, again, lock¬
ing the head of his theodolite firm by the under ferew,
he muft unferew the limb, and turn it about, till through
the telefcope, he has a view of the picket at © 3 ; the
bearing of which he will find to be 2530 10' from the
north to the eaftward, which he will enter in his field
book. Meafuring on from ©2, towards © 3, he will
find at 130 links, that he is come to a turnpike, where
the breadths at the right and left are 30 and 1 f. At
200, he has an offset of 13 on the left, and a break off
at the right of another road, at 23 from his line, with
two other offsets, as expreffed in the field book. It
Kittft
book. Proceeding
he has an offset of
' $ u ft t I
jj,cv;ng. muft be noted where this road leads to. At 265 he
*■ v—^ has offsets of 30 on the left, and 20 on the right. Thus
ends the fecond ffation line.
Now bringing his inftrument to 03, he is to adjuft
it in the manner before directed at © 2 j and turning
the limb about towards the picket forward, he will find
the angle of bearing to be 570 45', Hill from the north
to the eaffward. At 20 links he will be oppofite to a
crofs hedge on the left, belonging to the eftate he is
furveyin'T. At 293 he ends the line of this ftation,
where tne offsets are 5 and 35, as noted in the field
book.
Coming next to ©4, and having adjufted his theo¬
dolite, he finds his next angle r=:2 260 NE. At 120
his offsets are 20 and 15. At 410, they are 15 and
30, where, on the left, is a crofs hedge, of a backward
dire&iom At 480 his offsets are 5 and 25, where is
another crofs hedge. At 750, is a break-in of the
fence, and the offsets are 304-15 on the left, and 10 on
the right. At 1050, the offsets arc 20 on each hand,
and another crofs hedge on the left. At 1150 are off¬
sets of 20 and 4- 20, where Hands a houfe. At 1300,
the offset of 30 on the right terminates the houfe •, and
at 5 on the left is a crofs hedge, of a backward direc¬
tion. 13 50 ends this line, where roads diverge to the
right and left.
At 05, the inftrument being adjufted, the angle is
found to be 284° 50' nearly W. At 50, bis offset to
the hedge is 15 •, at 220 it is alfo 15, where is a crois
hedge, the other end of which was noted at 1050 in the
laft line. At 320 the offset is 25 5 at 350, the end of
the 0, the diftance from the fence is 15.
At 06, the bearing is 305° 35' N. W. At 130
the offset is 30, where a crofs hedge goes off to the
point which was noted at 750, in the line from ©4 to
©5. At 160 the line is nearly clofe to the fence, end¬
ing at 210.
At 07, the angle forward is 1060 25' N. W. The
line is 143 long, with an offset at the end of 15.
At ©8 the bearing is 269° 2o' N. W. At IOD
and at 300 the offsets are 15 and 10.
The bearing at ©9 is 70° 45' S. W. At 30 tbe
meafurer finds it expedient to crofs tbe fence, and pro¬
ceed within the bounds of the eftate. At 90 he has an
offset of 30 to the right, w-here he croffes a hedge. At
880 he croffes another hedge, having there an offset of
20 : at 940 is an offset of 50. At 990 he again croffes
the hedge •, and at 1020 is an offset of 20 to the left :
at 1040 he again croffes the hedge : at 1080 he comes
to the corner of the farm houfe •, and 1165 ends his line,
where is a fmall curve at the right.
At 010, the bearing is 204° S. W. At 70 is an
offset of 5 at the right: at 200 is 15 at the left, and a
crofs hedge : at 600 is 25 on the left, and 204-15 on
the right: 690 ends the line, where are 15 on each
fide, where there is alfo a crofs hedge.
The angle at © 11 is 3550 30' S. E. At 280 is an;
offset of 30 on the right, and 10 with a crois hedge oir
the left : at 400 is an offset of 30, and another crofs
hedge on the left j and 470. ends the line, where are
offsets of 10 and 20 on the right and the left.
At 0 12 the angle is 1550 S. E. At 60 is a crofs
hedge: at 219 the offsets are 10 and 15 ; and at 229
he comes to clofe h:s work at © 1, from which he fet
®ut.
9 ] s u ft
Having thus taken the circuit of this eftate, the mea- Suneying..^
furer muft proceed to plot the fame on paper, with fome^^^^
convenient fcale *. . . Elements.
The fcale ufually employed for this purpofe is thatp, 235.
called the plottinv [cafe, plane fcale^ or fcale of equal ip
r r . r j „ „ Defcription
parts, reprefented at fig. xi. and 12. , ;md ufe of
This inftrument contains different kales or divided ^ pjot_
lines, on both fides. .There ai'e on one ftde a number ting-fcales.
of plane feales, or kales of equal divifions, each of arigs.ir.and
different number to the inch, and alfo feales of chords12*
for laying down angles, and fometimes the degrees of a
circle marked on one edge, anfvvering to a centre marked
on the oppofite edge, by which means it alfo anfvvers
the purpofe of a protractor. There are feveral diagonal
feales on the other fide, of different fizes, or different
dimenfions to the inch, ferving to take off lines expreffed
by numbers to three dimenfions, as units, tens, hundreds,
as alfo a fcale of divifions which are the 100th parts of a
foot. The moft ufeful of all the lines ryhich can be laid- ,
down on this inftrument, though not always done, is a
plane fcale on the two oppofite edges, made thin for the
purpofe. This line is very ufeful in furveying j for by
laying down the inftrument on paper, with its divided
edge along a line whereon feveral diftances are to be
laid off, for the places of offsets, &c. *, thefe diftances
are all transferred at once from the inftrument to the
line on the paper, by making fmall points or marks
againft the refpe&ive divifions on the edge of the fcale. IX
The bufinefs of plotting or laying down a plan of an Directions
eftate from the memoranda of a field book, is a very im- f°r plotting
portant branch of the furveyor’s office. This will belt an*
be underftood by an example, which we ftiall take alfo
from Mr Crocker. It is adapted to the page of his1
field book, already alluded to; and the plan, when
completed, is feen at fig. 10.
The vellum or paper on which the plan is to be
drawn, being fmoothly laid on a drawing board, the
magnetic meridian is to be reprefented by a line drawn
from tbe bottom to the top.
A point is to be made about the middle of this line,
on which is to be laid the centre of the circular pro*
traftor, placing the ftraight edge in fuch a manner as to
coincide with the faid meridian line : draw a pencil line'
around at the edge of the protractor.
The protractor being thus placed, and firmly fixed by
means of pins in that pofition, or by a lead weight, the
field book is to be infpected for the quantity of the an¬
gle at ©1, which, in the prefent cafe is ftated at 69°
north-eafterly. This degree is then to be looked for on
the circular edge of the protractor, and a mark made on
the paper with a fine plotting-pin, at that number, which
is to be marked I, denoting ©1.
The field-book is then to be infpected for the ^ at
©2, which in this cafe is 2530 10', where a mark is
to be made as before.
A fimilar procefs is to be followed with all the other
angles, till the filrveyor comes to the clofe-on © 1.
All the angles being thus marked off, the protractor
is to be removed.
The place where the beginning of the work ftiould
be placed is then to be confidered, that the whole may
come within the compafs of the paper laid down 5 where
a mark is to be made, noting it as © I, the beginning
of tbe plot.
The fore edge of the parallel ruler is then laid from
the;
s v r r t
Surveying, the central point where the protractor lay, to the mark
on t.}ie pencilled circle denoting © I. The fore edge of
the parallel ruler is next moved till it touch the point
determined on for the beginning of the plot, from which
a pencil line in the direction from the north to the ealt-
ward, is drawn, about the length of the w’hole line of
this 0=760.
A feather-edge fcale is applied to this pencil or ob»
feure line, the o divifion of it at the beginning, marking
off every progreflive number where any olfsets have been
made, as at 300, 400, and 760.
The fcale is then turned acrofs the line (by fome crofs
divihon), and the offsets on each fide of the llalion line
are pricked off. At o, or © 1, the field book fliews
that on the left hand, at 10 links, is the boundary line
of that fide, where there is likewife a fmall road branch¬
ing off. The offset on the right hand is 30, which,
with -f- 40, goes to the extent of a fmall corner, alfo
40 links in breadth. At 300 on the left there is an
offset of 20, and on the right another of 25, rvhere
there is alfo a gate to be noticed. At 760 there is an
offset on the left of 15 j and on the right, one of 35,
where a fmall roadway branches off. All thefe offsets
are to be pricked off as the furveyor proceeds. The
boundary lines are drawn through thefe offset points,
and in this manner the firft ftation is completed.
The parallel ruler is then laid from the centre to the
angular point of © 2 5 the limb of it is moved till it
touches the end of the laft ftation line, from which ano¬
ther obfeure line is drawn, from the north-eafterly, as
noted in the field book.
The edge of the fcale is then applied as before, and
the numbers 30, 200, and 265 are pricked off. There
is a toll gate at 30 links, and a lane of 30 links broad,
going off at an acute angle. At 265, the end of this
iiation, the oftsets are 30 and 10.
The line from ©3 is then laid off, as before direfted,
north-eafterly, and the numbers 20 and 293 are pricked
off. Oppofite to £0 is a hedge branching off to the left,
and at 293 the offsets are 35 and 5.
The line north-eafterly is laid off from ©4, and the
numbers on that line are pricked off as they appear in
the field book, and the offsets are made as follows. At
120, 15 and 20 are fet off 5 at 410 are 30 and 15,
where two hedges branch off nearly in the direction of
the fide fketches. At 480 the offsets are 25 and 5,
where there is a crofs hedge on the left. At 750 on
the left, is 30-}-15 with a crofs hedge, and on the right
io. At 10 jo on the left, is 20 with a crofs hedge,
and 20 on the right. At 1150 on the right, is 20-j-2o,
where ftands a houfe. At 1300 on the left, is 5 with
a crofs hedge 5 on the right is 30, with a road branching
from it: 1350 completes this line.
At © 5 the work takes another dire£Hon, and goes
backward towards the weft. The ruler is laid from the
centre to this ftation, and an obfeure line drawn in the
dire&ion mentioned. The diftances and offsets are
pricked off as in the field book. Here are offsets on
one fide only, not being in a road way.
At ©6 fet off the line fouth-w7efterly, pricking off
the diftances and offsets as in the field-book.
This fpecimen is fufficient to give a complete idea of
the praftice of plotting : and more would be only a
tedious repetition. It muft, however, be obferved, that
20 ] s u R
the accuracy and facility of the work greatly depend on Sufvejij
the judgement and cave exercifed in keeping a corredt
and clear field-book.
When a circuit is plotted off, the meafurer muft fill
up the interior, by feparately completing the meafure of
each field with the chain, fo that they may be laid down
on the plan in their proper fituations and dimenfions.
The lines taken with the theodolite will here be of
great fervice, as the bafe lines of a number of interior
angles.
The furveyor having thus on paper, a reprefentation
of the eftate, muft draw fuch meafuring lines on it, as
will enable him to calculate the content of each field
feparately. Having made out a fair plot of his work,
another line muft be drawn for the true meridian, to the
eaftward of the former, according to the variation of
the magnetic needle, where the eftate lies. On this true
meridian line may be placed any device whatever, as
a north point. A title muft alfo be given to the map,
a fcale drawn of the proportion ufed in the plotting, and
a border to the whole *. *See6|
Having thus explained the general pradHce of fur-'°r’ji*|
veying according to the lateft improvements, we fhall^*’
fhew how a furveyor is to proceed in meafuring and ‘
planning counties and towns. nl
To furvey a County or large TraB of hand.—I. Chufe Method,
two, three, or four eminent places for ftations, fuch as^urve)’“!
the tops of high hills or mountains, towers, or church
fteeples, which may be feen from one another, and from
which moft of the towns, and other places of note, may
alfo be feen. And let them be as far diftant from each
other as poftible. On thefe places raife beacons, or
long poles, with flags of different colours flying at them,
fo as to be vifible from all the other ftations.
2. At all the places which ai'e to be fet down in the
map, plant long poles with flags at them of feveral co¬
lours, to diltinguifti the places from each other, fixing
them on the tops of church fteeples, or the tops of
houfes, or in the centres of fmaller towns.
It is not neceffary to have thefe marks at many
places at once, as fuppofe ten at a time. For when the
angles have been taken at the two ftations, to all thefe
places, the marks may be removed to new ones, and fo
fucceflively to all the places required. Thefe marks
being fet up at a convenient number of places, and fuch
as may be feen from both ftations, go to one of thefe fta¬
tions, and with an inftrument for taking angles, (landing
at that ftation, take all the angles between the other
ftation, and each of thefe marks, obferving which is
blue, which red, &c. and on which hand they lie j and
fet all down with their colours. Next go to the other
ftation, and take all the angles between the firft fta¬
tion, and each of the former marks, and fet them down
with the reft, each againft thofe correfponding with the
fame colour. If practicable, the angles may alfo be
taken at fomb third ftation, which may ferve to prove
the work, if the three lines interfeftin that point where
any mark ftands. The marks muft be allowed to re¬
main till the obfervations are finilhed at both ftations,
and then they muft be taken down, and fet up at frefh
places. The fame operations muft be performed at
both 'ftations, for thefe frefli places, and the like for
others. The inftrument for taking angles muft be ex¬
ceedingly accurate, made on purpofe with telefcop’c
fights,
2
S U R [ i
urveying. fights, and of three, four, or five feet radius. A cir-
v'--"1' cumferentor is reckoned a good inftrument for this pur-
pofe.
3. Though it be not abfolutely neceffary to meafure
any diftance 5 becaufe a ftationary line being laid down
from any fcale, all the other lines will be proportional
to it; yet it is better to meafure fome of the lines, to
afcertain the difiances of places in miles : and to know
how many geometrical miles there are in any length j
and from thence to make a fcale for meafuring any di-
ftance in miles. In meafuring any diftance, it will not
be exa£t enough to go along the high roads, on account
of their turnings and windings, and fcarcely ever lying
in a right line between the ftations, which would caufe
endlefs reduftions, and create trouble to make it a right
line, for which reafon it can never be exa£t. But a
better way is to meafure in a right line with a chain,
between fiation and ftation, over hills and dales, or
level fields, and all obftacles. Only in cafes of rvater,
woods, towns, rocks, banks, &c. where one cannot pafs,
fuch parts of the line muft be meafured by the method
of inacceflible diftances j and befides, allowing for a-
feents and defeents, when we meet with them. A good
compafs that ftiew'S the bearing of two ftations, will al¬
ways direft to go ftraight, when the two ftations are
not feen 5 but when a ftraight progrefs can be made,
offsets may be taken to any remarkable places, likewife
noting the interfe&ion of the ftationary line, with all
roads, rivers, &c.
4. From all the ftationSj and in the whole progrefs,
care muft be taken to obferve fea coafts, the mouths of
rivers, towns, caftles, houfes, churches, windmills, wTa-
termills, trees, rocks, fands, roads, bridges, fords, ferries,
woods, hills, mountains, rills, brooks, parks, beacons,
fluices, floodgates, locks, &c. and in general every thing
remarkable.
5. When the firft and main ftation lines are done,
which command the whole country, inner ftations are
then to be taken at fome places already determined,
which will divide the whole into feveral partitions, and
from thefe ftations may be determined the places of as
many of the remaining towns us poflible. If any re¬
main in that part, more ftations may be taken at fome
places already determined, from which the reft may be
determined. Proceeding thus through all parts of the
country, ftation may be taken after ftation, till all that
■are required be determined. In general, the ftation
diftances muft always pafs through fuch remarkable
points as have been formerly determined by the pre¬
ceding ftations.
6. The pofition of the ftation line meafured, or the
point of the compafs on which it lies, muft be deter¬
mined by aftronomical obfervation. Hang up a thread
and plummet in the fun over fome part in the ftation line,
obferving when the fhadow runs along that line, and
at that moment take the fun’s altitude ; then having
his declination, and the latitude, the azimuth will be
found by fpherical trigonometry. The azimuth is the
angle which the ftation line makes with the meridian,
and therefore a meridian may eafily be drawn through
the map 5 or a meridian maybe drawn through it by
hanging up two threads in a line with the pole ftar,
when due north, which may be known from aftrono¬
mical tables. Or thus : Obferve the ftar Alioth, or
Vol, XX. Part I.
21 ] S U R
that in the rump of the Great Bear, being that next the Surveying,
fquarej or elfe Cafliopeia’s hip j obferving by a line
and plummet when either of thefe ftars and the pole
ftar comes into a perpendicular j and at that time they
are due north. Therefore two perpendicular lines be¬
ing fixed at that moment, towards thefe two ftars, will
give the pofition of the meridian. 13
A Town or City maybe furveyed with any of the Method o^'
inftruments for taking angles, but bell of all with the^urvePn®
plane table, wdiere every minute part is drawn while uitownj'
fight. It is alfo proper to have a chain of 50 feet long,
divided into jo links, and an offset-ftaff of 10 feet long.
Begin at the meeting of twm or more of the principal
ftreets through which the longeft profpeft may be had,
to get the longeft: ftation lines. Having there fixed the
inftrument, draw lines of direfticn along thofe ftreets,
ufing two men as marks, or poles fet in wooden pe-
deftals, or perhaps fome remarkable places in the houfes
at the farther ends, as windows, doors, corners, &c,
Meafure thefe lines with the chain, taking offsets with
the ftaff, at all corners of ftreets, bendings, or windings,
and to all remarkable objects, as churches, markets,
halls, colleges, eminent houfes, &c. Then remove the
inftrument to another ftation along one of thefe lines,
and there repeat the fame procefs as before, and fo on
till the whole be completed.
Thus, in fig. 13. (part of the New Town of Edin¬
burgh) fix the inftrument at A, and draw lines in the
diredfion of all the ftreets meeting in that place, and
meafure AB, noting the ftreet on the left at m. At
the fecond ftation B, draw the diredtions of the ftreets
meeting there, and meafure CD. Do the fame at D,
and meafure DE, noting the place of the crofs ftreets at
/>. In this manner go through all the principal ftreets.
This being done, proceed to the fmaller and intermedi- * See Hut-
ate ftreets ; and laftly to the lanes, alleys, courts, yards,
and every part which it may be deemed expedient to re- fkeying.
prefent*. W I4
We (ball conclude this article with a few pradiical Subterra-
remarks on fubterraneous furveying, or the method ofneous ^ar"
furveying mines, and otfier works below ground, taken ve^n^*
chiefly from Mr. Fenwick’s tvork on fubterraneous fur-
veying, lately publiflied.
The inftruments employed in furveying under ground,
are the circumferentor, the chain (in coal mines) con¬
taining 100 links, and an inftrument for taking the
angles of elevation or depreffion, to reduce the mea-
lurements to horizontal diftances, where the lines are not
level. In lead mines, they fometimes employ a cord,
divided into 10 feet, inftead of a chain.
In condudling a fubterraneous furvey, the inftrument
ufed is placed where the furvey is intended to commence,
and a perfon goes forward in the diredfion of the line to
be furveyed, holding a lighted candle in his hand, to
the remoteft point at which his light can be feen through
the fights of the inftrument j its bearing is then taken by
the circumferentor, and noted down in the furvey book.
The furveyor then proceeds to take the diftance of the
light, or objedt, from the inftrument, which is after¬
wards removed, and a perfon ftands on the fpot where it
flood, holding one end of the chain in his hand, while
another, going towards the objedf, holds the other end,
together with a lighted candle, in the fame hand, and
being diredled by the former, till the hand holding the
Q candle
I 2
S U Pv [
Surveying, candle and the chain is in a dire& line with the objeft
v 1 or light whofe bearing was taken. At that place, the
firft chain is marked. The perfon who ftood where the
inftrument was placed then comes forward to the mark
at the end of the firft chain, the other advancing for¬
ward another chain, with the chain and candle in the
fame hand, as before direfted : here the fecond chain is
to be marked. Proceeding in this manner till the dif-
tance of the objedf be determined, which being noted
down in chains and links in the furvey book, oppofite
to the bearing, the firft bearing and diftance is comple¬
ted. Fixing the inftrument again where the light as an
objeft ftood, or at the termination of the foregoing
bearing and diftance, and taking the fecond bearing, by
direfting the perfon to go forward as before, fo far as
his light can be feen, or at any convenient diftance,
the furveyor is to proceed as before, till the whole is
completed.
Such furveys would require five people to be employ¬
ed, that the work may be expeditioufly performed j
viz. one to carry forward the furvey, and make the re-
quilite obfervations and remarks 5 another to carry the
inftruments employed 5 another to direft the chain j a
fourth perfon to lead it, and a fifth to go forward with
a light, as an objeft, from one ftation to another. Dur¬
ing the time of making the furvey, care muft be taken
not to admit any iron or fteel within four feet of the
inftrument, for fear of attradting the needle, which has
been known to be affedted at nearly three times that
diftance, by a maffy piece of iron. If the glafs of the
inftrument ftiould require cleaning, it muft be rubbed
as gently as poftible, and not with any filken fubftance,
by means of which eledtric matter may be excited, and
prevent the needle from traverfing. Should fuch mat¬
ter be excited, it may be difcharged by touching the
i'urface of the glafs with a wet finger.
To render this fyftem of furveying familiar to the
young miner, it would be neceffary for him to put up a
number of marks on the furface, taking afterwards their
bearing and diftance from each other, according to the
method before diredted j but to’ make a nearer approach
to the form of fubterraneous furveying, it would be bet¬
ter to perform it at night, by the affiftance of candles ;
and many evenings might be found favourable for this
method of pradtifing. Lanterns may be employed, if
the current of air fliould be too ftrong for the flame of a
candle *.
The method offurveying and recording bearings is as
follows,
. Suppofe the bearing of ABC (fig. 14) is required.
Set the circumferentor on A (the north being reprefented
by N, and the fouth by S) then turning that part of
the inftrument having the Jlcur de /is, or other device,
from you, or towards B, turn the inftrument till the
objedt B is feen through, and cut by the hair in the
fights; and the angle NAB being the angle that the
fights and line A B make with the magnetic meridian,
N S will be the bearing of B from A, fuppofe 300}
which alfo being to the right fide of the north meridian,
will be north 30° eaft. Then bring the inftrument for¬
ward to B, fixing it there, and diredting the fame fight
at B towards C, as w’as diredled at A, towards B j
then obferve the angle that B C makes wdfh the magne¬
tic meridian, which fuppofe 250 NBC} and being to
* Fenwick
on Subter¬
raneous
Surveying,
P- 9-
2 ] ' S U R
the left of the meridian, will be north 25® wTeft. To Survey!
prove the work, and try the accuracy of the inftrument
when it is ftanding at B, apply the eye to that fight
wfhich was next B when it flood at A } then take the
bearing of A from B, which, if found to be the re-
verfe of B from A, fhows the wTork to be fo far true.
The bearing of B being taken in like manner from C,
will prove the truth of the furvey. The degrees of each
bearing muft always be taken by the fame end of the
needle.
Suppofe the bearing of B from A, C from B, and
D from C, (fig. 15.) be required. Fix the inftrument
at A, with the Jieur de /is, or other arbitrary device,,
towards B } then take the bearing of B, as before de-
fcribed, which fuppofe to make an angle of 30° NAB
to the right with the magnetic meridian, or north 30°
eaft } let the inftrument be removed to B, and take the
bearing of C, which fuppofe =30° NBC to the left, or
north 30° wTeft } then remove the inftrument to C, and
take the bearing of D, which fuppofe —6$° SCD ta
the left, or fouth 65® eaft : Thus,
From A to B north 30° eaft.
—  B to C north 30° weft.
■ C to D fouth 65° eaft.
This furvey may be proved in the fame manner as the
preceding.
Suppofe the fubterraneous working ABCD A (fig. 16.}
to be furveyed, beginning at the pit A: Fix the inftru¬
ment at the centre of the pit A } then let a perfon hold
a lighted candle at B (being the utmoft diftance at
which it can be feen through the fights of the inftru¬
ment), the bearing of which being taken from A, fup¬
pofe due fouth, or in the diredlion of the magnetic me¬
ridian of A, and its diftance from A fuppofe 6 chains
57 links, which is placed in the furvey book as under :
Remove the inftrument to B, where the candle ftood,
and dire£l the perfon to place the lighted candle at C}
then take its bearing from B, which fuppofe it to make
an angle CBS = 8o° with the magnetic meridian, or
to bear fouth 8o° weft, and its diftance being found 7
chains 10 links, remove the inftrument to C, the candle
being removed to D } then take its bearing and di¬
ftance as before, which fuppofe north io° weft 5 chains }
remove the inftrument to D, and diredl the candle to
be placed at the centre of the pit A, where the furvey
commenced ; then take its bearing from D, north 70°
eaft 8 chains 35 links, and the furvey is finifhed.
AB fouth
BC fouth 80 weft
CD north io° weft
DA north 70° eaft
Chains.
6
Links.
57
10
o
35
This furvey may be proved by adding together the
degrees contained in the interior angles, which, if they
amount to 360, the work will be right.
The proof may be made by finding the northing,
fouthing, eafting and wefting of all the bearings and di-
ftances. If the fouthings are equal to the northings, and
the weftings equal to the eaftings, then will the work be
right.
Thus,
sun
t 123 ]
s u R
■veywg.
Thus, S.
S. 809 W
N. io° W
N. 70° E.
C. iL.
6 57
7 10
6 o
8 35
Northings.
C. L.
o o
o o
4 93
2 87
7 80
Southings.
C. L.
6 57
1 23
o o
o o
7 80
Eqflings.
C. L.
o o
o o
o o
7 85
7 85
Wejlings.
C. L.
o o
6 98
o 87
7 85
Surveying.
The fouthings and northings therefore being equal,
’as alfo the callings and wellings, the work is thus pro¬
ved to be right *.
Mr Fenwick gives the following dire61 ions for plan¬
ning fubterraneous furveys, and for determining errors
that may arife in plotting, through inattention to the
magnetic variation.
As the magnetic meridian is always changing, the
bearings of the fame objedl, taken by fuch a meridian
at different times, mult alfo vary from each other, ex¬
cept reduced to bearings with the true meridian. Let
NS (fig. 17.) reprefent the meridian of a plan, which
is alfo fuppofed to be the true meridian j and if a fub¬
terraneous excavation is to be plotted on it from the pit
A, and this excavation is found to form a bearing of
north io° weft 10 chains, by an inftrument whofe
needle had 20° of weft variation j now if the excavation
north io° weft 10 chains be plotted on the plan by its
meridian NS, which is the true meridian, it wall be re-
prefented by AB \ but the bearing being taken by a
needle having 20° of weft variation, it Ihould form a
bearing of north 30° wTeft with the meridian NI, as re-
prefented by A 5 ; then A b will be the true dire£lion
of the excavation from the pit A, and b B will be the
magnitude of the error. Or, inftead of reducing the
excavation to its bearing wdth the true meridian NI, it
will be equally as true if ns is drawn on the plan, and
made to reprefent the magnetic meridian of the needle
by which the bearing was taken, with which AB will
form a bearing of north io° weft.
We fhall add a few examples illuftrative of the error
arifing from plotting a fubterraneous furvey on a plan,
without attending to the variation of the magnetic me¬
ridian, and alfo how its magnitude can be afcertained.
Example I.—The following is a fubterraneous fur¬
vey, commencing at a pit called the B pit, north 30°,
weft 6 chains, north 70°, eaft 10 chains, north 30°, eaft
5 chains, and north 250, weft 8 chains, which wTas fur-
veyed by an inftrument whofe needle had 24° of weft
variation ; under what bearings muft the furvey be plot¬
ted on a plan w'hofe delineated meridian has 150 of weft
variation ?
Reduce the bearings, as taken by a meridian having
240 of weft variation, to bearings with a meridian having
140 of weft variation : thus,
Bearings with a meridian
of 240 of wefl variation.
Chains.
North 30° weft 6
North 70° eaft 10
North 30° eaft 5
North 250 weft 8
Bearings with a meridian
of if of wef variation.
Chains.
North 390 weft 6
North 6i° eaft 10
North 21° eaft 5
North 340 weft 8
The furvey muft be plotted under bearings with a
magnetic meridian having 150 of weft variation, as
above, commencing at the B pit.
Example II.—If the following fubterraneous furvey,
north 90 weft 8 chains, north 30° eaft 7 chains, and
north 210 weft 8 chains be made by an inftrument
whofe needle has 230 of weft variation, and plotted on
a plan by a meridian having 50 of magnetic variation,
without being reduced thereto } what will be the mag¬
nitude of the error refulting from fuch negledl ?
Suppofe A (fig. 18.) the point of commencement of
the furvey on the plan, and let the meridian of the
plan be reprefented by N s, having 5® of weft variation
with the true meridian NS ; then the firft bearing, north
90 weft 8 chains, will be reprefented by AB ; the fe-
cond, north 30° eaft 7 chains, by BC; and the third
bearing, north 210 weft 8 chains, by CD ; then ABCD
will reprefent the furvey plotted, without attending to
the magnetic variation : But as the furvey was made
by an inftrument wdrofe needle had 230 of weft varia¬
tion, therefore each bearing, when truly plotted, muft
be fet off from a meridian of that variation, which, let
n s reprefent ; then, north 90 w'eft 8 chains will be re-
prefented by A b, north 30° eaft 7 chains by b c, and
north 21° weft 8 chains by c d; then A will re¬
prefent the furvey truly plotted, and dT> will be the
magnitude of the error.
Or the furvey may be plotted by reducing the bear¬
ings, as taken by a meridian of if of wTeft variation, to
bearings with a meridian of $° of variation, as repre¬
fented by N s, and plotted from it accordingly $ which
will exa£lly coincide with Abed, as before.
To difeover, by calculation, the magnitude of the
error, reduce the bearings of the furvey, as taken by a
magnetic meridian having 230 of wreft variation, to bear¬
ings with the true meridian ; and alfo the fame bearings,
as if taken by a meridian having 50 of weft variation,
to bearings with the true meridian ; then determine the
northing and calling of D from d: thus,
With a meridian of if
of wcjl variation.
Chains.
N. 90 W. 8
N. 30° E* 7
N. 2iQ W. 8
With the true meridian.
C
N. 3 20 W. 8
N. 70 E. 7
N. 440 W. 8
With a meridian of f
wef variation.
C.
N. 90 W. 8
N. 3c0 E. 7
N. 2i° W. 8
With the true meridian.
C.
N. 140 W. 8
N. 2 50 E. 7
N. 26° W 8
Q.3
N.
Surveying.
S U R
N. 320 W.
N. 7° E.
N. 44° W.
[ 124 ]
Northing.
C. L.
6 78
6 94
5 75
19 47
Southing.
C. L.
A0
Eajling.
C. L.
O 85
S U R
WeJHng.
C. L.
4 23
5 55
9 78
o 85
8 93
C. L.
i 93
3 5®
5 43
2 95
2 48 f D or aj\
* <s? 8 chains 93 links—a f 2 chains 48 linksrr/V 6 chains 45 links.
A f 21 chains 29 links—A o 19 chains 47 linksrzfl e ot/D 1 chain 82 Jinks.
N. 140 W.
N. 250 E.
N. 26° W>
C. L.
7 76
6 34
7 l9
21 29
A <?
2 95
Then, as/V/ 6.45
Is to radius
So is fD 1.82
•8095595
10.0000000
.2600714
To tang. ^Ld\f 45' 9-4505117
From 90°—150 45'=74° 15', ^N</D.
Sunreyiaj:
Survivor
ftiip.
—2 —2
And v' 6.454-1.82=6.7 or 6 chains 70 links.
J£. p. 155. . Therefore, the amount of the error, or the bearing
and diftance of D from d, will be north, 740 15' eaft
6 chains 70 links with the true meridian.
SURVEY0R, a perfon who has the overfight and
care of confiderable works, lands, or the like.
Surveyor, likewife denotes a gauger ; as alfo a per¬
fon who furveys lands, and makes maps of them.
SURVIVOR, in Zam, fignifies thelongeft liver of joint
tenants, or of any two perfons jointly interefted in a thing.
SURVIVORSHIP, is that branch of mathematics
which treats of reverfions payable provided one or more
particular perfons furvive certain others. By reverfions
are meant payments not to take place till fome future
period. Survivorfhip forms one of the moft difficult and
complicated parts of the doctrine of reverfions and life-
annuities. It has been very fully treated of by Mr
Thomas Simpfon in his Sele£t Exercifes, and confider-
ably improved by Dr Price and Mr Morgan, who have
beftowed a great deal of attention on this fubjeft} though
fome parts of their principles are erroneous.
The calculations are founded on the expe&ation of
lives at different ages, deduced from tables formed from
bills of mortality, of which fee feveral examples under
the article Bills of MoiiTALlTT. By the exportation of
life is meant the mean time that any fingle or joint lives
at a given age is found to continue j that is, the number
of years which, taking one with another, they actually
enjoy, and may be confidered as fure of enjoying; thofe
who furvive that period enjoying as much more time in
proportion to their number as thofe who fall fhort of it
enjoy lefs. Thus, fuppofing 46 perfons alive all 40 years
of age, and that one will die every year till they are all
dead in 46 years, half 46 or 23 will be the expeBation
of each of them. If M. de Moivre’s hypothefis were
true, that men always decreafe in an arithmetical pro-
greffion, the expeftation of a fingle life is always half
its complement (a), and the expectation of two joint
lives one-third of their common complement. Thus,
fuppofing a man 40, his expeflation would be 23, the
half of 46, his complement j the expectation of two joint
lives, each 40, would be 15 years 4 months, or the third
part of 46.
The number expreffing the expectation, multiplied
by the number of fingle or joint lives (of which it is the
expectation), added annually to a fociety, gives the whole
number living together, to which fuch an annual addi¬
tion would in time grow. Thus, fince 19, or the third
of 57, is the expectation of two joint lives, whofe com¬
mon age is 29, twenty marriages every year between
perfons of this age would in 57 years grow to 20 times
(a) By the complement of a life is meant what it wants of 86, which M. de Moivre makes the boundary of
human life. Thus if a man be 30, the complement of his life is 56.
SUB. r 125 ] SUB
for. IQ, or 380 marriages, always exifting together. And
?• lince the expeftation of a Angle life is always half its
—"'complement, in 57 years 20 Angle perfons added an-
nually to a town will increafe to 20 times 28.5, or 57® 5
and when arrived at this number, the deaths every year
will juft equal the acceffions, and no farther increafe be
poflible. It appears from hence, that the particular pro¬
portion that becomes extinft every year, out of the whole
number conftantly exifting together of Angle or joint
lives, muft, wherever this number undergoes no varia¬
tion, be exa&ly the fame with the expe&ation of thofe
lives at the time when their exiftence commenced.
Thus, was it found that a 19th part of all the marriages
among any bodies of men, whofe numbers do not vary,
are diflblved every year by the deaths of either the huf-
band or wife, it would appear that 19 was, at the time
they were contrafted, the expeftation of thefe marriages.
In like manner, was it found in a fociety, limited to a
Axed number of members, that a 28th part dies annually
out of the whole number of members, it would appear
that 28 was their common expedfation of life at the time
they entered. So likewife, were it found in any town
or diftrift, where the number of births and burials are
equal, that a 20th or 30th part of the inhabitants die
annually, it would appear that 20 or 30 was the expec¬
tation of a child juft born in that town or diftrift. Thefe
expedlations, therefore, for all Angle lives, are eaAly
found by a table of obfervations, Ihowing the number
that die annually at all ages out of a given number alive
at thofe ages } and the general rule for this purpofe is,
to divide the fum of all the living in the table, at the
age whofe expedlation is required, and at all greater
ages, by the fum of all that die annually at that age and
above it j or, which is the fame, by the number (in the
Table) of the living at that age $ and half unity fub-
trafted from the quotient will be the required expedla-
tion. Thus, in Dr Halley’s table, given in the article
Annuity, the fum of all the living at 20 and upwards
is 20,724, which, divided by 598, the number living
at the age of 20, and half unity fubtrafted from the
quotient, gives 34.15 for the expedtation of 20..
In calculating the value or expedition of joint lives,
M. de Moivre had recourfe to the hypotheAs, that the
probabilities of life decreafe in a geometrical progreffion ;
believing that the values of joint lives, obtained by rules
derived from it, would not deviate much from the truth.
But in this he was greatly miftaken ; they generally give
refults which are near a quarter of the true value too
great in Anding the prefent value of one life after it has
iurvived another in a Angle payment, and about two-
Afths too great when the value is fought in annual pay¬
ments during the joint lives. They ought therefore to
be calculated on the hypotheAs (if they are calculated
on hypotheAs at all), that the probabilities of life de¬
creafe in arithmetical progreffion, which is not very far
from the truth. Even this hypotheAs never correfponds
with the fadl in the Arft and laft periods of life, and in
fome Atuations not in any period of life. Dr Price and
Mr Morgan therefore have given tables of the value of
lives, not founded on any hypotheAs, but deduced from
bills of mortality themfelves, Some of thefe we (hall
give at the end of this article. Mr Morgan has like¬
wife given rules for calculating values of lives in this
manner.
M. de Moivre has alfo fallen into miftakes in his rules
for calculating the value of reverAons depending on fur- Survivor-
vivorlhip : thefe have been pointed out by Dr Price in , i
the third effay in the Arft volume of his Treatife on Re- v
verAonary Payments j who has alfo given proper rules
for calculating thefe values, the moft important of which
are comprehended in the following paragraphs. 1
Suppofe a fet of married men to enter into a fociety in Method of
order to provide annuities for their widows, and that it isj^^S1^:
limited to a certain number of members, and conftantly annuitants
kept up to that number by the admiffxon of new mem- that will
bers as the old ones are loft ; it is of importance, in the come on a
ftrft place, to know the number of annuitants that after fociety“
fome time will come upon the eftablilhment. Now Ance
every marriage produces either a widow or widower j and
Ance all marriages taken together would produce as many
widow’s as widowers, were every man and his wife of the
fame age, and the chance equal which Aiall die Arft j it
is evident, that the number of widows that have ever
exifted in the world, would in this cafe be equal to half
the number of marriages. And what wmuld take place
in the world muft alfo, on the fame fuppofttions, take
place in this fociety. In other w’ords, every other per-
fon in fuch a fociety leaving, a widow, there muft arife
from it a number of widows equal to half its own num¬
ber. But this does not determine what number, all liv¬
ing at one and the fame time, the fociety may expeft
will come to be conftantly on it. It is, therefore, ne-
ceflary to determine how long the duration of furvivor-
ftiip between perfons of equal ages w’ill be, compared with
the duration of marriage. And the truth is, that, fup-
poftng the- probabilities of life to decreafe uniformly, the
former is equal to the latter •, and confequently that the
number of furvivors, or (which is the fame, luppoAng
no fecond marriages) of widows and widowers alive to¬
gether, which will arife from any given fet of fuch mar¬
riages conftantly kept up, will be equal to the whole
number of marriages $ or half of them (the number of
widows in particular) equal to half the number of mar¬
riages. Now it appears that in moft towns the decreafe
in the probabilities of life is in faft nearly uniform. Ac¬
cording to the Breflaw Table of Obfervations (fee An¬
nuity), almoft the fame numbers die every year.ffrom
20 years of age to 77. After this, ihdeed, fewer die,
and the rate of decreafe in the probabilities of life is re¬
tarded. But this deviation from the hypotheAs is incon-
Aderable ; and its effett, in the prefent cafe, is to render
the duration of furvivorfhip longer than it would other-
wife be. According to the London Table of Obferva¬
tions, the numbers dying every year begin to grow lefs
at 50 years of age ; and from hence to extreme old age
there is a conftant retardation in the decreafe of the pro¬
babilities of life. Upon the whole, therefore, it appears
that, according to the Breflaw Table, and fuppoflng no
widows to marry, the number inquired after is fomewhat
greater than half the number of the fociety ; but, ac¬
cording to the London Table, a good deal greater.
This, however, has been determined on the fuppofltion
that the hufbands and wives are of equal ages, and that
then there is an equal chance who fhall die Arft. But in
reality hulbands are generally older than wives, and
males" have been found to die fooner than females, as
appears inconteftably from feveral of the tables in Dr
Price’s Treatife on ReverAons. It is therefore more
than an equal chance that the hufband will die before
his wife. This will increafe conAderably the duration.
Survivor-
ftiip.
When the
number of
annuitants
arrives at
its maxi¬
mum.
3
What a
man ought
to pay in a
fingle pay¬
ment to
entitle his
widow to a
certain an¬
nuity.
S U R [i
of furvivorHup on the part of the women, and confe-
quently the number which we have been inquiring af¬
ter. The marriage of widows wdll diminilh this num¬
ber, but not fo much as the other caufes will increafe it.
If the fociety comprehends in it from the firit all the
married people of all ages in any town, or among any
clafs of people where the numbers always continue the
fame, the whole colle£live body of members wdll be at
their greateft age at the time of the eftablilhment of the
fociety ; and the number of widows left every year will
at a medium be always the fame. The number of wi¬
dow's will increafe continually on the fociety, till as
many die every year as are added. This will not be
till the whole colleftive body of widow's are at their
greatell age, or till there are among them the greateft
polfible number of the oldeft widows; and therefore not
till there has been time for an acceffion to the oldeft wi¬
dows from the youngeft part.
Let us, for the fake of greater precifion, divide the
whole medium of widow's that come on every year into
different claffes according to their different ages, and
fuppofe fome to be left at 56 years of age, fome at 46,
fome at 36, and fome at 26. The widow’s, conftantly
in life together, derived from the firff clafs, will come
to their greateft age, and to a maximum, in 30 years,
fuppofmg, with M. de Moivre, 86 to be the utmoft ex¬
tent of life. The fame will happen to the fecond clafs
in 40 years, and to the third in 50 years. But the whole
body compofed of thefe claffes will not come to a maxi¬
mum till the fame happens to the fourth or youngeft
clafs; that is, not till the end of 60 years. After this
the affairs of the fociety wdll become ftationary, and the
number of annuitants on it of all ages will keep al¬
ways nearly the fame.
If a fociety begins with its complete number of mem¬
bers, but at the fame time admits none above a particu¬
lar age : If, for inftance, it begins with 200 mem¬
bers all under 50, and afterwards limits itfelf to this
number, and keeps it up by admitting every year, at all
agesBetw'een 26 and 50, new members as old ones drop
off 5 in this cafe, the period neceffary for bringing on
the maximum of annuitants will be juft doubled.
To determine the fum that every individual ought to
pay in a fingle prefent payment, in order to intitle his
widow to a certain annuity for her life, let us fuppofe
the annuity 3I. per annum, and the rate of intereft four
per cent. It is evident, that the value of fuch an ex-
pe&ation is different, according to the different ages of
the purchafers, and the proportion of the age of the wife
to that of the hulband. Let us then fuppofe that every
perfon in fuch a fociety is of the fame age with his wife,
and that one with another all the members when they
enter may be reckoned 40 years of age, as many enter¬
ing above this age as below it. It has been demonftra-
ted by M. de Moivre and Mr Simpfon, that the value
of an annuity on the joint continuance of any tw’o lives,
fubtrafted from the value of an annuity on the life in ex-
pe&ation, gives the true prefent value of annuity on
what may happen to remain of the latter of the two
lives after the other.
In the prefent cafe, the value of an annuity to be en¬
joyed during the joint continuance of two lives, each
40, is, by Table II. 9.826, according to the probabili¬
ties of life in the Table of Obfervations formed by Dr
Halley from the bills of mortality of Breflaw in Silefia.
4
26 ] s u. it
The value of a fingle .life 40 years of age, as given by SurviJ
M. de Moivre, agreeably to the fame table, is 13.20; %
and the former lubtrafted from the latter, leaves 3.37,'■“‘"■V'
or the true number of years purchafe, which ought to
be paid for any given annuity, to be enjoyed by a per¬
fon 40 years of age, provided he furvives another perfon
of the fame age, intereft being reckoned at four per
cent, per annum. The annuity, therefore, being 30I.
the prefent value of it is 30 multiplied by 3.37, or
101I. 2s.
If, inftead of a fingle prefent payment, it is thought What li
preferable to make annual payments during the mar-oughtt
riage; what thefe annual payments ought to be is eafilyPay1ln:
determined by finding what annual payments during I
two joint lives of given ages are equivalent to the value
of the reverfionary annuity in prefent money. Suppofe,
as before, that the joint lives are each 40, and the re¬
verfionary annuity 30I. per annum. An annual pay¬
ment during the continuance of two fuch lives is worth
(according to Table II.) 9.82 years purchafe. The an-
nual payment ought to be fuch as, being multiplied by
9.82, will produce 101.1l. the prefent value of the an¬
nuity in one payment. Divide then 101.1 by 9.82, and
10.3 the quotient will be the annual payment. This
method of calculation luppofes that the firft annual pay¬
ment is not to be made till the end of a year. If it is
to be made immediately, the value of the joint lives will
be increafed one year’s purchafe ; and therefore, in or¬
der to find the annual payments required, the value of
a prefent fingle payment muft be divided by the value
of the joint lives increafed by unity. If the fociety pre¬
fer paying part of the value in a prefent fingle payment
on admiftion, and the reft in annual payments ; and if
they fix thefe annual payments at a particular lum, the
prefent fingle payment paid on admiflion is found by
lubtrafting the value of the annual payment during the
joint liv^s from the whole prefent value of the annuity
in one payment. Suppofe, for inftance, the annual pay¬
ments to be fixed at five guineas, the annuity to be 30I.
the rate of intereft four per cent, and the joint lives each
40 ; the value of the annuity in one prefent fingle pay¬
ment is 101.1l. The value of five guineas or 5.25 per
annum, is (5.25 multiplied by 9.82 the value of the
joint lives) 51.55 ; which, fubtrafted from 10i.il. gives
49.5I. the anfwer.
If.a fociety takes in all the marriages among perfons
of a particular profeflion within a given diftrift, and
fubjefls them for perpetuity to a certain equal and com- -
mon tax or annual payment, in order to provide life
annuities for all the widows that fliall refult from thefe
marriages ; fince, at the commencement of fuch an efta¬
blilhment, all the oldeft, as well as the youngeft, mar¬
riages are to be intitled equally to the propofed benefit,
a much greater number of annuitants will come imme¬
diately on it than would come on any fimilar efta¬
blilhment which limited itfelf in the admifiion of mem¬
bers to perfons not exceeding a given age. This will
check that accumulation of money which Ihould take
place at firft, in order to produce an income equal to
the difburfements at the time when the number of an¬
nuitants comes to a maximum > and therefore will be a
particular burden upon the eftablilhment in its infancy.
For-this fome compenfation muft be provided ; and the
equitable method of providing it is, by levying fines at
the beginning of the eftabliftiment on every member ex¬
ceeding
SUR [127] SUR
L< vh'or- ceeding a given age, proportioned to the number of
k iip. years which he has "lived beyond that age. But if fuch
u y—J gn£s cannot be levied, and if every payment muft be
be equal and common, whatever difparity there may be
in the value of the expeSations of different members,
the fines muft be reduced to one common one, anfwer-
ing as nearly as poflible to the difadvantage, and pay¬
able by every member at the time when the eftabliih-
ment begins. After this, the eftablilhment will be the
fame with one that takes upon it all at the time they
marry ; and the tax or annual payment of every mem¬
ber adequate to its fupport will be the annual payment
during marriage due from perfons who marry at the
mean age at which, upon an average, all marriages may
be confidered as commencing. The fines to be paid at
firlt are, for every particular member, the fame with
the difference between the value of the expe&ation to
him at his prefent age, and what would have been its
value to him had the fcheme begun at the time he mar¬
ried. Or, they are, for the whole body of members,
the difference between the value of the common expec¬
tation, to perfons at the mean age of all married perfons
taken together as they exift in the world, and to per¬
fons at that age which is to be deemed their mean age
j when they marry.
] thod of Suppofe we wifh to know the prefent value of an an-
| i ingthe nuity to be enjoyed by one life, for what may happen
{ of aiT* t0 reraa*n ft beyond another life, after a given term j
1 f a;ty t0 that is, provided both lives continue from the prefent
I t mjoyed time to the end of a given term of years 5 the method
\ me life 0f calculating is this : Find the value of the annuity for
s 1 ll!e two lives, greater by the given term of years than the
( nother.. glven lives; difcount this value tor the given term ;
and then multiply by the probability, that the two gi¬
ven lives fhall both continue the given term ; and the
produft will be the anfwer. Thus, let the two lives be
each 30, the term feven years, the annuity 10I. intereft
four per cent. The given lives, increafed by feven
years, become each 37. The value of two joint lives,
each 37, is (by Table II.) 10.25. The value of a
Angle life at 37 is (by the table under the article An¬
nuity) 13.67. The former fubtrafted from the latter
is 3.42, or the value of an annuity for the life of a per-
fon 37 years of age, after another of the fame age, as
has been Ihown above. 3.42 difcounted for feven years
(that is, multiplied by 0.76 the value of il. due at the
end of feven years) is 2.6. The probability that a
Angle life at 30 fhall continue feven years is (B)<
The probability, therefore, that two fuch lives fhall
continue feven years, is or decimals 0.765
and 2.6 multiplied by 0.765 is 1.989, the number of
years purchafe which ought to be given for an annuity
to be enjoyed by a life now 30 years of age, after a Survivor-
life of the fame age, provided both continue feven, ,
years. The annuity then being 10I. its prefent value is
Suppofe the value is required of an annuity to be en- Method of
joyed for what may happen to remain of one life a^ter^[l)g ^
another, provided the life in expectation continues a gi- annuity for
ven time. 1. Find the prefent value of the annuity torwhat may
the remainder of the life in expectation after the given happen to
time, which is done in this manner : Multiply the pre-
fent value of the life at the given time by the Pre[ent°fter an0_
value of il. to be received at that time, and multiply ther, pro-
the produCt again by the probability that the life in ex- yided the
peCtation will continue fo long. Let the given time hfem ex-
which the life in expectation is to continue be 15 years> continues
and let the perfon then be arrived at 50 years of age. a given
A life at fifty, according to M. de Moivre’s valuation term,
of lives, and reckoning intereft at four per cent, is
wmrth 11.34 years purchafe. The prefent value of il.
to be received at the end of 15 years, is 0.5553, anc*
the probability that a life at 35 will continue 15 years
is Thefe three values multiplied into one another
give 4.44k for the prefent value of the life in expecta¬
tion. 2. Find the value of the reverfion, provided both
lives continue the given time, by the rule given in
parag. 5th. 3. Add thefe values together, and the fum
will be the anfwer in a Angle prefent payment. We
{hall now illuftrate this rule by an example.
An annuity of 10I. for the life of a perfon now 30, is
to commence at the end of 11 years, if another perfon
now 40 flrould be then dead ; or, if this (hould not
happen at the end of any year beyond 11 years in which ‘
the former {hall happen to furvive the latter : What is
the prefent value of fuch an annuity, reckoning intereft;
at four per cent, and taking the probabilities of life as
they are in Dr Halley’s table, given in the article
Mortality ?
The value of 10I. per annum, for the remainder of
the life of a perfon now 30, after 11 years is 69.43k
The probability that a perfon 40 years of age {hall live
11 years, is, by Dr Halley’s table Tlrx* The probabi¬
lity, therefore, that he will die in 11 years, is 4It kib-
trafted from unity (c), or HI j which multiplied by
69.43k gives 17.16k—The value of the reverfion, pro¬
vided both live 11 years, is 17k and this value added
to the former, makes 34.16k the value required in a
Angle prefent payment $ wdrich payment divided by
11.43k the value of two joint lives, .aged 30 and 40,
with unity added, gives 3k } or the value required in
annual payments during the joint lives, the firft pay¬
ment to be made immediately-
Table
(b) The probability that a given life {hall continue any number of years, or reach a given age, is (as is well
known) the fraCHon, whofe numerator is the number of the living in any table of obfervations oppoAte to the given
age, and denominator, the number oppoAte to the prefent age of the given life.
(c) For the difference between unity and the fraClion exprefling the probability that an event will happen, gives
the probability that it will not happen.
Table.
S U R
[ 120 ]
S U R
TaBLE I. Showing the Prefent Values of an Annuity of
x\, on a Single Life, according to M. de Moivre's Hy-
pothejis.
Age.
9
10
12
J3
15
16
r7
18
19
20
^ per ct.1
t9-736
19.868
19.868
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
'9
60
61
62
63
64
r9-73<5
19.604
19.469
I9 33I
19.192
19.050
18.90 r
f8.759
18.610
18-458
18.305
18.148
17.990
17.827
17.664
17-497
3^ per cl
18.160
18.269
18.269
18.160
18.049
17-93 7
17.823
17.707
17.588
17.467
I7*344
17.220
r7°93
16.963
16.696
I^-559
16.419
16.277
17.32716.133
17.154
i6-979
16.800
16.620
16 436
6.248
16.057
15.864
15.666
15-465
i5.26c
15-053
15.842
14.626
14.407
14.185
13.728
13-493
r3-254
13.012
12.764
I2.SII
I2-255
11.994
11.729
11.457
xi.i83
10.902
10.616
10.32
10 029
9-7
9-419
9-I07
8.787
I5-985
15.682
15.526
15-367
15.204
15-°39
14.871
14.699
14.524
14-345
14.163
r3 978
<j per ct.
16.791
16.882
16.882
16.791
16.698
16.604
16.508
16.4IO
16.3II
16.209
16.105
15-999
15.891
15.781
6.830 15.669
4aPerct
I5-595
15.672
15.672
I5-595
r5-5r7 14-48o
r 5-43 7
i5-356
I5-273
15.189
15.102
15.015
I4-923
i4-83i
I5-554
‘5-437
I5-I97
r5-°73
14.946
14.816
14.684
r4-549
14.411
14.270
14.12613.304
‘3-789
‘3-596
‘3-399
‘3-‘99
‘2-993
12.784
12.571;
‘2.354
12.13!
13.028
12.858
12.683
12.504
12.322
‘2-135
“•944
11.748
11.548
‘ 1.904 ‘ 1.344
“•673
“•437
“•‘95
‘o-95°
10.698
‘0.443
io.tSi
9-9‘3
9.640
9.361
9.076
8.786
8.488
8.462 8.185
‘3-979
13.829
13.676
‘3-5‘9
‘3-359
‘3-‘96
‘3-‘75
‘3-044
12.909
‘2.771
12.630
12.485
•‘35
10.921
10.702
10.478
10.248
10.014
9-773
9-527
9-275
9.017
8-753
8.482
8.205
7.921
5 per ct.
‘4-544
14.607
14.607
‘4-544
14.412
‘4-342
14.271
6 per ctu
12.790
12.839
12.839
12.79O
12.741
12.691
12.639
12.586
14.197 ‘2.532
‘4-737
14.641
‘4-543
14.442
14.34°
‘4-235 ‘3-375
14.128
14.018 13.186
‘3-905
‘3-79‘
‘3-673
‘3-553
‘3-430
‘2.337
12.185
12.029
11.870
11.707
11.540
11.368
11.192
10.827
10.638
‘0-443
10.243
10.039
9.829
9.614
9-393|
9.166;
8-933'
8.694
14.123
14.047
13.970
‘3-891
13.810
‘3-727
13.642
‘3-555
‘3.466
13.282
12.476
12.419
12.361
12.301
33.088
12 988
‘2.855
12.780
12.673
12.562
12.449
‘2-333
12.214
12.091
11.966
11.837
“.705
“•570
“•431
11.288
11.142
10.992
10.837
10.679
x 1.012 10.515
10.348
10.176
9.999
9.817
9.630
9-437
9-239
9.036
8.826
8611
8.389
8.449 8.161
8.1971 7.926
7.938' 7.684
7-672; 7-435
12.239
‘2.‘77
12.112
12.045
“.978
11.908
“.837
11.76
11.68
11.610
11'S30
“•449
“•365
11.278
11.189
11.098
11.003
10.907
10.807
10.704
IO-599
10.490
10.378
10.263
10.144
10.021
9-895
9.765
9.630
9.492
9 349
9.201
9.049
8.891
8.729
8.561
8.387
8.208
8.023
7-83‘
7-633
7.428
7.216
6.997
Age
65
66
67
68
69
70
7‘
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
3perct.
8.132
7-794
7-45°
7.099
6-743
6.378
6.008
5*631
5.246
4-854
4-453
4.046
3-632
3.207
2.776
2-334
1.886
1.429
0.961
0.484
0.000
3aPer ct
7-875
7-558
7-234
6.902
6.565
6.219
5.865
5-505
5-‘36
4-759
4-373
3-978
3-575
3-‘63
2.741
2.309
4 per ct
4 jperct 5 per ct.{6perct
7-63I
7-333
7.027
6.714
6.394
6.065
5.728
5-383
5.029
4.666
4-293
3.912
3-52o
3.hi
2.707
2.284
i.867j
1.411;
0.955!
0.4831
0.000;
1.850
1.406
0.950
0.481
0.000
7-399
7-i‘9
6.831
6-534
6.23
5.918
5-596
5-265
4.926
4-576
4.217
3-847
3-467
3.076
2.673
2.259
1.832
‘•394
o-943
0.479
0.000
7.179
6-9‘5
6.643
6.362
6.073
5-775
5.468
5-‘5
4.826
4.489
4-‘43
3-784
3-4‘5
3-°34
2.641
2-235
1.816
1.384
o-937
0.479
0.000
6.770
6-535
6.292
6.040
5-779
5-508
5.228
4-937
4.636
4-324
4.000
3.664
3-3‘5
2-953
2.578
2.188
‘•783
1.362
0.925
0.472
0.000
Table II. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the
Joint Continuance of Two Lives, according to M. de
Moivre's Hypothejis.
Kij-f
O
10
‘5
20
‘5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
‘5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
7o
20
25
3°
35
4°
45
50
Value at 5
per cent
15.206
14.878
I4-503
14.074
‘3.585
I3-025
12.381
II.644
IO.796
9.822
8.704
7.417
5-936
Value at 3
per cent
‘4-574
14.225
13.822
‘3-359
I2.-824
12.207
11.496
10.67 c
9.727
8.632
7-377
5-932
‘3.904
‘3-53‘
13.098
‘2-594
12.008
“•325
‘0.536
‘3-342
‘3-093
12.808
12.480
12.102
11.665
11.156
10.564
9.871
9-059
8.105
6.980
5-652
12.860
‘2-593
12.281
11.921
11.501
11.013
10.440
9.767
8-975
8.041
6-934
5-623
Value at 4
per cent
“•855
II.661
II.430
11.182
IO.884
‘0-537
10.128
9.646
9.074
8-391
7-572
6-585
5-3 91
12.341
12.051
ii.711
11.314
10.847
10.297
9.648
11.478
11.266
11.022
10.736
10.402
10.008
9-54‘
8.985
8.318
7-5‘5
6-544
5-364
11.067
10.840
10.565
10.278
9.870
9 420
8.880
Age
4
\
» .
SURVEYING
PLATE BJXVU.
f-'iy. JJ.
Fief. /.
fit/. /3 ■
S U R
S U R
[ 129 1
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
o. (t
rt> o
45
5°
55
60
65
70
50
55
60
65
70
55
60
65
70
60
65
70
65
70
70'
Value at
per cent
9.617
8-549
7.308
5.868
13.192
12.794
12-333
1 x.770
1 x.130
10.374
9.488
8.452
7.241
5.826
12.434
12.0X0
11.502
IO.898
IO.183
9-338
8.338
7.l6l
5*777
x 1.632
1I-I75
10.622
9-955
9.156
8.202
7.066
5-?i8
10.777
10.283
9.677
8.936
8.038
6.951
5-646
9.863
9-331
8.662
7-831
6.807
8.892
8.312
7.568
6.623
5-442
7.849
7.220
6-379
5.201
6-737
6.043
5.081
5-547
4-773
4.270
Vol. XX. Part I.
Value at 4
per cent
8.879
7.967
6.882
Value at 5
per cent.
8-233
7.448
6.495
5-333
5-551
11 182
10.858
10.428
9-936
9-345
8.634
7-779
6.748
5-505
10.530
10.157
9.702
9.149
8.476
7.658
6.662
5450
9.826
9.418
8.911
8.283
7-510
6.556
5-383
9.063
8.619
8.044
7-332
6-435
5-3°o
8.235
7-738
7.091
6.258
5-193
7-332
6.781
6.036
5-053
6-3 51
5-730
4.858
5-277
4-571
4-xof
10.621
10.367
10.067
9.708
9.278
8.761
8.134
7-3 71
6.440
5-294
10.133
9-854
9-5I4
9.112
8.620
8.018
7.280
6-373
5-254
9.600
9.291
8.913
8.450
7.879
7.172
6.294
■5-2Q3
9.014
8.671
8.244
7.7x0
7-039
6.198
5-I47
8-3.70
7.987
7.500
6-875
6.080
5-063
7.660
7.230
6.664
5.926
4- 964
6.873
6.386
5- 724
4-833
6.001
5-444
4-653
5-031
4-385
3-952
Table III. Showing the Values of Annuities on Single
Lives, among Males and Females, according to the
Probabilities of the Duration of Life in the Kingdom
of Sweden.
Males.
Ages. 4 per ct.l 5 per
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
75
16
17
18
>9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
4r
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
x6.503
I7-355
17- 93 5
18.3 28
18- 5°3
18.622
18.692
18.725
18.715
18.674
18.60c
18.491
18.378
18.246
18.105
17-958
17.803
i7'643
17.492
17-335
17.192
17.042
16.887
16.742
16.592
16.436
16.274
16.105
I5-930
I5-75I
15-575
15-395
15.208
15.014
14.812
14.601
14.282
J4-154
13.916
13.668
I3-426
13.196
12.984
12.763
12-535
12.297
12.051
11-795
11.528
11.267
11.030
10.785
1°-53I
10.269
9.998
14.051
14.778
I5-279
15.624
i5-786
15.901
15-977
16.021
16.030
16.014
I5-97°
15.896
15.819
15.724
15.624
Females.
4 Per ct-|5 Per ct
Lives in general,
per ct. 5 per ct.
16.820
17.719
18.344
18.780
18.927
19.045
19.13!
19.162
19-I5I
19.IO9
19.O4I
18.952
18.840
18.707
18.568
15.404
15.285
I5-I75
I5-5I7 18.424
18.290
18.151
18.013
I5-°59l| 17-872
I7-725
I7-573
17*4I4
I7-252
17.087
16.915
16.751
16.588
16.427
16.261
16.104
75-947
15-787
15.629
I4-955
14.846
I4-732
14.627
I4-517
I4-4°2
14.282
I4-I56
14.024
13.889
t3-756
i3-6i9
I3-477
^•^o 15-465
13.006
12.833
12.652
12.462
12.261
12.065
11.88c
11.710
11.532
11-347
11.153
10.951
10.738
10.516
ic.298
10.100
9-895
9.682
9.460
9.229
15.278
15.070
14.854
14.629
14.401
14.185
13-994
13-798
13-596
13-383
13-151
12.894
12.620
12-333
12.049
11.769
11.492
11.22c
io-937
10.642
14.271
15-03
i5-57i
i5-95i
16.088
16.203
16.29
16.661
17-537
18.139
18.554
18.715
18.833
18.912
16-335 i8-943
16.343 18-933
16.3 25J18.89:
i6.286| 18.820
16.229I 18.721
16.153118.609
16.059118.476
15.960 18.336
15-856J 18.191
15.761! 18.046
15 662| 17.897
15-563
15.462
I5-356
I5-245
15.129
15.009
14.886
14-757
14.636
I4-5I5
I7-752
17.603
I7-458
I7-307
17.150
16.997
16.839
16.675
16.512
16.346
14.3-96 16.178
14.272J 16.006
14.156
I4-035
I3-923
13.806
13.684
I3-542
13-382
i3-2i3
13.036
12.856
12.687
12.538
12.387
12.229
12.061
11.876
11.668
n-443
11.205
10.97c
10-737
10.507
10.280
10.042
9.792
R
15 839
15.668
15-497
15-321
15-138
14-939
14.726
14-504
14.272
14.034
13-805
13-595
I3-391
13179
12.950
12.724
12.472
12.217
11-930
11.658
n-399
11.138
10.875
10.603
10.320
14.161
14.906
15-425
15-787
15-937
16.052
16.134
16.1
16.1
16.169
16.128
16.062
15.986
15.891
I5-792
15.686
15-582
15-473
15-369
15.26
I5-I55
15-045]
14.930
14.8 iS
14.701
14-579
14.459
14-335
14.210
14.080
13-956
13.827
13-700'
13.566
13-427
13.274
13.107
12.932
12.749
12.558
12.376
12.209
i 2.048
11.880
r I.704
II-5I4
II-309
I I.C90
IO.860
IO.634
10.418
10.201
9.981
9-75i
9.510
Survivor-
fli ip.
Males.
S U R
[ 13° ]
S U R
Survivor-
fhip.
Males.
Ages. 4 per ct. 5 per et.
5 6
57
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
e04
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
9.J17
9-425
9I4°
8 845
8.540
8.241
7-95Q
7.669
7.382
7.090
6.792
6.489
6.201
8.988
§-736 I
5-933
5.670
5-4l8
.5.180
4.940
4.724
4.487
4-253
4.024
3.768
3-512
3.260
3.017
2.792
2.600
2-473
2-37i
2.281
2.154
1-955
1.698
1.417
I-154
0-835
0.477
0.240
0.000
Females.
4 per ct. 5 per ct.
0.000
IO-334
^ 10.012
.489 9.692
K 9-358
9-°39
8-739
8-453
8.166
7.870
7.566
7.252
6.930
6.596
6.253
5-897
5-564
5.261
4.998
4.792
4.582
4 367
4-I45
3-9I3
3.668
3-402
3I45
2.905
2.699
2-559
2-552
2.518
2-431
2.294
2.108
i-873
8.232 ■
7-963
7.700
7.442
7-193
6.938
6.676
6.408
6.134
5.872
5.628
5-389
5-158
4.940
4-7i9
4.521
4.302
4.084
3-871
3-631
3-39°
3-152
2.921
2.706
2-523
2.403
2.306
2.222
2.103
x.912
1.664
1.392
1.136
0.824
0.471
0.238
0.000
0.000
Lives in general
4 per ct. 5 per-ct
1.628
i-349
1.071
0.799
o-544
0.320
9-529
9-253
8.976
8.687
8.406
8.144
7-895
7-643
7.382
7.111
6.831
6.541
6.239
5.926
5-599
5 293
5-oi3
4.770
4.581
4.388
4.189
3-983
3-767
3-536
3-285
3.041
2.812
2.615
2.480
2.476
2.446
2-365
2.236
2.059
r-833
1.596
1-325
1.054
0.788
o-537
0.317
10.025
9.718
9.416
9.101
8.789
8.490
8.201
7.917
7.626
7.328
7.022
6.709
6.398
6.093
5-783
5-49i
5.220
4.969
4-758
4-534
4.310
4.084
3.840
3-590
3-33i
3.081
2.848
2.649
2.516
2.461
2-399
2.292
2.124
1.903
1.645
!-39i
1.092
0.774
0.519
9.258
8994
8.732
8.458
8.184
7.922
7.668
7.418
7.160
6.893
6.619
6-337
6-055
5-777
5-494
5-225
4.976
4-744
4-55i
4-345
4.136
3-927
3-699
3-463
3.218
2.981
2-759
2.569
2.441
2.391
2-334
2.338
2.074
1.861
1.612
1.366
I-°74
0.762
°-5I3
Intereft 4 per cent»
Difference of o, 6, 12, and 18 years.
Ages.
1- I
2- 2
3- 3
4- 4
5- 5
6- 6
VAlue-
12.252
13- 583
14- 558
15.267
15- 577
15.82
Yges
!- 7
2- 8
3- 9
4- 10
5- ii
6- 12
V alue-
13.989
14- 780
15- 323
15-685
15.817
15.887
Ages
14 I
!-I3
2-
3-
4- 16
5'17
6-18
151
V alue*.
13.894
4-557
4.988
15-259
15-326
r 5-3 54
Age-
1- I9
2- 20
3- 21
4- 22
5- 23
6- 24
V allies-
!3-389
14.008
.14-417
14.671
14-725
14740
Intereft 4 per cent.
S'urv*b.
ftiip.
10-IC
I I -1 1
12-1 ?
3-1
14-X4
5-i5
16-16
7'17
18- 18
19- 19
20- 20
21- 21
22- 22
23~23
24- 24
25- 25
26- 26
27- 27
28- 28
Table IV. Showing the Value of Annuities on Two Joint
Lives, according to the Probabilities of the Duration* f
Human Life, among Males and Females collediively,
reckoning interejl at 4 per cent.
Age-
7" 7
8- b
9- 9 16.152
V alues.
16.OO3
16.IO9
16.141
16.087
15.982
15.855
15.701
15-535
[5-36‘
\ 5.196
15.023
14.854
14.682
14-525
14.36
[4-I94
14.020
13.849
13.671
! 3-495
13-323
29- 29
30- 30
3I'3i
32- 32
33- 33
34*34
35- 35
36- 36
37- 37
38- 38
39- 39
40- 40
41- 41
42- 42
43- 43
44- 44
(45-45
46- 46
47- 47
48- 48
49- 49
50- 50
51- 5I
52- 5
153*53
54- 54
55- 55
56- 56
57- 57
58- 58
5959
60- 60
61- 61
62- 62
63- 63
64- 64
65- 6
66- 66
12.965130-36
12.795
12.62432-38
12.456
12.286
12.109
33- 39
34- 40
- 35-41 . .
11.904136-4^11.156
IO-953
10.741
10.519
10.286
11.683 37-43
11.45238-44
11.209 39-45
10.964 40-46
10.732 41-47
3.148
Agee.
7-'3
8 14
9I5
10- 16
11- 1
12- 1S
13- 19
14- 2C
15- 21
16- 22
17- 23
18- 24
19- 2
20- 26
21- 27
22- 28
Values.
23- 29
24- 30
25- 31
26- 32
27- 33
28- 34
29- 35
15-914
15.88b
15.824
‘5-729
1 5.617
15-477
15-327
15.164
15.OOI
14.832
14.665
14.491
14.320
14.144
13.976
l 3.807
13-635
•455
3I_37
10.531
10.346
10.154
9-954
9-736
9-497
9.236
8.966
8.230
7-994
7.748
7-495
7.229
6.924
42- 48
43- 49
44- 5°
45- 5i
46- 52
47- 53
48- 54
49- 55
8.707 50-56
8-469 51-57
52- 58
53- 59
54- 6c
55- 61
56- 62
57- 63
6.678 58-64
6.388J59-65
6.104 60-66
5-844
5.600
5.367
61- 67
62- 68
63- 69
13.284
13.108
12.935
12.763
12.586
12.390
12.192
11.988
11.779
11.568
11.36
Values.
7- 19
8- 2
IO.O49
9.813
9- 21
10- 22 I
1 l-23
1 2-24
13- 25
14- 26
15- 27
16- 28
17- 29
1 8-30
19- 31
20- 3 2
!-33
22- 34
23- 35
24- 36
25- 3^
26- 38
27 39
28- 40
29- 41
3°-42
31- 43
32- 44
,33*45
34- 46
35- 47
36- 48
37- 49
38- 50
39- 51
40- 52
41- 53
42- 54
5-35i;
15-310
5-244
5-M9
15-033
4.889
14-736
9-58i 43-55
9-351
9.129
8.897
8.658
8.402
8.139
7.874
5.128164-70
4.881 65-71
4.626I66-72
7-35 ‘
7.083
6.814
6-555
6.299
6.045
5.788
5-5I9
5-249
4.984
4.729
4.482
4.231
3.982
3-750
44- 56
45- 57
4(1-58
47- 59
48- 60
49- 61
50- 62
7-6i3 51-63
\ ges.
Values.
7- 2“:
8- :6
9- 27
10- 28
11- 29
12- 30
13- 31
14.727
4-673
14-590
4.484
14-357
I 20
4.566 14-32
'4
52- 64
53- 65
54- 66
55- 67
56- 68
57.-69
58- 70
59- 7i
60- 72
61- 73
62- 74
63- 75
64- 76
65- 77
66 78
14.392
14.216
14.042
13.860
13.687
‘3-512
3- 345
13-I73
12.997
12.801
12.599
12.387
12.170
u-953
11.742
n-543
n-359
11.170
10.978
io-77.!
IO-557
10.314
10.o eg
9.805
9-558
9.308
9.066
8.83c
8-597
8-354
8.10 j
7.841'
7-563
7.281
7.008
6.749
6-505
6.256
6.004
5-743
5-474
5.204
4- 936
4.664
4-395
4.149
15- 33
16- 34
17- 35
18- 36
19- 3
20- 38
21- 39
22- 40
23- 41
24- 42
25- 45
26- 44
27- 45
28- 46
29- 47
30- 48
31'49
32- 50
33- 5i
34- 52
35- 53
36- 54
37- 55
38- 56
39*57
40-58
4I*59
42- 60
43- 61
44- 62
45- 63
46- 64
47- 65
48- 66
49- 67
50- 68
51- 69
52- 70
53- 7i
54- 72
55- 73
56- 74
57- 75
58- 76
59- 77
60- 78
15
3-874
3.70c
13-520
13-340
13.141
13-934
12.720
12-505
12.286
12.073
11.873
11.682
1.485
11.284
11.072
10.847
10.606
10.365
10.128
3.927 61-79
3.747 62-80
3-563 63-8
3.37064-82
3.180^5-83
2.974 66-84
9-9°5
9.679
9-452
9.207
8.951
8.685
8.404
8.124
7-839
7-569
7-3i8
7-°75
6.836
6.586
6.323
6.048
5-764
5.487
c.221
4-953
4.694
4-455
4-231
4-°43
3-844
3-637
3-43°
3.210
2.974
2.744
2-557
2.396
2.252
2.123
Intereit
SUE
[ 131 ]
SUE
urvlvor-
fliip.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Ape?
67- 67
68- 68
69- 69
70- 70
71'?1
72- 72
73- 73
74- 74
75- 75
76- 76
77- 77
78- 78
79- 79
80- 80
81- 81
82- 82
33-83
84- 84
85- 85
86- 86
87- 87
88- 88
89- 891
90- 90
9r-9i
92- 92
93- 93
94- 94
95- 95
. j Values.
2.648'75-8i
2.490
2-34
2.170
I-9^7
i-758
1.600
1.364
1.276
1.212
1.172
1.127
0.949
0.718
°-5l6
0.326
0.236
0.190
0.024
Ages.
76- 82
77- 83
78- 84
79- 8?
80- 86
81- 87
I.472;82-88
83- 89
84- 90
.85-91
I86-92
. I87-93
07 I '88-94
89-95
Values. Apes.
3-527 67-79
3.34O 68-80
3.X47|69-8l
2.946I7O-82
2-752I7I-83
2-558i72-84
2-355 73-85
2.172174-86
2-0 17 ]75-87
1.877176-88
x-756i77-89
1.639 78-90
1-524 79-91
i.4i6!8o-92
1.320,81-93
1.225 82-94
I-095|83-95
0.902
0-725
°-556
°-459
0.396
0.364
Values. Apes.
2-743
2-5I4l
2.3241
2-155
2.004
1-875
i.768|
.6921I7
•6o5'7
1
1.
I-497i
1.097,
0.865I
0.638;
0.511
0.4271
°-379-
67- 85
68- 86
69-87
170- 88
171- 89
72- 90
73- 91
4- 92
5- 93
76- 94
77- 95
Values
2.010
1.9IO
1.798
I.66l
I.464
I.189
0-937
O.708
0-575
O.48 I
O.421
Table V. Showing the Values of two Joint Lives, ac¬
cording to the Probabilities of the Duration of Human
Lfe among Mules and Females collcSiivclg.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Difference of age 24, 30, 36, and 42 years.
Apes.
V alues. Apes.
1- 25
2- 26
3- 27
4- 28
5- 29
6- 30
7- 31
8- 32
9- 33
10- 34
n-35
12-36
H-3%
I5*39
16-40
12.832
13.409
13- 778
14.003
14- 037
I4-°33
14.006
13-944
i3-855:
I3-741
13.604
!-31
2- 32
3- 33
4- 34
5- 35
6- 36
7- 37
8- 38
9- 39
10-40
1 r-41
13.428112-42
I3-234 l3-43
13.023 14-44
12.798 15-45
12.57CI16-46
V alues.
12.196!
I2.730|
13.066
13.264
I3-277
13.242
13.170
13-059
I 2.91 3
12-743
12.563
12-379
12.196
ri-997
11.787
11.562
Ages.
1- 37
2- 38
3- 39
4- 40
5- 41
6- 42
7- 43
8- 44
9- 45
10- 46
11- 47
12- 48
!3-49
14- 5°
15- 51
16- 52
Values.
II.465
11.913
12.164
12.284
I 2.242
12.185
I 2.11 2
I 2.OO41
II.865
11.694
n-493
11.259
11.011
lo'lS9
10.514
10.2641
Ages. Values.
!-43 io-546
2- 4410.946
3- 4511.168
4- 46! 11.260
5- 4711.1-83
6- 48 11.06.
7- 4910.915
8- 5010.745
9-5'
10- 52
11- 53
12- 54
13- 55
14- 56
15- 57
16- 58
10.560
io.357
10.140
9.898
9.644
9-37i
9.087
8.799
Intereft 4 per cent.
SurvfVoj--
fhio.
Ages. Values. Ages
!7-4i
18- 42
19- 43
20- 44
2I~45
22- 46
23- 47
34-48
25- 49
26- 5c
27- 51
28- 52
29- 53
30- 54
31- 55
32- 56
33- 57
34- 58
35- 59
36- 60
37- 6i
38- 62
39- 63
40- 64
41- 6j
42- 66
43- 67
44- 68
45- 69
46- 7
47- 71
48- 72
19-73
SO-74
iI-75
52-76
33-77
54- 78
55- 79
j6-8o
57- 8i
58- 82
59- 83
60- 84
61- 85
62- 86
63- 87
64- 88
65- 89
66- 90
67- 91
68- 92
69- 93
70- 94
7I*95
10.862
10.612
10.364
10.130 27-57
9.894 28-58
9-659 29-59
9-4i3|30-6°
9-i67|3i-6i
8.912|3 2-6 2
8.651I33-63
12.351
12.146
II.95I
n-751
n-550
'1*335
11.107 23-53
17- 47
18- 48
19- 49
20- 50
21- 51
22- 52
24- 54
25- 55
26- 56
Values.
8.389
8.II4
7-833
7-56l
7.296
7-033
34- 64
35- 65
36- 66
37- 67
38- 68
39- 69
6.763 40 70
6.49241-7'
6.22 c
5-957
5.689
5.426
5-153
4.884
4-633
4-398
4.205
4.008
3-803
3-605
3-389
3-i5o
2.909
2.710
2-539
2-385
2.248
2*135
2.037
1.916
1.79
1-585
1.29c
i.oj 7
0.764
0.617
0.514
0.411
42- 72
43- 73
44- 74
45- 75
46- 76
47- 77
48- 78
49- 79
50- 80
51- 81
52- 82
53- 8.3
54- 84
55- 85
56- 86
57- 87
58- 88
59- 89
60- 90
61- 91
62- 92
63- 93
64- 94
65- 95
11.328
11.076
10.819
10.567
10.332
10.092
9.852
9.602
9-347
9.080
8.807
8*534
8.250
7.967
7.702
7.196
6.942
6.679
6.402
6.11 ?
5.828
5-543
5-254
4-977
4-730
4-507
4.322
4.128
Ages.
! 7-53
18-54
'9-55
20- c6
21- 57
22- 58
23- 59
24- 60
25- 61
26- 62
27*63
28- 64
29- 65
30- 66
31- 67
Value*
7.446 32-68
33- 69
34- 70
35- 7'
36- 72
37- 73
38- 74
.39-75
40- 76
41- 77
42- 78
43- 79
44- 80
45- 8i
3.921I46-8
3*7i5|47-83
3.489 48-84
3*238
2.99c
2.792
2.623
2*475
49- 85
50- 86
51- 87
52- 88
53- 89
2.232
2.13c
2.01c
2*344 54-9c
55- 9'
56- 92
57- 93
1.864 58-94
1.644 59-95
i*333
1.050
0.789
0.639
o*533
0.456
10.018
9.761
9.500
9.228
8*953
8.675
8.385
8.097
7.823
7*557
7.297
7*03 2
6.761
6.481
6.197
5.642
5*364
5*093
4.84c
4.603
4-405
4*195
3*975
3.762
3*539
3*295
3*052
2.854
Ages.
'7-59
18- 60
19- 61
20- 62
21- 65
22- 64
23- 65
24- 66
25- 67
26- 68
27- 69
28- 70
29- 71
30- 72
31- 73
5.947 32-74
33- 75
34- 76
35- 77
36- 78
37- 79
38- 80
39- 8 >
40- 82
41- 83
42- 84
43- 8
44- 86
45- 87
2.684I46-88
2*533 47-89
2.396 38-90
2.277
2.171
2.050
49- 91
50- 92
51- 93
1.901 52-94
1.681 53-95
1.366s
I*0?8!
o.8ic|
0.655]
0.546]
0*464!
Values.
8.503
8.208
7.928
7.658
■7*396
7.127
6.851
6.566
6.275
5.986
5.702
5*415
5.136
4.881
4.646
4-453
4.251
4.040
3*833
3.605
3*352
3.098
2.889
2.710
2-553
2.418
2-305
2.203
2.083
i*933
1.708
1*385
1.090
0.818
0.662
0-551
0.468
K 1
The
Survivor-
S U R [ i
The values of joint lives in thefe tables have been
computed for only one rate of intereft 5 and of fingle
lives in Table III. for only two rates of intereft. The
following rules will ftiow, that it would be a needlefs
labour to compute thefe values (in ftriff conformity to
the obfervations) for any other rates of intereft.
ACCOUNT of a method of deducing, from the corrcB va¬
lues (according to any obfervations') of any fngle or
joint Lives at one rate of Interef, the fame values at
f other rates of Interef.
Preliminary Problems,
Prob. I. The expectation given of a fingle life by
any table of obfervations, to find its value, fuppofing
the decrements of life equal, at any given rate of in¬
tereft.
Solution. Find the value of an annuity certain for
a number of years equal to twice the expectation. Mul¬
tiply this value by the perpetuity increafed by unity,
and divide the produCt by twice the expectation : The
quotient fubtraCted from the perpetuity will be the va¬
lue required.
Example. The expectation of a male life aged 10,
by the Sweden obfervations, is 43.94. Twice this ex¬
pectation is 87.88. The value of an annuity certain
for 87.88 years is (reckoning intereft at 4 per cent.)
24.200. The produCt of 24.200 into 26 (the perpe¬
tuity increafed by unity) is 629.2, which, divided by
87.88, gives 7.139. And this quotient fubtraCted from
25 (the perpetuity) gives 17.84 years purchafe, the va¬
lue of a life aged ten, deduced from the expectation of
life at that age, according to the Sweden obfervations.
(See the Tables in Dr Price on Reverfions, vol. ii.).
Prob. II. Having the expectations given of any two
lives by any table of obfervations, to deduce from thence
the value of the joint lives at any rate of intereft, fup¬
pofing an equal decrement of life.
Solution. Find the difference betwTeen twice the ex¬
pectation of the youngeft life and twice the expectation
of the oldeft life increafed by unity and twice the per¬
petuity. Multiply this difference by the value of an
annuity certain for a time equal to twice the expecta¬
tion of the oldeft life ; and by twice the fame expecta¬
tion divide the produCt, referving the quotient.
From twice the perpetuity fubtraCl the referved
quotient, and multiply the remainder by the perpetuity
increafed by unity. This laft produCt divided by twice
the expectation of the youngeft life, and then fubtraCted
from the perpetuity, will be the required value.
When twice the expectation of the youngeft life is
greater than twice the expectation of the oldeft life in-
ereafed by unity and twice the perpetuity, the referved
quotient, inftead of being fubtraCted from twice the
perpetuity, muft be added to it, and the fum, not the
difference, multiplied by the perpetuity increafed by
unity.
Example. Let the joint lives propofed be a female
life aged 10, and a male life aged 15 ; and let the table
of obfervations be the Sweden table for lives in general,
and the rate of intereft 4 per cent. Twice the expec¬
tations of the two lives are 90.14 and 83.28.
Twice the expectation of the oldeft life, increafed by
unity and twice the perpetuity, is 134.28, which leffened
by 90.14 (twice the expectation of the youngeft life),
32 ] s U II
leaves 44,14 for the referved remainder. This remain¬
der multiplied by 24.045 (the value of an annuity cer¬
tain for 83.28 years), and the produCt divided by 83.28
(twice the expectation of the oldeft life), gives 12.744^
the quotient to be referved ; which fubtraCted from
double the perpetuity, and the remainder (or 37.2155)
multiplied by the perpetuity increafed by unity (or by
26) gives 968.630, which divided by 90.14 (twice the
expectation of the youngeft life) and the quotient fub¬
traCted from the perpetuity, we have 14.254 for the re¬
quired value.
The value of an annuity certain, when the number
of years is a whole number with a fraction added (as
will be commonly the cafe) may be belt computed in
the following manner. In this example the number of
years is 83.28. The value of an annuity certain for 83
years is 24.035. The fame value for 84 years is 24.072,
The difference between thefe two values is 0.37 ; which
difference multiplied by .28 (the fractional part of
the number of years), and the produCt (.0103) added to
the leaft of the two values, will give 24.045 the value
for 83.28 years.
General Rule. Call the correCt value (fuppofed to be
computed for any rate of intereft) the firft value. Call
* the value deduced (by the preceding problems) from
the expectations at the fame rate of intereft, the fecond
value. Call the value deduced from the expectations
for any other rate of intereft the third value. .
Then the difference between the firft and fecond var-
lues added to or fubtraCted from the third value, juft as
the firft is greater or lefs than the fecond, will be the
value at the rate of intereft for which the third value
has been deduced from the expectations.
The following examples will make this perfectly plain.
Example I. In the two laft tables the correCt values
are given of two joint lives among mankind at large,
without diftinguilhing between males and females, ac¬
cording to the Sweden obfervations, reckoning intereft
at 4 per cent. Let it be required to find from thefe
values the values at 3 per cent, and let the ages of the
joint lives be fuppofed 10 and 10.
The correCt value by Table IV. (reckoning intereft
at 4 per cent.) is 16.141. The expectation of a life'
aged 10 is 45.07. The value deduced from this ex¬
pectation at 4 per cent, by Prob. II. is 14.539. The
value deduced by the fame problem from the fame ex¬
pectation at 3 per cent, is 16.808. The difference be¬
tween the firft and fecond values is 1.602, which, added
to the third value (the firft' being greater than the fe¬
cond), makes 18.410, the value required.
Example II. Let the value be required of a fingle
male life aged 10, at 3 per cent, intereft, from the cor¬
reCt value at 4 per cent, according to the Sweden ob¬
fervations.
Firft, or correCt value at 4 per cent, (by Table III.)
is 18.674. The expectation of a male life aged 10 is
Survive,
fliip.
43-94> r
The fecond value (or the value deduced from this ex¬
pectation by Prob. I.) is 17.838.
The third value (dr the value deduced from the fame
expectation at 3 per cent.) is 21.277.
The difference between the firft and fecond is .836 ;
which (fince the firft is greater than the fecond) muft
be added to the third ; and the fum (that is, 22.113)
will be the value required.
The
* S U R [I
vor- The third value at 5 per cent, is 15.286-, and the
p, difference added to 15.286 makes 16.122 the value of
f*- a male life aged 10 at 5 per cent, according to the
~~J Sweden obfervatxons. The exad. value at 5 per cent, is
(by Table III.) 16.014.
Again : the difference between 16.014 (the corredt
value° at 5 per cent.), and 15.286 (the value at the
fame intereft deduced from the expedlation), is .728 ;
which, added (becaufe the firft value is greater than the
fecond) to 13.335 (the value deduced at 6 per cent,
from the expeftation) gives 14.063, the value of the
fame life, reckoning intereft at 6 per cent.
Thefe deductions, in the cafe of ftngle lives particu¬
larly, are fo eafy, and give the true values fo nearly,
that it Avill be fcarcely ever neceffary to calculate the
exadt values (according to any given obfervations) for
jnore than one rate of intereft.
If, for inftance, the corredt values are computed at 4
per cent, according to any obfervations, the values at 3,
3*> 4t» 5, 6, 7, or 8 per cent, may be deduced from
them by the preceding rules as occafion may require,
ivithout much labour or any danger of confiderable er¬
rors. The values thus deduced will feldom differ from
the true values fo much as a tenth of a year’s purchafe.
They will not generally differ more than a 20th or 30th
of a year’s purchafe. In joint lives they will differ lefs
than in Angle lives, and they will come equally near to
one another whatever the rates of intereft are.
The preceding tables furnifh the means of determining
the exadt differences between the values of annuities, as
they are made to depend on the furvivorlhip of any
male or female lives j which hitherto has been a die-
Jidertiium of conftderable confequence in the dodlrine of
"life-annuities. What has made this of confequence is
chiefly the multitude of focieties lately eftabliflied in
this and foreign countries for providing annuities for
widows. The general rule for calculating from thefe
tables the value of fuch annuities is the following.
Rule. “ Find in Table III. the value of a female life
at the age of the wife. From this value fubftradt the
value in Table IV. of the joint continuance of two lives
at the ages of the hulband and wife. The remainder
will be the value in a ftngle prefent payment of an an¬
nuity for the life of the wife, fhould {he be left a widow.
And this laft value divided by the value of the joint
lives increafed by unity, will be the value of the fame
annuity in annual payments during the joint lives, and
to commence immediately.”
Example. Let the age of the wife be 24? anc^
huiband 30. The value in Table III. (reckoning in¬
tereft at 4 per cent.) of a female life aged 24, is 17.252.
The value in Table IV. of two joint lives aged 24 and
30, is 13.455, which fubtradled from 17.252 leaves
3.797, the value in a Angle prefent payment of an an¬
nuity of il. for the life of the wife after the hulband 5
that is, for the life of the widow. The annuity, there¬
fore, being fuppofed 20I. its value in a Angle payment is
20 multiplied by 3.797, that is, 75.94I. And this laft
value divided by 14.455 (that is, by the value of the
joint lives increafed by unity), gives 5.25, the value in
annual payments beginning immediately, and to be
continued during the joint lives of an annuity of 20I. to
a wife aged 24 for her life, after her hulband aged 30.
SURYA, the orb of the fun perfonifted and adored
5
33 ] s u s
by a fe& of Hindoos as a god. He feems to be the Surya
fame divinity with the Phoebus of Greece and Rome j Su|e?
and the fe<ft who pay him particular adoration are call- . , ^ .
ed Sauras. Their poets and painters deferibe his car as
drawn by feven green horfes, preceded by Arun, or the
Dawn, who afts as his charioteer, and followed by
thoufands of genii worlhipping him and modulating his
praifes. He has a multitude of names, and among them AJiatic Re-
twelve epithets or titles, which denote his diltinft/^'^A
powers in each of the twelve months j and he L be-^ ^
lieved to have defeended frequently from his car in a
human lhape, and to have left a race on earth, who are
equally renowned in the Indian ftories with the Heliadai
of Greece : it is very Angular, that his two fons called
Afwinau or Afwinicumarau, in the dual, Ihould be con-
fidered as twin-brothers, and painted like Caitor and
Pollux; but they have each the chara&er of iffLiculapi-
us among the gods, and are believed to have been born
of a nymph, who, in the form of a mare, was impregna¬
ted with funbeams.
SUS, the Hog, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the clafs of mammalia and order of belluae. See Mam¬
malia Index.
SUSA, the ancient royal reftdence of the kings of
Perfla, built by Darius Hyftafpis, according to Pliny j
though he probably only reftored it, being a very an¬
cient city, founded by Tithonus father of Memnon. It
was in compafs 120 ftadia, of an oblong quadrangular
form, with a citadel called Memncmeum. In Scripture
it is called Sufan, the royal citadel, from the great
number of lilies growing in that diftrift (Athenseus) j
Atuated on the river Uhlai, or Eulaeus (Daniel): and.
the Spaniards call at this day a lily afufena (Pinedo).
Sufa was the winter, as Ecbatana was the fummer, reA-
dence of the kings of Perfta, (Xenophon, Strabo, Plu¬
tarch). Here the kings kept their treafure, (Herodo¬
tus), Now called Tujler.
SUSPENSION, in Scots Law. See Law, Nq
clxxxv. 5, 6, and 7.
SUSSEX, a county of England, deriving its name
from its fltuation in refpeft of the other Saxons, and
called Sujfex, i. e. the country of the South Saxons, has
Hamplhire on the weft, the Britifh channel on the
fouth, Surry on the north, and Kent on the eaft. Its
length is 65 miles, its breadth 30, and its circumfer¬
ence 170. It is divided into 6 rapes, and thefe into Gough's ^
65 hundreds, in which are 342 parilhes, of which 123 'cJmdeJi
are vicarages, one city, 16 market-towns, Britannia,
acres, and about 159,311 fouls. It has few good ports, vol. i. p.
though it lies along the channel for 65 miles, which is 192.
its greateft length; the coaft being encumbered in many
jilaces with rocks j and where it is more open, fuch
quantifies of fand are thrown upon it by the louth-weft
winds, and the harbours fo choked up, that they will
not admit veffels of any great draught or burden. The
county is well watered by the rivers Arun, Adar, Oufe,
Rother, Lavant, Cuckmeer, Alhburn, and Aften, by
which it. is well fupplied with Alh, as well as from the
fea. Hence different places of the county are famed
for different forts of ftlh, as the Arun for mullets, which
enter it from the fea in fummer in Ihoals, and by feeding
upon a particular kind of herb become extremely deli¬
cious : Chichefter for lobfters, Selfey for cockles, Am-
berley for trout, Pulborough for- eels, Rye for herrings,
and
S U T •, [I.
Satfex, and the county in general for carp. It is remarkable,
Sutherland. t|iat ajj t]ie rjvers ab0ve mentioned rife and fall into the
fea within the county.
The air, as well as the foil, is various in different
parts of the county. Upon the coaft the air is aguifli,
upon the hills and downs pleafant and wholefome ; but
tome what moift and foggy in the valleys, the foil being
deep and rich, and the vegetation in fummer very vigo¬
rous. The downs in fome places are very fertile in corn
and grafs ; in others they feed great flocks of ftieep,
•whofe flelh and wool are very fine 5 but of the latter no
inconfiderable quantity is clandeftinely exported to
France. In the Weald and the valleys the roads are
very deep, efpecially in winter. In the north quarter
are many woods, and fome forefts in other places ;
whence the king’s yards are fupplied with the largeft
and bell timber in England, befide what is made into
charcoal and confumed in the iron-works *, for on the
eaft fide is plenty of iron ore, with furnaces, forges, and
mills for manufadluring it. The gunpowder of this
county is faid to excel that of any other. Thofe deli¬
cious birds called wheat-ears are bred in this Ihire ; they
are not bigger than a lark, but very fat. That part
now called the Wild or Weald of Suflex, was anciently
a mere defert for hogs and deer, of great extent, taking
in a part of Kent and Surry •, and was called Anderida
Silva, Coid Andred, and Andradjwa/d, from Anderida
an adjoining city. This county is in the home circuit
and diocefe of Chichefter, giving title of earl to the fa¬
mily of Yelverton, and fends 28 members to parliament,
viz. two for the county, two for the city of Chichefter,
and two for each of the following towns, Horfham,
Lewes, Bramber, Eaft-Grinftead, Midhurft, Shoreham,
Staining, Arundel, Haftings, Rye, Winchelfea, and
Seaford •, of which the four laft are cinque ports.
SUTHERLAND, one of the moft northerly coun¬
ties of Scotland, bordering on Caithnefs to the eaft, and
bounded by the ocean on the north, the country of Af-
fynt on the weft, Rofs-lhire on the fouth, and by the
German fea on the fouth-eaft. It ftretches about 70
miles in length, and 40 in breadth •, is generally hilly,
though in many parts arable ; well watered with fmall
rivers and ftreams replete with fifti, and containing about
60 lakes, the habitation of various fifti, fwans, ducks,
geefe, &c. One of the largeft of thefe is Lochftiin,
extending 18 miles in length. Some of them are in-
~. terfperfed with fmall verdant iflands, Avhich jn fummer
yield a very agreeable profpeft. On the coaft are many
commodious harbours, and all the bays fwarm with filh.
Sutherland affords iron-ftone' freeftone, limeftone, mar¬
ble and flate, in abundance. Turf and peat are the
common fuel. Lead ore, and lome copper ore,; have been
met with in fome parts of the county.
The air is fo temperate, and the foil fo good, that
faffron has here been brought to perfection. Many parts
of the country are remarkably fruitful in corn, and the
pafturage is everywhere excellent. Deer and fome other
game are abundant in Sutherland. On the hills are
fed numerous flocks of ftieep and black cattle. The
northern part, called Strathnaver, and feparated from
the reft by a ridge of mountains, is bounded on the
north by the Deucaledonian fea, on the wreft by the
channel called the Minch, on the eaft by Caithnefs, and
on the fouth by Affynt. The length from eaft to weft,
is 34 miles j but the breadth from north to fouth does
34 1 S U T
not exceed 12 in fome places. It is very hilly ; and the Suthiji
mountains are fo high, that the fnow remains on the tops I ,
of them till midfummer. It is watered by the Naver,, Sllt|
from whence it derives its name : this diftriCt gives a f
title to the eldeft fon of the earl of Sutherland. Strath¬
naver has many frefh-water lakes or lochs; the chief of
which are Loch Naver and Loch Lyel: there are feve-
ral iflands on the northern coaft. In various parts of
the country there are monuments of victories obtained
over the Danes or other foreign invaders. The inhabi¬
tants are hardy, bold, and enterprifing ; courteous to
ftrangers •, cheerful, open* frugal, and induftrious. The
falmon-fifliery in this county is confiderable, as well as
the trade in black cattle, llieep, and horfes, at the
neighbouring fairs •, corn, barley, falmon, butter, cheefe,
wool, hides, and tallow, are exported. Dornoch is the
capital of the county. The population of Sutherland in
i8ox amounted to 23,000. The following table fliews
the population at two different periods *. *
Hijl. I
Pari floes Population Population in xx. I
’ in DSS" 179°—1798,
Affynt 1934 3000
Clyne 1406 1660
Creich 17°5 1730
Durnefs 1000 1182
5 Dornoch 2780 2541
Edderachyllis 869 1024
Farr 2800 2600
Golfpie j 790 j 700
Kildonan 1433 1365
10 Lairg 1010 1350
Loth 1193 137°
Rogart 1761 2000
13 Tongue 1093 1439
20,774
22,961
20,774
Increafe, 2,187
SUTLER, in War, one who follows, the army, and
furnifties the troops with provifion. Sutlers pitch their
tents, or build their huts, in the rear of each regiment,
and about head-quarters.
SUTRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a famous city,
and an ancient colony of the Romans, the key of Etru¬
ria ; founded about feven years after the taking of Rome
vBy the Gauls (Velleius). Now Sutri \r\ St Peter’s patri¬
mony, on the river Pozzolo; furrounded on every fide
Avith^rocks, 24 miles to the north-Aveft of Rome.
SUTTON, Samuel, w'as born at Alfreton in Der-
byftiire, and going into the army ferved under the duke-
of Marlborough in Queen Anne’s wars with great cre¬
dit. He afterwards came to London, commenced breAv-
er, and kept a coffee-houfe in Alderfgate ftreet, xvhich
Avas Avell frequented by the learned men of that time,
by Avhom Mr Sutton Avas^much refpe&ed, as a man of
ftrong natural parts and uncultivated genius. About
the year 1740 he fchemed a very Ample and natural me¬
thod for extracting the foul air from the Avells of (hips,
by pipes communicating xvith the fire-places of the cop¬
pers •, which operated as long as any fire Avas kept burn¬
ing for the Ihip’s ufe. He took out a patent in 1744, to
fecure the profits of his invention j and died about the
year 1752. -
/ .
SUTURE,
>S W A t 135 1
SUTURE, in Anatomy, a kind of articulation pecu¬
liar to the cranium or Ikull. See Anatomy, I ait I.
pnjfnn. . . , r
Suturk, in Surgery, a method ot uniting the lips ot
wounds together. See Surgery.
SWABBER, an inferior otficer on board Uups ot
war, whole employment it is to fee that the decks are
kept clean and neat.
SWABIA. See Suabia.
SWALLOW, a genus of birds. See HlRUNDO,
Ornithology Index. See alfo Migration.
SfVALLOfV-Wort. See AsCLETIAS, Botany Index.
SWAMMERDAM, John, a celebrated and learned
natural philofopher, was the fon of John James Swam¬
merdam, an apothecary and famous naturalill of Am-
iterdam, and was born in 1637. His father intended
him for the church, and with this view had him m-
ftrufted in Latin and Greek f but he, thinking himfelf
unequal to fo important a talk, prevailed with his father
to confent to his applying himfelf to phyfic. As he was
kept at home till he Ihould be properly qualified to en¬
gage in that ftudy, he was frequently employed in clean¬
ing his father’s curiofities, and putting every thing in its
proper place. This infpired our author with an early
talte for natural hiftoryj fo that, not content with toe
furvey of the curiofities which his father had puichaftd,
he foon began to make a collection of his own, which
he compared with the accounts given of them by the
belt writers. When grown up, he ferioufly attended
to his anatomical and medical ftudies ; yet fpent part of
the day and the night in difcovering, catching, and ex¬
amining the flying mfe£ts proper to thole times, not on¬
ly in the province of Holland, but in thofe of Guelder-
land and Utrecht. Thus initiated in natural hiftory,
he went to the univerfity of Leyden in 1651 •, and m
1653 was admitted a candidate of phylic in that uni—
verfity. His attention being now engaged by anato¬
my, he began to conlider how the parts of the body,
prepared by difle£tion, could be preferved, and kept in
conllant order for anatomical demonftration \ and here¬
in he fucceeded, as he had done before in his nice con¬
trivances for diflefting and managing the roinuteft in-
lefts. Our author afterwards made a journey into-
France, where he fpent fome time at Saumur, andi
where he became acquainted with feveral learned men.
In 1667 he returned to Leyden, and took his degree of
Doftor of Phyfic. The next year the grand duke of
Tufcany being in Holland in order to fee the curiofities
of the country, came to view thofe of our author and
his father; and on this occafion Swammerdam made
fome anatomical difieftions of infefts in the prefence of
that prince, who was Itruck with admiration at our au¬
thor’s great Ikill in managing them, efpecially at his
proving that the future butterfly lay with all its parts
neatly folded up in a caterpillar, by aftually removing
the integuments that covered the former, and extricat¬
ing and exhibiting all its parts, however minute, with
iwammer-
dam
11
Sweden.
S W E
incredible ingenuity, by means of inftruments of incon¬
ceivable finenefs. On this occafion the duke offered
our author 1 2,000 florins for his fliare of the collec¬
tion, on condition of his removing them himfelf into
Tufcany, and coming to live at the court of I lorence •,
but Swammerdam, who hated a court life, declined his
highnefs’s propofal. In 1663, he publilhed a General
Hiftory of Infefts. About this time, his father began
to take offence at his inconfiderately neglefting the
praftice of phyfic, which might have fupported him in
affluence •, and would neither fupply him with money
nor clothes. This reduced him to fome difficulties.
In 1675 he publiffied his Hiftory of the Ephemeras j
and his father dying the fame year, left him a fortune
fufficient for his fupport ; but he did not long furvive
him, for he died in 1682. Gaubius gave a tranflation
of all his works from the original Dutch into Latin,
from which they were tranflated into Englifb, in folio,
in 1758.. The celebrated Boerhaave wrote his life.
SWAN. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
SWANPAN, or Chinefe Abacus; an inftrument
for performing arithmetical operations. See Abacus.
SWANEMOTE, Swainmote, or Sweinmote.
See FOREST-Courts.
SWEARING. See Oath.
SWEAT, a fenfible moifture iffuing from the pores
of the fkins of living animals. See Physiology, N '
286. ‘ ;
SWEATING SICKNESS, a diforder which appeared
in England about the year 1481, and was by foreigners
called the FngliJ}) fweat. See Medicine, N° 51. j
SWrEDEN, the fmallcft of the northern flates ofs;tuat;on
Europe, occupies the greater part of the north-W'eftern and exten|».
corner of that portion of the globe, lying between Nor¬
way and the gulf of Bothnia. Before the treaty con¬
cluded in 1809, between Sweden and Ruffia, the Swe-
dith territory extended over a confiderable traft of
country on the eaft of the gulf of Bothnia; but by that
treaty the whole of thefe provinces were ceded to Ruf¬
fia. At prefent the boundaries of Sweden are Norway
and Lapland to the north; to the weft Norway, from
which it is feparated by the mountains; the Baltic to
the fouth; and to the eaft the gulf of Bothnia, the _fea
of Aland, and the rivers of Tornea and Muonio, which
feparate it from the Ruffian empire. From north to
fouth it lies between the latitudes of 69° 30' and 550
20' ; and it extends from the 12th degree to about the
24th degree of longitude eaft from Greenwich. For¬
merly its extent in Britiffl miles was computed at 1150 •
in length, and 600 in breadth, and its area at about
210,000 fquare miles. Its length continues undiminiffi-
ed ; but its breadth is probably leffened at leaft one
half, and we can fcar\ely eftimate its prefent extent at
more than 110,000 fquare miles. The following table
will ffiew the prefent divifions of the Swedilh territo¬
ries.
A
S W E
[ 1$$ ]
S W E
Sweden.
Provinces.
I
Sweden Properv
Gothland.
West Norland.
West Bothnia.
Swedish Lapland.
Swedish Pomerania (a).
Subdivijions.
Upland.
Sudermanland.
Nerike.
Weftmanland.
Dalecarlia.
Weft Gothland.
Eaft Gothland.
South Gothland.
Jemtland.
Angermanland.
Medelpad.
Halfinglahd.
Gaftrikland.
Hergeadalen.
Afele Lappmark.
Umea Lappmark.
Pitea Lappmark.
Lulea Lappmark.
Tornea Lappmark.
KecTi Lappmark.
Chief Towns.
STOCKHOLM.
Gottenburgh.
Tornea.
Stralfund.
Swede
'"‘“V
The only colonial territory belonging to Sweden is
the ifland of St Bartholomew, in the Weft Indies.
Fa<*e of Sweden is diverfified in a moft pifturefque manner,
the coun- with extenfive lakes, large rivers, winding ftreams, ca-
try. tarafts, gloomy forefts, fertile vales, ftupendous rocks,
and cultivated fields. It pofleffes more navigable ri¬
vers than the neighbouring countries of Norway and
^ Denmark.
Soil. Sweden is by no means remarkable for the fertility
of its foil, moft of the country being rocky and unprp-
duftive. The valleys and the banks of the rivers af-
^ ford the beft land for tillage.
Mountains. The principal mountains belonging to Sweden are
thofe of the elevated chain which divides it from Nor¬
way, and which branch off in a fouth-eafterly direftion.
^ One of the higheft of thefe is Swucku.
'Hivers chief rivers are the Gotha conne£ting Lake We¬
lter with the Categat j the Motala, forming the outlet
of Lake Weter ; the Dahl rifing in the Norwegian
mountains, and flowing through Dalecarlia into the gulf
of Bothnia, and the Tornea forming the north-eaftern
boundary, and emptying itfelf into the gulf of Bothnia
^ at the town of the fame name.
Lakes. There arefeveral confiderable lakes in Sweden, chief¬
ly in the province of Sweden Proper. The moft re¬
markable are Wener, Weter, and Maela, on the banks
of which laft ftands the city of Stockholm. s
Sweden abounds with forefts, efpecially in Dalecarlia,Forefts.,
and on the borders of the lakes. ^
The climate and feafons of Sweden nearly referable climate |
thofe of the fame latitudes in Ruflia. The winters are and feal|i
in moft places extremely fevere, and the fummers fliort
and fudden. The gulf of Bothnia is generally frozen
over during winter, fo as to admit of travellers palling »
over into Finland, and Eaft Bothnia. The fummer,
though Ihort, is generally hot, and feldom cloudy or in-
conftant. In the higher latitudes the fun of courfe is feen
in the middle of fummer for feveral days together, and the
nights of winter are proportionably long. See Lapland. io
Much of the natural hiftory of Sweden has been al-Natural
ready given under the article Lapland. In the morehiftwy-
fouthern provinces there are found in the forefts the
bear, lynx, wolf, beaver, otter, glutton, and flying fquir-
rel. The Swedifh horfes are commonly fmall, but fpi-
rited, and are confidered as fuperior to thofe of Germany
for cavalry. The cattle and Iheep prefent little remark¬
able, being fimilar to thofe of the neighbouring nations.
Seals are found in the gulf of Bothnia j and the lakes
and rivers of Sweden produce pikes that are remarkably
large, and which are falted and pickled for exportation.
The
(A) That diftriS of Germany, called Swedi/h Pomerania, was long in poffeflion of the Swedilh monarchs ; till,
in the contefts with France and Ruflia, it was taken poffeflion of by the former. By the late treaty (in 1809)
between France and Sweden, Pomerania has been reftored to its old mafter.
The map of Sweden is attached to that of Denmark and Norway, in Plate CLXX-
:* s w e C i
-cJfin. The forefls produce a great variety of game, efpecially
the large black cock, called in Scotland the cock of the
foreft. Among the reptiles the rana botnbina, and-thc
coluber cherfea, are confidered as almoft peculiar to
Sweden.
The principal vegetable produftions of Sweden are
its immenefe forefts of pine and fir trees, though the
country is not deftitute of a great variety of thrubs and
plants common to it with Denmark and Ruffia.
The principal riches of the natural hitiory of Sweden
are to be found in the mineral kindom. It produces
cryftals, amethyfts, topazes, porphyry, lapis lazuli,
agate, cornelian, marble, and other foffils. The chief
wealth of the country, however, arifes from her mines
of filver, copper, lead, and iron. The laft mentioned
metal employs not fewer than 450 forges, hammering-
mills, and fmelting houfes. A kind of a gold mine has
likewife been difcovered in Sweden, but fo inconfider-
able, that from the year 1741 to 1747, it produced on¬
ly 2398 ducats, each valued at 9s. 4d. fterling. The
firft gallery of one filver mine is 100 fathoms below the
furface of the earth 5 the roof is fupported by prodigious
oaken beams, and from thence the miners defcend about
40 fathoms to the loweft vein. This mine is faid to
produce 20,000 crowns a-year. The produft of the
copper mines is uncertain j but the whole is loaded
with vaft taxes and redu&ions to the government, which
has no other refources for the exigencies of the ftate.
Thofe fubterraneous manfions are aftonilhingly fpacious,
and at the fame time commodious for their inhabitants,
fo that they feem to form a hidden world. The water¬
falls in Sweden afford excellent conveniency for turn¬
ing mills for forges j and for feme years the exports of
iron from Sweden brought in 300,000!. fterling.
There are likewife in Sweden fome filver mines, of
which that of Sahlberg is the richeft, as well as the
moft ancient. It exifted fo early as 1188, and during
the whole of the 14th century, it yielded 24,000 marks
of filver per annum. In the 15th century the quantity
was diminifhed to 20,000. In the reign of Charles X.
it gave only 2000 j and it furnifhes at prefent ftill lefs,
the ore yielding only one ounce of pure metal per quin¬
tal. The chief gallery, where the pureft filver was ob¬
tained, having fallen in, is not yet cleared, notwith-
ftanding their inceflant labour. They are alfo digging
pits in a perpendicular direflion, in order to arrive at
the principal vein, which extends itfelf from the north
to the fouth-eaft. Formerly lead employed in feparating
the metal was imported from England ; but the mine
furniflies at prefent a fufficient quantity for the purpofe.
The moft remarkable mineral waters in Sweden are
IT thofe of Medewi in Eaft Gothland,
jrlyhif- The early hiftory of Sweden is not lefs involved in
yuncer- fable than that of moft other nations. Some hiftorians
have pretended to give regular catalogues of the princes
who reigned in Sweden in very early times ; but they
differ fo much that no credit can be given to them.
All indeed agree that ancient Scandinavia was-firft go¬
verned by judges defied for a certain time by the voice
of the people. Among thefe temporary princes the
country was divided, until, in the year of the world
2054, according to fome, or 1951, according to others,
Eric, or, if we believe Puffendorf, Sueno, was raifed to
the fupreme : power, with the prerogatives of all the
Toi,. XX. Part I.
37 3 S W £
temporary magiftrates united in his perfon for life, or Sweden,
until his conduct fhould merit depofition. , ■ - v—
From this very early period till the year i366of the An ^5^
Chriftian era, the hiftories of Sweden prefent us with
nothing but what is common to all nations in their ear¬
ly periods, viz. the endlefs combats of barbarians, tend¬
ing to no other purpofe than the effufion of blood. At J2
the time juft mentioned, however, Albert of Mecklen- Albert o?
burg, having concluded a peace between Sweden and Mecklen-
Denmark, which had been at violent w?ar for fome time burg de-
before, was proclaimed king of Sweden. The peaceclare
was of fliort duration, being broken in 1368 j on which
Albert entered into an offenfive and defenfive league
with the earl of Holftein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes
of Slefwick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanfe-towns, againft 13
the kings of Denmark and Norway. Albert proved ^ar vv‘tn
very fuccefsful againft Waldemar king of Denmark at
that time, driving him entirely out of his dominions; wav>
but he himfelf was defeated by the king of Norway,
who laid fiege to his capital. Soon after this, a new
treaty was concluded, by which Albert was allorved to
enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace. Having formed
a defign however of rendering himfelf abfolute, he fo dif-
pleafed his fubjefts that Margaret of Norway was pro-
claimed queen of Sweden by the malecontents. A w7arls defeated
immediately enfued, in which Albert was defeated and arKj taken
taken prifoner *, but as the princes of Mecklenburg, the P jllone^y
earls of Holftein, and the Hanfe-towns, entered into a 0f ^orwav,
league in his favour, the war raged with more fury than
ever. 15
At length, in 1394, the contending parties were re-Set at ii-
conciled. Albert was fet at liberty, on condition that'jerty'
J 1 An 1 ^
he ftiould in three years give up to Margaret all pre- ’ n
tenfions to the city of Stockholm •, and the Hanfe-
towns engaged to pay the fum of 60,000 marks of filver
if Albert ftiould break that treaty. Not long after
this, Eric the fon of Albert died ; and he, having no
other child, did not think it worth his while to contend
for the kingdom of Sweden : he therefore acquiefcedin
the pretenfions of Margaret, and paffed the remainder
of his days at Mecklenburg. l6-
Margaret died in 1415, and was fucceeded by Eric Margaret
of Pomerania. This prince’s reign was cruel and op-is fucceeded
preflive. The confequence of this was a revolt; and a
Charles Canutfon, grand marefchal of Sweden and go-^f ty"
vernor of Finland, having joined the malecontents, was An. 1415.
declared commander in chief of their army. Eric was
now formally depofed: Canutfon was chofen regent j
but beginning to opprefs the people, and alpiring openly
to the crown, the Swedes and Danes revolted ; in con¬
fequence of which a revolution took place, and Chri-
ftopher duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chofen
king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1442. I7
On the acceffion of the new prince, complaints againft Charles
Canutfon were brought from all quarters j but, through Canutfon.
the intereft of his friends, he efcaped punilhment j andAn‘
in 1448, Chriftopher having died after a tyrannical
reign of about five years, he was raifed to the throne to
which he had fo long afpired. The kingdoms of Den¬
mark and Norway however refufed allegiance to hiraj
on Avhich a war immediately commenced. In 1454
peace was concluded, and Denmark for the prefent freed
from the Swedifti yoke. Nor did Canutfon long enjoy
even the crown of Sweden. Having quarrelled with
S the
Aa. 1520.
18
Cbriftiern
king of
Denmark
invades.
Sweden,
but is de-
S W E [
Sweden, magiitrates and the archbifliop of Upfal, the latter form-
“ v ecj fuch a flirong party that the king could not refill him.
Canutfon died in 1470 after a long and turbulent reign.
The Swedilh affairs continued to be involved in dread¬
ful confufion till the year 15 20, when a great revolution
was effedled by Gullavus Ericfon, a nobleman of the
firlt rank, who reltored the kingdom to its liberty, and
laid the foundation of its future grandeur. The occa-
fion of this great revolution was as follows: In I5I8,
Chriftiern king of Denmark invaded Sweden, with a
defign to fubdue the whole country ; but being defeated
with great lofs by young Steen Sture, at that time re-
gent, he fet fail for Denmark. But meeting with con-
feated and trary winds, he made feveral defcents on the Swedilh
driven out. coalt, which he ravaged with all the fury of an incenfed
barbarian. The inhabitants, however, bravely defend¬
ed themfelves, and Chrilliern was reduced to the utmoft
dillrefs j one half of his forces having perilhed with
hunger, and the reft being in the moft imminent danger
by the approach of a rigorous winter. He then thought
of a ftratagem, which had almoft proved fatal to the
regent *, for having invited him to a conference, at
which he defigned either to aflaflinate or take him pri-
foner, Sture was about to comply, had not the fenate,
who fufpe&ed the plot, interpofed and prevented him.
Chriftiern then offered to go in perfon to Stockholm in
order to confer with Sture, on condition that fix hoft-
ages Ihould be fent in his room. This was accordingly
done •, but the wind happening then to prove favour¬
able, he fet fail for Denmark with the hoftages, of
Hetreache-'whom Guftavus Ericfon was one. Next year he re-
xoufly car. turned ; and having drawn Sture into an ambufh, the
ries off fix regent received a wound of which he died feme time af-
ter. The kingdom being thus left without a head, mat-
tavus Eric- ters f°on tame to the moft defperate crifis. The army
fon is one. difbanded itfelf ; and the fenate, inftead of taking pro-
An. 1515. per meafures to oppofe the enemy, fpent their time in
idle debates. Chriftiern in the mean time advanced in¬
to the heart of the kingdom, deftroying every thing
with fire and fword j but on his arrival at Stragnez, he
granted a fufpenfion of arms, on condition that they
would ek6l him king. This they accordingly did j
and Chriftiern proved one of the moft bloody tyrants
that ever fat on the throne of any kingdom. Immedi-
00 after coronation, he gave grand entertainments
for three days } during which time he projected the
diabolical defign of extirpating at once all the Swedilh
nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people from
revolting, by depriving them of their proper leaders.
As the tyrant had figned articles, by which he promifed
indemnity to all who had borne arms againft him, it be¬
came neceffary to invent fome caufe of offence againft
thofe whom he intended to deftroy. To accomplifti his
purpofe, Guftavus Trolle, formerly archbilhop of Upfal,
but who had been degraded from that dignity, in an
oration before his majefty, lamented the demolition of
Stecka, his place of refidence, and the Ioffes fuftained by
the fee of Upfal, amounting to near a million of money.
He then proceeded in a bitter accufation againft the
widow and the fon-in-law of Sture the late regent, com¬
prehending in the fame aecufation about 15 of the prin¬
cipal nobility, the whole fenate, and the burghers of
Stockholm. In confequence of this, about 60 of the
principal nobility and people of firft rank in Sweden
were hanged as traitors. Innumerable other cruelties
138 ] S W E
were committed ; part of which are owned by the Da- Swede*,
niih hiftorians, and minutely related by thofe of Sweden,
At laft he departed for Denmark, ordering gibbets to ^ ^
be ere£led, and caufing the peafants to be hanged on nob^
them for the flighteft offences. ty, and
This monftrous cruelty, inftead of fecuring him on the caufes gifc,
throne, exafperated the whole nation againft him. ItbetU0.be
20
Is chofen
king, and
proves a
moft bl
tyrant.
has already been mentioned, that Guftavus Ericfon, or,^
as he is commonly called, Gujlavus Vafay was among along,
the number of the hoftages whom Chriftiern had perfi- 22
dioufiy carried to Denmark in 1519. Large promifes AllJfe'['tur«
had been made in order to reconcile him to Chriftiern, yal-“Jvus
and all means had been employed, but in vain. SecretEricfoni
orders were given to ftrangle him in prifon j but the
officer to whom the affaffination was committed remon-
ftrated to the king about the confequences of it, and
prevailed on him to change the fentence of death into
clofe confinement in the caftle of Copenhagen. Some
of the hoftages periftied in confequence of the rigorous
treatment they met with j but Guftavus withftood all
hardffiips. At laft one Banner, a Danilh nobleman,
prevailed on the king to put him into his hands, in or¬
der to try whether or not he could prevail on him to
change his fentiments. The king, however, told Ban¬
ner, that he muft pay 6000 crowns if the prifoner ffiould
make his efcape. Banner generoufly confented 5 and
having brought the noble prifoner to his fortrefs of Calo
in Jutland, fbon allowed him all the liberty he could
defire, and otherwife heaped favours on him. All this,
however, could not extinguiffi bis remembrance of the
cruelties of Chriftiern, and the defire he had of being ^
fcrvictable to his country. He therefore determined tOHeefcapr
make his efcape j and the liberty he enjoyed foon put from Den-
him in a capacity of effe&ing it. Having one dayowk
mounted his horfe, under pretence of hunting as ufual
in the foreft, when he got at a proper diftance, he
changed his drefs to the habit of a peafant : and quit¬
ting his horfe, travelled for two days on foot through
by-paths, and over mountains almoft impaffable, arriving
on the third at Flenfburgh. Here no one was admitted
without a paffport : and Gullavus dreaded prefenting
himfelf to the governor or the officer on guard, for fear
of being difeovered. Guftavus hired himfelf to a cattle ^ I
merchant ; and in this difguife efcaped out of the Da- drives atl
niffi territories, and arrived at Lubec. Lub*o
Banner was no fooner acquainted with his efcape,
than he fet out after him with the utmoft diligence,
found him at Lubec, and reproached him with great
warmth as ungrateful and treacherous; but he was foon
appeafed by the arguments urged by Guftavus, and
efpecially by a promife of indemnifying him in the lofs
of his ranfom. On this Banner returned, giving out
that he could not find his prifoner. Chriftiern was en¬
raged at his efcape, apprehending that he might reverfe
all his defigns in Sweden; and gave orders to Otho his
general to make the ftridleft fearch, and leave no means
untried to arreft him. Guftavus applied to the regency
for a (hip to convey him to Sweden, where he hoped he :
Ihould be able to form a party againft the Danes. He Atte^ptj
likevvife endeavoured to draw the regency of Lubec in-jnvainto
to his meafures*, and reafoned with fo much zeal and draw the
ability, that Nicholas Gemins, firft conful, was entirely rePen^
gained ; but the regency could never be prevailed on to ^
declare for a party without friends, arms, money, or
credit. Before his departure, however, the conful gave
him
reden.
i6
1 arrives
s lalmar,
t meets
\ i an un
t mrable
i :ption.
37
) friends
) ife to
s t him.
28
i dies in
s 1 to the
4 rants.
S W E t 139 ]
him affurances, that if he could raife a force fufficient to among
; make head againft the enemy in the field, he might de¬
pend on the fervices of the republic, and that the re¬
gency would immediately declare for him. Guftavus
defired to be landed at Stockholm 5 but the captain of
the (hip, either having fecret orders to the contrary, or
bufinefs elfewhere, fteered a different courfe, and put
him on (hore near Calmar ; a city then garrifoned by
the troops of Chriflina widow of the regent. In fa£t,
the governor held this place for his own purpofes, and
only waited to make the befl terms he could with the
Danes. When Guftavus arrived, he made himfelf
known to him and the principal officers of the garrifon,
who were moftly Germans, and his fellow-foldiers in
the late adminiftrator’s army ; but the mercenary band,
feeing him without troops and without attendants, re¬
garded him as a defperate perfon devoted to deftruc-
tion, refufed to embrace his propofals, and even threat¬
ened to kill or betray him, if he did not inftantly quit
the city.
Difappointed in his expectations, Guftavus departed j
and his arrival being now publicly known, he was
again forced to have recourfe to his peafant’s difguife to
conceal him from the Danilh emiflaries difperfed over
the country to fearch for him. In a waggon loaded
with hay he pafled through the Danifh army, and at
laft repaired to an old family caftle in Sudermania.
Hence he wrote to his friends, intimating his return
to Sweden, and befeeching them to affemble all their
forces in order to break through the enemy’s ar-
mv into Stockholm, at that time befieged j but they
refufed to embark in fo hazardous and defperate an at¬
tempt.
Guftavus next applied himfelf to the peafants *, but
S W E
the miners, without relinquiftung his hopes Sweden,
of one day afcending the throne of Sweden. His whole l~—
objeft for the prefent was to live concealed, and gain a
maintenance, till fortune (hould effeCl fomething in his
favour: nor was it long before this happened. A wo-isdifcover-
man in the mines perceived, under the habit of a pea-ed and re-
fant, that the collar of his ftiirt was embroidered. This^eve^‘
circumftance excited curiofity ; and the graces of his
perfon and converfation, which had fomething in them
to attract the notice of the meaneft of the vulgar, af¬
forded room for fufpicion that he was fome perfon of
quality in difguife, forced by the tyranny of the govern¬
ment to feek Ihelter in thefe remote parts. The ftory
came to the ears of a neighbouring gentleman, who im¬
mediately went to the mines to offer bis protection to
the unfortunate ftranger *, and was aftonifhed on recog¬
nizing the features of Guftavus, to whom he had been
known at the univerfity of Upfal. Touched wuth com-
paffion at the deplorable fituation of fo diftingulfhed a
nobleman, he could fcarcely refrain from tears. At
night he fent for Guftavus, made him an offer of his
houfe, and gave him the ftrongeft aflurances of his
friendfhip and protection. He told him, he would th^re
meet with better accommodations, and as much fecurity
as in the mines 5 and that, fhould he chance to be dif-
covered, he would, with all his friends and vaffals, take
arms in his defence.
This offer was embraced by Guftavus with joy, and
he remained for fome time at his friend’s houfe j but
finding it impoffible to induce him to take part in his
defigns, he quitted him, and fled to one Peterfon, a
gentleman whom he had formerly known in the fer-
vice. This man received Guftavus with all the ap->
pearance of kindnefs ; and, on the very firft propofal,
thev anfwered, that they enjoyed fait and herrings un-( offered to raife his vaffals. He even named the lords
*9
' Ives in
| ecarlia,
' jbbed
1 ais
I If, and
' ijed to
' k in the
1 es.
der the government of the king of Denmark ; and that
any attempts to bring about a revolution would be at¬
tended with certain ruin, without the profpeCt of bet¬
tering their condition •, for peafants they were, and pea¬
fants they ftiould remain, whoever washing. At length,
after fe.veral attempts to throw himfelf into Stockholm,
after that city was furrendered to the king, after the
horrid maffacre of the fenate, and after running a thou-
fand dangers, and undergoing hardftiips and fatigues
fcarcely to be fupported by human nature, he formed
the refolution of trying the courage and affedion of
the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepeft obfcu-
rity, and plunged in almoft infurmountable adverfity, he
never relinquiffied his defigns nor his hopes. The news
of the maffacre had, however, nearly funk him into de-
fpondencv, as by it he loft all his friends, relations, and
connexions, and indeed almoft every profpeCl of fafety to
himfelf or deliverance to his country. This fuggefted
the thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might
live with more fecurity in the high mountains and thick
woods of that country, if he {hould fail in the attempt
of exciting the inhabitants to revolt.
Attended by a peafant, to whom he was known, he
travelled in difguife through Sudermania, Nerieia, and
Weftermania, and, after a laborious and painful jour¬
ney, arrived in the mountains of Dalecarlia. Scarcely
had he finiftied his journey, when he found himfelf de-
ferted by his companion and guide, who carried off
with him all the money which he had provided for his
fubfiftence. Thus forlorn and deftitute, he entered
and peafants whom he pretended to have engaged in his
fervice ; but in a few days, he went fecretly to a Da-
nifti officer, and gave him information of what had paf-
fed. The officer immediately caufed the houfe to be
furrounded with foldiers, in fuch a manner that it feem-
ed impoffible for Guftavus to efcape. Being warned, jjas 3Very
by Peterfon’s wife of the treachery of her hufband, he, narrow e-
by her direXion, contrived to flee to the houfe of a caPe from
clergyman, her friend, by whom he was received Vvith t^ie ^anes*
all the refpeX due to his birth and merit $ and left
the domeftic who conduXed him ftiould follow the trea¬
cherous example of his mafter, he removed him to the
church, and conduXed him to a fmall clofet, of
which he kept the key. Having lived for fome time
in this manner, Guftavus began to confult with his
friend concerning the moft proper method of putting
their fchemes in execution. The prieft advifed him
to apply direXly to the peafants themfelves $ told him
that it would be proper to fpread a report, that the
Danes were to enter Dalecarlia in order to eftablifh new
taxes by force of arms ; and as the annual feaft of all
the neighbouring villages was to be held in a few days,
he could not have a more favourable opportunity : he
alfo promifed to engage the principal perfons of the dio-
cefe in his intereft.
In compliance with this advice, Guftavus fet out forjiis caiife
Mora, where the feaft was to be held. He found the ipouled by
peafants already informed of his defigns, and impatient t^ie Pea^ants
to fee him.' Being already prepoffrfftd in his favour,°.'aIJaieear“
they were foon excited to an enthufiafm in his cauie,
S 2 and
s W E [ H0 I s W E
Sweden, and inftantly refolved to throw oft' the Danifh yoke.
  In this defign they were mere confirmed by their fu-
perftition ; " iome of their old men having obferved
that the wind had blown from the north while Gufta-
vus was fpeaking, which among them wTas reckoned an
infallible omen of fuccefs. Guftavus did not allow
their ardour to cool, but inftantly led them again ft
the governor’s caftle j which he took by affault, and
put the garrifon to the fword. i his inconfiderable cn-
terprife was attended with the moft happy confequenees.
Great numbers of the peafants flocked to his ftandaid }
fome of the gentry openly efpoufed his caufe, and others
fupplied him with money. Chriftiern was foon inform¬
ed of what had pafled j but defpifing fuch an inconfi¬
derable enemy, he fent only a {lender detachment to
33 aflift his adherents in Dalecarlia. Guftavus advanced
The Danes men, and defeated a body ot Danes j but
defeated, was ftrenuoufty oppofed by the archbiftiop of Upfal,
who raifed numerous forces for Chriftiern. -The for¬
tune of Guftavus, however, ftill prevailed, and the
archbifhop was defeated with great lofs. Guftavus
then laid fiege to Stockholm j but his force being un¬
equal to fuch an undertaking, he was forced to abandon
it with lofs.
This check did not prove in any confiderable de¬
gree detrimental to the affairs of Guftavus 5 the pea¬
fants from all parts, of the kingdom flocked to hi&
camp, and he was joined by a reinforcement from
34 Lubec. Chriftiern, unable to fupprefs the revolt,
Horrid wreaked his vengeance on the mother and lifters of
cruelty of Guftavus, whom he put to death. His barbarities fer-
Kmg Chri- ve(j onjy. to his enemies more refolute. Guftavus
"iern‘ having affembled the ftates at Wadftena, he was unani-
moufly chofen regent, the diet taking an oath of fide¬
lity to him, and promifing to aflift him to the utmoft.
Having thus obtained the fanftion of legal authority,
he purfued his advantages againft the Danes. A body
of troops appointed to throw fuccours into Stockholm
3r were cut in pieces; and the regent fending fome troops
Succefs of into Finland, ftruck the Danes there with fuch terror,
Guftavus. that the archbiftiop of Upfal, together with the Danifti
governors, fled to Denmark. Chriftiein then fent ex-
prefs orders to all his governors and officers in Finland
and Sweden to maffacre the Swedilh gentry without
diftin&ion. The Swedes made reprifals by maffacring
all the Danes they could find 5 fo that the whole coun¬
try was filled with {laughter.
In the mean time Guftavus had laid fiege to the
towns of Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm 5 but. Norby
found means to oblige him to raife them with lofs,
Guftavus, in revenge, laid fiege to the capital a third
time, and applied to the regency of Lubec for a fqua-
dron of {hips and other fuccours for. carrying on the
fiege. This was granted on condition that Guftavus
fhould oblige himfelf, in the name of the ftates, to pay
60,000 merks of filver as the expence of the armament;
that, until the kingdom ftiould be in a condition to pay
thatfum, the Lubec merchants trading to Sweden ftiould
be exempted from all duties on imports or exports; that
all other nations ftiould be prohibited from trading with
Sweden, and that fuch traffic ffiould be deemed illicit ;
that Guftavus ftrould neither conclude a peace, nor even
agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concur¬
rence of the regency of Lubec ; and that if the repub¬
lic fhould be attacked by Chriftiern, he fhould enter
Denmark at the head of 20,000 men. On thefe hard Sweden;
terms Guftavus obtained affiftance from the regency of
Lubec ; nor did his dear-bought allies prove very faith¬
ful. They did not indeed go over to the enemy; but
in a fea-fight, where the Danes were entirely in the
power of their enemies, they fuffered them to efcape,
when their whole force might have been entirely de-
ftroyed. This treachery had nearly ruined the affairs
of Guftavus; for Norby was now making preparations
effc&ually to relieve Stockholm ; in which he would
probably have fucceeded : but at this critical period
news arrived that the Danes had unanimoufiy revolted,
and driven Chriftiern from the throne ; and that the
king had retired into Germany, in hopes of being re-
ftored by the arms of his brother-in-law the emperor.
On hearing this news, Norby retired with his whole
fleet to the illand of Gothland, leaving but a {lender
garrifon in Calmar. Guftavus did not fail to improve
this opportunity to Ms own advantage, and quickly made
himfelf mafter of Calmar. Mean time Stockholm con¬
tinued clofely ihvefted ; but Guftavus thought proper
to protraft the fiege till he ffiould get himfelf elefted
king. Having for this purpofe called a general diet,
he firft filled up the vacancy in the fenate occafioned by
the maffacres of Chriftiern. Guftavus had the addrefs
to get fuch nominated as were in his intereft. The af-
fembly was no fooner met, than a fpeech was made,
containing the higheft encomiums on Guftavus, Getting He jjCj10<
forth in the ftrongeft light the many eminent fervices he fen kings
had done for his country, and concluded that the ftates Sweden,
would {how themfelves equally ungrateful and blind to An. 1523.
their own intereft if they did not immediately elefl him
king. This propofal was acceded to by fuch tumultuous
acclamations that it was impoffible to colleft the votes;
fo that Guftavus himfelf acknowledged, that their af-
fedtion exceed his merit, and was more agreeable to him
than the effefts of their gratitude. He was urged to
have the ceremony of his coronation immediately per¬
formed : but this he delayed, in confequence of fome
defigns which he had formed to reduce the exorbitant
power of the clergy. Guftavus had himfelf embraced
the dodtrines of the reformed religion, and did all in his
power to eftablifli the reformation in his new kingdom.
His defign could not fail to raife againft him the enmity
of the clergy, and of all the more fuperftitious part of
his fubjedts. Accordingly, the firft years of his reign
were embittered by internal difturbances and revolts*
which were aided and fomented by the depofed Chrif¬
tiern, who was at one time very near regaining poffef-
fion of the Swediffi dominions.
Chriftiern having eftablifhed a powerful intereft in unfuccefsl
Norway, once more made an attempt to recover hisfulattem]|
kingdoms, and was joined by the Dalecarlians ; but be-of Chrifti
ing defeated by the Swedifti forces, he was forced toern‘
return to Norway, where, being obliged to capitulate
with the Daniffi generals, he was kept prifoner all his
life. _ _ _ # 3s
In 1542, Guftavus having happily extricated himfelf Unfuccel
out of all his troubles, prevailed on the ftates to make
the crown hereditary in his family; after which he ap- a m„rr\Vj
plied himfelf to the encouragement of learning and com-withQu<
merce. A treaty was fet on foot for a marriage between Elizabetl
his eldeft fon Eric and Elizabeth queen of England ; An‘
but this negociation failed of fuccefs.
Guftavus Vafa died in 1560,. and was fucceeded by
his
j. Jen.
9
vus _
ind is
:ded
‘ S ^ W E [14
his fon Eric XIV. The new king was poffeffed of all
the exterior ornaments which give an air of dignity to
the perfon j but he had neither the prudence nor the pe¬
netration of his father. He created the firft nobility that
,(ieu were ever known in Sweden ; but this he had no fooner
ic, a done than he quarrelled with them, by paffing fome aft,
and which they thought derogatory to their honour and dig-
dent nity. The whole courfe of his reign was difturbed by
'‘6q4 wars with Denmark, and difputes with his own fubje&s.
In the former he was unfortunate, and towards the latter
he behaved with the greateft cruelty. At laft, he is faid
to have become mad. He afterwards recovered his fen-
le- fes, but was foon dethroned by his brothers : of whom
, and Duke John fucceeded him in the kingdom,
eded This revolution took place in the year 1568, but
John" with no great advantage to Sweden. Difputes about
religion between the king and his brothers, and wars
41 with Ruffia, threw matters into the utmoft confufion.
:e Si- At laid Prince Sigifmund, the king’s fon, was chofen
81 mA. king of Poland, which proved the fource of much trouble
cl ranch210 the kingdom. In 1590 King John died j and as Si-
\ 1568. gifmund was at a diftance, every thing fell into the ut-
I 42 moft confufion : the treafury was plundered, and the
s eedsto roya| war(lrobe quite fpoiled, before even Duke Charles
t! could come to Stockholm to take on himfelf the admi-
) 15/0!' niftration until King Sigifmund lliould return. This,
however, was far from being the greateft difafter which
befel the nation at this time. It was known that the
king had embraced the Popilh religion, and it was with
good reafon fufpe&ed that he would attempt to reftore it
upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigifmund was alfo obliged,
on leaving Poland, to promife that he would ftay no
longer in Sweden than was neceflary to regulate his af¬
fairs. Thefe circumftances ferved to alienate the minds
of the Swedes from their fovereign even before they
faw him ; and the univerfal diffatisfa&ion was increafed,
by feeing him attended, on his arrival in Sweden in 1593,
by the pope’s nuncio, to whom he made a prefent of
30,000 ducats to defray the expences of his journey to
Sweden.
What the people had forefeen was too well verified :
the king refufed to confirm the Proteftants in their reli¬
gious privileges, and fhowed fuch partiality on all occa-
fions to the Papifts, that a party was formed againft him *,
at the head of which was Duke Charles his uncle. Re-
monftrances, accompanied with threats, took place on
both fides, Sigifmund was apparently reconciled to his
brother, and promifed to comply with the inclinations of
the people, though without any inclination to perform
what he had promifed. The agreement, indeed, was
^ fcarcely made, before Sigifmund conceived the horrid
ms a de-defign of murdering his uncle at the Italian comedy
ofmur-a&ed the night after his coronation. The duke, how-
"g ob ever^ having notice of the plot, found.means to avoid it.
e' This enraged the king fo much, that he had refolved to
accomplilh his defigns by force ;. and therefore com¬
manded a Polifti army to march towards the frontiers
of Sweden, where they committed all the ravages that
could be expe£ted from an enraged and cruel enemy.
Complaints were made by the Proteftant clergy to the
fenate : but no other reply was made them, than that
they Ihould abftain from thofe bitter inve£tives and re¬
proaches, which had provoked the Catholics, till the
king’s departure 3 at which time they would be at more
liberty.
Sweden.
43
arty
led
nit
i ] S W E
In 1595 Sigifmund fet fail for Dantzic, leaving the
adminiftration in the hands of Duke Charles. The con- v
fequence of this was, that the diffenfions which had al¬
ready taken place being continually increafed by the ob-
ftinacy of the king, Duke Charles affumed the fovereign 45
power 3 and in 1604 Sigifmund was formally depofed, Sigifmund
and his uncle Charles IX. raifed to the throne. He pro-
ved a wife and brave prince, reftoring the tranquillity of‘,ee^e(j
the kingdom, and carrying on a war with vigour againft Charles IX.
Poland and Denmark. He died in 1611, leaving the An. 1604.
kingdom to his fon, the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus. 46
Though Charles IX. by his wife and vigorous con-State of
duft had in a great meafure retrieved the affairs of Swe- Sweden on
den, they were ftill in a very bad fituation. The finan- of ^
ces of the kingdom were entirely drained by a feries of Guftavus
wars and revolutions 3 powerful armies wrere preparing in Adolphus,
Denmark, Poland, and Ruflia, while not only the Swe-An-
difti troops were inferior in number to their enemies, but
the government was deftitute of refources for their pay¬
ment.
Though the Swedifh laws required that the prince
fhould have attained his 18th year before he was of age, 47
yet fuch ftriking marks of the great qualities of Gufta- He is al--
vus appeared, that he was allowed by the ftates to take
on him the adminiftration even before this early period, ^^iniftra-
His firft aft was to refume all the crown-grants, that he tion while
might be the better able to carry on the wars in which yet a mi-
he was engaged 3 and to fill all places, both civil andnor*
military, with per fon s of merit. At the head of domef-
tic and foreign affairs was placed Chancellor Oxenftiern,
a perfon every way equal to the important truft, and the
choofing of whom impreffed Europe with the higheft
opinion of the young monarch’s penetration and capa¬
city.
Soon after his acceffion, Guftavus received an embaffy
from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace
with his neighbours. This was feconded by another
from Holland. But as the king perceived that the Da-
nilh monarch intended to take every 'opportunity of
eruftiing him, he refolved to aft with fuch vigour, as
might convince him that he was not eafily to be over- 48
come. Accordingly be invaded Denmark with three He invades
different armies at once 3 and though the enemy’s fupe-
riority at fea gave them great advantages, and the num- ^jnpSte^
ber of the king’s enemies diftrafted bis attention, he car- conclude a
ried on the war with filch fpirit, that in 1613 a peace peace,
was concluded on good terms. This war being finiftied,
the king applied himfelf to civil polity, and made fome
reformation in the laws of Sweden. In 1615, hoftilities
were commenced againft Ruflia, on account of the refu-
fal of that court to reftore fome money which had been: ^
formerly lent them. The king entered Ingria, took Ruffia in-
Kexholm by ftorm, and was laying fiege to Plefcov, vaded with
when, by the mediation of James I. peace was-conclu-fuu;el:>'
ded, on condition of the Ruffians repaying the money,
and yielding to Sweden fome part of their territory. In
this and the former war, notwithftanding the fhortnefs
of their duration, Guftavus learned the rudiments of the 50
military art for which he foon became fo famous. He Extraordu
is faid, indeed, to have taken every opportunity of im-
provement with a quicknefs of underftanding feemingly JfYjJ kin^
more than human. In one campaign, he not only
learned, but improved, all the military maxims of La
Gardie, a celebrated general, brought the Swedilh army
to a more fteady and regular difeipline, and formed are
invincible
S W E [ I
i Sweden. ^ invincible body of Finlanders, who had afterwards a
■—y- -u ...• yery confiderable f^are in the viftories of Sweden.
Peace was no fooner concluded with Ruflia, than
Gudavus was crowned with great folemnity at Upfal.
Soon after this he ordered his general LaGardie to ac¬
quaint the Polilh commander Codekowitz, that as the
truce between the two kingdoms, which had been con¬
cluded for two years, w'as now expired, he defired to be
certainly informed whether he was to expert peace or
Has a "’ar from his mailer. In the mean time, having bor-
friendly in- rowed money of the Dutch for the redemption of a town
terview from Denmark, he had an interview on the frontiers
with Chriiliern the king of that country. At this in¬
terview, the two monarchs conceived the utmoft elleem
and friendihip for each other ; and Guftavus obtained a
promife, that Chriiliern would not affilt Sigifmund in
any defign he might have againll Sweden. In the mean
time, receiving no fatisfadlory anfwer from Poland, Gu¬
ftavus began to prepare for war. Sigifmund entered
into a negotiation, and made fome pretended conceflions,
with a view to feize Guftavus by treachery j but the lat¬
ter having intimation of his defign, the whole negoeia-
tion was changed into reproaches and threats on the part
of Guftavus.
Immediately after this, Guftavus made a tour in dif-
. guife through Germany, and married Eleonora the
ofdaughter of the eledlor of Brandenburg. He then re-
ofBranden-^°!vec* 1° cnter heartily into a war with Poland; and
■with the
kin® of
Denmark
and pre¬
pares lor
War with
Poland.
53
Marries
Eleonora,
burg.
S3
Riga be-
fieged and
taken.
S4
The Poles
defeated.
with this view fet fail for Riga with a great fleet, which
carried 20,000 men. The place was well fortified, and
defended by a body of veterans enthufiallically attached
to Sigifmund ; but after a vigorous liege, the garrifon
being reduced to extremity, were obliged to capitulate,
and were treated with great clemency.
After the redudlion of Riga, the Swedilh monarch
entered Courland, where he reduced Mittau ; but ceded
it again on the conclufion of a truce for one year. Si¬
gifmund, however, no fooner had time to recover him-
felf, than he began to form new enterprifes againft the
Swedes in Pruflia ; but Gullavus fetting fail with his
whole fleet for Dantzic, where the king of Poland then
refided, fo defeated his meafures, that he was obliged
to prolong the truce for another year. Sigifmund, how¬
ever, was not yet apprifed of his danger, and refufed to
liften-to any terms of accommodation : on which Gulla-
y - vus entering Livonia, defeated the Polilh general, and
places took Derpt, Hockenhaufen, and feveral other places of
■taken. importance ; after which, entering Lithuania, he
took the city of Birfen.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Guftavus propofed peace
on the fame equitable terms as before ; but Sigifmund
was ftill infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the
emperor of Germany, he ftiould be able to conquer
55 Sweden. Guftavus finding him inflexible, refolved to
The Poles pufh his good fortune. His generals Horn and Thurn
ST/Ld de/fted the Poles in Semigallia. Guftavus himfelf
a Treat "’!'h I5°,lhiPs ^ &il for Pruffia, where he landed at
Pillaw. Phis place was immediately delivered up to
him ; as were feveral other places. Sigifmund, alarmed
at the great progrefs of Guftavus, fent a body of forces
to oppofe him, and to prevent Dantzie from falling in¬
to his hands. In this he was attended with as little fuc¬
cefs as before; and in May 1627, Guftavus arrived with
frelh forces before Dantzic, which he would probably
have carried, had he not been wounded in the belly by
a great
number of
towns re¬
dact'd by
Cjultavus.
42 ] S W E
a cannon-ftiot. The States of Holland fent ambafladors Swede*
to mediate a peace between the two crowns ; but Sigif- '"““v"
mund, depending on the aflxftance of the emperor ofT1) S6
Germany and king of Spain, determined to hearken to defeated*
no terms, and refolved to make a -winter campaign, third tin,
Guftavus, however, was fo well intrenched, and all bis An. i62
forts were fo ftrongly garrifoned, that the utmoft efforts
^ of the Poles were to no purpofe. The city of Dantzic
in the mean time made fuch a defperate reliftance as
greatly irritated Guftavus. In a lea engagement theThep0|ei
Swedilh fleet defeated that of the enemy ; after which defeated 1
Guftavus, having blocked up the harbour with his fleet, by^a»aii
pulhed his advances on the land fide with incredible vi-hefted
gour. He made a furpriling march over a morafs 1$
miles broad, aflifted by bridges of a peculiar conftruc-
tion, over which he carried a fpecies of light cannon in¬
vented by himfelf. By this unexpected manoeuvre he
got the command of the city in fuch a manner, that the
garrifon were on the point of furrendering, when, by a
fudden fwell of the Viftula, the Swedilh works were The king
ruined, and the king was obliged to raife the fiege. In obliged t
other refpefts, however, the affairs of Guftavus went on an inui,d
:
58
with their ufual good fortune. His general Wrangel
defeated the Poles before Brodnitz. At Stum the king raife”the
gained another and more confiderable viClory in perfon. fiege.
The emperor had fent 5000 foot and 2000 horfe under 59
Arnheim, who joined the main army commanded by
the Polilh general Coniecfpollki, in order to attack themanS(je.
Swedilh army encamped at Quidzin. The enemy werefeatedw
fo much fuperior in number, that the friends of Gufta-great
vus warmly diffuaded him from attacking them. But
the king being determined, the engagement began.gagemer
The Swedilh cavalry charged with fuch impetuofity,
contrary to their fovereign’s exprefs order, that they
were almoft furrounded by the enemy ; but Guftavus,
coming up to their afliftance, pulhed the enemy’s infan¬
try with fo much vigour, that they gave way, and re¬
treated to a bridge that had been thrown over the Wer-
der. But here they w'ere difappointed ; for the Swedes
had already taken poffeffion of the bridge. On this a
new adlion enfued more bloody than the former, in
which the king was expofed to great danger, and thrice
narrowly efcaped being taken prifoner; but at laft the
Poles were totally defeated, with immenfe lofs. The
{laughter of the German auxiliaries was fo great, that
Arnheim fcarcely carried off one half of the troops
which he brought into the. field. This defeat did not
hinder the Polilh general from attempting the fiege of
Stum ; but here again he was attended by his ufual bad
fortune. Arnheim was recalled, and fucceeded by They are
Henry of Saxe Lawenburgand Philip Count Mansfeldt. again de- j
The change of general officers, however, produced
good confequences to the Poles ; a famine and plague ^011fent
raged in their camp, fo that they were at laft obliged a truce oi
to confent to a truce for fix years, to expire in thefixyea^
month of June 1633. Guftavus kept the port and ci¬
tadel of Memel, the harbour of Pillau, the town of El-
bing, Brunfberg, and all that he had conquered in Li¬
vonia.
1
6!
Guftavus having thus brought the war with Poland Guftavus
to an honourable conclufion, began to think of reftntingre^ves^
the eondufl of the emperor in affifting his enemies anda,war ^
oppreffing the Proteftant ftates. Before embarking in*0^
fuch an important undertaking, it was neeeffarv that he
fhould confult the diet. In this the propriety of enga¬
ges
>1
tc :es
V( ift,
‘ S W E [
^ing in a war with Germany was warmly debated; but,
'after much altercation, Guftavus in a very noble fpeech
determined the matter, and fet forth in fuch ftrong
terms the virtuous motives by which he was actuated,
that the whole affembly wept, and every thing was
oranted which he could require.
It was not difficult for Guffavus to begin his expedi¬
tion. His troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened
by a fucceflion of fevere campaigns in Ruffia, Finland,
Livonia, and Pruflia. His fleet exceeded 70 fail, car¬
rying from 20 to 40 guns, and manned with 6000 fea-
meil. Embarking his troops, he landed at Ufedom on
the 24th of June 1630, the Imperialifls having evacua¬
ted all the fortrefles which they poflefled there ; and the
ifle of Rugen had been before reduced by General Lefly,
f in order to fecure a retreat if fortune fbould prove un-
J favourable. Faffing the frith, Guftavus ftormed Wol-
gaft and another ftrong fortrefs in the neighbourhood,
leaving a garrifon for the defence of thefe conquefts.
He then proceeded to Stetin ; which confented to re¬
ceive a Swedifh garrifon, and the king perfuaded the
duke of Pomerania to enter into an alliance with him.
In confequence of this the Swedifti troops were received
into feveral tovvns of Pomerania ; and the moft bitter
enmity took place between the Imperialifts and Pome¬
ranians.
Thefe fuccefles of Guftavus ftruck the empire with
confternation ; for being already overwhelmed with ci-
. vil diffenfions, they were in no condition to refill fo im-
Til- petuous an enemy. At laft Count Tilly was invefted
fen w}th the dignity of veldt marifchal. In the mean
^ time the king being reinforced by a confiderable body
of troops in Finland and Livonia under the conduft of
Guftavus Horn, defeated the Imperialifts before Grif-
fenhagen ; taking the place foon after by aflault. By
this and fome other conquefts he opened a paflage into
Lufatia and Silefia; but in the mean time Count Tilly
cut off 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg. This ad¬
vantage, however, was foon overbalanced by the con-
queft of Franckfort on the Oder, which Guftavus took
'n iuort by affault, making the whole garrifon prifoners. Thus
n> andi- he commanded the rivers Elbe and Oder on both fides,
e aken ancl had a fa;r paflage not only to the countries already
* l^a' mentioned, but alfo to Saxony and the hereditary domi¬
nions of the houfe of Auftria. Soon after this, Gufta¬
vus laid fiege to Landfberg, which he took by af¬
fault.
About this time the Proteftant princes held a diet at
Leipfic; to which Guftavus fent deputies, and conduc¬
ed his negociations with fuch addrefs, as tended greatly
to promote his interefts. Immediately after this he re¬
duced Gripfwald, and with it all Pomerania. Then
marching to Guftrow, he reftored the dukes of Meck-
ikes oflenburg to their dominions.
ion- All this time Count Tilly was employed in the fiege
of Magdeburg ; but now, being alarmed at the repeat¬
ed fuccefles of the Swedes, he left Pappenheim with
part of the army before that city, while he marched
1 with the reft into Thuringia, to attack the landgrave of
^ leburg Hefle-Caflel and the eleCor of Saxony. After a moft;
n obftinate defence, Magdeburg fell into the hands of
•i, Pappenheim, who committed there all imaginable cruel-
I h ihabi- ^es- Guftavus formed a plan of recovering the city;
cruel- but was obliged to abandon it, by Pappenheim’s throw-
ing hitnfelf into the place with his Avhole army, and by
3
:«Dff
,0
w ?s.
143 3 S W E
the progrefs which Tilly was making in Thuringia. Sweden.
Relinquilhing this enterprife, therefore, he ordered an ‘
attack on Havelfburg ; which was done with fuch refo-Havelfburo-
lution, that the place was forced in a few hours, and anci Wer-°
all the garrifon made prifoners. Werben was next obli-ben ra¬
ged to fubmit after an obftinate conflifl, in which many duced, and
fell on both Tides.—Thefe fuccefles obliged Count Tilly
to attempt in perfon to check the progrefs of the Swedes, perialifts
He detached the vanguard of his array, compofed of the defeated by-
flower of the Imperial cavalry, within a few miles of the Swedes,
the Swedifti camp. An adlion enfued, in which Bern-
ftein the Imperial general was defeated and killed, with
1500 of his men. Guftavus, after this advantage, pla¬
ced himfelf in a lituation fo much fuperior to his enemies,
that Count Tilly was fired with indignation, and
marched up to the Swedifti lines to give him battle.
Guftavus kept within his works, and Tilly attacked his
camp, though almoft impregnably fortified, keeping up
a moft terrible fire from a battery of 3 2 pieces of can¬
non ; which, however, produced no other effe£t, than
obliging the Swedifti monarch to draw up his army be¬
hind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed his chief count 'fil-
hopes in being able to fpike the enemy’s cannon, or fet ly defeated
fire to their camp ; after which he propofed making his by Gufta-
grand attack. With this view he bribed fome prifon-vus*
ers; but they betrayed him, and told his defign to Gu¬
ftavus. The king ordered fires to be lighted in differ¬
ent parts of his camp, and his foldiers to imitate the
noife of a tumultuous diforderly rabble. This had the
defired effefl. The count led his army to the breach
made by the cannon ; where he was received with fucli
a volley of grape ftiot as cut off" the firft line, and put
the whole body in diforder, fo that they could never be
brought back to the charge. In this confufion the Im¬
perial army was attacked, and, after an obftinate con- •
fli£l, obliged to quit the field.
Soon after this action the queen arrived at the camp
with a reinforcement of 8000 men ; at the fame time a
treaty was concluded with Charles I. of England, by a body of
which that monarch allowed the marquis of Hamilton to Britifli fol-
raife 6000 men for the fervice of Guftavus. Thefe auxi-^‘er^co^^
liaries were to be conducted to the main army by a bodyt01 e r “
or 4000 Swedes; and were in every thing to obey thegwecies>
king while he was perfonally prefent, but in his abfence
were to be fubjeft to the orders of the marquis. With
thefe troops the king had refolved to make a diverfion
in Bremen : but the marquis finding it impoflible to ef¬
fect a junftion with the Swedifh army, refolved, with¬
out debarking his troops, to fleer his courfe for the
Oder, and land at Ufedom. Guftavus was very much
difpleafed at finding his proje£l thus difconcerted; but,
making the beft of the prefent circumftances, he com ¬
manded the Britifh troops to a£t on the Oder inftead of
the Wefer. The number of this little army Avas mag¬
nified exceedingly by report, infomuch that Count Tilly
had fome thoughts of marching againft them Avith his
whole force; but on the departure of the marquis for
Silefia, he reinforced the army in that country Avith a
large detachment, Avhich Avas thought to contribute not
a little to the defeat he foon after received.
Since the late adlion Guftavus had kept Avithin his
intrenchments, Avhere his army Avas well provided Avith
every thing. Tilly made feveral attempts to furprife or
draw him to an engagement; but finding all his endea¬
vours fruitlefs, he marched into Saxony, and laid fiege
to
S W E [ 144 ] S W E
-71
Saxony ra¬
vaged by
Count Til¬
ly, who
72
Battle of
Leipfic.
-iVn, idjI
Sweden, to Leipfic. This precipitate meafure proved highly ad-
vantageous to the Svvedilh monarch. A treaty ofFenfive
and defenfive was immediately concluded withGuftavus:
and the eledlor willingly promifed every thing that was
required of him. Tilly, in the mean time, carried fire
and fword into the ele&orate. At the head of an army
of 44,000 veterans, he fummoned the city of Leipfic to
takesTeip- ^render 5 denouncing the fame vengeance againil it as
Gc. had been executed on Magdeburg, in cafe of a refufal.
By this the governor w'as fo much intimidated, that he
intlantly fubmitted j and alfo furrendered the caftle of
Paffenberg, which was in & condition to have flood out
till the arrival of the Swedifli army. The eledtor, en¬
raged at the lofs of thefe valuable places, ordered his
army to join the Swedes with all expedition, and prefled
the king fo warmly to engage, that at laft he yielded to
his defire. On the 7th of September 1631, Gufiavus
led out his army in the fineft order, the Swedes forming
one column on the right, and the Saxons another on the
Left *, each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up
his men in one vaft column, probably with a view of
furrounding the flanks of the king’s army. Guftavus
led on his troops againft that wing of the Imperialifts
commanded by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to
a confiderable diftance. General Bannier in the mean
time cut in pieces the troops of Holftein, and mortally
wounded the duke who commanded them. Pappenheim
led on his troops feven times to the charge, but was as
often repulfed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while was
engaged with the Saxons j but having at laft driven them
off the field, the whole ftrength of the Imperial army
was turned againft the Swedifh left wing. The Swedes
fuftained the attack with the greateft firmnefs, until the
king detached the centre to aflift them. The Imperial¬
ifts then were no longer able to ftand their ground •, but
gave way everywhere except in the centre, which was
compofed of J 8 regiments of veterans accuftomed to vic¬
tory, and deemed invincible. They made incredible
efforts to maintain their reputation j and, though fwept
off in great numbers by the Swedifli artillery, never
ftirunk or fell into confufion. Four regiments, after
their officers had been killed, formed themfelves, and
retired to the fkirt of a wood. Tilly retired at the head
of 600 men, and efcaped by the coming on of the night.
Seven thoufand Imperialifts lay dead on the field of bat¬
tle •, 4000 were taken prifoners; a fine train of artillery
was loft, with upwards of 100 ftandards, enfigns, and
other military trophies.
Guftavus now determined to penetrate into Fran¬
conia, where he reduced feveral places, efpecially the
fortrefs of Workburg. Tilly having collefted his fcat-
TheSwedes tered troops, which formed an army ftill fuperior in
take a num-number to that of Guftavus, marched to the relief of
townf and P^ace > ^ut came to° late' ^len directed his
cut off four march towards Rottenberg, where four regiments were
regiments cut in pieces by a Swedifh detachment. After this the
of the ene-king reduced Hanau, Franckfort on the Maine, and
Mentz ; deftroying a body of Spaniards, who had at¬
tempted to obftruft his paffage.
The court of Vienna was now thrown into the utmoft
confufion ; and fent everywhere begging affiftance, and
foliciting the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their
religion. The emperor was moft embarraffed in finding
out a general capable of oppofing Guftavus in the field j
for the late misfortunes of Count Tilly had entirely funk
73
The Impe-
rialifts de¬
feated with
great
daughter.
,
Conduct of
Guftavus
cenfured.
75
my,
his reputation. Walleftein, an old experienced officer, SwederJi
was feledfed ; but as he had formerly been difgraced, it 1—“v'-
was apprehended that he would not accept of the com-^ l6 . ;
mand of which he had once been deprived. This objTc-cllofe* *“11
tion, however, was got over j and Walleftein not only neralbytllj
accepted of the command, but, at his own expence, emperor. ,f
augmented the army to 40,000 men. j
During the whole winter the Swedifh army kept the a great i
field •, and before the approach of fummer had reduced number oil I
a great number of places, while the landgrave William tbow?staia
made great progrefs in Weftphalia. Guftavus Horn was5^^
repulfed before Bamberg ; but foon had his revenge., by
entirely deftroying two regiments of Imperialifts. To
prevent the troops from being affedted by the lofs before
Bamberg, the king refolved to give battle to Tilly,
who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swede*
from gaining a footing in that eledorate. He purfued
the Imperial general through a vaft trad of country,
defeated his rear-guard, and, having reduced a variety
of towns and fortreffes on the Danube, penetrated as far g
as Ulm. Advancing to the river Leek, Count Tilly Count Ti:|
ported himfelf in a wood on the oppofite fide, to difpute ly defeat J
his paffage. Guftavus endeavoured to diflodge him byand&U«
a regular fire from 70 pieces of cannon. The daughter
was dreadful; and Tilly himfelf, being wounded by a
cannon ball in the knee, died a few days before he was
to have been fuperfeded by Walleftein. The following
night the Imperial army evacuated the poft. Guftavus
immediately croffed the river, and feized the towns of
Rain and Newburg, which the enemy had abandoned,
and Augfburg next fubmitted.
From Augfburg the Swedes advanced towards Ratif-
bon j but were difappointed in their defign of getting
poffeflion of that city, as the Bavarians had thrown a
numerous garrifon into the place.—In the mean time,
ambaffadors arrived from Denmark, offering the media¬
tion of that crown for obtaining a lafting peace between
the contending parties. This negociation, however,
failed of fuccefs, as the ambaffadors had not been inftruc- I
ted to offer terms favourable to the Proteftants. Gufta- Three 1
vus now, refolving to retort on themfelves the cruelties towns lail|
which the Bavarians had inflifted on the Proteftants, in afhes'j
laid the towns of Morzbourg, Friefengen, and Land- eS"ei
ftmt, in alhes. The inhabitants of Munich faved them¬
felves by fubmiflion j Guftavus alfo defeated the forces
of the eleftor, who had been joined by a conftderable
body of militia.
While Guftavus was thus employed, Walleftein had
affembled a vaft army. He was ftrongly folicited by
the elector of Bavaria to come to his afliftance^ but, in
revenge of the eleftor’s having formerly obtained the
command for Count Tilly in preference to himfelf, he
drew off towards Bohemia to encounter the Saxons.
Arnheim, who commanded the Saxon forces in that
place, was an enemy to Guftavus, who had formerly
rallied him for his cowardice. He therefore permitted Tj,e jJ
Walleftein to gain an eafy viftory, in hopes that his troops <l|
mafter, the eleflor of Saxony, a prince entirely devoted
to his pleafures, might be induced to relinquifti the 1
friendftiip of fuch a reftlefs and warlike ally as Guftavus j
and indeed he ufed all the eloquence of which he was
mafter to detach him from the Swedilh caufe. Several
advantages in the mean time, were gained by the Im¬
perialifts. Pappenheim defeated the arcbbilhop of Bre¬
men’s cavalry at Werden '} and three Swedifh regiments
were
;.! 0 n •
Si
ftavus
[ acks his
np, and
xpulfed
th lofs.
82
ttle of
itzen.
83
iftavus
lied.
ae Impe-
tlifts to¬
lly de-
atetl.
.85
iriftina,
[infant,
oclaimed
leen of
veden.
8<J
larles
uftavus
; 'pointed
i dr to the
own of
veden.
h. 1654.
. S W £ [1
were cut oft near Kadingen. Pappenlieim, however,
was forced to retire, and withdraw his forces from Stade;
of which the Swedes took polTeffion. Walleftein and
the eledtor of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces,
threatened Guffavtis with greatly fuperior numbers. At
laid, however, the king, being reinforced with 15,000
men, no longer declined the engagement j but Wallef¬
tein was too wife to truft the fate of the empire to a
fingle battle againft fuch an enemy as the king of Swe¬
den. Guftavus attacked his camp, but was repulfed
with the lofs of 2COO men. Several other misfortunes
happened to the Swedes j and at lad, after various
manoeuvres, Walledein bent his courfe towards Mifnia,
in order to oblige the eleftor of Saxony to declare againii
the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria. Guda-
vus, notwithdanding the incondancy of Augudus, im¬
mediately fet out to adid him. With incredible dili¬
gence he marched to Mifnia, where the Imperialids
were aflembling their whole ftrengtln Hearing that
the enemy were encamped at Wefenfells, and that Pap-
penheim had been detached with a drong corps, Guda-
vus refolved to engage them before they could effeft a
jun6fion. With tins view he marched to Lutzen, where
he attacked Walledein with incredible fury. The Swe-
difh infantry broke the Imperialids in fpite of their ut-
mod efforts, and took all their artillery. The cavalry
not being able to pafs the river fo expeditioufly as the
king thought neceffary, he led the way, attended only
by a fingle regiment and the duke of Saxe-Lauwenburg.
Here, after charging impetuoufly, he was killed. The
news of his death was in an indant fpread over both ar¬
mies. The courage ©f the Imperialids revived, and they
now made themfelves fure of viftory. But the Swedes,
eager to revenge the death of their beloved monarch,
charged with fuch fury that nothing could redd them.
The Imperialids were defeated a fecond time, jud as
Pappenheim, with his frefh corps, came up to their af-
fidance. On this the battle was renewed, but the
Swedes w'ere dill irrefidible. Pappenheim was mortal¬
ly wounded, and his army finally routed, with the lofs
of 9000 killed in the field and in the purfuit.
This victory proved more unfortunate to Sweden than
the greated defeat. The crown devolved on Chridina
the daughter of Guftavus, an infant of fix years old ;
the nation was engaged in an expenfive foreign war,
without any perfon equal to the arduous talk of com¬
manding the armies, or regulating domeftic affairs, as
Guftavus had done. Chriftina was immediately pro¬
claimed queen. The regency devolved on the grand
bailiff, the marifchal, the high admiral, the chancellor,
and the treafurer of the crown. Oxenftiern was invef-
ted with the chief management of affairs, and conduced
himfelf with the greateft prudence. The feign and
character of Chriftina have been fully detailed under the
article Christina, to which we may refer our readers.
From the treaty of Weftphalia, Sweden enjoyed fome
years of repofe. Charles Guftavus, Count Palatine,
having gained the favour of Chriftina, was appointed
generaliftimo of the forces, and heir-apparent to the
crown. A marriage was propofed between them *, but
the queen would never liflen to this «r any other propo-
fal of the kind. In 1650, the ceremony of the queen’s
coronation was performed ; but in four years after, ftie
refigned the crown in favour of Guftavus. (See the
article Christina).
Vol. XX. Part L
45 1 S W E
The new king found himfetf involved in confiderable Sweden,
difficulties on his aeceffion to the throne. The treafury
was quite exhaufted ; great part of the revenue was ap-state of
pointed for the fupport of Chriftina’s houlehold 5 the Sweden on
people were oppreffed with taxes 5 and the nation having the accef-
been difarmed for feveral years, began to lofe its reputa-^” ^
tion among foreigners. To remedy thefe evils, Charles
propofed to refume all the crown-lands which had been
alienated by grants to favourites during the late reign ;
to repeal a duty which had been laid on fait 5 to put the
kingdom in a pofture of defence 5 and to enter on a war gg
with fome neighbouring llate. Under a pretence that War with
Cafimir king of Poland had queftioned his title to the Poland re¬
throne, he prepared to invade that kingdom. Severalfolvecl on’
embaffies ivere fent from Poland to Stockholm j but
fome point of ceremony always difappointed them of an
audience of the king 5 fo that they were obliged to re¬
turn without their errand. As foon as matters were in
readinefs, General Wittemberg made an irruption into
Poland from the fide of Pomerania. The Poles oppofed
him with an army of 15,000 men j but inftead of fight¬
ing, they began to negociate, and in a ftiort time en¬
tirely difuerled. Charles himfelf foon followed with a
powerful army, and purfued his march without obftruc-
tion, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as
he approached. As he advanced to Cracow, Calimir g^
refolved to make one effort to fave his capital. His The Poles
army amounted only to 10,000 men ; and thefe were defeated,
unfortunately fuch as had never flood fire. After a the
feeble refiftance, they fled with precipitation, having loft
1000 men killed and taken prifoners. A few days after
this Charles defeated the Poles a fecond time, about
eight leagues from Cracow 5 on which Cafimir fled with,
his family to Oppelen in Silefia. The capital was then
inverted •, and though defended with the utmoft valour,
was in a fhort time obliged to capitulate. Thus in lefs
than three months Charles apparently became mafter
of Poland •, but it Was foon evident that the Poles had
ho intenlion of abandoning their former fovereign.
In 1656, a war took place with the ele£lor of Bran-war wjtl,
denburg. While Charles was employed in the con- the eledtor
queft of Poland, that prince had invaded Royal and Du-of Branden*
cal Pruffia, and reduced the moft confiderable towns
with little oppofition. The king of Sweden took um- ' ’ 5 *
brage at his progrefs; and having marched againft
him, defeated his forces in feveral flight encounters, and
obliged him to Acknowledge himfelf avaffal of Sweden.
Thefe rapid conquefts alarmed all Europe-, zmdThe
different powers fought for means of driving the Swedes
out of Poland, which they had fo unexpectedly and un- 5I
juftly feized. The Poles were no fooner affuted that The Poles
they fliould be affifted, than they everywhere revolted revolt,
and maffacred the Swedes. Cafimir returned from Sile¬
fia ; and thofe very troops and generals who had before
Tubmitted to Charles without oppofition, now ranged
themfelves under the banners of his antagonift. Charles Charles
immediately marched from Pruffia to chaftife the info-gains a vic-
lence of the Poles, and totally defeated a body of toryi krit is
12,000 men. This did not hinder all the Poles incor- td
porated with his troops to defert *, which confiderably
reduced his army and the campaign being performed
in the depth of winter, he was at laft obliged to retreat
to Pruffia. In his march he was haraffed by the Poles 5
and a body of 4000 .Swedes was furprifed and defeated
by them at Warka. This lofs, however, was foon after
T recompenfed
S W E
[ 14^ ]
S W E
^ we Jen.
93
Concludes
a treaty
with the
Dutch and
recompenfed by a complete viftory gained by Adolphus
the king’s brother and General Wrangel. In the mean
time the king was taking meafures for laying fiege to
Dantzic ; but was prevented by the Dutch, who threat¬
ened to oppofe him, unlefs a proper regard was paid to
their intereft. Charles accordingly granted them ad¬
vantageous terms 5 and afterwards gained over the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg, by ceding to him the fovereignty
the'deft or Pruffia, that he might be at liberty to turn his whole
of Branden-ilrength againft Poland.
burg. By the treaty juft concluded with the elector, the
latter was to affift Charles in his war with Poland ; but
the eledftor had fo procraftinated matters, that the Poles,
having obtained aftiftance from the Tartars, had reduced
the city of Warfaw. The two princes, however, now
inarched in concert againft their enemies, who were en¬
camped in a ftrong Situation in the neighbourhood of
the city above mentioned, their camp being fronted by
the Viftula. The Poles were driven from their en-
The Poles trenchments with prodigious daughter. The Poles and
and Tartars Tartars then laboured to break the alliance; with
defeated -which view they entered Ducal Pruflia, and defeated
flauglrte/1 t^e c^e^ora^ array5 taking many prifoners. The Swedes
foon had their revenge. General Steinboek attacked
the fame Polilh army at Philippowa, and overthrew it
with fuch (laughter as obliged the Poles for that feafon
to quit the field. A more formidable enemy than the
Poles now began to make their appearance. The Ruf¬
fians invaded the provinces of Carelia, Ingermania, and
Livonia ; while the eleflor of Brandenburg began to
waver in his fidelity. To preferve this only ally at fuch
a critical jun&ure, Charles was obliged to give him
Swccfifl^dc tt,ore advantageous terms than thofe already mentioned ;
minions, 'while the Ruffians were repulfed in the provinces of
Carelia and Ingermania. But in Livonia they had bet¬
ter fuccefs. See Russia. For feven months, however,
they battered the walls of Riga, without venturing to
pafs the ditch or ftorm the prafticable breaches.
Charles, notwithftanding the number of his enemies,
was now become fo formidable by the valour and difei-
pline of his troops, that whole armies often fled on his
An. 1 £57. approach. At laft, in 1657, P°les} finding they
could not refill him in the field, contented themfelves
with haraffing the Swedes on their march, and cutting
Charles en-,off the foragers and convoys. This proved much more
ters into deftruflive to the Swedes than their former method ; fo
with Ra*06 that Charles was obliged to enter into an alliance with
gotlki Ragotlki prince of Tranfylvania, by affigning him cer¬
tain provinces in his neighbourhood, in order to furnifti
himfelf with irregular troops, who might fight the Poles
in their own way. This, however, proved of no real
advantage ; for the confederates, after wafting a whole
campaign in Lithuania, were obliged to return without
aceompliftiJng more than the reduflion of a fingle for-
trefs ; on which Charles returned with the Swediffi army
to Pruffi'a.
Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having long
beheld the Swedes with a jealous eye, now refolved to
declare for Poland. The more effectually to curb the
ambition of the Swedifh monarch, he folicited the king
of Denmark to come to a rupture with him. This wajs
inftantly complied with, and the Danes invaded Bre¬
men. Charlfes haftened to oppofe this new enemy ;
which gave fuch offence to Ragotlki, that he neglected
to take the proper meafures for his own defence in the
95
The Ruf¬
fians in¬
vade the
prince of
Tranfylva-
ifia.
97
Leopold
icing of
Hungary
declares
agairdt
Sweden.
p8
Ragotfki’s
army de-
ftroyed by
the Poles
and Tar¬
tars,
rks :
abfence of the Swedes, and fuffered his army to be de- Sweden,
ftroyed by the Poles and Tartars. At the fame time *—•“v"-
the Turks invaded Tranfylvania, under pretence that
Bagotlki, being a vaffal of the Grand Signior, had no ^
right to invade Poland without his leave. Ragotlki op-Heisde. |
pnfed them in the field; where he was defeated andkatedancl
killed, leaving Charles deftitute of the only ally
whom he could depend. 1 e *utk
The king, however, not difmayed by this misfortune,
traverfed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
after which he attacked Holftein, while General Wran¬
gel with another corps entered the duchy of Bremen.
The latter executed his meafures with the utmoft vi- T„„ !
gour. In 15 days he retook all the towns which the Bravery |
enemy had reduced; defeated and drove the Daniftiandfuccel
army out of the country, killing 3000 of their bell fol-
diers. In Holftein the king reduced feveral fortreffes, ' 6 "|
laid Itzehoe in allies, defeated a body of Danes, and
laid fiege to Frederic Udda, into which the Danes had
thrown a ftrong garrifon. The condudft of this fiege he
left to Wrangel, he himfelf retiring to Wifmar in order
to obferve the fituation of affairs in Poland ; but no
fooner was he gone than Wrangel attacked the place
with fuch fury, that he became mailer of it in two
hours. In the province of Halland the Swedes were
defeated ; but the enemy derived no advantage from
their vidlory : at fea the fleets met, and maintained an
engagement for two days, without any confiderable ad- 101 I
vantage on either fide. In Poland affairs were not bet- The houfl
ter conduced. The houfe of Auftria had now declared j
for Cafimir; a German army entered Poland, and re-aga-nft
duced Cracow, though not without great lofs to them- Sweden,'
felves.
The king of Sweden was now furrounded by enemies.
The eleftor of Brandenburg had declared againft him ;
and he had befides to engage the armies of Auftria, 102
Poland, Ruffia, and Denmark. In this dangerous fitua-Charlesil
tion he refolved to attack Denmark, fo as to oblige thatvai^sE;,
power to come to a fpeedy accommodation. His de-™eAt.flic|
figns wrere forwarded by a very early froft, which enabled Cefs.
him to tranfport his troops without Ihipping. Having
paffed over on the ice to the illand of Funen, he cut in
pieces a body of 4000 Daniffi foldiers and 500 peafants.
The whole illand was reduced in a few days ; after
which he paffed to Langland, then to Laaland, after
that to Falftre, and laftly to Zealand, The Danes were
terrified at this unexpected invafion, and were giving
themfelves up to defpair, when Charles offered to con- IC. 1
elude a peace on equitable terms. The king of Den- Peace col
mark gladly confented ; intending to renew the war asck^e^
foon as he thought it could be done with fafety, 'An'1 q|
Charles was no fooner retired, than the king of Den¬
mark began to a£l fecretiy againft him ; on which, re-
folving to anticipate him in his defigns, he appeared un- J0^
expedtedly with a fleet before Copenhagen. The Swe- The wai
dilh monarch laid fiege to the capital, but with fo little renewed
prudence that he made no progrefs, and was at length and‘^
compelled to turn the fiege into a blockade, which con-
tinned to the end of the war. Charles X'. died of an
epidemic fever, and was fucceeded by his fon Charles
XL _ _ 105,
The new king Charles XL was a minoTat the time Charles -
of his father’s death ; and as the kingdom was involved A'1’' I"v
in a dangerous war with fo many enemies, the regency
determined to conclude a peace, if it could be obtained
on ,
S W E
[ >
107
r with
;iden-
108
■Swedes
;ated by
I and
1. 1676.
109
eir af-
: s every-
ere go
vreck.
110
tee con-
ded.
Ill
arles be.
nes ab¬
ate.
on reafonable terms. A treaty was accordingly con¬
cluded at Oliva ; by which Cafimir renounced his pre-
tenfions to the crown of Poland, and that republic gave
up all pretenlions to Livonia. Bornholm and Dron-
theim were ceded to Denmark ; and an equivalent in
Schonen remained with Sweden. During the minority
of the king, nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of
Sweden. In 1672 he entered into alliance with Louis
XIV. which two years after involved him in a war with
the elettor of Brandenburg. At firll the Swedes car¬
ried all before them. Almoft all the towns in Bran¬
denburg were reduced, when the eleftor arrived with
an army to the relief of his diftreffed fubje&s. He re¬
took feveral towns, defeated the Swedes in a general en¬
gagement, and foon after forced them to abandon all
their conquefts. In conjunftion with the Danes, he
then invaded the Swedifh dominions ; many places of
importance were reduced 5 and, in 1676, Sweden re¬
ceived a mod deftru&ive blow by the defeat of her fleet
in an engagement with the combined fleets of Denmark
and Holland. Soon after this the king took the go¬
vernment into his own hands, and in fome degree re-
ftored the fortune of Sweden ; but though matters went
on in a more profperous way where the king command¬
ed in perfon, the fame Ioffes and difgrace attended the
Swedifh arms in every other quarter. In 1678, the
Swedifh fleet was defeated in two engagements. At
Landfcroon a moft obftinate battle w-as fought from ten
in the morning till fix at night 5 when both parties were
obliged, by fatigue, to retire to their refpeftive camps.
At Oldeval in Norway, the Swedes were defeated ;
and the Danes laid defolate the iflands of Oeland, Smaa-
land, Unno, and Kuno •, while the ele&oral troops and
Imperialifts reduced Count Konigfmark to the utmoft
diftrefs in the neighbourhood of Stralfund.
In this deplorable fituation of affairs Count Konigf-
mark found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to
fuch advantage, that he obtained a complete vi&ory ;
after which he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg.
Not with {landing this fuccefs, he could not prevent the
elector from reducing Stralfund j after which he was
ebliged to evacuate Pomerania ; and, to complete his
diftrefs, the fleet which tranfported the Swedifta army
from Pomerania w-as wrecked on the coaft of Born¬
holm.
In this unprofperous fituation of affairs a peace was
concluded at St Germain’s between France and her ene¬
mies, by which the Swedes and Danes Avere left to de¬
cide their quarrel by themfelves. Denmark was by no
means a match for Sweden, even in the diftrefled fitua¬
tion to which {he was reduced j and therefore a treaty
wras concluded, on terms much more favourable to Swe¬
den than could have been expefled ; and the peace was
confirmed by a marriage between Charles and Ulrica
Eleonora, daughter to the king of Denmark. From
this time the Swedifh monarch applied himfelf to the re¬
formation of the ftate •, and by artfully managing the
difputes between the nobility and peafants, he obtained
a decree empowering him to alter the conftitution as he
. pleafed. The proceedings of the king after this decree
were fuch as toexafperate the nobility, and produce vio¬
lent commotions. See Patkul.
On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XL leav¬
ing his crown to his ion, the celebrated Charles XII. at
47 ] S W E
that time a minor. On his acceffion he found himfelf Swejen;
under the tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had ' v—
governed the kingdom during the minority of the late Charles XI.
king. Though Charles was at that time only 15 years(iies> ail(i i3
of age, he fhowed a defire of taking the governmentfucceeded
into his own hands. His counfellors, Count Piper and^y
Axel Sparre, fignified his defire to the queen-regent. xljT es
They were by her referred to the ftates 5 and there all rIj
were unanimous : fo that the queen, finding that oppo-He takes
fition would be vain, refigned her power with a good the g°.vern"
grace •, and Charles was in veiled with abfolute authority
in three days after he had expreffed his defire of reigning hands at
alone. He was fcarcely feated on the throne when aihe age of
powerful combination was formed againft him. Augu-15-
ftus king of Poland formed defigns on Livonia 5 the king ^ ^^erfuj
of Denmark revived the difputes he had with the dukecon^ina_
of Holftein, as a prelude to a Avar with Sweden ; and tion form-
Peter the Great of Kuflia began to form defigns on In-edagaiaft
gria, formerly a province of Ruffia. In 1699 the kingl“m*
of Denmark marched an army into Holftein. Charles
fent a confiderable body of troops to the duke’s affift- 115
ance ^ but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged Holftein nr.
the country, taken the caftle of Gottorp, and laid c^°^e^hfeQa^s
fiege to Tonningen. Here the king of Denmark com-
manded in perfon ; and Avas afiifted by the troops of
Saxony, Brandenburg, Wolfenbuttle, and Hefi’e Caffel.
England and Holland, as guarantees of the laft treaty
Avith Denmark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles
againft this confederacy, and fent fleets to the Baltic.
They propofed a termination of the war on equitable
terms j but thefe Avere haughtily refufed by the Danifh-
monarch, Avho defpifed the youth and inexperience of
Charles, and relied too much on the alliance he had
formed Avith Saxony, Brandenburg, Poland, and Ruffia. rtg
Tonningen, however, refifted all his efforts *, and AvhenThey are
he ordered the place to be {formed, he had the mortifi-repulfed at
cation to fee his troops driven headlong from the Wallslonrungen5
by a handful of Swedes. X17
In the year 17CO, Charles, having entrufted the af-Charles fets
fairs of the nation with a council chofen out of the fe-out from
nate, fet out on the 8th May from his capital, to which ^ defers
he never afterwards returned. He embarked at CarH- fleet 0f
croon, and defeated the fleet of the allies. HaA/ing made the allies,
a defeent on the ifiand of Zealand, he defeated a body of An. 1706?.
cavalry that oppofed his march, and then proceeded to
inveft Copenhagen by fea and land. 1 he king of Den¬
mark then fatv the neceffity of either having his capital
deftroyed, or of doing juftice to the duke of Holftein. IIg
He chofe the latter ; and a treaty was concluded on Obliges the
much the fame terms as formerly. Charles, being thus Danes to
at liberty to turn his arms againft the other princes who7^
had confpired his deftru&ion, refolved to lead his army
againft Auguftus king of Poland. On the road, how-Marches
ever, he received intelligence that the tzar of Ruffia Avasygainft tfie
on his march to oppofe him, and had laid fiege to Narva
Avith an army of 100,000 men. 1 he conteft that enfued
between Charles and Peter, with the celebrated battles
of Narva and PultaA-a, have been already related under
RtTSSIA, fo that avc fhall here confine ourfelves chiefly to
thofe events in which Peter the Great was not imme¬
diately concerned.
The tzar Peter Avas the chief fupport of Auguftus, and
he took the moft aftive meafures to oppofe the progrefs of
the Swedith monarch. His Avant of fuccefs, and the fub-
T 2 fcquerft.
S W E
[ 148 ]
S W E
Sweden, fequent contfefts between him and Charles, till the deci-
five battle of Pultava are related in the article Rus-
130
Charles
fn arches
again ft the
Saxons,
Ah. 1701.
lit
and en¬
tirely de¬
feats them.
in
Forms a
fcheme for
dethroning
Augnftus.
133
Makes afe-
cond appli¬
cation to no
purpofe.
134
Warfaw ta¬
ken.
T25
The Saxons
entirely de¬
feated.
126
Cracow ta¬
ken.
SIA.
In 1701, as early as the feafon permitted, Charles,
having received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the
field, and appeared fuddenly on the banks of the Duna,
along which the Saxon army was ported to receive him.
The king of Poland being at that time fick, the army
was commanded by Ferdinand duke of Courland, Ma-
rifchal Stenau, and General Paykel, all officers of va¬
lour and experience. They had fortified certain irtands
in the mouth of the rwer, and taken every other pre¬
caution againft an attack the foldiers were hardy, well
difciplined; and nearly equal to the Swedes in number *,
yet Charles, having parted the river in boats with high
fides, to fcreen the men from the fire of the enemy, at¬
tacked them with fuch fury, that they were entirely de¬
feated with great lofs.
This viftory was followed by the furrender of all the
towns and fortreffes in the duchy of Courland. Charles
then parted into Lithuania, where every town opened its
gates to him. At P>irfen, an army of 20,000 Ruffians re¬
tired with the utmoft precipitation on the news of his ap¬
proach. Here Charles, perceiving that the kingdom of
Poland was greatly difaffefted to Auguftus, began to pro-
jedt the fcheme of dethroning him by means of his own
fubjetts. This fcheme he executed with more policy
than he ever (bowed on any other occafion.
Auguftus, in the mean time, finding his feheme of
peace fruftrated, had recourfe to the fenate; but met
with fuch a rough anfwer from them, that he determin¬
ed to apply to Charles. To him therefore he fent his
chamberlain ; but a partport being forgotten, the ambaf-
fador was arrefted. Charles continued his march to War¬
faw, which furrendered on the firft fummons : but the
citadel held out for fome days. Auguftus, finding at laft
that no dependence was to be placed on the Poles, deter¬
mined to truft his fortune wholly to the Saxon army and
the nobility of the palatinate of Cracow, who offered to
fupport him to the utmoft of their power. The Saxon
army was now advanced to the frontiers, and Auguftus
immediately put himfelf at its head. Being joined by
the nobility of Cracow, he found his forces to amount
to 30,000 men, all brave and well-difciplined. With
thefe he marched in queft of his enemy ; who did not
decline the combat, though he had with him only 12,000
men. Though the Saxons were ftrongly ported, having
their front covered by a morafs, befides being fortified
with pallifadoes and chevaux de frife, they were attack¬
ed with irrefiftible impetuofity, and entirely defeated.
This viflory was followed by the lofs of Cracow : after
which Charles fet out in purfait of the flying army,
with a defign of preventing them from re-aflembling ;
but his horfe falling under him, he had the misfortune
to break his thigh, by which he was confined fix weeks;
and thus Auguftus obtained fome refpite. He improved
this interval. Having convoked a diet firft at Marien-
burg, and then at Lublin, he obtained the following re-
folutions ; that an army of 50,000 men fhould be raifed
by the republic for the fervice of the prince ; that fix
\yeeks ffiould be allowed the Swedes to determine whe¬
ther they were for war or peace *, and that the fame time
fhould be granted to the turbulent and di feontented nobles
of Poland to make their conceftions. To counteract the
effects of thefe refolutions, Charles affembled another
diet at Warfaw ; and while the two affemblies difputed Sweden,
concerning their rights and privileges, he recovered from """v*—j
his wound, received a ftrong reinforcement from Pome.-
rania, and utterly defeated and difperfed the remains of the Saxon'
the Saxon army. army en-
The ill fortune of Auguftus continued (till to prevail.drelyde.
In 1704 he was formally depofed by the diet, and the
crown conferred by Charles on Staniftaus Lecftnfky pa-
latine of Pofnania. Auguftus, however, did not yet Auguftus
tamely give up his kingdom. His adherents daily fkir-f'amally
mifhed with the Swedes; and Auguftus himfelf, being
reinforced by 9000 Ruffians, retook Warfaw, and wasiaUS railed"
near furprifing the new king, who lived in perfeCt fe-tothe
curity in the city while Charles fought in his caufe. throne.
Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes, vigoroufly defended ^
the citadel; but at laft, finding it no longer tenable, he Warfaw rc.
was obliged to furrender at diferetion. The reduCIiontaken by
of Warfaw was among the laft advantages gained by AuSu^H5, :
Auguftus in the courfe of this war. His troops were
now compofed of Saxon recruits and undftciplined Poles,
who had no attachment to his perfon, and were ready
on all occafions to forfake him. Charles and Staniftaus
advanced with the victorious army ; the Saxons fled be¬
fore them, and the towns feveral miles round fent him j,0
their fubmiffions. The Poles and Saxons were under Excellent
the command of Schullembt rg, a moft fugacious and ex-con(iudof
perienced general, who ufed every expedient to cheek *11S. Se|nerF‘
the progrefs of the Swedes. With all his conduCt andem"
caution he found himfelf outwitted, and Charles in the
neighbourhood of his camp ready to fall on him, while 131
he thought him at 50 leagues diftance. The Swedifh His en-
monarch attacked him with a fuperior army, but en- gag*m‘:nt I
tirely compofed of horfe. Sehullemberg had ported his
men in fuch a manner as rendered it impoflible to fur-
round them. His firft rank being armed with pikes and
fufees, prefented a kind of rampart of bayonets ; the fe-
cond line (looping over the firft who kneeled, fired over
their heads, while the third rank, who flood upon their
feet, kept up an inceffant fire, by which the Swedifti horfe
were exceedingly galled and put in diforder. Charles
loft the opportunity of cutting off the whole Saxon
army, by omitting to order his men to difmount. This
was almoft the firft time that infantry had been regu¬
larly oppofed to cavalry, and the fuperiority of the for- _ 1
mer was evident. After the engagement had continued His ftnersl
about three hours, the Saxons retreated in good order ; treat,
which no enemy had ever done before in any engage¬
ment with Charles. The Swedes purfued their enemies
towards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through
thick woods, almoft impervious even to infantry. The
Swedifh horfe, however, pufhed their way, and at laft;
inclofed Schullemberg between a wood and the river,,
where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to fu>ren-
der at diferetion, or die fword in hand, as having neither
boats nor bridges ; but the genius of Schullemberg {ap¬
plied every defeCl. In the night he ordered planks and
floats of trees to be fattened together; on which he car¬
ried over his troops, while the Swedes were employed
in diflodging 300 men, whom he had placed in a wind¬
mill, for the purpofe of defending his flank and keep¬
ing the enemy in play. Charles fpoke of this retreat
with admiration, and faid he had been conquered by
Schullemberg. 133
No material advantage, however, refulted from this lo Augultij5 1
Auguftus y who was again obliged to leave Poland, and}61'!63
fortify lan
S W E [149] S W E
jLen. fortify tlie capital of his hereditary dominions, which he
u v—/ expefted every moment to fee invefted. In the mean
34 time the Ruffians having recovered their fpirits, attack-
f1 R“f* ed the Swedes in Livonia with the utmoft fury. Narva,
e! all 6 Dorpt, and feveral other towns, were taken, and the in-
0 5 in habitants and garrifons treated with great barbarity.
,ia* Soon after, an army of 100,000 Ruffians entered Po-
P llvllde iand. Sixty thoufand Coflacks under Mazeppa entered
?C ' the country at the fame time, and ravaged every thing
with the fury of barbarians. Schullemberg, too, per¬
haps more formidable than either, advanced with 14,000
Saxons and 7000 Ruffians, difciplined in Germany, and
reputed excellent foldiers. Could numbers have deter¬
mined the event of war, the Swedes muft certainly have
been at this time overpowered. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, Charles feemed to triumph over his enemies with
more eafe the more numerous they were. 1 he Ruffians
were defeated fo fall, that they were all difperfed before
. one party had notice of the misfortunes of another. The
in accefs defeating an army of 40,000 men fcarcely obflru&ed the
oi iarles march of the Swedes, while their aftoniffied enemies
H 'ft looked on thefe actions as the eflfe&s of witchcraft, and
:1r imagined that the king of Sweden had dealings with in¬
fernal fpirits. With thefe apprehenfions they fled be¬
yond the Dniepr, leaving the unhappy Auguftus to his
fate. Schullemberg, with all his Hull and experience,
Si Hem- Succeeded no better. The Swedifh general Renfchild
b' en-" engaged and defeated him in half an hour, though the
ti 1 de- Swedes were vaftly inferior in number, and their ene-
Ft d by mies polled in a moll advantageous fituation. Nothing
K duid' could be more complete than this vidtory. This extra¬
ordinary vidlory, indeed, is faid to have been owing to
a panic which feized the troops of Schullemberg : but it
was regarded with admiration, and thought to make the
renown of Renfchild equal to that of his fovereign..
Charles himfelf was jealous, and could not help ex¬
claiming, “ Surely Renfchild wall not compare himfelf
... with me !”
■les in. Soon after this vidlory, which was gained on the 12th
s Saxo.of February, 1706, Charles entered Saxony at the head
of 24,000 men. The diet at Ratilbon declared him an
enemy to the empire if he crofied the Oder. But to
this declaration no regard was paid... Charles purfued
his march •, while Auguflus was reduced to the condi¬
tion of a vagrant in Poland, where he poflefled not a
Angle town except Cracow. Into this city he threw
himfelf with a few Saxon, Polifh, and Ruffian regiments,
and began to ere£l feme fortifications for its defence 5
but the approach of the Swedifli general Meyerfeldt,
and the news of the invafion of Saxony, difconcerted all
his meafures, and threw him into defpair. I he Ruffians
.jj indeed were his faithful allies •, but he dreaded them al-
uflus moft as much as the Swedes: fo that he was reduced to
for the neceffity of writing a letter to Charles with his own
e on hand, begging for peace on whatever terms he thought
teuns. proper grant. However, as he was then at the mer¬
cy of the Ruffians, this tranfa£lion was concealed with
the gfeateft care. His emiflaries were introduced to the
[39 Swedifh court in the night-time ; and being prefented
f rles’s to Charles, received the following anfwer : I hat King
2 ’er’ Auguftus ffiould for ever renounce the crown of Poland,
acknowledge Staniflaus, and promife never to reafeend
the throne, ffiould an opportunity offer 3 that he ffiould
releafe the princes Sobiefki, and all the Swediffi pri-
foners made in the courfe of the war 5 furrender Patkul,
at that time refident at his court as ambaffador for the Sweden,
tzar of Ruffia, and flop proceedings againft all who had 'v
paffedfrom his into the Swedifli fervice. Thefe articles,
Charles wrote with his own hand, and delivered to
Count Piper, ordering him to finiffi them with the Saxon
ambaffadors.
After his defeat at Pultava by the Ruffians, Charles
fled in a mean calaffi, attended by a little troop in¬
violably attached to his perfon, fome on foot, and fome
on horfeback. They were obliged to crofs a fandy de-
fert, where neither herb nor tree was to be feen, and
where the burning heat and want of water were more
intolerable than the extremities of cold they had for- I40
merly fuffered. The whole had almoft perillied for Charles ar-
■ want of water, when a fpring was fortunately difeover-rives iiv
ed; after which they reached Otchakoff, a town in the
Turkiffi dominions, the baffiaw of which fupplied the ^e^rataat
king with every neceffary. It was fome time, however, puitava.
before boats could be got ready for tranfporting the
whole of the king’s attendants; by which accident 500
Swedes and Coflacks fell into the hands of the enemy.
This lofs aflefted him more than all his other misfor¬
tunes. He filed tears at feeing, acrofs the river Bog,,
the greater part of his few remaining friends carried into
captivity, without having it in his power to affift them.
The balhaw waited on him to apologife for the delay,,
and was feverely reprimanded by Charles, as if he had
been his own fubjeft.
The king remained but a few days at Otchakoff,
when the ffirafquier of Bender lent an aga to compli¬
ment him on his arrival in the Turkiffi dominions, and I4I
to invite him to that city. Here he was treated with Is kindly
hofpitality : the Turks pradlifed to its full extent their received,
generous maxim of regarding as facred the perfons of un- of
fortunate princes who had taken flielter in their domi- COnquerbg,
nions: and perhaps regarded him, notwithflanding his Ruffia be-
misfortunes, as an ally that might be ufeful to them-gp1 to re-
felves againft the Ruffians. Kvery one, indeed, regarded'ive*
him in his diftrefs. The French king offered him a fafe
pafiage from the Levant to Marfeilles,.from whence he
might eafily return to his own dominions. But Charles
was too obftinate to receive advice. Puffed up with the
notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he difdained
to return except at the head of a numerous army *, and
he yet expedled, by means of the Turks, to dethrone
his adverfary the tzar. Negociations for this purpofe
were carried on in the Turkiffi divan *, and it was pro-
pofed to effort Charles with a numerous army to the
frontiers of Poland : but the revolution which took
place there, put an end to all fuch projeds. Auguftus Auguftus
thought himfelf no longer bound to obferve the treaty recovers th©
which lie had made, than while Charles was at hand to oS:'
compel him. After the battle of Pultava, he entered
Poland, and took every meafure, in concert with the
tzar, for the recovery of his kingdom. Staniflaus was
not able to ft and before fuch enemies, but was obliged
to leave his dominions and fly to Bender, in the difguife
of.a Swedifli officer, in order to ffiare the fortune of
Charles.—It was not in Poland alone that the Swedifli
affairs began to fuffer in conffquenoe of the defeat at ^
Pultava. The Danes invaded the province of Schonen The Danes
with an army of 13,000 foot and 2500 horff. Only hwafteSwe-
13,000 Swediffi forces remained to defend all the terri-den»
tories pofleffed by Charles in Germany ; and of thefe
only a fmall part was allotted for the defence of Scho-
nen.
S W E
Sweden.
[ i,
nen. The regency of Sweden, however, exerted them-
1 felves to the utmoft to repel this ungenerous invafion j
and having collefted an army of x 2,ooc militia and
8000 regulars, difpatched them under General Steen-
boek into Schonen. Some Saxon troops were incorpo¬
rated in this army ; and among thefe a prodigious de-
fertion took place, which the general found it impoflible
to prevent; and thus the Danes gained feveral advan¬
tages, and at laft took Chriftianftadt. Their infolence
on this fuccefs was fo great, that the Swedes demanded
to be inftantly led againft them. Here the good for-
feut areW time of Sweden feemed once more to revive. The
tcrly de- Danes were driven from a very ftrong fituation, witji
]
S W E
M4
feated.
The Turks -Peter on the vizirs and janifaries prevailed ; but at laft,
the lofs of 800O killed and taken prifonsrs, belides a
vaft number wounded. The king received the intelli¬
gence of this vidftory with the greateft exultation ; and
could not help exclaiming, “ My brave Swedes, fhould
it pleafe God that I once more join you, we ftiall con¬
quer them all!”
In the mean time, Charles, by means of his agents
the count Poniatoffski and the fieur Neugebar, ufed his
utmoft efforts to procure a rupture between the Porte
and Ruflia. For a long time the money beftowed by
declare war in 1711, the grand fignior, influenced by his mother,
againft the who was ftrongly in the intereft of Charles, and had
Kuffians. been ufed to call him 7ier lion, determined to fupport
his quarrel with Peter. He therefore gave orders to
the vizir to fall on the Ruffians with an army'of 200,000
men. The vizir promifed obedience 5 but at the fame
time profeffed his ignorance in the art of war, and diflike
to the prefent expedition. The khan of Crim Tartary,
who had been gained over by the reputation and pre-
fents of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the
field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty of
aflembling his army at Bender, that Charles might fee
that the war was undertaken on his account. See
Russia, N° 119.
The treaty of the Pruth was moft violently oppofed
by Count Poniatoffski and the khan of Tartary. The
former had made the king acquainted with the fituation
of both armies ; on which he inftantly fet out from Ben¬
der, filled with the hopes of fighting the Ruffians, and
taking ample vengeance. Having ridden 50 leagues
poll, he arrived at the camp juft as the tzar was draw¬
ing off his half-famiftied troops. He alighted at Ponia-
toffski’s tent 3 and being informed of particulars, in¬
ftantly flew in a rage to the vizir, whom he loaded with
reproaches, and accufed of treachery. Recollefling
himfelf, however, he propoftd a method by which the
fault might be remedied 3 but finding his propofal re-
jefted, he polled back to Bender, after having by the
groffeft infults fhowed his contempt of the vizir.
The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his
intereft. The vizir perceived that his flay in Turkey
might prove fatal to himfelf 3 and therefore determined
to get him out of the country as foon as poflible. Suc-
‘The^rand ceedinto vizirs adopted the fame plan 3 and at laft the
fignif^de grand fignior himfelf wrote a letter to Charles, in which
fires him to he defired him to depart by next winter, promifing to
depart. fupply him with a fufficient guard, with money, and
every thing elfe neceffary for liis journey. Charles gave Suede
an evafive anfwer, and determined to procraftinate his"Y
journey, as well to gratify his own ftubborn temper, as
becaufe he difcovered a correfpondence between Au-
guftus and the khan of Tartary, the objeft of which,
he had reafon to believe, was to betray him to the
Saxons. When he was again preffed to fix the day of
his departure, he replied, that he could not think of
going before his debts were paid. Being alked how
much was neceflary for this purpofe, he replied 1000
purfes (a). Twelve hundred purfes were inftantly fent^^47
to the ferafquier at Bender, with orders to deliver them unjuft b
to the king of Sweden, but not before he Ihould havehaviour
begun his journey. By fair promifes, Charles perfuaded
him to part with the money 3 alter which, inftead of
felting out, he fquandered away his treafure in prefents
and gratifications, and then demanded looopurles more
before he would let out. The ferafquier was aftonilhed
at this behaviour. He Hied tears; and, turning to the
king, told him, that his head would be the forfeit of
having obliged him with the money. The grand fig¬
nior, on being acquainted with the lhameful behaviour
of Charles, flew into a rage, and called an extraordi¬
nary divan, where he himfelf fpoke, a thing very un-
ufual for the Turkilh monarchs. It wjas unanimoully
agreed that fuch a troublefome gueft ought to be re¬
moved by force, Ihould other means fail. Pofitive or- ^ M
ders were therefore fent to Charles to depart 3 and, in
cafe of refufal, to attack him in his quarters. Nothing force hi
could equal his obftinacy on this occafion : in fpite of to depai
the menaces of his enemies, in fpite of the intreaties of
his friends, he perfifted in his refolution 3 and at laft
determined to refill, with 300 Swedes, being all the/ate j,,,,
IP
attendants he had, an army of 20,000 janifaries well tion to
armed and furnilhed wuth cannon. At length he wasfifr
attacked in good earneft 3 though it mull be owned,
that even in this extremity, the Turks Ihowed their re¬
gard to him, and were tender of his life, which the king
did not return at all in a fimilar manner. Moll of the
Swedes furrendered at once, perhaps as thinking it the
only method of faving the king’s life. This mifconduft,
however, had a quite contrary effe£l. Charles became
the more obftinate, the more defperate his affairs feemed Is abam
to be. With 40 menial fervants only, and the generalsby
Hord and Dardorff, he determined to defend himfelf to^5^
the laft: extremity. Seeing his foldiers lay dowm their^0
arms, he told the generals, “ We mull now defend the
houfe. Come, (adds he with a fmile), let us fight/iro
an's et focis.'1'' rl he houfe had been already forced by
the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the door, and
where his domeftics had affembled. Charles forced his
way through the janifaries, attended by the generals
Hord and Dardorff, joined his people, and then barri¬
caded the door. The moment he entered, the enemy
who were in the houfe, threw down their booty, and
endeavoured to efcape at the windows. Charles pur-
fued them from room to room with much bloodflied,
and cleared the houfe in a few minutes. He then fired
Fights!
furioufly from the windows, killed 200 of the Turks in a madur ,J
a quarter of an hour, fo that the baftiaw who command-'sttf
ed them
was at length forced to fet the houfe on
fire.PrifH,
. with nil*
This
followt'il
(a) -Each purfe contained 30 fequins.
den.
5,
S3
| IS to
ning
5 do*
ms.
* S W E [ i
This was done by arrows with lighted matches fhot into
' the roof-, but Charles, indead of quitting it, gave orders
for extinguilhing the fire, in which he himfelf affifted
with great diligence. All efforts, however, were vain :
the roof fell in 5 and Charles, with his few faithful com¬
panions, v'as ready to be buried in the ruins. In this
extremity one called out, that there was a neceffity fur
furrendering. “ What a ftrange fellow ! (cries the
king), who would rather be a prifoner with the Turks
than mix his allies with thofe of his ^overeign.,, An¬
other had the prefence of mind to cry out, that the
chancery was but 50 paces off, had a Hone roof, and
was proof againft fire. Pleafed ivith the thoughts of
again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, “ A true
Swede ! Let us take all the powder and ball we can
carry.” He then put himfelf at the head of his troops,
and fallied out with fuch fury, that the Turks retreated
50 paces but falling down in the hurry, they rulhed
in upon him, and carried him by the legs and arms to
the bafhaw’s tent.
This extraordinary adventure, which favours not a
little of infanity, happened on the 12th of February
1713. He was now kept prifoner, with all his retinue j
and in this fituation he was vifited by the unfortunate
Staniflaus.
Charles at lad feemed inclined to fubmit to bis fate,
and began ferioudy to think of returning to his king¬
dom, now reduced to the mod deplorable fituation. His
habitation was. now fixed at Demotica, a fmall town
about fix leagues from Adrianople. Here he was al¬
lowed provifions for his owm table and thofe of his reti¬
nue ; but only 25 crowns a-day in money, indead of
500 which he had received at Bender. During his re-
fidence here he received a deputation from Heffe Caffel,
foliciting his confent to the marriage of the landgrave
with Eleonora, princefs royal of Sweden to which he
readily agreed : a deputation was alfo fent him by the
regency of Sweden, requeding that he would prepare
for returning to his own dominions, which were ready
to fink under a ruinous war in his abfence.
On the 14th of 0£Iober 1714, Charles fet out for
len. Sweden. All the princes through whofe territories he
was to pafs, had given orders for his entertainment in
the mod magnificent manner j but the king, perceiving
L that thefe compliments only rendered his imprifbnment
>i iffes and other misfortunes more confpicuous, fuddenly did-
iS tinue, miffed his Turkifh attendants, and affembling his own
with PeoP^e» bid them take no care about him, but make the
n )ne 1 bed of their way to Stralfund. After this he fet out
it lant. P()ft> in the habit of a German officer, attended only by
Colonel During. Keeping the bye-roads through Hun¬
gary, Moravia, Audria, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, the Pa¬
latinate, Wedphalia, and Mecklenburg, he arrived on
the 2id of November at midnight before the gates of
J es at Stralfund. Being unknown, he was admitted with dif-
1 3i| ’ ficult7 1 but being foon recognifed by the governor, the
greated tokens of joy were ffiown all over the town.
In the midd of the tumult Charles went to bed.
Sweden was now in the greated didrefs. On the
news of the defeat at Pultava, the Danes had invaded
Schonen, but were defeated by General Steenboek.
I his viftory, however, did not put an end to the war.
On the contrary, the kings of Denmark and Poland,
tvith the tzar of Ruffia, entered into ftridter bonds of
ie iut for
51 ] S W E
amity than ever. They dreaded the return of Charles Sweden,
to his own dominions, and apprehended that numberlefs
victories would foon efface the remembrance of Pultava.
They determined, therefore, to make the bed ufe of
their time ; and perhaps Charles never took a more im¬
prudent refolution than obdinately to remain fo long in
the Turkifh dominions. The return of Charles feemed
to give new life to the whole nation. Though the num¬
ber of inhabitants was yifibly dimindhed, the levies ho
had ordered were completed in a few weeks : but the
hands left to cultivate the earth confided of the infirm,
aged, and deerepid j fo that a famine was threatened in
confequence of the military rage which had feized all
the youth of the kingdom.
The prefence of Charles did not now produce thofe The king is
confequences which the allies had feared. The king-unah'« to
dom was too much reduced to furniih the neceffary fup-^ ®
plies of men and money; and though the king’s cou-fa;rs#
rage and military fkill were not in the lead diminifhed, An. 1715%
the efforts he made, indead of redoring Sweden to its
fplendour, ferved more completely to ruin it. In 17x5,
Pruffia declared againd him, on account of his demand¬
ing back the town of Stetin, which that monarch had
feized. To complete his embarraffment, the eleftor of
Hanover, George I. of Britain, alfo became his enemy. 15S
The forces of Denmark,* Pruffia, Saxony, and Hanover, B encom.
joined to inved Wifmar, while a body of 36,000 men
formed the fiege of Stralfund ; at the fame time tfiat enemjeSi
the tzar, with a fleet of 20 large Ihips of war, and 150
tranfports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every part of
the Swedidi coafl into the greated condernation. The
heroifm of Charles could not prevail againd fo many
enemies ; yet he was dill fo much dreaded, that the 159
prince of Anhalt, with I 2,000 brave troops, did not His defpe-
think himfelf a match for this furious enemy when atrate valour*
the head of only 2000, till he had entrenched his army
behind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frize. It ap¬
peared, indeed, that his precaution was not unneceffary :
for in the night Charles with his men clambered up the
ditch, and attacked the enemy in his ufual manner.
Numbers, however, at lad prevailed ; and Charles was
obliged to retire, after having feen his favourite Grot-
hufen, General Dardorff and During^the companions of
his exile, killed by his fide, he himfelf being wounded
in the bread, 160
This radi attempt was made in order to fave Rugen, Stralfund
whence the town of Stralfund was fupplied with pro-^e^eSe(^» *
vifions. The place was well fortified, and garrifoned
with 9000 men, with Charles himfelf at their head ;
but nothing could refid the efforts of the enemy. By
the 17th of December it was propofed to give the
affault. The attack on the horn-work was defperate :
the enemy was twice repulfed ; but at lad, by dint of
numbers, affe£Ied a lodgment. The next day, Charles
headed a fally, in which he dealt terrible dedrudlion
among the befiegers, but was at length overpowered
and obliged to retreat into the town. At lad his offi¬
cers, apprehending that he mud either fall into the
hands of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the
place, intreated him to retire. A retreat, however, was I(?r
now almod as dangerous as to remain in the town, on ^
account of the fleets of the enemy with which the fea the'u moft
was covered ; and it is thought that this very cireuin-effort', of
dance induced the king to confent to it. Setting out,1*16 king, .
therefore,
\6^
Charles in¬
vades Nor¬
way to no
i|>urpofe.
163
A treaty
with the
tzar of
Mufcovy
'projedted.
S W E [
Sweden, tlierefore, in a fmall boat with fails and oars, he paffed
all the enemy’s drips and batteries, and arrived fafe at
Yftedtin Schonen.
To revenge himfelf for thefe Ioffes, Charles invaded
Norway with an army of 25,000 men. l ire Danes
were everywhere defeated and purfued with that vigour
for which the king of Sweden was fo remarkable ; but
-ftrong reinforcements arriving from Denmark, and pro-
vifions failing, he was at lad obliged to retire. Soon
after this the Swedes lod; Wifmar •, but when every
thing feemed hopelefs, Baron Goertz the chief minifter
and favourite of Charles contrived to fet on foot a
treaty with the tzar of Rudia, by which the mod for¬
midable of all Charles’s enemies was taken off. 5 he
minider found means to work on the inflexible temper
of Charles, by reprefenting to him that the ceffion of
certain provinces to Peter would induce him to adid him
in his projefts of again dethroning Augudus, and of
replacing James on the throne of Britain j which laft
fcheme he had projedted out of revenge for the eledtor
of Hanover having feizedon the duchies of Bremen and
Verden. In eonfequence of the conferences between
the tzar and Goertz, the former engaged to fend into
Poland an army of 80,000 men, in order to dethrone
that prince whom he had fo long defended. He enga¬
ged alfo to furnidi fhips for tranfporting 30,000 Swedes
to Germany and 10,000 into Denmark. This treaty,
however, Avas not ratified; and the king’s death, which
happened in 1718, put a final flop to all the great pro-
fpedfs of Sweden.
The king had refolved on the COnqueft of Norway
vades Nor- •t)efore }je dethroned Auguftus ; and as no difficulties
aruflays1"' ever deterred him, he marched his army into that cold
fiege to and barren country in the month of OHober, when the
Frejlerickf- ground was covered with froft and fnow. With 18,000
men lie formed the fiege of Frederickfhall, though the
feverity of the froft rendered it almoft impoffible to
break ground. Charles refolved to form trenches ; and
his foldiers cheerfully obeyed, digging into the ground
with the fame labour as if they had been piercing a
rock. On the nth of December the king vifited the
trenches in the midft of a terrible fire from the enemy,
treme rafli- imagining that his men might be animated by HLs pre-
nefs, in con-fence. He took his poft in the moft dangerous ftation
fequence of he could choofe, ftanding on a gabion and leaning with
which he is [-,}s arm OVer parapet, while the enemy Avere firing
An1' S chain fhot at the very fpot where he flood. Pie was
intreated to change his ftation ; but he remained obiti-
nate. At laft he was feen to fall on the parapet with
a deep groan, and foon afterivards expired, having been
mortally wounded, as is fuppofed, by a cannon ball.
,65 See Charles XII.
Account of Charles XII. was fucceeded by his fifter the princefs
the Swedifli Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Heffe,
aftairs from^Qn this occafion the ftates took care to make a previous
Ghas XII tfipulation for the prefervation of their liberties, and
to the year obliged‘the princefs to fign a paper to this purpofe be-
1771. fore entering on the government. Their firft care was
to make a peace with Great Britain, tvhich the late
king intended to have invaded. The Swedes then, to
prevent their farther Ioffes by the progrefs of the Ruf¬
fian, the Danifti, the Saxon, and other arms, made many
great facrifices to obtain peace from thofe poAvers. The
French, however, about the year 1738, formed a dan
gerous party in the kingdom> which not only broke its
154
Charles in¬
hall.
His ex-
2 ] *s W E
internal quiet, but led it into a ruinous Avar with Ruffia, SvveilJI
by which it loft the province of Finland. Their Swe-'-'—v
difti majefties having no children, it Avas neceffary to
fettle the fucceflion 5 efpecially as the duke of Holfteiu
Avas defeended from the queen’s eldeft fifter, and was, at
the fame time, the prefumplive heir to the empire of
Ruffia. Four competitors appeared ; the duke ot Hoi-
Rein Gottorp, Prince Frederic of Heffe-Caffel nephew
to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke of
Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holftein would have car¬
ried the election, had he not embraced the Greek re¬
ligion, that he might mount the throne of Ruflia. The
tzarina interpofed, and offered to reftore all the con-
quefts flie had made from Sweden, excepting a fmall
diftrift in -Finland, if the SAvedes would receive the
duke of Holftein’s uncle, Adolphus Frederic bifhop of
Lubec, as their hereditary prince and fucceffoi to their
crown. This was agreed to r and a peact concluded at
Abo, under the mediation of hU Britannic majefty.
This peace was fo firmly adhered to by the emprefs of
Ruffia, that his Danifti majefty thought proper to drop
all relent men t for the indignity done his fon. The
prince-fucceffor married the princ.efs Ulrica, third fifter
to the king of Prulfia ; and in 1751 entered into the An.ill
poffeffion df his new dignity, which proved to him a 16; I
crown of thorns. The French had acquired vaft in-^“ir|J
fiuence in all the deliberations of the Swediftr fenate,
who of late had been little better than penfioners to
that crown. The intrigues of the fenators forced A-
dolphus to take part in the war againft Pruffia : but as
that Avar was difagreeable not only to the'people, but
alfo to the king of Sweden, the nation never made fo
mean an appearance ; and on Ruflia’s making peace I(;|j|
Avith the king of Prulfia, the Swedes likewile made GuftavF
peace. Adolphus died dil’pivited in 1771, after a tur-afcwCi
bulent reign of tAventy years ; and was lucceeded by his^^l
fon Guftavus. The moft remarkable tranfaftion of this n' )1
reign is the revolution Avhich took place in the govern¬
ment in the year 1772, by which the king, from be¬
ing the moll limited became one of the moft defpotic
monai-chs in Europe. Ever fince the death of Charles
XII. the whole porver of the kingdom had been lodged
in the ftates ; and this power they had much abuled. ^ I
Guftavus therefore determined either to feize on that 4CC011jl
power of which they made fuch a bad ufe, or perilh in there!
the attempt. The revolution Avas effedled in the fol-t‘on‘nJ
lowing manner. On the morning of the 19th of Au- j
guft 1772, a confiderable number of officers, as Avell as ,.ecau jj
other perfons known to be attached to the royal caufe,ipotic.ll[
had been fummoned to attend his majefty. Before ten
he Avas on horfeback, and vifited the regiment of artil¬
lery. As he paffed through the ftreets he Avas more
than ufually courteous to all he met, bowing familiarly
to the loweft of the people. On the king’s return to
his palace, the detachment Avhich was to mount guard
that day being draAvn up together with that which was
to be relieved, his majefty retired with the officers into
the guard-roonn He then addreffed them Avith all
that eloquence of Avhich he is faxd to have been a per-
feft mafter; and after infinuating to them that his life
was in danger, he expofed to them in the ftrongeft
colours the Avretched ftate of the kingdom, the {hackles
in which it was held by means of foreign gold, and the
diffenfions and troubles arifing from the fame caufe
which had diftrafled the diet during the courfe of four-
teea
S W E [ I
I veden. teen months. He affured them that his only defign
^ "v***-^ was to put an end to thefe diforders } to banilh corrup¬
tion, reftore true liberty, and revive the ancient luftre
of the Swedith name, which had been long tarniihed
by a venality as notorious as it was difgraceful. Then
ailuring them in the ftrongeft terms that he difclaimed
for ever all abfolute power, or what the Swedes call
fovereignty, he concluded with thefe words: “ I am
obliged to defend my own liberty and that of the king¬
dom, againil the ariilocracy which reigns. Will you
be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Guftavus
Vafa and Guftavus Adolphus ? I will then rifk my life
for your rvelfare and that of my country.”
The officers, moft of them young men, of whofe at¬
tachment the king had been long fecure, who did not
thoroughly perhaps fee into the nature of his majefty’s
requeft, were allowed no time to refledf, immediately
confented to every thing, and took an oath of fidelity
179 to him.
Ijjlution Only three refufed. One of thefe, Frederic Ceder-
«lMvedifhprorr)^captajn 0p a coinpar)y Gf the guards, alleged he
had already, and very lately, taken an oath to be faith¬
ful to the ftates, and confequemly could not take that
which his majefty then exafted of him. The king,
looking at him fternly, anfwered, “ Think of what
you are doing.” “ I do, (replied Cederftrom) ; and
what I think to day, I fhall think to-morrow: and
were I capable of breaking the oath by which I am
already bound to the ftates, I ftiould be likewife capable
©f breaking that which ycur majefty now requires me to
take.”
The king then ordered Cederftrom to deliver up his
fword, and put him in arreft.
His majefty, however, apprehenftve of the impreflion
which the proper and refolute conduft of Cederftrom
might make on the minds of the other officers, ftiortly
afterwards foftened his tone ; and again addreffing
himfelfto Cederftrom, told him, that as a proof of the
opinion he entertained of him, and the confidence he
placed in him, he would return him his fword without
infilling on his taking the oath, and would only defire
his attendance that day. Cederftrom continued firm ;
he anfwered, that his majefty could place no confidence
in him that day, and that he begged to be excufed from
the fervice.
While the king was ffiut up with the officers, Sena¬
tor Railing, to whom the command of the troops in
the town had been given two days before, came to the
door of the guard-room, and was told that he could not
be admitted. The fenator infilled on being prefent at
the diftribution of the orders, and lent to the king to
defire it; but was anfwered, he muft go to the fenate,
where his majefty would fpeak to him.
The officers then received their orders from the king \
the firft of which was, that the two regiments of guards
and of artillery ftiould be immediately affembled, and
that a detachment of 36 grenadiers ffiould be polled at
the door of the council-chamber to prevent any of the
fenatorsfrom coming out.
Rut before the orders could be carried into execution,
it was neceffary that the king Ihould addrefs himfelf to
the foldiers •, men wholly unacquainted with his defigns,
and accuftomed to pay obedience only to the oi'ders of
the fenate, whom they had been taught to hold in the
higheft reverence.
VOL. XX. Part I.
So
] S W E
As his majefty, followed by the officers, was advan- Sweden:
cing from the guard room to the parade for this pur-
pofe, fome of them more cautious, or perhaps moreTjie'/[r(T
timid than the reft, became, on a ftiort reffedtion, ap- gains ovt.r
preheniive of the confequences of the meafure in whiciythe foldiers.
they were engaged : they began to exprefs their tears
to the king, that unlefs fome perfons of greater weight
and influence than themfelves were to take a part in the
fame caufe, he could fcarcely hope to fucceed in his eil-
terprife. The king Hopped a*while, and appeared to
hefitate. A ferjeant of the guards overheard their dif-
courfe, and cried aloud,—“ It fhall fucceed—Long live
Guftavus!” His majefty immediately laid, “ Then I
will venture j”—and llepping forward to the foldiers, »
he addreffed them in •terms nearly llmilar to thofe
which he had exprefled to the officers, and with the
fame fuccefs. They anfwered him with loud acclama¬
tions :''one voice only faid, No ; but it was not attend¬
ed to.
In the mean time fome of the king’s emifiaries had
fpread a report about the town that the king was ar-
refted. This drew the populace to the palace in great
numbers, where they arrived as his majefty had con¬
cluded his harangue to the guards. They tetlified by
reiterated ftiouts their joy at feeing him fafe j a joy
which promifed the happieft: conclufion to the bufinefs-
of the day.
The fenators were now immediately fecured. They Secures the
had from the window of the council-chamber beheld fen&rors,
what wras going forward on the parade before the pa- anc* ''e-
lace ; and, at a lofs to know the meaning of the Ihouts ^ (tf
they heard, were coming down to inquire into the caufe whole
of them, when 30 grenadiers, with their bayonets fix-power in
ed, informed them it was his majefty’s pleafure they
Ihould continue where they were. They began to talk 1'
in a high tone, but were anfwered only by having the
door Ihut and locked on them.
The moment the fecret committee heard that the fe¬
nate was arrefted. th y feparated of themfelves, each in¬
dividual providing for bis own fafety. The king then
mounting his horfe, followed by his officers with their
fwords drawn, a large body of foldiers, and numbers
of the populace, went to the other quarters of the town
where the foldiers he had ordered to be affembled were
polled. Fie found them all equally willing to fupport
his caufe, and to take to him an oath of fidelity. As
he paffed through the ftreets, he declared to the people,
that he only meant to defend them, and fave his coun¬
try 5 and that if they would riot confide in him, he
would lay down his feeptre, and furrender up his king¬
dom. So much was the king beloved, that the people
(fome of whom even fell down on their knees) with
tears in their eyes implored his majefty not to abandon
them.
*73
The king proceeded in his courfe, and in lefs than an Summons
hour made himfelf mailer of all the military force inan
Stockholm. In the mean time the heralds, by prqela-
mation in the feveral quarters of the city, fummoned an ' ’
affembly of the States for the enfuing morning, and de¬
clared all members traitors to their country who Ihould
not appear. Thither his majefty repaired in all the
pomp of royalty, furrounded by his guards, and holding
in his hand the lilver feeptre of Guftavus Adolphus. In
a very forcible fpeech, he lamented the unhappy Hate to
which' the country was reduced by the conduft of a
U party
*75
The king
makes a
S W E [i
Sweden, party ready to facrifice every thing to its ambition, and
1 v " ■'l reproached the dates with adapting their aftions to the
views of foreign courts, from which they received the
wages of perfidy. “ If any one dare contradict this,
let him rife and fpeak.”—Conviflion, or fear, kept the
afiembly filent, and the fecretary read the new form of
government, which the king fubmitted to the approba¬
tion of the dates. It confided of fifty-feven articles j
^ of which the five following were the chief,
which ac- I • The king has the entire power of convoking and
cepts a new diflolving the affembly of the dates as often as he thinks
iorm of go- pr0pert 2. His majedy alone has the command of the
vumacnt. army^ flee^ and finances, and the difpofal of all offices
civil and military. 3. In cafe of an invafion, or of any
preffing neceffity, the king may impofe taxes, without
waiting for the afiembly of the dates. 4. The diet can
deliberate on no other fubje&s than thofe propofed by
the king. 5. The king drall not carry on an offenfive
war without the confent of the dates. When all the
articles were gone through, the king demanded if the
dates approved of them, and was anfwered by a general
acclamation. He then difmiffed all the fenators from
their employments, adding, that in a few days he >vould
appoint others ; and concluded this extraordinary feene
by drawing out of his pocket a fmall book of pfalms,
from which, after taking off the crown, he gave out
Te Deum. All the members very devoutly added their
voices to his, and the hall refounded with thankfgiving.
The power thus obtained was employed by the king
for the good of his fubjefts. He took care that the law
good ufe of fhould be adminidered wfith impartiality to the riched
rus pov.er. n0^je an[j tbe poored peafant, making a fevere example
of fuch judges as were proved to have made judice ve¬
nal. He gave particular attention and encouragement
to commerce, was a liberal and enlightened patron of
learning and fcience, and laboured dremioufly to intro¬
duce into his kingdom the mod valuable improvements
in agriculture that had been made in foreign countries.
But while thus aflive in promoting the arts of peace,
he was not inattentive to thofe of war. The deet,
which he found decayed and feeble, he in a few years
redored to a refpe6fable footing, and, befides changing
the regulations of the navy, he raifed a new corps of
lailors, and formed them to the fervice by continual ex-
ercife. The army, which, as well as the navy, had
been neglefted during the aridocracy, was next to be
reformed. The king began by giving cloaks, tents,
and new arms to all the regiments. Afterwards, under
the direction of Field Marffial Count de Heffendein, a
new exercife was introduced, and feveral camps were
formed, in which the foldiery were manoeuvred by the
king himfelf. The fale of military offices, which had
been permitted for many years, was entirely fuppreffed ;
and the king provided not only for the re-edabliffiment
of difcipline and good order in the army, but for the
future welfare of the individuals which compofed it.
Thefe warlike preparations were neceffary to a plan
which he had formed for entirely aboliffiing the power
of the aridocracy, and freeing Sweden from the faftions
which had long been formed in it by the court of St
Peterfburgh. The change which he had introduced
was very inimical to the intrigues of that court \ and
the Ruffian ambaffador exerted himfelf openly to bring
about a rupture between the king and the difcontented
cables, Gudavus ordered him to q^uit the kingdom in
176
Reforms
the army
■end navy.
54 3 S W E
eight days, and immediately prepared for war with Swede;
Ruffia. To this apparently raih enterprife he was in- ‘““‘V'
cited by the Ottoman Porte, at that time unable to op.
pofe the armies of the two empires j and his own ambi¬
tion, together with the internal date of his kingdom,
powerfully concurred to make him lend every affidance
to his ancient ally. It is needlefs for us to enter into a
detail of the particulars of that war, the principal eir- HisI70J
cumdances of which have already been noticed under duft hi
Russia, N° 157. Suffice it to fay, that neither Guda-warwit]
vus Adolphus nor Charles XII. gave greater proofs of Ruffia. j
undaunted courage and military conduft in their long
and bloody wars than were given by Gudavus the III,
from the end of the year 1787 to 1790, when peace
was redored between the courts of St Peterlburgh and
Stockholm. When the court of Copenhagen was com¬
pelled, by the means of England and Pruffia, to with¬
draw its troops from the territories of Sweden, the king
attacked Ruffia with fuch vigour both by fea and land,
difplayed fuch addrefs in retrieving his affairs when ap¬
parently reduced to the lad extremity, and renewed his at¬
tacks with fuch pertinacious courage, that the emprefs
lowered the haughtinefs of her tone, and was glad to treat
with Gudavus as an equal and independent fovereign. 1
The king of Siveden was now at liberty to cheridiNotan I
again the arts of peace, and to humble the haughty fpi-bitrary
ritof the nobles. For his attempting to deprive thofe (,efPot’ 1
men of that power which they had for many- years em- j
ployed againd their country, he has been held up to theaaions;|
world as a defpot who trampled on the liberties of hisfulandi
fubjedls j as a man without fincerity or patriotifm ; and, I
in one word, as a perjured tyrant, who overthrew the
conditution which he had fworn to maintain. That he
was not troubled with a fcrupulous confcience, when fo
artfully conducing the revolution ef 1772, mud be ac¬
knowledged j nor can it be denied, that in his treaties
with other powers, he fometimes endeavoured to over¬
reach them ; but if the neceffities of date could in any
cafe be an apology for falfehood, they would diffidently
apologife for the duplicity of Gudavus. He was enga¬
ged in the arduous enterprife of freeing his fubiefts
from an aridocratic tyranny, fupported by a foreign
power the mod formidable in the north ; he had been
forced into a war with that power, and, as there is rea-
fon to believe, promifed affidance which he never recei¬
ved 5 and it cannot excite wonder nor great indignation,
that, as foon as he could make an honourable peace, he
embraced the opportunity without paying much regard
to the intereds of an alliance, which tamely looked on
while he was druggling with difficulties apparently in- rJ
furmountable. That the revolution which he effeded in The rel
his own country was calculated to promote the general ltltionq
good of the people is unquedionable ; and to gain fuch nefkia!l
an objed be might furely redore the crown to its ancient
fplendour, without bringing on his government the odicns
epithet of defpotifm. j
The nobles, however, continued difcontented, and a projuc|
confpiracy was planned againd Gudavus under his ownconfpiJ
roof. Fie had entered into the alliance that was formed againhi
againd the revolutionary government of France 5 and to^S’^l
raife an army, which he was to lead in perfon to co-ope- ^n'
rate with the emperor and the king of Pruffia, he was
obliged to negociate large loans, and to impofe on his
fubjeds heavy taxes. 'I he nobles took advantage of
that circumdance to prejudife the minds of many of the
S W E [ 155 ] S W E
i veden. people againfl: the fovereign who had laboured fo long
i / for thejr good. On the 16th of March 1792 he recei¬
ved an anonymous letter, warning him of his immediate
dartger from a plot that was laid to take away his life,
requelling him to remain at home, and avoid balls for a
year ; and affuring him that, if he iliould go to the
mafquerade for which he was preparing, he would be af-
faflinated that very night. The king read the note with
contempt, and at a late hour entered the ball-room.
After fome time he fat down in a box with the compte
d’Effen, and obferved that he wras not deceived in his
contempt for the letter, lince had there been any defign
again!! his life, no time could be more favourable than
that moment. He then mingled, without apprehenfion,
among the crowd $ and juft as he wTas preparing to re¬
tire in company with the Pruflian ambaffador, he was
furrounded by feveral perfons in malks, one of whom
181 fired a piftol at the back of the king, and lodged the
r : king contents in his body. A fcene of dreadful confufion
< gerouf- immed;ately enfued. The confpirators, amidft the gene-
t ~ ral tumult and alarm, had time to retire to other parts
of the room; but one of them had previoufly dropped
his piftols and a dagger clofe by the wounded king. A
gensral order was given to all the company to unmalk,
and the doors were immediately clofed ; but no perfon
appeared with any particular diftinguifhing marks of
guilt. The king was immediately conveyed to his
apartment *, and the furgeon, after extrafting a ball and
182 fome flugs, gave favourable hopes of his recovery.
I 'nth of The favourable reports of his medical attendants foon
I qltavus appeared to be fallacious, and on the 28th of March a
t mortification was found to have taken place. He expi¬
red on the following day, and on opening his body there
were found within the ribs a fquare piece of lead and
two rufty nails.
The king had by his will appointed a council of re¬
gency ; but convinced by recent experience how little
dependence was to be placed on the attachment of his
nobles, and aware of the neceflity of a vigorous govern¬
ment in times of fuch difficulty and danger, he appointed
his brother, the duke of Sudermania, foie regent, till
his fon, then a minor, fhould attain the age of 18 years.
In his dying moments he defired that all the confpira¬
tors, except the perpetrator of his murder, might be
iS3 pardoned.
J effion The ybtmg king, w:ho was about 14 at his father’s
| | ,uftwus was proclaimed by the name of Guftavus IV. The
regent foon took the moft vigorous and adlive meaffires
to apprehend and punifti the projeftors and perpetrators
of the murder of his brother. A nobleman of the name
of Ankerftrom confefled himfelf the affaffin, and gloried
in the aftion, which he called liberating’ his country
from a monfter and a tyrant. He w7as executed in a moft
cruel manner on the 17th of May. Two other noble¬
men, and two officers, alfo fuffered death ; but the reft
of the confpirators were either pardoned, or puniffied
only by fine and imprifonment.
From the acceflion of Guftavus IV. till the revolu¬
tion which has been recently effected in Sweden, few
• tranfadlions of any importance have occurred. Soon af¬
ter the king had taken on himfelf the adminiftratlon of Sweden.^
affairs, he engaged w'armly in the war again!! France,
and till the time of his depofition, continued a moft faith¬
ful ally of Britain. The efforts of the Swredi!h monarch
towards humbling the power of Bonaparte, have been al¬
ready noticed under the articles Britain and Franck ;
and the war with Ruffia, in which his alliance with
Britain bad involved him, has been fufticiently touched
in the article Russia. This prince feems to have been
endowed with great and amiable qualities, but he was
certainly ra!h and imprudent in a high degree. He thus
materially injured his kingdom, and alienated the affec¬
tions of his principal nobles, efpecially of his uncle the
duke of Sudermania. 134
In the beginning of March 1809, the plan which ap-Revolution
pears to have been concerted betw'een the duke of Su-
dermania and the principal nobility, was carried into ef- 3ucigrma_
feci. The king wras arrefted; the duke affumed the reins n;a>
of government, and iffued the following proclamation. An. 1805.
“ We, Charles, by the grace of God, Hereditary
Prince of Sweden, the Goths, Vandals, &c. Duke of
Sudennania, Grand Admiral, &c. &.c. do declare, that
under exifting circumltances, his majcfty is incapable of
afting, or of conducing the important affairs of the
nation. We have therefore (being the neareft and only
branch of the family of age)been induced, for the time
being, as adminiftrator of the kingdom, to take the
reins of government into our hands, which, with the
help of the Almighty, we will conduft fo that the na¬
tion may regain peace, both at home and abroad, and
that trade and commerce may revive from their lan-
guiffiing ftate.
“ Our inviolable intention is, to confult with the
ftates on the means to be taken to render the future time
happy to the people of Sweden. We invite and com¬
mand, therefore, all the inhabitants of our nation, our
forces by fea and land, and alfo the civil officers of all
degrees, to obey us, as our real intention, and their
welfare demand.
“ We recommend yqu all to the prote£lion of God
Almighty.
“ Done at-Stockholm palace,
the 13th March, 1809.
Charles.
v’ ’g116 ) ^ « C. Laberlering.” jg-
Soon after Guftavus was prevailed on to abdicate the Depofition
government, and the duke of Sudermania was declared
king of Sweden, by the title of Charles XIII. Icceffion
The new king foon made propofitions to the emperors 0f Charles
of France and Ruffia for a ceffation of hoftilities between XIII.
thefe powers and Sweden. Peace was fpeedily obtained,
but on terms the moft humiliating and difadvantageous
to Sweden, as fire has been compelled to furrender to the
emperor Alexander all her territory to the eaftward of
the gulf of Bothnia and the river Tornea. A new con-
ftitution has been promulgated by King Charles; but
the particulars of this code, which, from the enfeebled
ftate of Sweden, reduced almoft to the condition of a
Ruffian province, is not likely to be of long continu¬
ance, can fcarcely be mterefting to our readers (b).
U 2 The
(b) It is underftood that the health of the reigning monarch is in a declining ftate, fo that a new vacancy in the
throne of Sweden may be expefted foon to take place. It is not impoffible, that on fuch an event, the ambitious
views-
Sweden.
1S6
Population
*3i Sweden.
1S7
Govern¬
ment.
t8S
Revenues.
iS()
^Tilitary
ftrengtli.
T90
Coins.
191
Religion.
S tV E f 15
The population of Sweden, even Word the late
treaty, was very inconflderable, and is ufually fuppofed
not to have exceeded 3,000,000^ of which number Swe¬
dish Lapland foaicely contained -j-oVo Part> As Fin¬
land appears to have been among the moft populous di-
ftrifl«, Ave may conjefture that the lofs of that territory
muft have reduced the population by at lead 500,000 ;
fo that it is probable the prefent population of the coun¬
tries fubject to the crown of Sweden does not exceed
2,500,000. The moft numerous part of this population
is of courfe formed by peafants, who have been compu¬
ted at -f of the whole. Of the reft the nobility was fup¬
pofed to form part, comprehending at leaft 2,500
families.
We have feen, that from the reign of Charles XII.
to the revolution under Guftavus III. in 1772, the go¬
vernment of Swe 'en rvas a limited monarchy, and that
fince that time, tiil the acceflion of the prefent king
(Charles XIII.) the porver of the monarchs has been
abfolute. The new conftitution aims at bringing affairs
back to their former ftate •, but how far it will be pro-
dwftive of that effect time alone can determine.
The revenue of Sweden, fince the unfortunate reign
of Charles XII. has been much reduced. Her gold
and filver fpecie, in the reign of Adolphus Frederick,
arofe chiefly from the king’s German dominions. For¬
merly the crown lands, poll-money, tithes, mines, and
other articles, are faid to have produced 1,000,000!.
fterling, and probably the whole prefer.t revenue does
not amount to a million and a half. The national debt
of this country, due chiefly to the moneyed men in Ham¬
burgh, is Fuppofed to amount to about 10,000,000 fter-
ling.
The Swedilli army is compofed of national troops,
and of foreign auxiliaries the latter being eftimated at
about 12,000, while the former do not amount to
40,000. The foldiers are of diflinguithed valour, and
very hardy, and ftill retain the remembrance of the he¬
roic deeds of their anceftors.
Before the year 1792, the Swedifh fleet confided of
about 30 (kips of the line ■, but at prefent it is reduced to
not more than one-half, and thefe but ill-appointed.
The only gold coin in Sweden is the ducat, worth
about 9s. fterling. Of the filver currency, the crown is
A^alued at 4s. 6d. fterling; and the (helling at about id.
of English money. The copper coinage confifts chiefly'
of half and quarter fhellings ; but formerly the copper
money confifted of heavy pieces nearly as large as tiles,
fo that a cart or barrow was fometimes required to carry
home a moderate fum that had been receded in payment
for merchandife. Thefe large pieces are now rarely
feen.
Chriftianity ivas introduced into Srveden in the 9th
century. Their religion is Lutheran, which was propa¬
gated among them by Guftavus Vafa about the year
1523. The Swedes are furprifingly uniform and unre¬
mitting in religious matters; and have fuch an asTerfion
to Popery, that if a Roman Catholic prieft be difeovered
in the country, he is treated with the greateft indignity.
6 ] S W E
The archbilhop of Upfal had a revenue of 400I. a year, Sweden I
and had under him 13 fuffragans with moderate ftipends.
No clergyman had the leaft direftion in the affairs of
ftate. Their morals, and the fart&ity of their lives,
vrere fuch as to endear them to the people. Their
churches are neat, and often ornamented. A body of
ecclefiaftical laws and canons direft their religious eco¬
nomy. A converfion to Popery, or a long continuance
under excommunication, w hich cannot pais without the
king’s permiffion, was punilhment and exile. 192
The language of Sweden is a dialed! of the Gothic,kangyagl
and nearly allied to thofe of Denmark, Norway, and“^iltei|
Iceland. In the two grand divifions of the Gothic, con¬
fiding of the German and Scandinavian dialedls, the
latter is diftinguilhed by greater brevity and force of ex-
preffioh. In the fouth of Sweden, which contains the
chief mafs of population, feme German and French
words have been adopted ; while the Dalecarlian, in the
north-weft, is efteemed a peculiar dialed!, perhaps only
becaufe it contains more of the ancient terms and idiom.
In the antiquity of literature, Sweden cannot pretend
to vie with Denmark, Norway, or Iceland ; the moft
early native chronicle, or perhaps literary compofition,
being not more ancient than the 141b century. In re¬
turn, while the Danes feem occupied with internal po¬
licy and public regulation, the Swedes have, in modern
times, borne the palm of genius in many departments of
literature and phrlofophy.
But Swediftr literature can fcarcely be faid to have
dawned till the middle of the 17th century, when Queen
Chriftina, finding the country immerfed in ignorance,
invited Grotius, Defeatits, and other celebrated men,
who, though they did not refide long in the kingdom,
fowed the leed of letters ,which gradually began to pro-
fper in the wife and beneficent reign of Charles XI. In
the fucceeding or i8lh century, the name of Linne
alone might diftinguilh the national literature ; and it is
joined in natural hiftory rvith thofe of Scheele, Bergman,
Trias, Wallerius, Quill, Cronftedt, and others. In hi¬
ftory, Dalin and Lagerbring have diftinguiftred them-
felves by a preciiron and force, which the Danes feem to
facrifice to antiquarian difeuflions. Sweden alfo boafts
of native poets and orators ; and the progrefs of the (ci-
ences is fupported by the inftitution of numerous acade¬
mies. to; ji
The Srvedes, fince the days of Charles XII. have Produce!
been at incredible pains to corredl the nature and bar-:^^
rennefs of their country, by erefling colleges of agri- 1 :
culture, and in fome places with great luccefs. Till of
late, they had not fufficient rnduftry to remedy or im¬
prove the difadvantages of their loil. The peaiants now
follow7 the agriculture of France and England ; and
fome late accounts fay, that they rear almoft as much
grain as maintains the natives. Gothland produces
wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, and beans; and in cafes
of deficiency, the people are lupplied from Livonia and
the Baltic provinces. In fummer, the fields are ver¬
dant, and covered will* floAvers, and produce ftrawber-
ries, rafpbenies, currants, and other fmall fruits. The
common
vieAvs of the emperors of the north and fouth of Europe will ultimately deftroy the fmall remains of Swedifli inde¬
pendence.
* § w £ r ^
L -Jen.'common people know, as yet, little of t’ne cultivation
„ r—' 0f apricots, peaches, neaarines, pme-apples, and other
high-flavoured fruits j but melons are brought to the
greateft perfe&ion in dry feafons.
& The Swedifh commonalty fubfrfts by agriculture,
|L !L mining, hunting, grazing, and fifhing. Their mate-
,, and rjals for traffic are the bulky and uteful commodities of
I jo. >erce. mafts> beams, and other kinds of timber for (hipping j
tar, pilch, bark of trees, potafli, wooden utenfils, hides,
flax, hemp, peltry, furs, copper, lead, iron, cordage,
and fifh.
Even the manufa&uring of iron was introduced into
Sweden fo late as the 16th century •, for till then they
fold their own crude ore to the H vnfe towns, and bought
it back again manufa&ured into utenfils. About the
middle of^ the 17th century they fet up fome manu¬
factures of glafs, itarch, tin, woollen, filk, foap, leather-
dreffimiJ-, and faw-mills. Bookfelling was at that time
unknown in Sweden. They have fince had fugar mak¬
ing, tobacco plantations, and manufactures of Lil cloth,
cotton, fuftian, and other fluffs j alfo of linen, alum,
brimltone, paper milis, and gunpowder-mills. The iron
mine of Dannemora is faid to yield 6olbs. of metal in
loolbs. of ore, and others about 3olbs. The iron ex-
trailed from this is known in Europe by the name of
Oregrund, which name is derived from a feaport on the
Baltic. A large portion of it is employed by different
nations for making the belt fteel. The mine was dif-
covered in 1470. The unwrought ore was firfl fold to
the merchants of Lubeck. It is faid that the mine of
Dannemora yields 40,000 Hones of bar-iron per year,
which is fuppoffid to be Toth of the quantity produced
by all the iron-mines of Sweden. Of this product of
400,000 Hones, 300,000 are annually exported, and
the remainder is manufactured at home. It is computed
that not fewer than 25,600 men are employed in mining,
and the branches immediately connected w ith it, viz.
4000 for breaking the rocks ; io,8co for hewing tim¬
ber and burning it into charcoal j 2000 are employed
in fmelting ; 1800 in tranfporting the metal from the
furnaces to the forges; 600 in tranfporting fand, fuel, See.
4000 for tranfporting the charcoal, and 2400 at forges.
They have alfo founderies for cannon, manufaftories for
fire-arms and anchors, armories, wire and Hatting mills,
alf® mills for fulling, and for boring and Hamping; and
of late they have built many {hips for fale.
Certain towns in Sweden, 24 in number, are called
Jlaple-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import
and export commodities in their own Hiips. Thofe towns
which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the
fea, are called land towns. A third kind are termed
mine-towns, as belonging to mine diltrufts. About the
year 1752, the Swedes had greatly increafed theii ex¬
ports, and diminHhed their imports, molt part of which
arrive or are fent oft in Swedith {hips; the Swedes hav¬
ing now a kind of navigation aft like that of the Eng-
liih. According to the tables drawm up by Mr Coxe,
the Swedilh exports amounted, about 30 years ago, to
1,368,830!. while the imports amounted to 1,008,391!.
leaving a balance in favour of Sweden of 360,"cool.
The imports are chiefly corn, hemp, tobacco, fugar, cof¬
fee, drugs, filk, wine, and brandy.
There is a great diverfity of charafters among the
people of Sweden ; and what is peculiarly remarkable
7 ] S W E
among them, they have been known to have different Ss,'Xc!t>
charafters in different ages. At prefeitt, their peafants
feem to be a heavy plodding race of men, Hrong and , 
hardy, but without any other ambition tnan that of 195
fubfifting themftlves and their families as well as they CharaAer
can: they are honeft, fimple, and hofpitable; and the
mercantile claffes are much of the lame cafi ; but great
application and perfeverance is difeovered among them
alh One could form no idea that the modern Swedes
are the defeendants of thofe who, under Charles XII.
and Gufiavus Adolphus, carried terror in their names
through the molt diftant countries, and fhook the foun¬
dations of the greateit empires. Ihe principal nobility
and gentry oi Sweden are naturally brave, polite, and
hofpitable; they have high and w’arm notions of hon¬
our, and are jealous of their national intereHs. 1 he
drefs of the common people is almoft the fame with that
of Denmark : the better fort are infatuated with French
modes and fafhions. 1 he common diverlions of the Swedes
are floating, running races in fledges, and failing in yacnts
upon the ice. They are not lond of marrying their daugh¬
ters when young, as they have little to {pare in their own
life-time. The women go to plough, threlh out tne corn,
row upon the water, ferve the bricklayers, carry burdens,
and do all the common drudgeries in hufbandry.
SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, was born at Stock¬
holm in Sweden, in January 1689. His father was
bifhop of Weft Gothland ; member of a fociety for the
propagation of the gofpel, formed on the plan cf that
of England ; and prefident of the Swedifti church in
Pennfylvania and London. JLo this laft ofiice he was
appointed by Charles XII. who feems to have had a
great regard for the biihop, and to have continued that
regard to his fon.
Of the courfe of young Sivedenborg’s education wTe
have procured no account ; but from the charafter or
the father, it may be fuppofed to have been pious; and
by his appearing with reputation as an author, when duv
20 years of age, it is proved to have been luccefsful.
His firft work was publithed in iycg-,^nd the year
following lie lent into the world a colltenon of pieces
on different fubjefts, in Latin verfe, under the title of
Ludus Heliconius, Jive Carmina Mifcellanea qnev variis
in locis cecinit. The fame year he began his travels,
firft into England, afterwards into Holland, France, anci
Germany ; and returning to Stockholm 10^1714, he
was two years afterwards appointed to the office or af-
feflbr in the Metallic College Dy Chailes XII. wTho ho¬
noured him with frequent converfations, and bellowed
upon him a large {have of his favour. At this period
of his life Swedenborg devoted his attention principally
to phyfic and mathematical ftudies ; and.in 1718 he ac¬
companied the king to the fiege of hreaeiickftial], ^
where he gave an eminent proof that he had not ftudied
in rain. Charles could not fend his heavy artillery to
Frederickfhall from the badnefs ol the roads, which
were then rendered much vvorfe than umal by being
deeply covered with fnow. In this extremity Sweden¬
borg brought the fcienCes to the aid of valour. By the
help of proper inftrumeuts he cut through the^moun-
tains, and raifed the valleys which feparated Sweden
frofn Norway, and then fent to his mailer two galleys,
- five large boats, and a {loop, loaded with battering
pieces, to be employed in the fiege. The length of this
canal :
Sweden¬
borg.
S W E. [ 158
canal was about two miles and a half. The execution
of this great work, however, did not occupy all his
In 1716 he had begun to publiih effays and ob
]
S W E
time.
European
Magazine,
1787, July,
fervations on the mathematical and phyfical fciences,
under the title of Daedalus Hyperboreus ; and he found
leifure during the iiege to complete his intended collec¬
tion, and all'o in the fame year to publilh an introduc¬
tion to algebra, under the whimfical title of The Art oj
the Rules.
At the liege of Fredericklhall he loft his patron
Charles; but found another in Ulrica Eleonora, the
lifter and fucceffor of that hero, by whom in 1719 he
was ennobled, and took of courfe his feat among the
fenators of the equeftrian order in the triennial affemblies
of the ftates. His promotion did not leflen his ardour
for the fciences $ for he published in the fame year A
Method to Jix the Value of Money, and to determine the
Swedijh Meafures in fuch a way as to fupprefs all the
Frachons and facilitate the Calculations. About the
fame time he gave the public a treatife on the Poftion
and Courfe of the Planets ; with another on the Height
of the Tides, and Flux and Reflux of the Sea ; which,
from information gathered in different parts of Sweden,
appeared to have been greater formerly than when he
wrote.
As Swedenborg continued, under the new fovereign,
to hold the office of affeffor to the Metallic College, he
thought it neceflary, for the dilcharge of his duty, to
make a fecond journey into foreign countries, that he
might himfelf examine their mines, particularly thofe of
Saxony and Harts. During thefe travels, which were
undertaken for the improvement of the manufactures of
his native country, he printed at Amfterdam, 1. Pro-
dromus principiorum Naturalium, five novorum tentami-
num, Cherniam et Phyfleam experimentalem geometrice
explicandi. 1. Nova obfervata et invent a circa Ferrum
et Ignem, preecipue naturam Ignis Elementarum, una
cum nova Camini inventione. 3. Methodus nova inveni-
endi Longitudines locorum terrcc marique ope Luiice. 4.
Modus conflruendi receptacula navalia, vu/go en Suedois,
Doch/bynadder. 5. Nova conflruBio agger is aquatici.
6. Modus explorandi virtutes Navigiorum. And at
Leipfic and Hamburg, 7. Mifcellanea obfervata circa
res naturales, preefertim Mineralia, Ignem, et Montium
fir at a.
This journey was made, and thefe trafts publilhed, in
the compafs of a year and a half j and perhaps there
has not been another man, Linmeus excepted, who has
done fo much in fo Ihort a time. After his return in 1722,
Swedenborg divided his time fo equally between the du¬
ties of his office and his private ftudies, that in 1733 he
finifhed his grand work, entitled Opera Philofophica et
Mineralia, and had it printed under his own direction
in 1734, part at Drefden and part at Leipficj in which
year he alfo w’ent to infpeCt the mines of Auftria and
Hungary. This wrork is divided into three volumes fo¬
lio 5 the title of the firft is Principia return Naturalium
five novorum tentaminum, Phcenomena Mundi elementa-
ris philofophice explicandi. The fecond, Regnum Subter-
raneum five Miner ale de Ferro ; and the third, Regnum
Subterraneum five Minerale de Cupro, et Orichalco ; all
of them written with great ftrength of judgement, and
ornamented with plates, to facilitate the comprehenlion
of the text.
In the year 1729 he was enrolled among the members
4
of the Society of Sciences at Upfal, and was, probably Swed
about the fame time, made a Fellow of the Royal Aca- Wj
demy of Sciences at Stockholm ; nor were ftrangers lefs ''"“"V'
willing than his own countrymen to acknowledge the
greatnefs of his merit. Wolfius, with many other
learned foreigners, w^as eager to court his conefpond-
ence. The Academy of St Peteriburg fent him, on
the 17th of December 1734, a diploma of aftbeiation
as a correfpondent member 5 and foon afterwards the
editors of the ABa Eruditorum at Leipfic found in
his works a valuable fupplement to their own collec¬
tion.
By many perfons the approbation of learned acade-
demies would have been highly valued j but by Baron
Swedenborg it was conftdeied as of very little impor¬
tance. “ Whatever of worldly honour and advantage
may appear to be in the things before mentioned, 1 Short}
hold them (fays he) but as matters of low eftimation/0Mf'l
when compared to the honour of that holy office to^eJ^'
which the Lord himfelf hath called me, who was gra-£. SaJ
cioufly plealed to manifeft himfelf to me, his unworthy denhon
fervant, in a perfonal appearance, in the year 1743, to
open in me a fight of the fpiritual wmrld, and to enable
me to converfe with fpirits and angels 5 and this privilege
has continued with me to this day. From that time I
began to print and publiffi various unknown Arcana,
wffiich have been either feen by me or revealed to me,
concerning heaven and hell, the ftateof men after death,
the true worfliip of God, the fpiritual fenfe of the Scrip¬
tures, and many other important truths tending to fal-
vation and true wildom.”
We (hall not affront the underftandings of our readers
by making upon this account of the Baron’s call fuch
refledlions as every perfon of a found mind will make
for himfelf j but it is rather remarkable, that a man
who had devoted the better part of his life to the ftudy
of fuch fciences as generally fortify the mind againft the
delufions of fanaticifm, and who had even excelled in
thefe fciences, fliould have fallen into fuch a reverie as
this. After this extraordinary call, the Baron dedicat¬
ed himfelf wholly to the great work which, he fupppof-
ed, was affigned him, ftudying diligently the word of
God, and from time to time publiihing to his fellow-
creatures fuch important information as was made known
to him concerning another wmrld. Among his various
difeoveries concerning the fpiritual world, one is, that it
exifts not in fpace. “ Of this (fays he) I wxis convin- Sweden
ced, becaufe I could there fee Africans and Indians very lj0,s's l
near me, although they are fo many miles diftant here
on earth ; nay, that 1 could be made prefent with thevoLLp
inhabitants of other planets in cur fyftem, and alfo withS?
the inhabitants of planets that are in other worlds, and
revolve aboat other funs. By virtue of fuch prefence
(i. e. without real fpace), not of place, I have converfed
with apoftles, departed popes, emperors, and kings j
with the late reformers of the church, Luther, Calvin,
and Melanfthon, and with others from diftant coun¬
tries.”
Notwdthftanding the want of fpace in the fpiritual
world, he tells us, “ that after death a man is fo little
changed that he even does not know but he is living in
the prefent world j that he eats and drinks, and even
-
enjoys conjugal delight as in this world ; that the re- ^
femblance between the two worlds is fo great, that in
the fpiritual world there are cities, with palaces and
houfes,
734
jv en-
S-
- —
S W E
f iS9 ]
S W I
o Ac-
u
!
C nr-
’re-
: ) the
t fe on
ley's
rs to
w\Tew
ralem
'hk,
kc.
houfes, and alfo writings and books, employments and
merchandifes; that there is gold, filver, and precious
Hones there. In a word (he fays'), there is in the fpi-
ritual world all and every thing that there is in the na¬
tural world, but that in heaven fuch things are in an in¬
finitely more perfect ftate.”
Such was his zeal in the propagation of thefe whimfi-
cal and fometimes fenfual do&rines, that he frequently
left his native country to vifit dillant cities, particularly
London and Amfterdam, where all his theological
works were printed at a great expence, and with little
profpeft or probability of a reimburfement. “ Where-
ever he refided when on his travels, he was (fays one of
his admirers) a mere folitary, and almoft inacceflible,
though in his owm country of a free and open beha¬
viour. He affe&ed no honour, but declined it 3 pur-
fued no worldly intereft, but fpent his time in travelling
and printing, in order to communicate inftruftion and
benefit to mankind. He had nothing of the precife in
his manner, nothing of melancholy in his temper, and
nothing in the leaft bordering on enthufiafm in his con-
verfation or ■writings.” This is too much. We believe
he was an inoffenfive vifionary 3 of his converfation we
cannot judge 3 but the fpecimens that we have given of
his writings are frantic enthufiafm. He died at Lon¬
don, March 29th, in the year 1772 3 and after lying in
Hate, his remains were depofited in a vault at the Swe-
diih church, near Radcliff-Higluvay.
Though Baron Swedenborg’s followers appear not to
have been numerous during his life, they have increafed
fince his death 3 and a fedl fubfifts at prefent in England
which derives its origin from him, and is called t/ie New
Jerufalem Church. The difcriminating tenets of this
fed): feem to be the following : “ Holding the dodfrine
of one God, they maintain that this one God is no other
than Jefus Chrift, and that he always exifted in a human
form 3 that for the fake of redeeming the world, he took
upon himfelf a proper human or material body, but not
a human foul; that this redemption confifts in bringing,
the hells or evil fpirits into fubjedlion, and the heavens
into order and regulation, and thereby preparing, the
way for a new fpiritual church ; that without fuch re¬
demption no man could be faved, nor could the angels
retain their ftate of integrity 3 that their redemption
was effedfed by means of trials, temptations, or conflidfs
with evil fpirits 3 and that the laft of them, by which
Chrift glorified his humanity, perfedling the union of
his divine with his human nature, w'as the paffion of
the crofs. Though they maintain that there is but one
God, and one divine perfon, they hold that in this per-
fon there is a real Trinity 3 confifting of the divinity,
the humanity, and the operation of them both in the
Lord Jefus 5 a Trinity which did not exift from all
eternity, but commenced at the incarnation. They be¬
lieve that the Scriptures are to be interpreted not only
m a literal but in a fpiritual fenfe, not known to the
vrorld till it was revealed to B. Swedenborg 3 and that
this fpiritual fenfe extends to every part of Scripture,
except the Adis of the Apoftles. They believe that
there are angels attending upon men, refiding, as B.
Swedenborg fays, in their affedfions 3 that temptation
confifts in a ftruggle between good and bad angels
within men 3 and that by this means God afiifts men
m thefe temptations, fince of themfelves they could do
nothing. Indeed B. Swedenborg maintains, that there
is an univerfal influx from God into the fouls of men,
infpiring them efpecially with the belief of the divine
unity. This efflux of divine light on the fpirilual world
he compares to the efflux of the light from the fun in e.
the natural world.
“ There are (fays B. Swedenborg) two worlds, the
natural and the fpiritual, entirely diftindt, though per-
fedlly correfponding to each other 3 that at death a
man enters into the fpiritual world, when his foul is
clothed wdth a body, which he terms fubjlantial, in op-
pofition to the prefent material body, which, he fays, is
never to rife out of the grave.”
SWEEP, in the fea-language, is that part of the
mould of a fhip where (he begins to compafs in the
rung-heads 3 alfo when the haufer is dragged along the
bottom of the fea to recover any thing that is funk, they
call this adtion /weeping for it.
SWEET, in the wine trade, denotes any vegetable
juice, wdiether obtained by means of fugar, raiiins, or
other foreign or domettic fruit, which is added to wines
with a defign to improve them.
SWEIN-mot. See Forest Courts.
SWERTIA, Marsh Gentian, a genus of plants
belonging to the ciafs pentandria, and in the natural fy-
ftem ranging under the 20th order, rotaceee. See Bo¬
tany Index.
SWIETENIA, Mahogany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the ciafs decandria, and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 54th order, mifcellanece. See Bo¬
tany and Materia Medic a Index.
The firft ufe to which mahogany was applied in Eng¬
land, w^as to make a box for holding candles. Dr Gib¬
bons, an eminent phyfician in the latter end of the 17th
and beginning of the 18th century, had a brother, a
Weft India captain, who brought over fome planks of
this wood as ballaft. As the Doftor was then building
a houfe in King-ftreet, Covent Garden, his brother
thought they might be of fervice to him. But the car¬
penters, finding the wood too hard for their tools, they
were laid afide for a time as ,;ifelefs. Soon after, Mrs
Gibbons, wanting a candle-box, the Doftor called on
his cabinet-maker to make him one of fome wood that
lay in his garden. Wollafton, the cabinet-maker alfo
complained that it was too hard. The Doftor faid he
muft get ftronger tools. The candle-box was made and
approved 5 infomuch, that the Doftor then infifted on
having a bureau made of the fame wood, which was
accordingly done 3 and the fine colour, poliih, &c. were
fo pleafing, that he invited all his friends to come and
fee it. Among them was the duchefs of Buckingham.
Her Grace begged fome of the fame wood of Dr Gib¬
bons, and employed Wollafton to make her a bureau
alfo; on which the fame of mahogany and Mr Wol¬
lafton wras much raifed, and things of this fort became
general.
SWIFT, Dr Jonathan, fo univerfally admired as a
wit and claffical writer of the Englifti language, was
born in Dublin on November 30th 1667. -^s father
was an attorney, and of a good family 3 but dying
poor, the expence of his fon’s education was defrayed
by his friends. At the age of fix young Swift was lent
to the fchool of Kilkenny, whence he rvas removed in
his 1 ;;th year to Trinity College, Dublin.
In his academical ftudies (fays Dr Johnfon) he was
either not diligent or not happy. The truth appears to
be,
Sweden¬
borg
II
Swift.
SWT [i
-Swift, be, tliat he defpifed them as intricate and ufelefs. He
told Mr Sheridan, his laft biographer, that he had made
many efforts, upon his entering the college, to read
fome of the old treatifes on logic writ by Smeglefrus,
•Keckennannus, Burgerfdicias, &c. and that he never
had patience to go through three pages of any of them,
he was fo difgufted at the ftupidily of the work. When
he was urged by his tutor to make himfelf mailer of
this branch, then in high eftimation, and held eifentially
neceffary to the taking of a degree, Swift alked him,
What it was he was to learn from thofe books ? His
tutor told him, The art of reafoning. Swift faid, That
he found no want of any fuch art; that he could reafon
very well without it} and that, as far as he could ob-
ferve, they who had made the greatell proficiency in
logic had, inftead of the art of reafoning, acquired the
art of wrangling ; and inftead of clearing up obfcuri-
ties, had learned how to perplex matters that were clear
enough before. For his own part, he was contented
with that portion of reafon which God had given him ;
and he would leave it to time and experience to ftrength-
en and diredl it properly ; nor would he run the rilk of
having it warped or falfely biafted by any fyftem of rules
laid down by fuch ftupid writers, of the bad effedls of
which he had but too many examples before his eyes in
thofe reckoned the moft acute logicians. Accordingly,
he made a firm refolution, that he never would read any
of thofe books; which he fo pertinacioully adhered to,
that though his degree was refufed him the firft time of
fitting for it, on account of his not anfwering in that
branch, he went into the hall a fecond time as ill pre¬
pared as before ; and would alfo have been flopped a
fecond time, on the' fame account, if the intereft of his
friends, who well knew the inflexibility of his temper,
had not ftepped in, and obtained it for him ; though in
a manner little to his credit, as it was inferted in the
College Regiftry, that he obtained it fpeciali gratia,
“ by fpecial favour where it remains upon record.
But this circumftance is explained by others, that the
favour was in confequen"e of Swift’s diftinguiflied ta¬
lents.
“ He remained in the college near three years after
this, not through choice, but neceflity, little known or
regarded. By fcholars he was reckoned a blockhead ;
and as the lownefs of his circumfiances would not per¬
mit him to keep company writh perfons of an equal rank
with himfelf, upon an equal footing, he fcorned to take
up wflth thofe of a lower clafs, or to be obliged to thofe
of a higher. He lived therefore much alone, and his
time was employed in purfuing his courfe of reading in
hiftory and poetry, then very unfalhionable ftudies for
an academic \ or in gloomy meditations on his unhappy
circumftances. Yet, under this heavy preffure, the
force of his genius broke out, in the firft rude draught of
the Tale of a Tub, written by him at the age of 19,
though communicated to nobody but his chamber-fel¬
low Mr Waryng j who, after the publication of the
book, made no fcruple to declare, that he had read the
firft fketch of it in Swift’s hand-writing when he w;as of
that age.”
In 1688, being, by the death of Godwin Swift his
uncle, wrho had chiefly fupported him, left without fub-
fiftence, he went to confult his mother, who then lived
at Leicefter, about the future courfe of his life ; and, by
her direction, folicited the advice and patronage of Sir
3
60 j s w 1
William Temple, whofe father had lived in great friend- SwifI
ftiip with Godwin Swift. Temple received him with'*”—r
great kindnefs, and was fo much pleafed with his con-
verfation, that he detained him twro years in his houfe,
and recommended him to King William, who offered
to make him a captain of horfe. This not fuiting his
difpofition, and Temple not having it quickly iu his
power to provide for him otherwife, Swift left his pa¬
tron (1694) in difcontent j having previoufly taken his
mailer’s degree at Oxford, by means of a teftimonial _
from Dublin, in which the wmrds of difgrace were omit¬
ted. He was refolved to enter into the church, where
his firft preferment was only rod. a-year, being the
prebend of Kilroot in Conner ; which fome time after¬
wards, upon Sir William Temple’s earneftly inviting
him back to his houfe at Moorpark, he refigned in
favour of a clergyman far advanced in years and bur¬
dened with a numerous family. For this man he foli-
cited the prebend, to which he himielf induced him.
In 1699 Swift loft his patron Sir William Temple,
who left him a legacy in money, with the property of
his manufcripts j and, on his death-bed, obtained for
him a promife from the king of the firft prebend that
fhould become vacant at Weftminfter or Canterbury.
That this promife might not be forgotten, Swift dedi¬
cated to the king the pofthumous works with which he
was entrufted, and for a while attended the court j but
foon found his folicitations hopelefs. He was then in¬
vited by the earl of Berkeley to accompany him into
Ireland, where, after fuffering fome cruel difappoint-
ments, he obtained the livings of Laracor and Raih-
beggin in the diocefe of Meath 5 and foon afterwards
invited over the unfortunate Stella, a young woman of
the name of Johnfon, whofe life he contrived to embit¬
ter, and whofe days, though he Certainly loved her, we
may confidently atfirm, he fnortened by his caprice.
This lady is generally believed to have been the
daughter of Sir William Temple’s fteward j but her
niece, a Mrs Hearn, affured Mr Berkeley, the editor
of a volume of letters intkled Literarjj Re/ics, that her
father was a merc-hant, and the youngeft brother of a
good family in Nottingham-fhire j that her mother was
the intimate friend, of Lady Gifford, Sir William’s lif¬
ter ; and that Are herfelf was educated in the family
with his niece, the late Mr Temple of Moorpark by * See
Farnham *. This ftory would be intltled to the fulleft 1
credit, had not Mrs Hearn affirmed, in the fame letter,
that, before the death of Sir William Temple, Mrs^^Jl
Johnfon’s liitlg fortune had been greatly injured by the^J/jj
South fea bubbles, which are known to have injured no ter ary ?
perfon till the year 1720: (See Company, II.
When one part of a narrative is fo palpably falfe, thej^jji
remainder will always be received with hefitation. Butan(iK.
whether Mils Johnion was the daughter of Temple’s
fteward or of the friend of Lady Gifford, it is certain
that Sir William left her 1000I. ; and that, accom¬
panied by Mrs Dingley, whofe whole fortune amounted
to an annuity of 27I. for life, Ihe went, in confequence
of Swift’s invitation, to Laracor. With thefe two ladies
he paffed his hours of relaxation, and to them he opened
his bofom 5 but they never refided in the fame houfe,
nor did he fee either without a witnefs.
In 1701, Swift publiffied A Difcourfe of the Contefs
enh DiJJlnfons in Athens and Rowe. It w'as bis firft
woik, and indeed the only which he ever exprefsly ac¬
knowledged.
/ S W I [I
knowlcdged. According to his conflant pra&ice he
* had concealed his name ; but after its appearance, pay¬
ing a vifit to fome Iriili bilhop, he was alked by him if
he had read that pamphlet, and what its reputation was
in London. Upon his replying that he believed it was
very well liked in London j “ Very well liked !” faid
the biihop with fome emotion. “ Yes, Sir, it is one of
the fineft tra£ls that ever wras written, and Blfhop Bur¬
net is one of the beft writers in the world.” Swift, who
always hated Burnet with fomething more than politi¬
cal rancour, immediately queftioned his right to the
work, when he was told by the bilhop that he was “ a
young man and hill perfiding to doubt of the juftice
of Burnet’s claim, on account of the diffimilarity of the
ftyle of the pamphlet from that of his other works, he
was told that he was “ a very pofitive young man,” as
no perfon in England but Bifhop Burnet was capable
of writing it. Upon which Swift replied, with fome in¬
dignation, I am to allure your lordfhip, howrever, that
Bilhop Burnet did not write the pamphlet, for I wrote
it myfelf. And thus was he forced in the heat of ar¬
gument to avow what otherwife he would have for ever
concealed.
Early in the enfuing fpring King William died ; and
Swift, on his next vint to London, found Queen Anne
upon the throne. It was generally thought, upon this
event, that the Tory party would have had the afeend-
ant; but, contrary to all expe&ation, the Whigs had
managed matters fo well as to get entirely into the
queen’s confidence, and to have the whole adminillra-
tion of affairs in their hands. Swift’s friends were now
in power; and the Whigs in general, knowing him to
be the author of the Difcourfe on the Contefts, &c.
which wras written in defence of King William and his
minifters againft the violent proceedings of the houfe of
commons, confidered themfelves as much obliged to him,
and looked upon him as fall to their party. But Swift
thought with the Whigs only in the ftate ; for with re-
fpe6t to the church his principles were always thofe of
a Tory. He therefore declined any intimate conneftion
with the leaders of the party, who at that time profeffed
what was called low church principles. But what above
all fhocked him, fays Mr Sheridan, was their inviting
Deifts, Freethinkers, Atheifts, Jews, and Infidels, to be
of their party, under pretence of moderation, and allow-
ing a general liberty of confcience. As Swift was in
his heart a man of true religion, he could not have borne,
even in his private chara£ter, to have mixed with fuch
a motley crew. But when we confider his principles in
his political capacity, that he looked upon the church
of England, as by law eftablifhed, to be the main pillar
of our newly erefted conftitution, he could not, confi’ll:-
ently with the charafter of a good citizen, join with
thofe who confidered it more as an opnament than a
fupport to the edifice j and could therefore look on with
compofure while it was undermining, or could even open
the gate to a blind multitude, to try, like Sampfon, their
ftrength againft it, and confider it only as fport. With
fuch a party, neither his religious nor political principles
would fuffer him to join ; and with regard to the Tories,
as is ufual in the violence of fa&ions, they had run into
oppofite extremes, equally dangerous to the ftate. He
was therefore during the earlier part of the queen’s reign
of no party, but employed himfelf in difeharging the
duties of his function, and in publifiiing from time to
Vol. XX, Part I.
61 ] S W I
time fuch trails as he thought might be ufeful. In the Swift,
year 1704 he publilhed the Tale of a 'Tub, which, con-
fidered merely as a work of genius, is unqueftionably the
greateft which he ever produced j but the levity with
which religion v.as thought to be there treated, raifed
up enemies to him among all parties, and eventually pre¬
cluded him from a bilhopric. From that period till the
year 1708, he feems to have employed himfelf in foli-
tary ftudy j but he then gave fucceflively to the public
The Sentiments of a Church of England man, the ridicule
of aftrology under the name of Bickerfaff, the Argument
againf abolifhing Chriftianitij, and the defence of the
Sacramental TeJL
Soon after began the bufy and important part of
Swift’s life. He was employed (1710) by the primate
of Ireland to folicit the queen for a remiftion of the firft
fruits and twentieth parts to the Irilh clergy. This in¬
troduced him to Mr Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford,
who, though a Whig himfelf, was at the head of the
Tory miniftry, and in great need of an auxiliary fo able
as Swift, by whofe pen he and the other minifters might
be fupported in pamphlets, poems, and periodical papers.
In the year 1710 was commenced the Examiner; of
which Swift w'rote 33 papers, beginning his firft part of
it on the 10th of November 1711. The next year he
publiftied the ConduB of the Allies ten days before the
parliament affembled; and foon afterwards, RefeBions
on the Barrier Treaty. The purpofe of thefe pamph¬
lets was to perfuade the nation to a peace, by [flowing
that “ mines had been exhaufted and millions deftroyed”
to fecure the Dutch and aggrandize the emperor, with¬
out any advantage whatever to Great Britain. Though
thefe two publications, together with his Remarks on the
Bi/hop of Sarum's IntroduBion to the third Volume of his
Hiftory of the Reformation, certainly turned the tide of
popular opinion, and cffeflually promoted the defigns
of the miniftry, the beft preferment which his friends
could venture to give him was the deanery of St Pa¬
trick’s, which he accepted in 1713. In the midft of
his porver and his politics he kept a journal of his vifits,
his walks, his interviews with minifters, and quarrels
with his fervant, and tranfmitted it to Mrs .lohnfon and
Mrs Dingley, to whom he knew that whatever befel
him was interefting : but in 1714 an end was put to
his power by the death of the queen, which broke down
at once the whole fyftem of Tory politics, and nothing
remained for him but to withdraw from perfecution to
his deanery.
In the triumph of the Whigs, Swift met xvith every
mortification that a fpirit like his could poflibly be ex-
pofed to. The people of Ireland were irritated againft
him beyond meafure ; and every indignity was offered
him as he walked the ftreets of Dublin. Nor was he
infulted by the rabble only ; for perfons of diftinguilhed
rank and character forgot the decorum of common ci¬
vility to give him a perfonal affront. While his pride
was hurt by fuch indignities, his more tender feelings
were alfo often wounded by bafe ingratitude. In fuch
a fituation he found it in vain to ftruggle againft the tide
thatoppofed him. He filently yielded to it, and retired
from the world to difeharge his duties as a clergyman,
and attend to the care of his deanery. That no part of
his time might lie heavy on his hands, he employed his
leifure hours on fome hiftorical attempts relating to the
change of the minifters and the condudl of the miniftry ;
X and
S W I [ 162 ] S W I
snd completed the hiftory of the four laft years of the
queen, which had been begun in her lifetime, but which
lie never publiQied. Of the work which bears that title,
and is faid to be his, Dr Jchnfon doubts the genuine-
nefs; and it certainly is not fuch as we fhould have ex¬
pelled from a man of Swift’s fagacity and opportunities
of information.
In the year 1716 he was privately married to Mrs
Johnfon by Dr Aihe bilhop of Clogher 5 but the mar¬
riage made no change in their fituation, and it would
be difficult to prove (fays Lord Orrery) that they were
ever afterwards together but in the prefence of a third
peri'on. The dean of St Patrick’s lived in a private
manner, known and regarded only by his friends, till
about the year 1720 that he publilhed his firft poli¬
tical pamphlet relative to Ireland, intitled A Propofal
for the Vmverfal XJfe of Irijh ManufaBures; which fo
roufed the indignatian of the miniitry that they com¬
menced a profecution againtt the printer,,and thus drew
the attention of the public to the pamphlet, and at once
made its author popular.
Whilft he was enjoying the laurels which this work
had wreathed for him, his felicity, as well as that of his
wife, was interrupted by the death of Mrs Van Homrigh,
and the publication of his poem called Cadetws and Va-
neJJ'a, which brought upon him much merited obloquy.
With Mrs Van Homrigh he became acquainted in Lon¬
don during his attendance at court ; and finding her
poffeffed of genius and fond of literature, he took delight
in direfting her fludies, till he got infenfibly poiTeffion
of her heart, prom being proud of his praife, (he grew
fond of his perfon ; and defpifing vulgar reftraints, (he
made him fenfible that Pne was ready to receive him as
a huffiand. She had writ, youth, beauty, and a compe¬
tent fortune to recommend her; and for a while Swift
leems to have been undetermined whether or not he
ffiould comply with her wiih. She had followed him
to Ireland, where fhe lived in a houfe about twelve miles
diftant from Dublin j and he continued to vifit her oc-
cafionally, and to direft her ftudies as he had done in
London •, but with thefe attentions ffie w’as not fatisfied,
and at laft fent to him a letter written with great ardour
and tendernefs, infifting that he ffiould immediately ac¬
cept or refufe her as a wdfe. His anfwer, which pro¬
bably contained the fecret of his marriage, he carried
himfelf 5 and having indignantly thrown it on the lady’s
table, infiantly quitted the houfe, w’e believe without
fpeaking to her, and returned to Dublin to refleft on
the confequences of his own condudf. Thefe w7ere
dreadful. Mrs Van Homrigh furvived her difappoint-
ment but a few weeks •, during wdiich time ffie cancelled
a will that ffie had made in his favour, and ordered the
poem to be publiffied in which Cadenus had proclaimed
her excellence and confeffed his love.
His patriotifm again burlt forth in 1724 to obflrudl:
the currency of Wood’s halfpence ; and his zeal was
crowned with fuccefs. Wood had obtained a patent to
coin i8c,oool. in halfpence and farthings for the king¬
dom of Ireland 5 and was about to turn his brafs into
gold, when Swift, finding that the metal was debafed to
an enormous degree, wrote letters under the name of
M. B. Drapier to ffiow the folly of giving gold and
filver for coin not worth a third part of its nominal va¬
lue. A profecution was carried on againft the printer j
and Lord Carteret, then lord-lieutenant, ifiued a pro- Swift
clamation, offering 300I. for difeovering the author
the fourth letter. The day after it was publiffied there
was a full levee at the caitle. The lord-lieutenant was
going round the circle, when Swift abruptly entered the
chamber, and puffiing his way through the crowd, ne¬
ver flopped till he got within the circle ; where, with
marks of the higheft indignation in his countenance, he
addrefled the loid-lieutenant with the voice of a Sten-
tor, that re-echoed through the room, “ So, rny lord-
lieutenant, this is a glorious exploit that you performed
yefterday, in iffuing a proclamation againit a poor ffiop-
keeper, vvhofe only crime is an honett endeavour to fave
his country from ruin. You have given a noble fpeci-
men of what this devoted nation is to hope for from your
government. I fuppofe you expeft a flatue of copper
will be erefted to you for this fervice done to Wood.”
He then went on for a long time, inveighing in the bit-
terefl terms againfl the patent, and difplaying in the
ftrongeft colours all the fatal confequences of introducing
that execrable coin. The whole affembly were ftruck
mute with wonder at this unprecedented feene. For
fonre time a profound filence enfiied. When Lord Car¬
teret, wffio had liftened with great compofure to the
whole fpeech, made this fine reply, in a line of Virgil’s:
Res dura, et regni novitas ttie talia cogunt
Moliri.
From this time Swift was known by the name of the
Dean, and was acknowledged by the populace as the
champion, patron, and inflruftor of Ireland.
In 1727 he returned to England j where, in con-
junfHon with Pope, he collefted three volumes of mif-
cellanies ; and the fame year he fent into the world his
Gulliver's Travels, a production which was read by the
high and the low, and filled every reader with a mingled
emotion of merriment and amazement. Whilft he was
enjoying the reputation of this work, he was fuddenly
called to a home of forrow. Poor Stella was finking
into the grave ; and after a languilhing decay of about
twro months, died in her 44th year, on January 28. 1728.
How much he wifhed her life is fliown by his papers 5
nor can it be doubted that he dreaded the death of her
whom he loved moft, aggravated by the confcioufnefs
that himfelf had haftened it. With her vaniffied all his
domeflic enjoyments, and of courfe he turned his thoughts
more to public affairs *, in the contemplation of which
he could fee nothing but what ferved to increafe the
malady. The advances of old age, with all its attend¬
ant infirmities ; the death of almoft all his old friends j
the frequent returns of his moft difpiriting maladies,
deafnefs and giddinefs; and, above all, the dreadful ap-
prehenfions that he ffiould outlive his underftanding,
made life fuch a burden to him, that he had no hope
left but a fpeedy diffolution, which was the objeCl of his
daily prayer to the Almighty.
The feverity of his temper increafing, he drove his
acquaintance from his table, and wondered why he was
delerted. In 1732, he complains, in a letter to Mr Gay,
that “ he had a large houfe, and ftiould hardly find one
vifiior if he was not able to hire him with a bottle of
wine and, in another to Mr Pope, “ that he was in
danger of dying poor and friendlefs, even his female
friends having forlaken him 3 which,” as he fays, '‘ vex¬
ed
S W I [ 165 1 S W I
ed him moft.” Thefe complaints were afterwards re-
J peated in a drain of yet greater fenfxbility : “ All my
friends have forfaken me.
“ Verlfginofus, inops, furdus, male gratus amicis.
“ Deaf, giddy, helplefs, left alone,
“ To all my friends a burden grown.”
The fits of giddinefs and deafnefs to which he had
been fubjefted from his boyitli years, and for which he
thought walking or riding the belt remedy, became
more frequent and violent as he grew old; and the pre-
fentiment which he had long entertained of that wretch-
ednefs which would inevitably overtake him towards the
clofe of life, clouded his mind with melancholy and
tinged every objedt around him. How miferable he was
rendered by that gloomy profpeft, we may learn from
the following remarkable anecdote mentioned by Mr
Faulkner in his letter to Lord Chefterfield. “ One
time, in a journey from Drogheda to Navan, the dean
rode before the company, made a hidden flop, difmounted
from his horfe, fell on his knees, lifted up his hands, and
prayed in the moll devout manner. When his friends
came up, he defired and infilled on their alighting j
which they did, and alked him the meaning. “ Gentle¬
men,” (aid he, “ pray join your hearts in fervent prayers
with mine, that I may never be like this oak-tree, which
is decayed and withered at top, wdiile the other parts are
found,” In 1736, while he was waiting a fatire called
the Legion Club againfl the Irilli parliament, hewmsfeiz-
ed with fo dreadful a fit of his malady, that he left the
poem unfiniflied j and never after attempted a compofi-
tion that required a courfe of thinking. Erom this time
his memory gradually declined, his pafiions perverted his
underftanding, and, in 1741, he became utterly incap¬
able of converfation ; and it was found necefiary to ap¬
point legal guardians to his perlbn and his fortune. He
now loft all fenfe of diftinclion. His meat wjas brought
to him cut into mouthfuls ; but he would never touch
it while the fervant ftaid 5 and at laft, after it flood per¬
haps an hour, would eat it walking $ for he continued
his old habit, and was on his feet ten hours a day. Dur¬
ing next year a fhort interval of reafon enfuing, gave
hopes of his recovery j but in a few days he funk into
lethargic ftupidity, motionlefs, heedlefs, and ipeechlefs.
After a year of total filence, however, when his houfe-
keeper told him that the ufual illuminations were pre¬
paring to celebrate his birth, he anfwered, w It is all
folly ; they had better let it alone.” He at laft funk
into a perfefl filence, which continued till the 29th of
O iloher 1745, when he expired wfithout a druggie, in
his 78th year. The behaviour of the citizens on this
occaiion gave the ftrongeft proof of the deep impreflion
he had made on their minds. Though he had been fo
many years to all intents and purpofes dead to the world,
and his departure from that date feemed a thing rather
to be wifhed than deplored, yet no fooner was his death
announced, than they gathered from all quarters, and
forced their wray in crowds into the houfe, to pay the
laft tribute of grief to their departed benefa&or. No¬
thing but lamentations wTere heard all around the quar¬
ter where he lived, as if he had been cut off in tbe vi¬
gour of his years. Happy wrere they who firft got into
the chamber where he lay, to procure, by bribes to the
fervants, locks of his hair, to be handed down as facred
relics to their pofterity 3 and fo eager were numbers to
obtain at any price this precious memorial, that in lets
than an hour, his venerable head was entirely itripped
of all its filver ornaments, fo that not a hair remained.
By his will, which was dated in May I74°» jul^ before
he ceafed to be a reafonable being, he left about 1200I.
in fpecific legacies 3 and the reft of his fortune, which
amounted to about ii,ocol. to ereft and endow an hol-
pital for lunatics and idiots. He was buried in the moil
private manner, according to directions in his wall, in
the great able of St Patrick’s cathedral, and, by way ol
monument, a flab of black marble was placed againft
the w'all, on which wTas engraved the following Latin
epitaph, written by himfelf:
Hie depofitum eft corpus
Jonathan Swift, S. T. P.
Hujus Ecclefiae Cathedralis
Decani:
Ubi faeva indignatio
Ulterius cor lacerare nequit.
Abi, viator,
Et imitare, fi poteris,
Strenuum pro virili libertatis vindicera.
Obiit anno (1745)
Menfis (OClobris) die (29.)
iEiatis anno 78.
Swift undoubtedly was a man of native genius. His
fancy was inexhauftible'3 his conceptions were lively and
comprehenfive 3 and he had the peculiar felicity of con¬
veying them in language equally correft, free, and per-
fpicuous. His penetration wras as quick as intuition 3 he
was indeed the critic of nature 3 and no man ever wrote
fo much, and borrowed fo little.
As his genius was of the firft clafs, fo were fome of
his virtues. The following anecdote will illuftrate his
filial piety. His mother died in 1710, as appears by a
memorandum in one of the account-books which Dr
Swift always made up yearly, and on each page entered
minutely all his receipts and expences in every month,
beginning his year from November 1. He obterved the
fame method all his lifetime till his laft illnefs. At the
foot of that page which includes his expences of the
month of May 171O, at the glebe houfe of Laracor in
the county of Meath, where he w'as then refident, are
thefe remarkable words, which (how at the fame time
his filial piety, and the religious ufe which he thought it
his duty to make of that melancholy event. “ Mem. On
Wednefday, between feven and eight in the evening,
May 10. 1710, I received a letter in my chamber at
Laracor (Mr Percival and Jo. Beaumont being by)
from Mrs F—, dated May 9, with one inclofed, feat
by Mrs Worral at Leicefter to Mrs F—, giving an ac¬
count that my dear mother, Mrs Abigail Swift, died
that morning," Monday April 24. 1710, about ten o’¬
clock, after a long ficknefs : being ill all winter, and
lame ; and extremely ill about a month or fix weeks be¬
fore her death. I have now loft my barrier between me
and death. God grant I may live to be as well prepar¬
ed for it as I confidently believe her to have been ! If
the way to heaven be through piety, truth, juftice, and
charity, (he is there. J. S.” He always treated his mo¬
ther, during her life, with the utmoft duty and affec¬
tion 3 and (he fometimes came to Ireland to vifit him af¬
ter his fettlement at Laracor.
The liberality of the dean hath been a topic of juft
X 2 encomium
Swift.
S W I [ 164 ] s
encomium with all his admirers j nor could his enemies Mr Bettefvvorth, that I
deny him this praife. In his domeftic affairs, he always
a£led with Itrict economy. He kept the molt regular
accounts 5 and he feems to have done this chiefly with a
view to increafe his power of being uieful. “ His in¬
come, which was little more than 700!. per annum, he
endeavoured to divide into three parts, for the following
purpofes. Firft, to live upon one-third of it. Secondly,
to give another third in penlions and charities, according
to the manner in which perfons who received them had
lived : and the other third he laid by, to build an hofpi-
ial tor the reception of idiots and lunatics.” “ What is
remarkable in this generous man, is this (fays Mr F.),
that when he lent money upon bond or mortgage, he
would not take the legal intereft, but one per cent, be¬
low it.”
His charity appears to have been a fettled principle
cf duty more than an inftin&ive effort of good nature :
but as it was thus founded and fupported, it had extra¬
ordinary merit, and feldom failed to exert itfeif in a
manner that contributed molt to render it beneficial. He
did not lavilh his money on the idle and the worthlefs.
He nicely difcriminated charafters, and was feldom the
dupe of impofition. Hence his generofity always turned
to an ufeful account j while it relieved diltrefs, it en¬
couraged induftry, and rewarded virtue. We dwell
with great pleafure on this truly excellent and diftin-
guilhing part ot the dean’s charafter : and for the fake
ot his charity we can overlook his oddities, and almolt
forgive his faults. He was a very peculiar man in
every refpea. Some have faid, “ What a man he
would have been, had he been without thofe whims and
infirmities which fliaded both his genius and his charac¬
ter !” But perhaps the peculiarities complained of
nfeparable from his genius. Xhe vigour and fer-
am
tility of the root could not fail now and then of throw¬
ing out fuperfluous fuckers. What produced thefe, pro¬
duced alfo the more beautiful branches, and gave the
fruit all its richnefs.
It muff be acknowledged, that the dean’s fancy hur¬
ried him into great abfurdities and inconfiftencies, for
which nothing but his extraordinary talents and noble
virtues, difcovered in other inffances, could have atoned.
The rancour he difcovered on all occafions towards the
diffenters is totally unjuftifiable. No feft could have
merited it in the degree in which he always Ihowed it to
them } foi, in iome inftances, it bordered on downright
perfscution. He doubtlefs had his reafons for expofing
tht ir piinciples to ridicule, and might perhaps have
mfficient grounds for fome of his accufations againft
their principal leaders in Ireland ; but nothing could
juftify his virulence againff the whole body. In a ftiort
poem on one clafs of diflenters he bellowed a ftriflure
upon Bettefwortb, a lawyer eminent for his infolence
to the clergy, which, from a very confiderable reputa¬
tion, brought him into immediate and univerfal con¬
tempt. Bettefworth, enraged at his difgrace and lofs,
went to the dean, and demanded whether he was the*
author of that poem ? “ Mr Bettefworth (anfwered he),
1 was in my youth acquainted with great lawyers, who
knowing my difpofition to fatire, advifed me, if any
fcoiindrel or blockhead whom I had lampooned fliould
aik, ‘ Are you the author of this paper ?’ to tell him
that I was not the author ; and therefore, I tell you^
W I
not the author of thefe
lines.” *-
Swift has been accufed of irreligion and mifanthropy,
on account of his Tale of a Tub, and his Yahoos in
Gulliver’s Travels j but both charges leem to be ill-
founded, or at leaft not iupported by that evidence.
The Tale of a Tub holds up to ridicule fuperllitious and
fanatical abfurdities ; but it never attacks the effentials
of religion : and in the ffory of the Yahoos, difgufting
we confefs, there appears to us as little evidence that
the author hated his own fpecies, as in the poems of
Strephon and Chloe, and the Ladies DreJJing Room, that
he approved of groffnefs and filth in the female lex. We
do not indeed, with his fondeft admirers, perceive the
moral tendency of the Voyage to the Houyhnhnms, or
confider it as a fatire admirably calculated to reform
mankind ; but neither do we think that it can pcffibly
corrupt them, or lead them to think meanly of their
rational nature. According to Sheridan, “ the defign
of this apologue is to place before the eyes of man a
piclure of the two different parts of his frame, detached
from each other, in order that he may the better efli-
mate the true value of each, and fee the neceflity there
is that the one Ihould have an abfolute command over
the other. In your merely animal capacity, fays he to
man, without reafon to guide you, and actuated only by
a blind inftinft, I will Ihow you that you would be de«
graded below the beafts of the field. That very form,
that very body, you are now fo proud of, as giving you
fuch a fuperiority over all other animals, I will fhow
you, owe all their beauty, and all their greateft powers,
to their being a&uated by a rational foul. Let that be
withdrawn, let the body be inhabited by the mind of a
brute, let it be prone as theirs are, and fuffered like
theirs to take its natural courfe, without any affiftance
from art, you would in that cafe be the moft deformed,
as to your external appearance, the moft deteftable of all
creatures. And with regard to your internal frame,
filled with all the evil difpofitions and malignant paffions
of mankind, you would be the moft miferable of beings,
living in a continued ftate of internal vexation, and of
hatred and warfare with each other.
“ On the other hand, I will (how another piflure of
an animal endowed with a rational foul, and adling uni¬
formly up to the didlates of right reafon. Here you
may (ee colledled all the virtues, all the great qualities,
which dignify man’s nature, and conftitute the happi-
nefs of his life. What is the natural inference to be
drawn from thefe two different reprefentations ? Is it not
evidently a leffon to mankind, warning them not to fuf-
fer the animal part to be predominant in them, left they
referable the vile Yahoo, and fall into vice and mifery j
but to emulate the noble and generous Houyhnhnm, by
cultivating the rational faculty to the utmoft 5 which,
will lead them to a life of virtue and happinefs.”
Such may have been the author’s intention 5 but it is
not fufficiently obvious to produce the proper effeft, and
is indeed hardly confiftent with that incapability under
which he reprefents the Yahoos of ever acquiring, by
any culture, the virtues of the noble Houyhnhnms.
With refpedl to his religion, it is a fa£l unqueflion-
able, that while the power of fpeech remained, he conti¬
nued conftant in the performance of his private devo¬
tions ; and in proportion as his memory failed, they
were
Swift.
s w i r. '65 i s w 1
were gradually fhortened, till at laft he could only re¬
peat the Lord’s prayer, which he continued to do till
the power of utterance for ever cedisd. Sucn a hahit as
this could not have been formed but by a man deeply
impreffed with a conviftion of the truth and importance
of revelation.
The molt inexcufable part of Swift’s conduct is his
treatment of Stella and Vaneffa, for which no proper
apology can be made, and which the vain attempts of
his friends have only tended to aggravate. One attri¬
butes his lingular conduct to a peculiarity in his confti-
tution ; but if he knew that he was incapable of fulfill-
in a the duties of the married ftate, how came he to lie one
of°the ladies to himfelf by the marriage ceremony, and
in the moll explicit terms to declare his paffion to the
other ? And what are we to think of the fenfibility of a
man who, llrongly attached as he feems to have been to
both, could, without fpcaking, fling a paper on the
table of the one, which “ proved (as our author expref-
fes it) her death-warrant,” and could throw the other,
his beloved Stella, in her laft illnefs, into unfpeakable
agonies, and “ never fee her more, for only adjuring
him, by their friendftiip, to let her have the iatisfadlion
of dying at leaft, though fhe had not lived, his acknow¬
ledged wife ?” Another apologift infinuates, upon fome-
thing like evidence, that Stella bore a fon to Swift, ^nd
yet labours to excufe him for not declaring her his wife,
becaufe Ihe had agreed at the marriage that it Ihould re¬
main a fecret from all the world unlefs the difeovery
fliould be called for by urgent necejjity ; but what could
be meant by the term urgent necejfity, unlefs it alluded
to the birth of children, he confeffes that it would be
hard to fay. The truth we believe to be what has been
faid by Johnfon, that the man whom Stella had the mis¬
fortune to love was fond of Angularity, and defirous to
make a mode of happinefs for himfelf, different from the
general courfe of things and the order of Providence j
he wifhed for all the pleafures of perfect friendfhip, with¬
out the uneafinefs of conjugal reftraint. But with this
ftate poor Stella was not fatisfied ; fhe never was treated
as a wife, and to the world fhe had the appearance of a
miftrefs. She lived fullenly on, hoping that in time he
would own and receive her. This, we believe, he of¬
fered at laft to do, but not till the change of his man¬
ners and the depravation of his mind made her tell him,
that “ it was too late.”
The natural acrimony of Swift’s temper had been in-
creafed by repeated difappointments. 1 his gave a fple-
netic tinffure to his writings, and amidft the duties of
private and domeftic life it too frequently appeared to
lhade the luftre of his more eminent virtues.— Ihe
dean hath been accufed of avarice, but with the fame
truth as he hath been accufed of infidelity. In detached
views, no man was more liable to be miftaken. Even
his genius and good fenfe might be queftioned, if we
were only to read fome paffages of his writings. 1 o
judge fairly and pronounce juftly of him as a man and
as an author, w’e fhould examine the uniform tenor of
his difpofition and condudl, and the general nature and
defign of his produdlions. In the latter he will appear
great, and in the former good j notwithftanding the
puns and puerilities of the one, and the abfurdities and
inconfiftencies of the other.
Swift, a fpecies of fwallow. See HtRUNDO, Orni¬
thology Index.
SWIMMING, the art of fufpending one’s fclf on Swimming-
water, and at the fame time making a progreflive mo¬
tion through it. _ . ^ .
As fwimming is not natural to man, it is evident that
at lome period it muft have been unknown among the ni;m_
human race. Neverthelefs there are no accounts of its
origin to be found in the hiftory of any nation •, nor are
there any nations fo barbarous but that the art of fwim-
ming is known among them, and that in greater perfec¬
tion than among civilized people. It is probable, there¬
fore, that tke art, though not ablolutely natural, will al¬
ways be acquired by people in a favage ftate from imita¬
ting the brute animals, moll of whom Iwim naturally.
Indeed fo much does this appear to be the cafe, that very
expert fwirnmers have recommended it to thofe who wifh¬
ed to learn the art, to keep fome frogs in a tub of water
conftantly befide them, and to imitate the motions by
which they move through that element. 2
The theory of fwimming depends upon one very fim-Depends on
pie principle ; namely, that if a force be applied to any
body, it will always move towards that fide where there1)Unap e‘
is the leaft refiftance. 'Ihus, if a perfon ftanding in a
boat pufhes with a pole againft the fide or any other
part of the veffel in which he Hands, no motion will en-
fue ; for as much as he preffes in one direction with the
pole, juft fo much does the adlion of his feet, on which
the preflure of the pole muft ultimately reft, puih the
veflel the other ivay : but if, inftead of the fide of the
veffel, he puthes the pole againft the (bore, then only
one force adls upon it, namely, that of the feet j which
being refilled only by the fluid water, the boat begins to
move from the fhore. Now the very fame thing takes
place in fwimming, whether the animal be man, qua¬
druped, bird, or fifli. If we confider the matter limply,
we may fuppofe an animal in fuck a fituation that it
could not poflibly fwim : thus, if we cut off the fins and
tail of a fifh, it will indeed float in confequence of be¬
ing fpecifically lighter than the water, but cannot make
any progreflive motion, or at leafl but very little, in
confequence of wriggling its body ; but if we allow it
to keep any of its fins, by flriking them againfl the wa¬
ter in any diredlion, the body moves the contrary way,
juft as a boat moves the contrary way to that in which
the oars flrike the water. It is true, that as the boat is
but partly immerged in the water, the refiftance is com¬
paratively lefs than when a frog or even any other qua¬
druped fwims ; but a boat could certainly be rowed with
oars though it was totally immerged in water, only with
lefs velocity than when it is not. When a man fwims,
he in like manner ftrikes the water with his hands, arms,
and feet j in confequence of which the body moves in a
direftion contrary to the ftroke. Upon this principle, and
on this only, a man may either afeend, defeend, or move
obliquely in any poflible diredlion, in the water. One
would think, indeed, that as the ftrength of a man s
arms and legs is but fmall, he could make but very
little way by any ftroke he could give the water, confi-
dering the fluidity of that element. Nevertheleis it is
incredible what expert fwimmers will perform in this
way ; of which Mr Forfter gives a moft remarkable in-
ftance in the inhabitants of Otaheite ; whofe agility, he
tells us, was fuch, that when a nail was thrown over¬
board, they would jump after it into the fea, and never
fail to catch it before it reached to the bottom.
As. to the pra&ice of fwimming, there are but few*
diredlions
S W I
[ 166 ]
S W I
3
Obferva-
tions by
Dr Frank¬
lin,
'Swimming, directions which can be given. The great obttacle is
' the natural dread which people have of being drowned j
and this it is impoffible to overcome by any thing but
accudominp; ourfelves to go into the water. With re-
gard to the real danger of being drowned, it is but
little j and on innumerable occafions arifes entirely from
the terror above mentioned, as will appear from the fol¬
lowing obfervations by Dr Franklin.
“ lit, That though the legs, arms, and head, of a
human body, being folid parts, are fpecifieally fome-
what heavier than frefh water, yet the trunk, particu¬
larly the upper part, from its hollownefs, is fo much
lighter than water, as that the whole of the body, taken
together, is too light to fink wholly under water, but
fome part will remain above until the lungs become
filled with water 5 which happens from drawing water
into them inftead of air, when a perfon in the fright at¬
tempts breathing while the mouth and noftrils are under
water.
“ 2dly, That the legs and arms are fpecifically lighter
than fait water, and will be fupported by it 5 fo that a
human body would not fink in fait water though the
lungs W'ere filled as above, but from the greater fpecific
.gravity of the head.
“ 3dly, That therefore a perfon throwing himfelf on
his back in fait water, and extending his arms, may
eafily lie fo as to keep his mouth and noftrils free for
breathing ; and by a fmall motion of his hands may pre¬
vent turning, if he fiiould perceive any tendency to it.
4thly, That in frefh water, if a man throws himfelf
on his back near the furface, he cannot long continue in
that fituatiog, but by a proper aftion of his hands on
the water. If he ufes no fuch adlion, the legs and
lower part of the body will gradually fink till he comes
into an upright pofition j in which he will continue fuf-
pended, the hollow of the breaft keeping the head up-
permoft.
5thly, But if in this ereft pofition the head is kept
upright above the (boulders, as when we (land on the
ground, the immerfion will, by the weight of that part
of the head that is out of the water, reach above the
mouth and noftrils, perhaps a little above the eyes; fo
that a man cannot long remain fufpended in water with
his head in that pofition.
“ 6thly, The body continued fufpended as before,
and upright, if the head be leaned quite back, fo that
the face looks upwards, all the back part of the head
being then under water, and its weight confequently
in a gteat meafure fupported by it, the face will re¬
main above water quite free for breathing, will rife an
inch higher every infpiration, and fink as much every
expiration, but never fo low as that the water may come
over the mouth.
“ ythly, If therefore a perfon unacquainted with
fwimming, and falling accidentally into the water, could
have prefence of mind fufficient to avoid flruggling and
plunging, and to let the body take this natural pofitinn,
he might continue long fafe from drowning, till perhaps
help would come ; for as to the clothes, their addition¬
al weight while immerfed is very inconfiderable, the
water fupporting it *, though when he comes out of the
4 water, he would find them very heavy indeed.”
unearnii^f The method of learning to fwim is as follows : The
to fwim. 3 perfon muft walk into water fo deep that it will reach
to the breaft. He is then to lie down gently on the
2
it
belly, keeping the head and neck perfeclly upright, the cwimia L
breaft advancing forward, the thorax inflated, and the '"“vr
back bent 5 then withdrawing the legs from the bottom,
and ftretching them out, ftrike the arms forwards in uni-
fon with the legs. Swimming on the back is fomewhat
fimilar to that on the belly ; but with this difference,
that although the legs are employed to move the body
forwards, the arms are generally unemployed, and the
progreflive motion is derived from the movement of the
legs. In diving, a perfon muft dole his hands together,
and, prefting his chin upon his breaft, make an exertion
to bend with force forwards. While in that pofition, he
muft continue to move with rapidity under the furface j
and whenever he choofes to return to his former fitua-
tion, he has nothing to do but bend back his head, and
he will immediately return to the furface.
It is very common for novices in the art of fwimming
to make ufe of corks or bladders to aflift in keeping the
body above water. Some have utterly condemned the
ufe of thefe ; however, Dr Franklin allows that they
may be of fervice for fupporting the body w-hile one is
learning what is called the Jltoke, or that manner of
drawing in and ftriking out the hands and feet that is
neceffary to produce piogreflive motion. “ But (fays
he) you will be no fwimmer till you can place confi¬
dence in the power of the w7ater to lupport you: I
would therefore advife the acquiring that confidence in
the firft place, efpecially as I have known leveral who,
by a little of the praffice neceffary for that purpofe,
have infenfibly acquired the ftroke, taught as it were by
nature.
“The praftice I mean is this: Choofing a place anc] 0fJ
where the water deepens gradually, wralk coolly into itquiring
till it is up to your breaft : then turn round your face licence.j
to the ftiore, and throw an egg into the water, be¬
tween you and the fhore ; it will fink to the bottom,
and be eafily feen there, if the water is clear. It muft
lie in the water fo deep as that you cannot reach it to
take it up but by diving for it. To encourage yourfelf
in order to do this, retledt that your progrefs wall be
from deeper to fhallovver water ; and that at any time
you may, by bringing your legs under you, and ftand-
ing on the bottom, raife your head far above the water :
then plunge under it with your eyes open, thnwving
yourfelf towards the egg, and endeavouring, by the ac¬
tion of your hands and feet sgainft the w-ater, to get
forward till within reach of it. In this attempt you
will find that the water buoys you up againft your incli¬
nation ; that it is not fo eafy a thing to fink as you ima¬
gined ; that you cannot but by aftive force get down to
the egg. Thus ycu feel the pow'er of the water to fup-
port you, and learn to confide in that power ; while
your endeavours to overcome it, and to reach the egg,
teach you the manner of adting on the u’ater with your
feet and hands j which action is afterwards ufed in fwim¬
ming to fupport your head higher above water, or to go
forward through it.” (-
As fwimming is a healthy exercife and a pleafant Swimmi
amufement, and as a dexterity in it may frequently putapleafal
it in a man’s power to fave his own life and the lives ofan^u^etj
his fellow-creatures, perhaps of his deareft friends, itexercl1''
can neither be ufelefs nor uninterefting to confider a few
of the evolutions which a fwimmer muft be mafter of,
that he move in any diredtion without difficulty, with¬
out danger, and without being unneceffarily fatigued.
There
‘ S W I f I
, n;njr. There are feveral difFerent ways of turning one’s felf
• ;n fwimming. You may do it in this way : Turn the
palm of the right hand outwards, extend the arm in the
H 0 , £ faIne manner, and make a contrary movement with the
n 1 6 left hand and left arm *, then, by a gradual motion, in¬
cline your head and whole body to the left fide, and the
evolution will be finiflied. There is another way which
is eafier dill : Bend your head and body toward that
fide to which you are going to turn. If you wifh to
turn to the left, incline the thumb and the right hand
toward the bottom, bend the fingers of the right hand,
ftretch it out, and ufe it for driving away the water fide-
wife, or, which is the fame thing, for pulhing yourfelf
the contrary way. At the fame time, with your left
hand, the fingers being clofe, pufh the water behind
you, and all at once turn your body and your face to the
left, and the manoeuvre will be accomplilhed. If you
wifh to turn to the right, you mull do with your right
hand what you did with your left, and with your left
what you did with your right. You muft be careful
when turning yourfelf never to ftretch out your legs,
and be fure that the water be fo deep that you be in no
danger of hurting yourfelf.
0 When you are fwimming on your belly, and wufti to
om turn on your back, draiv your feet in quickly, and
!’yt0 throw them before you ; ftretch out your hands behind
A‘ you, and keep your body firm and fteady. When you
wifh to turn from fwimming on your back, fold your
feet at once under your body as if you were throwing
them to the bottom, and at the fame inftant dart your
body forwards, that you may fall upon your belly,
h, es In fwimming, the eyes ought to be turned towards
heaven. This is a moft important rule, and to the ne-
gle£I of it many of the accidents which befal fwimmers
are owing. For when they bend their eyes downwards,
they infenfibly bend their head too, and thus the mouth
being too deep in the water, may admit a quantity of it
in breaking : befides, the more the body is ftretched, it
covers a greater part of the/urface of the water, and con-
fequently its fpecific gravity is lefs. Any perfon who
will make the experiment will find it impofftble to dive
while he keeps his head ereft and his eyes fixed on the
heavens (a).
The eafieft pofture in fwimming is lying on the back.
When you wifh to fvvim in this pofture, lay yourfelf
foftly on your back, and raife your breaft to the furface
of the water, keeping your body extended in the fame
line. Put your hands eaftly over the upper part of your
thighs, and throw out your legs and draw them in alter¬
nately, keeping them within two feet of the furface. In
this way you may advance in any direSion you pleafe.
You may perhaps not like having fo much of your head
under water ; there is, however, no way of fwimming
fo eafy, fo fafe, and fo little fatiguing. If you wifh to
ajto
s ned
v|!s
]i.
67 ] S W I
fwim with great rapidity, you may ufe your arms as well Swimming.
as your feet} and you will find this the eafieft way of »
breaking the force of the waves. u
In fwimming on the back, one may advance forward and ad-
as well as backward. For this purpofe the body muft vance ton-
be kept ftraight and extended j the breaft inflated, fov>ar"J
that the hollow of the back may afliime a femicircular
form. The hands muft recline over the upper parts of
the thighs. It is alfo neceffary to raife the legs one af¬
ter another, and draw them in ftrcngly towards the
hams, and then leave them fufpended in the water.
This way of fwimming is not only pleafant, but may
ferve to reft you when fatigued. 12
When you are tired with fwimmingon your back and j™w t0
belly, you may fwim on one fide. When you wifh to| u /jV/ ,
do this, fink a little your left fide and raife your right •,
you will immediately find yourfelf on your left fide.
Move then your left hand without either railing or fink¬
ing it ; you have only to ftretch it and draw it back, as
in a ftraight line, on the furface of the water. Indepen¬
dent of the pleafure which this kind of motion will give
you, you will have the fatisiartion of feeing both iides of
the river. 1
It is poffible to fvvim on the belly without the afhft- How tc
ance of the hands. For this purpoie you muft keep yourl,jvhn on
breaft ereft, your neck ftraight, and fix your hands be-
hind your head, or upon your back, while you move tiie
forward by employing your feet. This way is not with-ance of the
out its advantages. It is an excellent refource when the hands,
arms are feized with a cramp, or with any indifpofition
which makes it painful to exert them. This in feme
cafes may be preferable to fwimming on the back ; for
while in that attitude, one cannot fee before them with¬
out turning every inftant. If one of your legs be feized
with a cramp, take hold of it with the hand oppofite to
it, and ufe the other hand and leg to advance or fupport
yourfelf.
A very ancient and graceful mode of fwimming, is How to
that ox fwimming with the hands joined. When you fwim with,
wrfh to put this in practice, join your hands, keeping jb.0 ^ian^s
the thumbs and fingers towards heaven, fo that theyjomcU
may appear above the water •, then draw' them back and
pufh them forwards alternately from your breaft. This
method of fwimming may be ufeful in feveral circum-
ftances, but above all if you are entangled with grafs
or weeds. Your hands will then open a paffage for
5™' . 15
As a perfon may fometnnes have occafion to carry \y;th the
fomething in his hand in fwimming, which he is anxious hands ele-
to preferve from the wTater, he may fwdm eafily with vated.
one hand and hold a parcel in the other, as Csefar fw'am
with his Commentaries at Alexandria •, cr one may fwim
with both hands elevated. To perform this well, the
fvvimmer muft raife has breaft, and keep it as much inflated
(a) An interefting queftion occurs here, wduch deferves to be confidered. Since the body, wnen fpread upon
the furface, can be fupported wdth fo little exertion, and frequently without any at all, as in fwimming on the
back, how comes it to pafs that a perfon when drowned finks and frequently rifes again fome time afterwards ? The
reafon is this : In the aft of drowning, the lungs are filled with water, and confequently the body, being fpecifi-
cally heavier, finks. It is well known that the human body contains a great quantity of air : this air is at firft
compreffed by the water; and while this is the cafe the body remains at the bottom : but as foon as the air by its
elaflicity endeavours to difengage itfelf from the compreflion, the body is fwelied and expanded, becomes fpecifi-
eally lighter lhan the water, and confequently rifes to the top.
Swimming
16
How to rife
to the fur-
face after
diving.
S W I [168
as he can, at the fame time that he fupports the arms
above the water. It muft not be concealed, that this
method of fwimming is attended with fome danger to
one who is not dexterous at the art j for if one fliould
imprudently draw in his breaft, when his arms are rai¬
led, he would immediately link to the bottom.
When a man plunges into the water, and has reached
the bottom, he has only to give a fmall flroke with his
foot again!! the ground, in order to rife ^ but an experien¬
ced fwimmer, if he miffes the ground, has recourfe to an¬
other expedient, which is very pretty, and which has not
been much confidered. Suppofe him at a conliderable
depth, when he perceives that he cannot reach the bottom.
In fuch a cafe, he firft puts his hands beiore his face, at the
height of his forehead, with the palms turned outward¬
ly ; then holding the fore part of his arm vertically, he
makes them move backwards and forwards from right to
left j that is to fay, thefe two parts of his arms, having
the elbow as a kind of pivot, defcribe very quickly,
both the hands being open, and the fingers joined, two
fmall portions of a circle before the forehead, as if he
would make the water retire, which he in fa£t does j
and from thefe ftrokes given to the water, there refults
an oblique force, one part of which carries the fwimmer
upwards.
There are many artificial methods of fupporting one’s
felf in water, but we have not room to defcribe them.—
Thofe who wilh to fee a full account of them may con-
fult the Encyclopedic Methodique.
Swimming of Fiji}. A great proportion of the in¬
habitants of the waters have an air-bladder, by which
they poife themfelves. Their movements chiefly depend
upon their tail. See Anatomy, Part II. j and Ich¬
thyology.
SWINDLER, a word which has been lately adopted
into the Englilh language, derived from the German
word fchwindely “ to cheat.” Swindling has now be¬
come fo common in feveral of the great towns of this
country, that it is unfortunately too well known to re¬
quire any defeription.
SWINE. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
SwiNE-Stone. See Mineralogy Index.
SWINGING, a kind of exercife ftrongly recom¬
mended to perfons in confumption by fome phyficians,
and difapproved of by others. See Medicine Index.
SWING-TREE of a waggon, is the bar faftened acrofs
the fore-guide, to which the traces of the horfes are faft¬
ened.
■S’ WING-Wheel, in a royal pendulum, that wheel
which drives the pendulum. In a watch or balance
clock it is called the crown-wheel.
SWINGLE, in the fireworks in England, the wood¬
en fpoke which is fixed to the barrel that draws the
and which, by its being forced back by the cogs
Situation.
] S \V I
Switzerland is bounded on the north and eaft by Ger¬
many, on the fouth by Italy, and on the weft by the de¬
partments of the Higher and Lower Alps, and the
mouths of the Rhone. Its extent from eaft to weft is
Switze
land,
Bounds
exti
computed at about 200 Britith miles, and its breadth and
from north to fouth at about 130 Britilli miles,
tents in fquare miles are eftimated at 14,960.
Before it was reduced to the condition of a French
province, Switzerland contained 13 independant cantons,
and a number of fmall diftrifts, which were dependent
on the cantons. The independent cantons wTere, 1. Berne,
including theP^/yj- de Vaud; 2. Friburg •, 3* Basil •, 4.
SoLEURE ; 5. ScHAFFHAUSEN } 6. ZURICH j 7. APPEN-
zelj 8. Lucerne 5 9. 2ug ; 10. Schweitz; ii.Un-
derwalden 5 12. Uri ; 13. Claris. The diftri&s
dependent on thefe cantons were, the principality of
Neufchatel; the bilhopric of county of Baden;
the free Bailie,gee; Turgovia ; Tokenburg ; the Rhein,
thal; lands of the Abbey of St Gal; country of the
Grifons; Valteline ; Italian Bai/lages ; the Vallais. Since
its fubjeftion to France, the country has been divided
into the following 19 cantons; viz. Appenzel, Argo-
via, Bafil, Friburg, Claris, Grifons, Lucerne, St Gal,
Schaffhaufen, Schweitz, Soieure, TeflTin, Thurgovia,
Underwald, Uri, Vaud, Zug, and Zurich. An account
of the moft important of thefe cantons, and of their ca¬
pitals, will be found under their proper heads in this
work. 4
With refpeft to the air, foil, and produce, that part Air, io
of the canton of Berne to the eaft of the lake of Ge-prcxk
n^vn together with the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, Un-&c-
of the wheel, is the occafion of the force with wdiich the
barrel is pulled.
SWITZ, or Schweits, the capital of one of the
cantons of Switzerland, to which it gives name, feated
on the eaft fide of the lake Lucerne, in N. Lat. 46. 55.
E. Long. 8. 30.
SWISSERLAND, or Switzerland, a mountain-
ous diftrift of the fouth of Europe, which at the latter
end of the 18th century, formed a republic compofed of
feveral independent ftates or cantons, but which may
now be regarded as a province of France.
1
derwalden, Claris, and Appenzel, and part of the can¬
ton of Lucerne, confift of ftupendeus mountains, whofe
fummits are faid to be from 9000 to 12000 feet above
the level of the fea, confiding of inacceflible rocks, of
which fome are quite bare, while others are always co¬
vered with ice and fnow. Among the mountains are
many excellent medicinal and other fprings, cold and
warm baths, water-falls, precipices, deep narrow valleys,
and caverns. The higheft are thofe in the canton of
Uri. Many of the valleys are covered with lakes, or
watered by brooks and rivers.
In fome of them are towns, villages, woods, vine¬
yards, and corn-lands. Both on the mountains and in the
valleys the air is extremely cold in winter ; but in fum-
mer it is very pleafant, cool, and refrelhing in the former,
but exce{lively hot in the latter. Sometimes it is win¬
ter on the north fide of a mountain when it is fummer
on the other; nay, flowers may be gathered fometimes
with one hand and fnow with the other. Prodigious
mafles of ice and fnow often fall from them in winter,
and do a great deal of damage ; and moft of the ftreams
and rivers take their rife from the thawing of the ice
and fnow on their fides and tops, hrom the rifing or
defeending of the clouds, with which they are common¬
ly enveloped, the inhabitants can, for the moft part,
pretty exactly foretel the changes of the weather ; fo
that they ferve them inftead of weather glaffes.
The other and lower parts of Switzerland are very
pleafant and fertile, being diverfifiedwith vineyards,corn¬
fields, meadows, and paflure-grounds. The mountains
in thefe are but mole-hills in comparifon of the others;
there is neither fnow nor ice on them in fummer ; and
they frequently afford not only good pafturage, but ar¬
able ground. Many petrifaftions are found both among
> fands
S W I [ 169 ] S W I
s,|zer- tlicfc and the others, with a variety of foflils. The
| id. fands of the rivers yield gold duft, particularly thofe of
I- the Rhine, the Emmet, and the Aar, the Reufs, the
Arve, and the Inn.
The metals of this country being generally found to
be brittle, the only mines that are worked are a few
of iron. In the lower parts of Switzerland they fow
rye, oats, barley, fpelt, flax, hemp. Wines of various
forts are alfo produced by fome of them, with a variety
of fruits. Of wood for fuel and other ufes there is ge¬
nerally plenty j in fome places, however, they are
obliged to burn (beep’s dung, and in others a kind of
heath and fmall (lirubs. In the valleys they cultivate
faffron with fuccefs. The Swifs derive their principal
fub(i(fence from their flocks and herds of cattle, which
in fummer graze on the mountains. Their cheefe is
much efteemed, efpecially that of Berne and Griers in
the canton of Friburg. Great numbers of horfes are
alfo bred here, and bought up for the French cavalry.
Refides the above-mentioned rivers, the Rhone and the
a! . Tefin have their foiirces in this country. The lakes are
very numerous ; but the chief are thofe of Geneva,
Neufchatel, Biel, Zurich, Thun, Brien, Conftance, and
Lucerne. Both rivers and lakes abound with filh,
and afford a cheap water-carriage. Switzerland is not
fo populous as many other countries in Europe ; and
the Popifli cantons lefs fo than the Proteftant. The to¬
tal number of the inhabitants is computed at 2,000,000.
a iage, The language generally fpoken here is the German,
ini in which alfo public affairs are tranfaffed •, but in thofe
parts of the country that border on Italy or France, a
corrupt French or Italian prevails. The two predo¬
minant religions are Calvinifm and Popery. Of the
former are the cantons of Zurich and Berne, the towns of
St Gal, Geneva, Muhlhaufen,and Biel, the principality
of Neufchatel, the greater part of Bafle, Schaff haufen,
the country of the Grifons, the Thurgau, Toggen-
burg, Claris, and the Rhine valley ; the frontiers of Ap-
penzel, with a fmall part of Solothurn, and fome places
in the mountains of Baden and Sargans. The reft of
the Swifs cantons, allies, and dependents, are Popifti.
For the education of youth there is an univerfity at
Bafle, and academies at Zurich, Berne, Laufanne, and
Geneva ; befides gymnafiums and fcholae illuftres, both
in the Popifh and Proteftant cantons. There are alfo
focieties among them for the improvement of the Ger-
, man language, and the fciences.
I fiic- The principal manufa&ures are fnuff and tobacco,
11 anc* linen of feveral forts, lace, thread, filk, and worfted
(lockings, neckcloths, cotton ftuffs, gloves, handker¬
chiefs, filks of feveral forts, gold and filver brocades, a
variety of woollen manufactures, hats, paper, leather of
all forts, earthen wares, porcelain, toys, watches, clocks,
and other hardwafes, &c. The trade of Switzerland
is generally promoted by many navigable lakes and
rivers. In fome of the above manufactures, and in
cheefe, butter, (beep, horfes, black cattle, bides, and
fkins, the exports are confiderable j and as the imports
are chiefly grain and fait, with fome American and Afi-
atic goods, there is probably a large balance in their
favour. In fome parts of Switzerland drefs is reftrained
8 by lumptuary laws.
| ^ ?cter The Swifs are a brave, honeft, hofpitable, hardy
people ; very true to their engagements, friendly and
humane. In (hort, ther« is not a people in Europe
Vol, XX. Part I.
whofe national character is better. In their perfons Switzet--
they are generally tall, robuft, and well-made ; but, *a”<i' .
their complexions are none of the belt, and thofe that
live in the neighbourhood of the mountains are fubjeCt
to wens. The women are faid to be generally hand-
fome and well-ftiaped, fenfible and modeft, yet frank,
eafy, and agreeable in converfation. Few of the pea-
fants are miferably poor j many of them are rich, efpe¬
cially in the Proteftant cantons, and that of Berne in
particular. 9
In the very confined limits to which we are now re-Outline of
duced, we cannot give more than a faint outline of the^^k'ftory
hiftory of Switzerland. In the firft century before theltZtl
Chriftian era, we find the natives involved in frequent
wars with the Romans, by whom the Helvetii and the
Rhsetii, two of the mod powerful tribes, were entirely*
fubjugated. In the beginning of the 4th century of the
Chriftian era, the Allemanni, a German tribe, made an
irruption into Switzerland, occupied the country, and,
as is fuppofed, extirpated the Helvetii. Soon after we
find the weftern part of Switzerland, as far as the Reufc,
occupied by the Franks, by whom it was annexed to
Burgundy, while the eaflern part, or the Grifons, was
fubjeCt to Theodoric the Goth, and other Italian
princes. In the beginning of the 7th century, Chrifti-
anity was introduced, chiefly by twTo Irifti monks, Co-
lumbanus and Gallus. In the beginning of the icth
century, that part of Switzerland which was occupied
by the Allemanni, was invaded by the Huns or Ugurs,
who in particular ravaged the abbey of St Gal, at that
time famous for its power and its literature. The
Huns were defeated by Conrad king of Burgundy,
about the year 928. Soon after the commencement of
the nth oentury, the diftriffs of Switzerland began to-
be regarded as a part of the German empire, and in the
two following centuries they gradually became fubjeft
to the honfe of Hapfburgh. In 1307 commenced the
ftruggles of the Swifs with the houfe of Auftria, thofe
glorious ftruggles which finally terminated in the com¬
plete emancipation of that brave people, and in the
formation of a confederacy which continued to be the
admiration of Europe for nearly five centuries. The
tranfaftions which nark this conteft between the inha¬
bitants of a fmall diftrift and a mighty monarch, and
in particular the heroifm of their great champion Wil¬
liam Tell, are familiar to -mod of our readers. We
(ball therefore only give a fhort account of the govern¬
ment and inftrtutions of the Swifs cantons, as they exift-
ed previous to the late revolution, and (hall conclude
this article with a brief narrative of the proceedings of
the French, when they entered Switzerland in 1797. 10
With refpedl to the government and conftitution ofConftitu-
the Swifs cantons, it muft be remarked that fome oftjpn ot tijo
them were ariftocracies and fome democracies. In the
former, both the legiflative and executive power werethe jate‘e,
lodged in the burghers or citizens of the capital of each volution.
canton •, and of thofe there were feven, viz. Zurich,
Berne, Bafle, Friburg, Soleure, ancfSchaffhaufen; an ac¬
count of the moft important of which may be feen under
their refpedive names. In the others, the legiflative.
power was lodged in the whole body of the people, and
every male above 16* whether mafter or fervant, had a
vote in making laws and in the choice of magiftrrttes.
For what concerned the whole Helvetic body, there
were diets ordinary and extraordinary j the former were
Y held
S . W I [I
Switzer- ^eld ^nnually, and the others on particular emergen-
! cJes ; and both were fummoned by the city of Zurich,
v which appointed the time and place of their meetings.
Belides the general diets, fince the Reformation there
rvere particular diets of the two religions, at which all
public affairs of confequence that regarded the two
parties were treated feparately ; for though a fenfe of
their common intereft obliged them to ftudy the main¬
taining the league and union, yet it is certain that the
mutual confidence between the cantons was in fome
meafure loft through the zeal of each party for their
particular opinions, especially of the Roman Catholics.
The annual general diets were held always at Irauen-
field or Baden, principally to regulate the affairs of the
common baillages. Lucerne took the lead of the Ro¬
man Catholic cantons, being the moft powerful of that
denomination 5 but Zurich, though lefs powerful than
that of Berne, took the precedence of all the other can¬
tons, both Proteftant and Popifti. Ihefe cantons did
not make one commonwealth, but were fo many inde¬
pendent ftates, united together by ftria alliances for
their mutual defence. The extraordinary diets or con-
greffes were held at Aldorf. Each canton ufually deputed
two envoys, both to the ordinary and extraordinary,
to which alfo the abbot and the town of St Gal, and
the town of Biel, fotit reprefentatives. 1 o the 13 can¬
tons belonged in common 21 baillages, 2 towns, and
2 lordfhips. The allies, as they were called, were the
abbot and town of St Gal, the three Grifon leagues,
the republic of the Valais, the towns of Muhlhaufen and
Biel, the principality of Neuenburg, Geneva, and the
bifhop of Bafle. Of thefe, the abbot and town of St
Gal, and the town of Biel, were regarded as.members
of the Helvetic body, but the reft only as allies..
The public revenues were in general very incon-
fiderable, though they have been computed at about
1,000,0001. fterling, arifing chiefly from the ufual re¬
galia, appropriated every where to the foverejgn,. the
demefnes, and public granaries, voluntary contributions,
the fale of fait, and a land-tax ; in the Proteftant can¬
tons, from the church lands alfo that were feized at the
reformation. Except in Zurich, Bern, Bafle, .and
Schaffhaufen, where the people are more induftrious,
have a greater trade, and are richer than in the others,
they defrayed only the ordinary charges.
The cantons never kept any {landing troops except
for a few garrifons •, but their militia was reckoned to
be the beft regulated of any in Europe. Every male
from 16 to 60 was enrolled, and about one-third of
them formed into regiments. They were all obliged to
provide themfelves with arms, clothing, accoutrements,
and to appear on the {fated days for exercife *, and the
feveral cantons and diftri&s were obliged to furnifti
themfelves with a fufficient train of artillery, and all the
other implements of war. The Swifs of the feveral
cantons were allowed, to engage in the fervice of fuch
foreign princes and ftates as were in alliance with thofe
cantons, or with whom they had made a previous agree¬
ment. Such ftates paying an annual fubfidy to the re-
fpeclive cantons, were allowed to make levies. Every
man enlifted voluntarily, for what number of years he
pleafi'd, at the expiration of which he was at liberty to
return home. Manv thus always returning from foreign
fervice, S witzerland was never unprovided tvith able
and experienced officers and foldiers.
7o ] s W I
It was fearcely to be expefled that a country fo long Switzej
and fo intimately connedled with France, by its pofition, j
by perpetual alliance, by commerce, and partly by u f
language, fhould efcape the influence of the principles Origin i
of its revolution, Avhen ftates far more remote and di-thediff|
ftina were ftrongly imbued with their fpirit. Butjfweel
previous to the epoch of the French revolution, various
parts of the Swifs confederation had been the feat ofprencl) (
civil difcord, and popular murmurs. In fo.me cantons public, i
the indignant fpirit of the fubjeft had led him to revolt
againft what he deemed the oppreflive adminiftration
of the ruler 5 in others, the diftinflions which exift in
fociety, and which form the different claffes of privi¬
leged and unprivileged individuals, Avere ftrangely and
inverfely diftributed. The French revolution, declar¬
ing the principle of equality, found a wide predifpofi-
tion among the fubjefts of the Swifs confederacy to
embrace the caufe, and as ftrong a refiftance on the
part of the governors, who Avere deeply int.erefted in
oppofing the progrefs of opinions fo immediately fub-
verfive of authority. Confcious that with fuch a fyftcni
no brotherhood could be cheriffied, many of the lead¬
ing cantons kept themfelves in a ftate of Avatchfulnefs,
bordering on hoftility, againft the principles eftablilhed
by the French national affembly. But Avith fo power¬
ful a fan&ion, the frowns of porver were ineffe£fual. to
calm the murmurs of difcontent 5 and claims, which
fear or policy had hitherto {hut up in filence, Avere now
produced, Avith confidence that they would be admitted
from the fentiment of fear, if not of juftice.
Among thofe who were moft aftive in demanding a
revieAv of their grieA'ances Avere the inhabitants of the
French part of the canton of Berne, knoivn by. the
name of the Pays-de-Vaud. The nobles and the high- (
er clafies of this province had long tranfmitted to their
children a hereditary hatred of the government of
Berne. This difaffe&ion Avas not concealed ; nor is
it Angular that the defire of change ftumld operate, on
the titled and the rich, while they farv their political
exiftence depending on the will of a felf-ele<Red love-
reign , and their provinces fubje61ed to the adminiftra-
tion of an emiffary of thofe whom they confidered as
ufurpers of their rights. ^ #
But however ftrongly the fenfibility of the fubject in-
habitants of the Pays-de-Vaud was excited by this poli¬
tical degradation, they were compelled to fubmit, or
brood over their grievances in lilenee. T hey were in¬
capable of procuring redrefs by force j and the fovefeign
burghers of Berne were too firmly feated to.regard the
remonftrances of impotent claimants, or to liften to the
murmurs of difoontent. Partial infurreftions againft the
governments of certain cantons had often taken place in
Switzerland. Thefd diforders had fometimes been fup-
preffed and puniffied with the inter pofition of the neigh¬
bouring cantons, Avhere the danger Avas not exccfllve j
but Avhen thefe infurreflions Avore the ferious charafters
of rebellion or revolt, the whole confederation marched
againft the confpirators. France before the revolution
had even lent its aid to the fuppreffion of thofe domeftic ^
quarrels, and had become the inftrument of vengeance o
to the infulted fovereign ; fo that, Avhatever Avas the at- t
gree of oppreffion, or Avhatever the defire of refiftance, I
redrefs Avas become hopelefs, and change impoffible. .
It was chiefly among the elaffes of burghers and arti-
zans who inhabited the towns, that difcontent again
the
12
J Pays-
raud
0 pied
* be
^ ich,
3 1793.
, S W I . [I
the ruling power prevailed. The peafants, lefs oppref-
fed, becaafe more ignorant of their rights and privileges,
not only did not themfelves oppofe the aggreflions of the
chief men in power, but even adifted them in quelling
infurre£fions which arofe among their rival claffes.
All writers agree in the exiftence of vexatious and
oppreflive abufes among all the governments of the Swifs
cantons, at the time of which we are now writing. The
defpotifm of their inilitutions •, the abufes of ele&ion to
fovereign councils ; the daily and encroaching fpirit of
authority ; the overgrown influence of patrician fami¬
lies ; the linking inequality which prevailed, even on
this bafis, of ariftocratical power; the' monopoly of places
of profit to the exclufion of worth and talent *, the unde¬
fined limits of proconfular adminiftration j the want of
encouragement to the arts and fciences *, the negledl of
education among thofe who were deltined to rule, the
void of which was filled up by idlenefs, arrogance, igno¬
rance, and diflipation,—are fo many features prefented
by writers of different chara61ers and difcordant fenti-
ments, to fill up the pifture of this vaunted region of
happinefs and liberty.
The feverity exercifed by the government of Berne
over thofe inhabitants of the Pays-de-Vaud who had af-
fembled on the 14th of July 1 791, to commemorate the
taking of the Baltile at Paris, and exprefs their appro¬
bation of the French revolution, had created in the
minds of the French people fenfations of jealoufy to¬
wards their Swifs neighbours *, while the difbanding
and difmiffal of the Swifs regiments in the fervice of
France, had contributed to exafperate the government
of the cantons againfl the new republic.
All the cantons, except that of Berne, appeared for a
long time difpofed to preferve a neutrality towards re¬
volutionary France j but that canton, under pretence of
fupporting the people of Geneva againil the aggreffions
of the French, firft difplayed an avowed hoftility, and
marched a body of 15,000 troops towards the frontiers
of the French republic. The true caufe of this move¬
ment in the canton of Berne, has been by others Hated
to be the hopes entertained by fome individuals of that
government, of fharing in the plans of emolument and
preferment which were expedled to arife on the re-efta-
blifiiment of monarchy in France. The mutual jealoufy
fubfifting between the Swifs cantons and the ruling
power in France, was heightened by the proteflion
given by fome of the cantons to the French emigrants,
and by the correfpondence which others of the cantons
had held with the bloody tribunal of Robefpierre. Af¬
ter the retreat of the allied armies from the frontiers of
France, the Swifs found it politic to make at leaf! a
Ihow of amity towards the vidtorious republic ; and ac¬
cordingly recognifed the exifting government of the
republic, and openly received M. Barthelemy as its
charge d'affaires. Still, however, the fincerity of the
cantons was juftly doubted by the French directory,
who appear to have long formed defigns againil the in¬
dependence of Switzerland.
The diredlory, confirmed in power, and relieved from
the controul of a popular legislature, haftened, towards
the clofe of the year 1797, to put in force their pro-
jedl of fubjugating the Swifs republics. The firft hof-
tile movement on the part of the French, was to take
pofieflion of the Helvetic part of the bifhopric of Bafle,
under fume frivolous pretence, and contrary to an ex-
1 ] s W I
prefs treaty concluded with the Swifs in the year 1792*
Either too weak or too prudent to refent this infraction
of their rights, the Helvetic body ftill flattered them¬
felves with an amicable termination of their difference
with France ; when an infurreCtion, which broke out
in the Pays-de-Vaud, probably through French inftiga-
tion, or at leaft through the influence of French prin¬
ciples, afforded a fuller pretext for the overthrow of the
government. In the month of December, the French
diredtory thought proper to interfere in this domeftic
difpute, and demanded from the government of Berne,
what thfey termed the reftoration of the rights of that
people, and the affembling of the ftates of the Pays-de-
Vaud in their ancient form. This demand they imme¬
diately prepared to enforce by arms ; and General Me¬
nard was ordered to march, with a body of 15,000
men, to fupport the claims of the petitioning party in
the Pays-de-Vaud. The defigns of the French were
for the moment fruftrated by the timidity or generofity
of the fupreme council of Berne. On the 5th of Janua¬
ry, 1798, they iffued a proclamation, enjoining the ci¬
tizens of the Pays-de-Vaud to affemble in arms, to re¬
new the oath of allegiance, to proceed immediately to
the reform of every abufe in the government, and to
affert and re-eftablifti all their ancient rights. A com-
miflion had been previouflv appointed at Laufanne, for
determining on the claims of the petitioners, and for
reinftating the country in its former tranquillity. From
what caufes it happened, we have not as yet been cor-
reftly informed, but the proceedings of the commiflion
feqmed involved altogether in embarraffment and delay.
The people became impatient, and the infurre£lion at
once broke out into actual hoftility. The caftle of
Chillon was feized by the infurgentsand the commo¬
tions which took place in the fouthern diftrifts of the
province appeared no lefs formidable. The government
of Berne now determined to reduce the infurgents by
force •, and a body of 20,000 troops, under the com¬
mand of Colonel Weifs, was difpatched to difperfe
them. Whether the lenient meafures purfued by this
general, were confiftent with found policy or not, it is
impoflible, from the materials which have hitherto fal¬
len under our infpe£lion, to determine. Suffice it, to
fay, that though it is not certain that more precipitate
movements would have faved the country, yet his inac¬
tivity undoubtedly ferved to increafe at once the power
and the audacity of the infurgents. Thus fituated, the
approach of the French decided the conteft. On paf-
fing the boundary, Menard difpatched an aide-de-camp,
attended by two huffars, to General Weifs, at Yverdun j
on their return, a fatal affray took place at the village
of Thierens, in which one of the huffars was killed.
Who were the aggreffors in this unfortunate bufinefs is
not corredlly afeertained, but it was regarded by Me¬
nard as a declaration of war. His troops immediately
advanced, while thofe of Weifs retreated, and the
whole of the Pays-de-Vaud was, by the beginning of
February, in the poffeflion of the French.
The government of Berne ftill hoped, it appears, to
avert the deftru&ion which now feemed to await them ;
the centinels who had killed the huffar at Thiereas
were delivered up, and frefti negotiations were entered
on. In the mean time, however, new infurredlion*
were planned in different parts, and the revolutionary
mania appeared to increafe. In the feditious afft mblage.
Switzer¬
land,
*3
Prepara¬
tions for
S W I [ Z?2
on thcfe occafions, the French cftvoy, Mengaud, was
obferved to take a decided part; and, on the ad of
January, he formally reclaimed forae per funs who had
been ar re fled for treafonable pra&iees by the govern¬
ment of Berne, as the friends and allies of the French
republic. To this reclamation the government of Berne
paid little attention $ and the ftandard of revolt having
been ere&ed at Arau, they determined on effective
rneafures-for its fuppreffion and their own defence. The
Argovian militia inarched to Arau •, the town and pro¬
vince wei>e immediately reduced, and the leaders of the
mfurre&ion were taken into cuftody.
War now appeared inevitable, lo conciliate the
minds of the people, and induce them more freely to
war on the jcntj t]iejr afliitance, the government of Berne decreed,
part of the ^ ^ deputies from the principal towns and communes
cantons. fhcmkl be added to fupreme council-, and, on the
2d of February, thefe new deputies took their feats.
A general reform of all the abufes of the government
was the firft refolution agreed on in their deliberations;
and the example of Berne was followed by the cantons
of Lucerne, Fribourg, Soleure, tjchaffhaufen, and Zu¬
rich.
While, in this flate of things, frefh negotiations were
commenced with the French dire&ory, a defenfive force
of about 20,000 men was collefled. The other Swifs
cantons difpatched their quotas to the defence of Berne,
which amounted to about 5500 men. A truce had
been concluded with the French general in the Pays-de-
Vaud, where an officer of the name of Brune had fuc-
ceeded Menard in the command. The truce was to
have expired on the ill of March j but General d’Er-
lach, fearful left the fpirit of his troops ftrould flacken,
demanded, on the 26th of February, pofitive orders to
put bis army in motion, and the council immediately
made a decree to that effedl. The plan of the campaign
was now arranged by M. d’Erlach, and notice had
been given to the polls that hoftilities were to com¬
mence on the evening of the ill of March ; when the
movements of the Swifs general were fruftrated by the
repeal of the decree which had been fo hallily palled,
and the negotiation was renewed with the French com¬
mander.
M. Mallet du Pan aflerts, that the French general
Brune, had agreed to prolong the truce for 30 hours
but, on the 2d March, the caftle of Dornaeh, at the
northern extremity of the. canton of Soleure, was at¬
tacked and carried by the French $ and at the fame
time, *3,000 men were marched under the walls of So¬
leure, which capitulated to General Schawenbourg on
the firft fummons. Fribourg was immediately after re¬
duced by General Brune, and the Swifs army was forced
to retreat.
While difaffection prevailed in the army of General
d’Erlach, the inhabitants of Berne faw the lapid ap¬
proach of the viflorious army. On the 3d of March,
the levy of the Landjlhitrm, or the riling of the people
fn a mafs, was proclaimed. The expedient did not fuc-
eeed in favour of the magiftrates *, the people were no
fooner aflembled in arms, than they of themfelves dif-
fotved the government -, a provifional regency was elefl¬
ed for the oceafion ; the event was notified to General
Brune and to facilitate a pacification, an order was
ififued to difmifs the army, on condition that the French
Would keep the polls they at prelent occupied.
] S W I
Unfatisfied' with this conceffion, the French general Swr*
infilled on the town receiving a French garrifon. in _1;u|b
the mean time all was confulioU, both in Berne and in
the army j the left divifion of which had mutinied, de-
ferted their polls, and put to death feme of their offi¬
cers. By defertion, the Swifs army was now reduced
to 14,000, to which might be added the undifeiplined
rabble which the Landfthurm had called forth. About
8000 of the regular forces were ftationed at Nevveneg,
and 6400 held the pofition of Frauenbrun, again!! which
General Schawenbourg advanced from Soleure, at the
head of 18,000 men. On the morning of the 5th
March, both polls were attacked by the French, and a
momentary fuccefs feemed to crown the valorous ef¬
forts of the divifion at Nevveneg; but thofe ftationed at
Frauenbrun were, after a vigorous refiftance, obliged to
retreat; M. d’Erlach rallied his men at Uteren, where
a fecond engagement took place, but with no better
fuccefs on the part of the Swifs. At Grouholiz, how¬
ever, they again made a Hand, whence they were driven
to the gates of the capital, where they were completely
routed. The Swifs, in this engagement, loft 2000 in
killed and wounded ; while the lofs of the French was
about 1800. ,
On the evening of the 5th, General Brune entered Berne
the city of Berne by capitulation. The divifions of thetered
Swifs army ftationed at Nevveneg and Guminen retreat-Fi i
ed ; the foldiers of this laft column, in defpair, put
their officers to death ; and the unfortunate d’Erlach,
in flying from the field of battle, was murdered by his
countrymen and foldiers.
The fubmiffion of nearly the whole of Switzerland
followed the defeat of the Bernefe. The democratic
republics, however, ftill made a glorious Hand, defeat¬
ed General Schawenbourg, and forced him to retire with
the lofs of 3000 men. t
The Svvifs confederacy, after this revolution, changed Helvi
its conftitution, and even its name. Provifional govern-reput
ments, under the direftion of the French generals, wereforrm
eftablillied in the different diftrifts, and the whole af-
fumed the name of the Helvetic republic. Contribu¬
tions were levied as ufual, by the French conimiffion-
ers; and fome Ihocking enormities are reported to have * Se ^
been committed, chiefly by the army of the Rhine ; for jn!n r
the divifions which belonged to the army of Italy are'
faid to have conducted themfelves with fiiperior huma-
nity and juftiee *. ^
In tbs beginning of 1802, a new conftitution wasConf!.
framed for the Helvetic republic, under the direftion oftion
Bonaparte. Its leading features are as follows. l8o:
The Helvetic republic is one. Every citizen has a
right of fettling in any canton of the republic, and of-
exercifing all the civil and political rights in the fame
manner as the citizens of the canton.
Berne is the capital of Helvetia. The Helvetic ter¬
ritory is divided into 21 cantons. The teclefiaftical
property, in general, can be employed 6nly- for efta-
bliffiments of religious inftru&ion, or of charity.
There is a central adminiftration of the republic for
the exercife of the national fovereignty, and an adminL
ilration of the cantons. The adminiftration of the
cantons is compofed of a diet and a fenate. The diet
is formed by the union of reprefentatives from all the
cantons, in the following proportions.—Berne, fix ; Zu¬
rich, two ; Lucerne, five ; Uri, one ; Schweitz, three ;
Undenvalden,
. S W O [ 1‘
■ tier- Un&rrcaHen, one; Zug, one; Claris, one; Solonre,
‘ md two • Fribourg, three ; Bafle, two ; Schaffhaufen, one;
li Appenzel, one; St Gal, four; Turgovia, two; Ar-
nr(l rrovia, two; Baden, two; Vaud, four; Gnfons, one;
U v Xeflin, three ; Valais, two. The members of the diet
remain iive years in office. 'I he diet is to aliemble re¬
gularly every year on the ift of March. It fhall be ex¬
traordinarily convoked by the fenate when the majority
of the cantons require it, or when itfelt fhall judge that
meafure neceffary. The prefident of the diet fhall be
the landamtroan who is not in office. He has a calling
vote, in cafe the votes fhall be equally divided. A de¬
putation of four members front the fenate fhall affift at
the diet, and fhall take part in its deliberations, but
without having a right to vote.
The fenate is compofed of two landamtmans, two
fladtholders or lieutenants, and 26 counfellors. Each
canton mull have at leaft one member in it. The fe¬
nate forms the projefts of laws and regulations, and fub-
mits them to the' fan&ion of the cantons. The two
landamtmans and their lieutenants have the direflion
of foreign affairs. The fenate names and recalls diplo¬
matic agents, on a propofition from the landamtmans.
The landamtman in office is to receive a falary of
16,ooo livres, Swifs currency ; the fecond landamt¬
man, his two lieutenants, and the members of the petty
11 council, 6000 livres ; thofe of the fenate 400c. 1 be
fenate may adjourn for three months. During this
interval, the petty council exercifes the executive
power.
SWIVELS, a kind of ring made to turn round in a
flaple, or other ring. Thefe are ufed when a ffiip lies
at her moorings ; alfo in tedders for cattle, that they
may turn round without unwarping the tedder.
SmVEL-Cantion, is a fmall piece of artillery be¬
longing to a fhip of war, which carries a fliot of half a
pound, and is fixed in a focket on the top of the fhip s
fide, flern, or bow, and alfo in her tops. 1 he trun¬
nions of this piece are contained in a fort of iron crotch,
of which the lower end terminates in a cylindrical pivot
retling in the focket, fo as to fupport the weight of the
cannon. The focket is bored in a ilrong piece of oak,
'f, reinforced with iron hoops, in order to enable it to fuf-
R tain the recoil. By means of this frame, which is cal-
r led the Jwivcl^ and an iron handle on its cafcable, the
gun may be dire£led by the hand to any obje£t. It is
therefore very neeeffary in the tops, particularly when
t. loaded with mufket-balls, to fire down on the upper
decks of the adverfary in aftion.
SWOONING. See Medicine, N° 274.
SWORD, an offenfive weapon worn at the fide, and
ferving either to cut or Ilab. Its parts are, the handle,
guard, and blade ; to which may be added the bow,
fcabbard, pummel, &c.
Sword of State, which is borne before the king,
lords, and governors of counties, cities, or boroughs,.
&c. For or before the king, it ought to be carried up¬
right; the hilt as low as the bearer’s waill, the blade
up between his eyes. For or before a duke, the blade
mull decline from the head, and be carried: between
the neck and the right ffioulder. For or before an
earl, the blade is to be carried between the point of the
{boulder and the elbow : and for or before a baron, the
blade,is to be borne in the bend of the arm., i-his ceT
3 1 S T E
remonial form no lefs denotes the dignity of a governor Sw ord
than the coronet fet on his coat of arms. Sylne
SWORB-Fipj. See Xiphias, Ichthyology Index.
SWORN BROTHERS (fratres jumit), peri'ons who,
by mutual oath, covenanted to Ihare each other’s for¬
tune. Formerly, in any notable expedition to invade
and conquer an enemy’s country, it was the cuitom for
the more eminent foldiers to engage themfelves by re¬
ciprocal oaths to. {hare the rewards of their fervice.
This practice gave occafion to the pr.-verb of /worn
brothers or brethren in iniquity, becaufe of their divid¬
ing plunder and fpoil.
SYCAM011E-tr.ee. See Acer, Botany Index,
SYCOPHANT, an appellation given by the an¬
cient Athenians to thofe who informed of the expor¬
tation of figs contrary to law ; and hence it is ilili
ufed in general for all informers, parafites, fktterers,,
cheats, &c.
SYDENHAM, Dr Thomas, an excellent Englilh
phyfician, was the fun of William Sydenham of Win-
ford Eagle in Dorfetfhire, and was born there about
the year 1624. He ftudied at Magdalen-hall, Oxford;;
but left that univerlity when Oxford was garrifoned for,
King Charles I. and went to London : where, beeom--
ing acquainted with Dr Thomas Cox, an eminent phy¬
fician, that gentleman perfuaded him to apply himfelf
to the lludy of phyfic ; accordingly, after the garrifon,
was delivered up to the parliament, he retired again- to
Magdalen-hall, entered on the lludy of medicine, and
in 1648 was created bachelor of phyfic. Soon after,
he was made a fellow of All-Souls college, and eontL
nued there feveral years : when leaving the univerfity,
he fettled at Weftminiler, became doftor of his faculty
at Cambridge ; grew famous for his practice ; and was
the chief phyfician in London from the year I 660 to
1670 ; at which period he began to be dilabled by the
gout. He died in 1689. His works are highly esteem¬
ed both at home and abroad. He was famous for his
cool regimen in the fmall-pox; for giving the bark af¬
ter the paroxyfm in agues; and for his ufe of laudanum.
He regulated his pra&ice more by his own obfervations
and inquiries, than by the method either of his prede-
ceffors or contemporaries.
SYENE, an ancient city of Egypt, fituated, accord¬
ing to Mr Bruce, in north latitude 240 o' 45''. Pliny
and Strabo both fay that it lay direftly under the tiopic
of Cancer. Whether Mr Bruce’s authority be fulfi-
cientito overturn, the evidence of Pliny and Strabo, .we.
{hall leave to others to determine.
Syene is remarkable for being the-place where the
firft attempt was made to meafure the circumference
of the earth. This was done by Era toft henes, whom
Ptolemy Euergetes bad invited from Athens to Alex¬
andria. In this attempt two pofitions were affumed,
viz* that Alexandria and Syene were exaftly 500c fta-
dia diftant from each other, and that they were precife-
ly under the fame meridian; but both thefe are denied
by Mr Bruce, who has made many obfervations on the
fubjeft which our limits will not allow us to take notice
of at prefent. He tells us, that there is at Afum an
obelifk ere tied by Ptolemy Euergetes, the patron of
Eratofthenes, without hieroglyphics, direftly facing
the fouth, with its top firft cut into a narrow neck,
then fpread out like a fan into- a femicircular form.
Syene,
Syll:i.
S Y L ; t 17+ 1
with pavements curloufly levelled to receive the {hade,
and make the feparaiion of the true (hadow from the
penumbra as diftinft as poflible. Fills is fuppoied by
Mr Bruce to have been conftruaed with a defign to
vary the experiment of Eratofthenes with a larger ra¬
dius *, and the inquiry concerning the dimenfions of the
earth, in our author’s opinion, was the occafion of many
obelifks being erefted in this kingdom ; ademonftrathm
of which is, that the figure of the top is varied ; being
fcmetimes very (harp, and fometimes a portion of a cir-
cle, in order to get rid of the great impediment arifing
from the penumbra, which makes it difficult to deter¬
mine the length of the ffiadow with precifion. It is
now called AJfouan.
SYLL A, Lucius Cornelius, was defcended from
the illuitrious family of the Scipios. His behaviour in
his younger years by no means correfponded with the
excellent education which he had received. But de¬
bauchery, iuftead of bringing along with it infamy and
ruin, its ufual attendants, ferved only to increafe the
wealth of this fortunate Roman 5 for Nicopolis, a rich
courtezan, whole affe£Hons he had gained, left him heir
to her great eftate.—He learned the art of war under
Marius, whom he attended to Numidia in quality of
queftor. Though hitherto unaccuftomed to arms, he
became in a ffiort time the moft fkilful foldier in the ar¬
my, while by his polite and obliging behaviour he gain¬
ed the love and eiteem of every body. His courage and
dexterity contributed a great deal towards the fuccefs
of the war ; it was his eloquence in particular that per-
fuaded Bocchus to deliver up Jugurtha. He ferved af¬
terwards in the Social war, where his aflions entirely
eclipfed thofe of every other commander. As a re¬
ward for this conduct he was raifed to the prsetorffiip.
It is pretended by fome that Sylla purchafed this digni¬
ty ; and that when he threatened one day to make ufe
of the powers of his office againft Strabo the father of
Pompey, that Roman replied with a fmile, “ You are
in the right to fay fo ; your office is certainly yours,
fmce you purchafed it.” Be this as it may, after the
conclufion of the Social war he was made conful, and
foon after declared general of the army which was to
be fent againft Mithridates king of Pontus. Marius, at
that time the moft renowned of the Roman generals, ex¬
pelled that- the management of this war wmuld have
been committed to him, and was therefore much exaf-
■ perated at the difappointment. The people were per-
fuadedby his intrigues to reverfe the former decree, and
fubftitute him in place of Sylla. Upon this he fent
down officers to take the command of the army •, but
Sylla by this time had gained over the foldiers ; who,
inftead of obeying the decree of the people, flew Ma¬
rius’s officers, and intreated Sylla to lead them inftantly
to Rome. Accordingly he entered the city fword in
hand, flew Sulpicius the conful, obliged Marius to flee,
new-modelled the laws, and afterwards marched into the
Eaft, and immediately laid fiege to Athens ; for that
city, together with the reft of Greece, had fallen into
the power of Mithridates. He wrote to the Amphic-
tyons, who were aflembled at Delphi, to fend him all
the gold which was depoftted in the temple of Apollo,
becaufe he flood in need of money ; promifing, at the
fame time, to reftore it again at the end of the war.
When he received this treafure, he obferved, with an
sir of raillery, that he now no longer defpaired of vic-
S Y L
tory, fince the gods themfelves furnifhed him with mo¬
ney to pay his troops. Famine foon obliged the Athe-
nians to think of afurrender. Their ambaffadors wait¬
ed on Sylla, and began to harangue about Thefeus and
Codrus, and Marathon and Salamis,*—when he inter¬
rupted them, and exclaimed, “ Go, repeat thefe fine
orations in your fehools j I have come hither, not to
learn your hiftory, but to chaftife rebels.” Athens
was at laft taken by affault, and Sylla was upon the
point of deftroying it, when he recolleiled its ancient
glory, and fpared (as he faid) the living for the fake
of the dead. After burning the Piraeus, he gained two
decilive victories over the generals of Mithridates. In
the fecond battle, which was fought at Orchomenus, he
was aim oft defeated ; his troops began to flee, when,
leaping from his horfe, he fnatched up a ftandard, and
advanced againft t^he enemy, crying out, “ I will die
here glorioufiy ; and, foldiers, when you are afked
where you abandoned your general, anfwer, At Orcho-
menus.” This reproach recalled the courage of the
Romans ; they followed him to the charge, and gain¬
ed a complete vi<![lory. Mithridates, humbled by thefe
difafters, fent ambafladors to fue for peace.
Mean time Cinna had declared againft Sylla in Italy;
and Marius returning from banifhment, had taken the
moft fevere vengeance on all his enemies. Sylla was
declared a traitor j his laws were reverfed, his friends
murdered, and the government new-modelled. The
news of thefe tranfaftions induced Sylla to conclude a
treaty with Mithridates, and march direflly to Rome.
His approach terrified the Romans. Marius and Cinna
were both dead ; but the confuls made vigorous prepa¬
rations to oppofe him. A civil war was beglm j but
Sylla in the end fubdued all his enemies, and entirely
ruined the Marian fadlion. He entered Rome at the
head of his victorious army, and publicly affumed the
furname of Happy. Happy, indeed, had he ceafed to
live when he ceafed to conquer. The remainder of his
life contains nothing elfe but a catalogue of the moft
abominable cruelties. He declared that every one who
expeCted a pardon for their late offences, muft gain it by
deftroying the enemies of the ftate. The fword of the
affaffin was thus unflieathed, and murder encouraged as
the path to power and diftinClion. The nobleft of the
Romans were everywhere maffacred ; flaves were re¬
warded for cutting off their mafters ; children were
feen dragging their parents to execution ; and brothers
claiming a recompenfe for the murder of brothers. Syl¬
la ordered 8000 wretches, who had thrown themfelves
upon bis clemency, to be butchered in the Campus
Martius. In the mean time he entered the fenate-houfe,
and began to talk with great coolnefs about his exploits.
The fenate, alarmed at the horrid outcries of the fuf-
ferers, at firft thought that the city was given up to be
plundered ; but Sylla informed them, with an unembar-
raffed air, that it was only fome criminals puniftiing by
his orders, and that they needed not be apprehenfive a-
bout their own fate.
To carry on thefe cruelties with the appearance of
juftice, he commanded the people to eleCt him diClator.
He kept this office for more than two years •, and then,
to the amazement of all, laid it down, and offered to
{land his trial before the people. Soon afterwards he
retired into the country, and plunged headlong into
every kind of debauchery. Nor did he relinquifti his
cruelty
S Y L
[ i?5 ]
S Y M
cruelty together with his power: His wife falling ill m
the midft of a furaptuous feaft, he divorced her imme¬
diately ; and ordered her to be carried away, left her
death ftiould interrupt the feftivity of his houfe.
He died of the morbus pedicularis, in the 60th year
of his age. His body, according to his orders, was
burnt. A little before his death he wrote his epitaph;
the tenor of which was, that no man had ever exceed¬
ed him in doing good to his friends or injury to hisene-
mies. ,. . , , . .
His perfon was elegant, his air noble, his manners
eafy and apparently fincere. He was fond of pleafure,
but fonder of glory, indulging without fcruple in fen-
fual delights, but never fuffering them to interrupt his
ferious bulinefs: He was eloquent, liberal, crafty, inft-
nuating; a profound mafter of diflimulation j he. fpoke
of himfelf with modefty, while he laviftied praifes on
every other perfon: He ftooped even to an acquaintance
with the meaneft foldier, and conftantly adapted himfelf
to the humours, purfuits, and opinions, of thofe with
whom he converfed. Such was his chara&er during the
earlier part of his life; but whenfuccefs had raifed him
above the neceflity of diflimulation, he difplayed a hi¬
deous train of vices, which his ambition had formerly
taught him to conceal.—It was Sylla who recovered the
works of Ariftotle at the taking of Athens.
SYLLABLE, in Grammar, one or more letters
pronounced by a {ingle impulfe of the voice, forming a
complete found, and conftituting a word or a part of a
word. No Angle letter can form a fyllable except a
vowel. The longeft fyllable in the Englifti language is
the word Jlrength.
The moft natural way of dividing words into fylla-
bles is, to feparate all the Ample founds of which any
word conAfts, fo as not to divide thofe letters which are
joined clofe together according to the moft accurate pro¬
nunciation.
SYLLABUB, a kind of compound drink, moft ufed
in the fummer feafon; ordinarily made of white wine,
iugar, and nutmeg, into w'hich is milked a quantity of
new milk from the cow. Sometimes it is made of canary
in place of white wine; in which cafe the fugar isfpar-
ed, and a little lemon and nutmeg are added inftead of
it. To prepare it the beft way, the wine and other
ingredients, except the milk, are to be mixed over
night, and the milk or cream added in the morning.
The proportion, is a pint of wine to three of milk.
For
Syllabub, Whipt. To half a pint of white wine or
Rhenifti is put a pint of cream, with the whites of three
eggs. This they feafon with fugar, and beat with bir¬
chen rods, or work with a fyringe. The froth is taken
off as it rifes, and put into a pot; where, after {landing
to fettle two or three hours, it is At to eat.
SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a ta¬
ble of contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book
or difcourfe.
SYLLOGISM, in Logic, an argument or term of
reafoning, conAfting of three propoAtions; the two Arft
of which are called premifes; the laft, the conclujion.
See Logic, Part III.
SYLVIA, a genus of birds, belonging to the order
of pafleres, formed by Dr Latham by limiting the mo-
tacilla to the wagtail, and arranging the other fpecies,
formerly claffed under that genus, under the fylvia. He
makes 13 fpecies of the motacilla, and 174 fpecies °f SyUia
the fvlvia. See Motacilla, Ornithology Index. s ''ath
SYMBOL, a Agn or reprefentation of fomething ^
moral, by the Agures or properties of natural things.
Hence fymbols are of various kinds; as hieroglyphics,
types, engimas, parables, fables, &c.
" SYMMACHUS, a citizen and fenator of ancient
Rome, and conful in the year 391> ^as us ^en ^>00^s
of epiftles; from which, as well as from other things,
we collect, that he was a warmoppofer of the Chriftian
religion. He was baniftied from Rome by Valentinian
on lome account or other, but afterwards recalled and
received into favour by TheodoAus. Ammianus Mar-
cellinus fpeaks of him as a man of great learning and
modefty. Scioppius, Pareus, and other learned men,
have written notes upon the epiftles of Symmachus: we
know of no later edition of them than that of Frankfort,
1642, 8vo. Ambrofe biftiop of Milan wrote againft
Symmachus, and fo did the Chriftian poet Pruden-
tius.
SYMMETRY, the juft proportion of thefeveral parts
of any thing, fo as to compofe a beautiful whole.
Symmetry, in Painting. See Painting, Part L
Seft. III.
SYMONDSBOROUGH, a remarkable large bar-
row of flints, near Wellington in Devonftiire, in the
northern extremity of Hemyock. The common people
have a notion that a king called Symon was buried here.
The tradition of the country plainly {hows that it was
the burial-place, of fome perfon or perfons of eminence.
SYMPATHETIC, fomething that aas or is aaed
upon by fympathy. Thus we fay, fympathetic difeafes,
inks, &c.
SYMPATHETIC Inks. See Sympathetic Ink.
SYMPATHY, an agreement of affbaions and in¬
clinations, or a conformity of natural qualities, humours,
temperaments, which make two perfons delighted and
pleafed with each other.
Sympathy, alfo denotes the quality of being affbaed
by the affbaion of another;. and may fubflft either be¬
tween different perfons or bodies, or between different
parts of the fame body. It is either Amilar or difiimi-
lar; Amilar, when the affbaion or aaion in the fympa-
thifer is Amilar to the affbaion or aaion in the fympa-
thant; and diffimilar, when thofe are different.—Sym¬
pathy too, is often an imitative faculty, fometimes in¬
voluntarily, frequently without confcioufnefs : thus we
yawn when we fee others yawn, and are made to laugh
by the laughing of another.
Sympathy, according to Dr Jackfon *, relates to the * Treatife
operations of the affbaions of the mind, to the opera- ^Ra¬
tions of the imagination, and to the affbaions of the ex- ^
ternal fenfes.
1. The paflions and affbaions of the mind produce in
the body different fenfations and impreflions, and, as
fympathies of confcioufnefs, determine in general the
fpirits to thofe parts which labour moft, or are moft apt
to be affbaed. Thus fear and anger determine to the
heart; luft to the eyes, &c. ; joy, pity, wonder, and
the like, to the head. See Passion, page 14.
The affbaions of the mind of one perfon will often
work upon the fpirits of many. Thus whole companies
are fometimes difpofed to be fad and melancholy, or
merry and jovial, when any one is prefent much inclin¬
ed to either of thofe Rates of mind; and it has been
obferved.
S Y M [ 176 ] S Y M
Sympathy, obferved, that old people, who have loved the company
of the young, and have been converfant continually with
them, have generally lived long. But young people
muft not conclude from this, that the company and con-
verfation of the grave and old will operate upon the liv¬
ing and fenfitive principle, through theaffeftions of their
mind, and difpofe them to be Ihort-lived. On the con¬
trary, by thus improving their underftanding, they will
■be more enabled to fortify their conftitution and refill;
the ravages of youthful indulgence.
It may alfo be further obferved, that thofe tender
fympathetic affe&ions which lay hold of the mind, at
the reprefentation of theatrical performances, originate
from the fame principle, while they are to be confidered
as the fureft tell of juft execution in the actor, and of
the expreflive language of the author. Indeed all ftage
effect depends on fympathy.
It has been faid, that the pafiions of the mind are
occafionally infectious, particularly fome of them. Thus
fear and Jhavie are fometimes very fuddenly fo. We
frequently may have occafion to fee, that the ftarting of
one will make another ready to ftart. Again, when
one man is o\it of countenance in company, others will
often blulh in his behalf. However, the ferious palfions
may furely be fo under the controul of reafon as to refift
infeCtion, whatever may be the cafe of temporary, muf-
cular, or nervous attraction.
2. Our author is inclined to think, that a connection
between the affeCtions and fenfations of the female mind
and uterus, is very materially concerned in the procefs
of generation, and probably can alone give efficacy to
thofe aCtions and impreffions fubfervient to conception,
through the fympathizing affeCtions of the mind. But
this is a fubjeCt of which we know fo little, that the
{peculations of even the moft diftinguilhed philofophers
refpeCting it have been nothing but the wild ravings of
imagination.
With refpeCt to the depravity and force of the ima¬
gination in the production of fympathies, they always
operate moft upon “ weak minds and fpirits, and there¬
fore moft on women, fuperftitious and fearful perfons,
fick people, children, and young creatures.” Their ef-
feCts, however, fometimes fail to appear, becaufe they
are encountered and overcome by the mind and fpirit
before they work any manifeft effeCts.
Such effeCts are obviated upon the fame principle
which eftablilhes the prevention of bodily difeafe : “ for
in infeCtion and contagion from body to body (as, for
example, during the plague), the miafma may be re¬
ceived ; but from the ftrength and good difpofition of
the body, it is expelled and wrought out before it has
had fufficient time to form the difeafe.”
It has been faid, and many are of the opinion, that
the force of imagination doth often forward the end
propofed- Thus, for inftance, it has been put as a
queftion, “ Whether a man, when he conftantly and
ftrongly believes that fuch a thing (hall be (as that fuch
a one will love him, and the like), help* any thing to
the effefting the thing defired ?” Certainly not in the
manner which has been advanced, namely, “ by a fe-
cret operation on the fpirit of another.” If he fucceeds,
it is either becaufe he perfevered, or becaufe his perfe-
verance and earneftnefs (and not any occult operation)
makes him at length be attended to.
There js not a doubt but the force of imagination of¬
ten gives energy to our aCtions. It may, however, un- SympJ
lefs we are much on our guard, eafily delude us afide '““V
from reafon. It has been the tree which has yielded the
fruits of fuperftition in former times, and which has-of¬
ten fed the human mind with the moft extravagant no¬
tions of fympathy. Sympathies of this kind, fuch as
the power of charms, and the like, are now pretty ge¬
nerally exploded.
3. The five fenfes, hearing, tajling, fuelling, feeling,
and feeing, are confcious of a fympathetic impreffion
from odious objeCts. “ 1. A difagreeable found will
fet the teeth on edge, and make all the body ftuvet.
2. The fwallowing of a naufeous medicine will be at¬
tended with a (baking of the head and neck. 3. Dif¬
agreeable fmells produce nearly the fame effeCt, which
are lefs perceived, becaufe there is a remedy at hand by
flopping the nofe. 4. If you come fuddenly out of
the fun into the (hade, the fenfe of feeling is diftur-
bed by a chillnefs or (hivering of the whole body.
5. And even fudden darkne-fs produces a propenfity td
(hivering.
There is a very apparent reafon iHiy a fympathy
ffiould take place between the eyes. Hence their mo¬
tions are fynchronous. It may be faid, that cuftom and
habit difpofe the eyes to move one and the fame way;
“ for when one moveth towards the nofe, the other eye
moveth from the nofe.”
Though the eyes are by nature prone to move in
concert, cuftom will, however, deftroy this natural con¬
cert, and produce the contrary effedt. Thus fome peo¬
ple can fquint when they will. Our author therefore
gives this caution to mothers and nurfes : “ Let them
not fuffer infants to fit with a candle placed behind
them ; for both their eyes will be difpofed to move out¬
wards, as affedting to fee the light of the candle, which
may bring on the habit of fquinting.”
It appears as a quality in the fenfes of hearing and
feeing, “ that the inftrument of each feparate ftnfe
has a fympathy and fimilitude to that which giveth the
refledtion.” Thus it has been obferved, “ that the eye
will fympathize with a cryftal glafs or water, and the
ear with caves and fuch hollow places as are fuited to
report echo.”
Sympathies have been compared to unifons of
found in mufic. Unifons of found produce agreeable
fympathetic feelings j the reverfe produce difagreeable
feelings. “ All concords and difcords of mufic are (no
doubt) fympathies and antipathies of found.” More¬
over, “ they are faid to work as well by report of found
as by motion.”
The moft agreeable as well as odious objedts operate
in a fecondary way, in producing thofe fympathetic im¬
preffions and adtions which they commonly give rife to.
An increafed fecretion of faliva often takes place at the
fight of a favourite diffi ; and the running of water from
a bottle, or otherwife, will fometimes affedt individuals
of a particular temperature, with an involuntary pro¬
penfity to void urine.
Many have attempted to account for the remarkable
fympathy which takes place between parts of the body
feeminglv unconnedled with each other 5 but as thefe
attempts are merely conjedhires, without any folid prin¬
ciples to reft on, rve pafs them over as the dreams of in¬
genious men. It would be fortunate for fcience, if men
would confine thtftnfelvet to thofe fubjedts which can be
known*
S Y N
[ 177 1
S Y N
apathy
II
ag’ogue
’ilfon's
rcbaolO'
cal Die.
unary.
known, and never draw conclufions till they have efta-
blilhed principles. See PHYSIOLOGY, chap. ii.
SYMPHONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of monadelphia. See BOTANY Index.
SYMPHONY, in Mujic, properly denotes a confo-
nanee or concert of feveral founds agreeable to the ear,
whether vocal or inftrumental, called alfo harmony. See
Harmony.
SYMPHYSIS, in Anatomy, one of the kinds of
iunflures or articulations of the bones. See Anatomy,
N° 2.
Cutting the S CMP NTS is of the Pubes. See Mid¬
wifery, N° 136.
SYMPHYTUM, Comfrey, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandriaj and in the natural fyf-
tem rangingunder the 41 ft order afperifolise. See Botany
Index.
SYMPLOCE, <rvp7TXoy.i, in Rhetoric, a figure,
where the fame word is repeated feveral times in the be¬
ginning and end of a fentence, including the ana¬
phora and EPITROPHE: thus, d^uis legem tulit? Rulius.
Quis majorem populi partem fuffragiis privavit? Rullus.
^uis comitiis preefuit? Idem Rullus.
SYMPLOCOS, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polydelphia. See Botany Index.
SYMPOSI ARCH, in antiquity, the dire61or or ma¬
nager of an entertainment. This office was fometimes
performed by the perfon at whofe charge the entertain¬
ment was provided; fometimes by another named by
him; and at other times, efpecially in entertainments
provided at the common expence, he was ele&ed by lot,
or by the fuffrages of the guefts.
SYMPTOM, in Medicine, any circumftance which
indicates the exiftence, nature, or ftage of a difeafe.
Pain, waking, drowfinefs, convulfions, fuppreffion of
urine, difficulty of breathing and fwallowing, coughs,
diftaftes, naufeas, thirds, fwoonings, faintings, loofenefs,
coftivenefs, drynefs and blacknefs of the tongue, are the
principal fymptoms of difeafes. See MEDICINE, N° 41.
and 58.
SYMPTOMATICAL, in Medicine, is a term of¬
ten ufed to denote the difference between the primary
and fecondary caufes in difeafes : thus a fever from
pain is faid to be fymptomatical, becaufe it rifes from
pain only.
SYN./ERESIS, Contraction, in G/ww/zar, afigure
whereby two fyllables are united in one; as vemens for
vehemens.
SYNAGOGUE, among the Jews, is a place where
that people met to worffiip God. Authors are not
agreed about the time when the Jews firft began to have
fynagogues:—Some fuppofe them as old as the cere¬
monial law, and others fix their beginning to the times
after the Babylonifhcaptivity. They ere£ied fynagogues
not only in towns and cities, but alfo in the country,
efpecially near rivers, that they might have water for
their purifications and ceremonious walkings. No fyna-
gogue was built in any town unlefs there were ten per-
fons of leifure in it; but there might be many in one
town, or in one quarter of a town, provided it was very
populous. Jerufalem is faid to have contained 480. The
chief things belonging to a fynagogue were, 1. The ark
or cheft, made after the model of the ark of the cove¬
nant, containing the Pentateuch. 2. The pulpit and
delk in the middle of the fynagogue, in which he that was
Vol. XX. Part I.
to read or expound the law ftood. 3. The feats or pews Synagogue
for the people. 4. The lamps to give light at evening ^ ^
fervice, and the feaft of dedication. 5. Rooms or apart- ytion.
ments for the utenfils and alms chefts. The fynagogue u—
was governed by a council or affembly, over whom was
a prefident, called The Ruler of the Synagogue. Thefe
are fometimes called Chiefs of the Jews, The Rulers,
The Priefs or Elders, The Governors, The Overfeers,
The Fathers of the Synagogue. Their bufinefs was to
punifti the difobedient, by cenfures, by excommunication,
or by penalties, fuch as fines and fcourging ; to take
care of the alms, which are frequently called by the
name of righteoufnefs. The chief ruler, or one of the
rulers, gave leave to have the law read and expounded,
and appointed who ffiould do it. In every fynagogue,
there were feveral minifters who had different offices af-
figned to them. Service was performed three times a-
day, viz. in the morning, in the afternoon, and at
night; at the time of morning facrifice, evening facri- »
fice, and after the evening facrifice on Mondays, Thurf-
days, and Saturdays, there was a more forcible obliga¬
tion upon the people to attend than upon the other days.
There are fynagogues at London, Amfterdam, Rotter¬
dam, Avignon, Metz, Stc.
SYNALOEPHA, in Grammar, a contra£lion of
fyllables, performed principally, by fuppreffing fome
vowel or diphthong at the end of a word, on account
of another vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the
next. As, UP ego, for ille ego, &c.
ConticueP omnes intentiqiP ora tenebant. Virg.
It is called by the Latins collifo.
SYNARTHROSIS. 1 Q xt0 „
SYNCHONDROSIS. |See AN ’ N
SYNCELLUS, or Sincellus, an ancient officer in
the family of the patriarchs, and other prelates of the
eaftern church. The word, in the corrupt Greek,
<rvyx*)AAef, fignifies a perfon who lies in the chamber with
another; a chamber fellow, or chum. The fyncellus
was an ecclefiaftic, who lived with the patriarch of Con-
ftantinople, to be a witnefs of his condudt; whence it
is, that the fyncellus was alfo called the patriarch's eye,
becaufe his bufinefs was to obferve and watch. The
other prelates had alfo their fyncelli, who were clerks
living in the houfe with them, and even lying in the
fame chamber, to be witneffes of the purity of their
manners. Afterwards the office degenerated into a
mere dignity ; and there were made fyncelli of church¬
es.—At laft, it became a title of honour, and was be¬
llowed by the emperor on the prelates themfelves; whom
they called pontifical fyncelli, and fyncelli Augufules.
SYNCHRONISM denotes the happening of fevera
things at the fame time. See Chronology.
SYNCOPATION, in Mufic, denotes a linking or
beating of time, whereby the diftindlion of the feveral
times or parts of the meafure is interrupted. However,
it is more properly ufed for the connedling the laft note
of any meafure, or bar, with the firft of the following
meafure, fo as only to make one note of both. A fyn-
cope is fometimes alfo made in the middle of a meafure.
Syncopation is alfo ufed when a note of one part ends
or terminates on the middle of a note of the other part.
This is otherwife denominated binding. It is likewife
ufed for a driving note; that is, when fome Ihorter note
at the beginning of a meafure, or half meafure, is fol-
Z lowed
Syncopa¬
tion
il
Synodal?.
S Y N [i
lowed by two, three, or more longer notes before an¬
other fhort note occurs, equal to that which occafioned
the driving, to make the number even, e. gr. when an
odd crotchet comes before two or three minims, or an
odd quaver before two, three, or more crotchets. In
fyncopated or driving notes, the hand or foot is taken
up, or put down, while the note is founding.
SYNCOPE, Fainting ; a deep and fudden fwoon-
ing, during which the vital fundtions are fufpended. See
Medicine, N° 98. and 272.
Syncope, in Grammar, an elifion or retrenchment of
a letter or fyllable out of the middle of a word, as cahhis
for cahdus,
SYNDIC, in government and commerce, an officer,
in divers countries, intruded with the aftairs of a city or
other community, who calls meetings, makes reprefen-
tations and folicitations to the miniftry, magiftracy, &c.
according to the exigency of the cafe.
SYNECDOCHE, in Rhetoric, a kind of trope fre¬
quent among orators and poets. See Oratory, N 56*
SYNECPHONESIS, in Grammar, a coalition,
whereby two fyllables are pronounced as one ; being
much the fame as Svnaloefha and Synthesis.
SYNEUROSIS. See Anatomy, N° 2.
SYNGENESIA, (o-yv and yintriSj “ con generation),1’
the name of the 19th clafs in Linnaeus’s artificial fyftem.
See Clarification; Botany Index.
SYNGNATHUS, Pipe-fish, a genus of fifhes be¬
longing to the cartilaginous order. See ICHTHYOLOGY,
page 104. _ ;
SYNOCHA, and SYNOCHUS, in Medicine, the names
of two fpecies of continued fever. See MEDICINE, N°
164.
SYNOD, in AJlronomy, a conjun&ion or concourfe
of two or more ftars or planets, in the fame optical
place of the heavens.
Synod fignifies alfo a meeting or affembly of eccle-
fiaftical perfons to confult on matters of religion.
Of thefe there are four kinds, viz. I. General, or
(Ecumenical, where biffiops, &c. meet from all nations.
Thefe were firft called by the emperors, afterwards by
Chriftian princes *, till in later ages the pope ufurped to
himfelf the greateft (hare in this bufinefs, and by his
legates prefided in them- when called. 2. National,
where thofe of one nation only come together, to de¬
termine any point of dodfrine or difcipline. 1 he firft
of this fort which we read of in England, was that of
Herudford or Hertford, in 673, and the laft wras that
held by Cardinal Pole, in 1555. 3- Provincial, where
thofe only of one province meet, now called the con¬
vocation. 4. Diocefhn, where thofe of but one diocefe
meet, to enforce canons made by general councils, or
national and provincialJi/nods, and to confult and agree
upon rules of difcipline for themfelves. Thefe were not
wholly laid afide, till by the aft of fubmiffion, 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 19. it was made unlawful for any fynod to
meet, but by royal authority. See Council and Con¬
vocation.
Synods, Provincial, in the Government of the Church
of Scotland. See PRESBYTERIANS, N° 14.
SYNOD ALS, or Synodies, were pecuniary rents
(commonly of two ffiillings), paid to the biihop, or
archdeacon, at the time of their Eafter vifitation, by
every parilh prieft. They were thus called, becaufe
ufually paid in fynods; becaufe anciently billiops Vied
Synod;
s 11
Syracu
78 ] SYR
to vifit and hold their diocefan fynods once.—For the
fame reafon, they are fomelimes alfo denominated/y/w-
dalica ; but more win-dAy, procurations. .
SYNODICAL, fomething belonging to a fynod.
Thus, fynodical epiftles are circular letters written by
the fynods to, the abfent prelates and churches; or even
thofe general ones direfted to all the faithful, to inform
them of what had pa fled in the fynod.
SYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feaft cele¬
brated at Athens in memory of Thefeus’s having uni¬
ted all the petty communities of Attica into one fingle
commonwealth ; the feat whereof was at Athens, where
all the affemblies were to be held. This feaft was de¬
dicated to Minerva •, and, according to the fcholiaft on
Thucydides, it was held in the month Metagitnion.
SYNONYMOUS, is applied to a word or term that
has the fame import or fignification with another.
Several works have been compofed for the ex-
prefs purpofe of explaining fynonymous words. In 1777
a work was publiffied on the Latin fynonyma at Paris
by M. Gardin Dumefnil. The abbe Girard publiffied
one on the fynonymous terms of the French language
many years ago. Another was publifhed on the fame
fubjeft in the year 1785 by the abbd Roubaud. An
account of the Engliffi fynonyma was publiffied by an
anonymous author in 1766 5 which is a clofe imitation,
and in fome parts a literal tranflation, of the abbe Gi¬
rard’s Synonymes Franpois. Mrs Piozzi has written
fome eflays on the fame fubjeft.
SYNOVIA, in Medicine, a term ufed by Paracelfus
and his fehool for the nutritious juice proper and pecu¬
liar to each part. Thus they talk of the fynovia of the
joints, of the brain, &c.
SYNTAX, in Grammar, the proper conftruftion or
due difpofition of the words of a language into fentences
and phrafes. See Grammar and Language.
SYNTHESIS, in Logic, denotes a branch of me¬
thod, oppofite to analyfxs.
In the fynthefis or fynthetic method, we purfue the
truth by reafons drawn from principles before eftabliffiied
or affumed, and propofitions formerly proved : thus pro¬
ceeding by a regular chain, till we come to the conclu-
fion. Such is the method in Euclid’s Elements, and
moft demonftrations of the ancient mathematicians,
which proceed from definitions and axioms, to prove
propofitions, &c. and from thofe propofitions proved to
prove others. This method we alfo call compqfetion, in
oppofition to analysis or reflation. See Analysis.
SYPHILIS. See Medicine, N° 350-.
SYPHON. See Hydrodynamics. Some uncom¬
mon phenomena in nature may be accounted for upon
the principles of the fyphon ; as, for inftance, that of
reciprocating fprings. See Pneumatics, N° 373.
SYRACUSE, a celebrated city of Sicily, and once At’J*
the capital of the ifland. It was built, according to ura'‘1
Thucydides and Strabo, by Archias, one of the Her-a-
clidae, who came from Corinth into Sicily in the fecond
year of the nth Olympiad, and derived its name from
a neighbouring marffii named Syraco. What form of
government firft prevailed in the city is not known.
Many have fuppofed it originally to have been governed
by kings : but if this were the cafe, the monarchical
government continued only for a very ffiort time *, fince
Ariftotle, Diodorus Siculus, and Juftin, mention it as
being very early fubjeft to a democracy. The hiftory
is-
SYR
[ *79 3
SYR
icufe.
3
featstho
uthagi-
ns, and
;es the
le of
'g-
4
|.s excel-
it reign.
5
elon dies,
id is luc-
:eded by
'iero.
•n. 471.
■ C.
6
'hrafybu-
is, a ty-
mt.
in. 459.
I. C.
,, 7.
he Siculi
ibdued.
iyracufe in
laded by
the Athe-
hans with-
Jut fuccefs
Is obfcure and unimportant till the time of Gelon, when
Syracufe firft began to make a confpicuous figure.
Gelon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of the
family of Telines, who had been created prieft of the
infernal gods. He fignalized himlelf in a war carried
on a wain ft the Syracufans, by Hippocrates tyrant of Gela,
xvhom he defeated in a pitched battle. Having thus
become very powerful among his countrymen, he foon
found means to feize on the fovereignty for himfelf. In
a ftiort time, having put himfelf at the head of fome
Syracufan exiles, he marched toward^ that place, where
he was received with loud acclamations and obtained
poffeflion of the city. #
Gelon, in order to people the capital of his new
dominions, firft demoliftied the neighbouring city of
Camarina, and tranfplanted the inhabitants t .' Syracme.
Soon after, entering into a war with the Megareans, he
defeated them, took and rafed their cities, and in like
manner tranfplanted the people. Syracufe thus became
powerful, and full of inhabitants •, and the friendftnp
of Gelon was courted both by Athens and Lacedoemon
at the time of the Perfian invafion. In the mean time
the Carthaginians had entered into a treaty with the
Perfians; by which it was agreed, that the former
fhould attack thofe of the Greek name in Sicily and
Italy, in order to divert them from aftifting each other.
Sicily was accordingly invaded by the Carthaginians
with a vaft army ; but they were utterly overthrown by
Gelon, as is related under the article Carthage, N°
7 C). After this victory, the people out of gratitude
obliged him to affume the title of king •, which till that
time he had refufed. A decree alfo paffed by which the
crown was fettled on his two brothers Hiero and 1 hrafy-
bulus after his death. ....
The new king, inftead of keeping his fubje&s in
greater awe, ftudied to make them happy, and was the
firft man who became more virtuous by being raifed to a
throne. He was particularly famous for his honefty,
truth, and fincerity } is faid never to have wronged the
meaneft of his fubje&s, and never to have promifed a
thing which he did not perform.
1 Gelomdied in the year 471 B. C. after having reigned
three or four years} and was fucceeded by his brother
Hiero, whofe chara£ter is differently drawn by different
hiftorians. He is highly celebrated in the odes of Pin¬
dar j and it is certain that his court Avas the refort of
men of wit and learning, to whom he behaved in the
moft courteous manner and with the greateft liberality.
In 459 B. C. Hiero was fucceeded by I hrafybulus •,
who proving a tyrant, was in ten months driven out, and
a popular government reftored ; which continued for the
fpace of 55 years.
About this time the Syracufans entered into a Avar
Avith the Siculi, Avhich terminated in the total fubjeflion
of the latter ; after which Syracufe became fo poAverful,
that it in a manner gave law to the Avhole ifland. T he
Greek cities indeed enjoyed a perfect liberty; but they
all aeknoAvledged Syracufe as their metropolis: by de¬
grees, hoAvever, the latter began to affume fuch an
authority over them as wTas totally inconfiftent Avith li¬
berty ; and this occafioned many Avars, which involved
them in much diftrefs and danger. T hey began Avith
the Leontines, Avhofe territory they laid Avafte, and re¬
duced their city to great ftraits. Leontini Avas an
Athenian colony : and this furnifhed the Athenians,
Avho had already meditated the conqueft of Sicily, with _ Syracufe. ^
a pretence to attack the Syracufans Avith their whole
force. Under colour of affifting their countrymen,
therefore, they fent a fleet of 250 fail to Sicily ; but
the Leontines, fenfible that their pretended allies aimed
at nothing lefs than the conqueft of the Avhole ifland,
concluded a peace Avith Syracufe ; and the difappointed
Athenians vented their rage on thofe who had advifed
and conducted the expedition.
During the continuance of the popular government,
the Syracufans took part in the long Avar betAveen A-
thens and Sparta. The circumftances which took place
in this conteft are fufficiently detailed under Attica,
N° 126—150. 9
This Avar Avas fcarcely ended, Avhen a neAV and for- New inva-
midable invafion by the Carthaginians took place ; but
the event of that expedition Avas as unfortunate to the njaBS>
Carthaginians as the former had been, as has been par¬
ticularly related under the article CARTHAGE, N° 12.
e/ feq.
In the mean time, a confiderable revolution had hap¬
pened in Syracufe. The city of Agrigentum had been
taken by the Carthaginians, and of the few inhabitants
Avho efcaped, fome fled to Syracufe, Avhere they accufed
the Syracufan commanders of having betrayed the city 1D
into the hands of the enemy. Dionyfius, a man of great Rife 0f
valour and addrefs, but who had become very obnoxious Dionyfius,
to the populace, took this opportunity of attempting to
retrieve his credit. He therefore fupported the accufa-
tions brought againft his countrymen by the Agrigen-
tines, and even impeached the magiftrates as having ft
fecret intelligence with the enemy, and attempting to
introduce an oligarchy. As his fpeech was entirely le¬
velled againft the more wealthy citizens, it Avas very, a-
greeable to the loAver clafs: the commanders were in-
llantly degraded ; and others, among whom Avas.Dio.ny-
fius, Avere appointed. Having once gained, this point,
he began to confider hoAV he might get all his colleagues
turned out. For this purpofe he never joined in any
council of Avar Avith the other commanders, mor impart¬
ed to them his refolutions, giving out that he could not
truft them, and that they had more regard for their oAvn
intereft than the Avelfare of their country. But while he
Avas proceeding in this manner, the more prudent part
of the citizens, perceiving what he aimed at, complain¬
ed of him to the fenate and magiftrates, and fined him
as a difturber of the public peace. According to the
laws, the fine Avas to be paid before he could Ipeak in
public, and the circumftances of Dionyfius did not al-
Ioav him to difeharge it. In this dilemma he was afiifted
by Philiftus the hiftorian, a man of great wealth., who
not only paid this fine for him, but encouraged, him to
fpeak his mind freely, as it became a zealous citizen to
do, promifing to pay all the fines that fhould be laid up¬
on him. ... .
Being extricated out of this difficulty, Dionyfius next
proceeded to inveigh, vvith all the eloquence of Avhich he
Avas mafter, againft thofe Avho by means of their power or
intereft Avere able to oppofe his defigns, and by degrees
brought them into diferedit. His next fcheme Avas to
get thofe exiles recalled Avhom the nobility had banifh-
cd at diffierent times ; as thinking that they would fup-
port him Avith all their power, as well out of gratitude
as out of hatred to the oppofite party. Having gained
this point alfo. he next found means, to ingratiate hltni
* . Z 2 felf
II
•who be¬
comes king
of Syracufe,
An. 404
B. 0.
la
Dionyfius
II.
An. 365.
£. G.
SYR [1
Syracufe. felf with the foldiery to fuch a degree, that, under pre-
tence of taking proper meafures for refitting the Car¬
thaginians, he was chofen commander in chief, with
abfolute and unlimited power. This was no fooner
done, than, pretending his life was in danger, he chofe
out 1000 men for his guard, whom he attached to his
intereft by great promifes. As no perfon durft now
oppofe him, he pofleffed himfelf of the citadel, where
all the arms and provifions were kept ; after which he
publicly took the title of king of Syracufe in the year
404 B. C.
The Syracufans did not tamely fubmit to their new
matter: but Dionyfius managed matters fo well, that
their frequent revolts anfwered no other purpofe than
more certainly to entail flavery on themfelves; and he
was allowed to poffefs the throne without much oppofi-
tion till his death, which happened in the year 366
B. C.
On the death of Dionyfius, he was fucceeded by his
fon, called alfo Dionyfius. He wras naturally of a mild
and peaceable temper, averfe to cruelty, and inclined to
learning ; but his father, to whom all merit, even in
his owp children, gave umbrage, flitted as far as poflible
his good qualities by a mean and obfcure education. He
no fooner afcended the throne, than Dion, brother to
Ariftomache the other wife of Dionyfius the Elder,
undertook to correft the faults of his education, and to
infpire him with thoughts fuitable to the high ftation
in which he was placed. For this purpofe he fent for
the philofopher Plato, under whofe care he Immediately
put the young king. This inflantly produced a refor¬
mation on Diony fius ; but the courtiers, dreading the
eft'e<As of the philofopher’s inftrudlions, prevailed on him
to banifli Dion, and to keep Plato himfelf in a kind of
imprifonment in the citadel. At laft, however, he let
him at liberty $ upon which Plato returned to his own
country.
Dion, in the mean time, vifited feveral of the Gre¬
cian cities, and at laft took up his refidence in Athens;
but the honours which were everywhere paid him, raif-
ed fuch jealoufies in the breaft of the tyrant, that he
flopped his revenue, and caufed it to be paid into his
own treafury. In a ftiort time-Dionyfius again fent for
Plato; but finding it impofiible to diffblve the friend-
ftiip between him and Dion, difgraced, and placed him
in a very dangerous lituation, in the midft of aflaffins
who hated him. Not daring, however, to offer him any
violence, he allowed him foon after to depart j revenging
himfelf on Dion, whofe eftate he fold, and gave his
wife Arete in marriage to Timocrates one of his one
flatterers.
Dion now refolved to revenge himfelf on the tyrant
for the many injuries he had fuftained, and at once to
deliver his country from the oppreflion under which it
Dion raifes groaned. He began with raifing foreign troops pri-
troops for vately, by proper agents, for the better execution of his
the^ant’ Many Syracufans of diftin&ion entered into his
fcbeme, and gave him intelligence of what patted in the
city ; but of the exiles, of whom there were upwards of
1000 difperfed up and down Greece, only 25 joined
him *, fo much were they awed by the dread of the ty¬
rant. The troops were affembled at the ifland of Zacyn-
thus, in number only about 800 ; but who had all been
tried on many occafions, were well difciplined, and ca¬
pable of animating by their example the forces which
3
SYR
13
Put under
the care of
Plato by
his uncle
Dion,
whom he
haniihes.
*4
So ]
Dion hoped to find in Sicily. When they were about Syracutl
to fail, Dion acquainted them with his defign, the bold-'-“V'
nefs of which at firft occafioned among them no fmall
confternation j but Dion foon removed their fears, by
telling them that he did not lead them as foldiers, but
as officers, to put them at the head of the Syracufans
and all the people of Sicily, who were ready to receive
them with open arms. Having then embarked in
two fmall trading veffels, they arrived in 12 days at
Cape Pachynum near Syracufe. At laft they arrived
at the port of Minoa, not far from Agrigentum. Here
they received intelligence that Dionyfius had fet fail for
Italy, attended by a fleet of 80 galleys. On this Dion
refolved to take advantage of the tyrant’s abfence, and
immediately fet fail for Syracufe. On his march he pre¬
vailed on the inhabitants of Agrigentum, Gela, Ca-
marina, arid other cities, to join him. As foon as he^JJ
entered the territories of Syracufe, multitudes flocked syracufft
to him; and as nobody appeared to oppofe him, he without;
boldly entered the city, where he quickly found himfelf°PP0^I
at the head of 50,000 men. As foon as he had landed
in Sicily, Timocrates, to whom his wife Arete had been
given by Dionyfius, and to whom the care of the city
had been left, difpatched a courier to let the tyrant
know the danger in which he tvas. Dionyfius was, how¬
ever, accidentally prevented from receiving a timely ac¬
count of Dion’s arrival; fo that when he entered the
citadel by fea, feven days after Dion’s arrival, he found
his affairs in a defperate fituation. Upon this he had re- Dionyfr
courfe to artifice ; and having amufed the Syracufans by arrives, .
a feigned negotiation, until he obferved that they kept15 totalll
a negligent guard, he attacked them all at once with^catei
fuch fury, that he had almofi: taken the city. But Dion
encouraged the foldiers by his example fo much, that he
at kft obtained a complete vi&ory ; for which they pre-
fented him with a crown of gold.
It was not long, however, before the ungrateful Sy-ingratj(l
racufans began to think of conferring quite different re-of the si
wards on their benefaflor. 'Dionyfius had the addrefscufans 1
to render him fufpefled by th® multitude ; at the fame D!0n‘ i;
time that Heraclides, an excellent officer, but a fecret
dnemy to Dion, did all that lay in his power to fink his
credit. Dionyfius was foon obliged to fly into Italy,
but left Heraclides to oppofe Dion.
At length Dion got poffeffion of the city, Heraclides
fubmitted to him, and was received into favour ; but as
16
18
his feditious and turbulent behaviour flill continued, ,
n^, . Dion b!
1 his ac- conie.rj
Dion at laft gave orders to put him to death
tion, however neceffary, fo affedled the mind of Dion, lanchol
that he became melancholy ; and ever after imagined and is 1
himfelf haunted by a frightful fpeftre, refembling a wo-^ere^
man of gigantic ftature, with the haggard looks and air
of a fury. In a fliort time after he loft his life, through
the bafe treachery of Calippus, or Gylippus, who pre¬
tended to be his intimate friend, and who immediately
after caufed his wife and After to be carried to prifon.
Calippus having removed Dion, foon made him¬
felf matter of Syracufe, where he committed all manner
of cruelties; but was driven out, and forced t» fly to
Rhegium, where he was murdered with the fame dagger
which had killed Dion. In 350 B. C. Dionyflus again
made himfelf mafter of Syracufe; and being exafperated
by his paft misfortunes, tyrannized worfe than ever. The Dionyn
Syracufans firft had recourfe to Icetas tyrant of Leonti-re^oie
ni; but as the Carthaginians topk this opportunity to in¬
vade
19
SYR
[ 18
J :ufe. vade them with a powerful fleet, and army, they were
J ——1 obliged to apply to the Corinthians. By them I imo-
leon a celebrated commander, was fent to the afliftance
of tlie Syracufans, whom lie found in a very diftrefied
fituation j Icetas being mafter of the city, the. Carthagi¬
nians of the harbour, and Dionyfius of the citadel. As
all parties were equally the enemies of Dionyfius, he
fu nders found it impoflible to hold out, and therefore furrender-
o no- ed himfelf to Timoleon, by whom he was fent to Co-
e( and rinth ; where at laft he was reduced to the neceffity of
[aat teaching a fchool for his fupport.
;c th. After the expulfion of the tyrant, Timoleon with¬
drew to Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under
the command of an experienced officer named Leon, to
guard the citadel. Thefe were immediately befieged by
Icetas and the Carthaginians, but Timoleon found means
to relieve them in fpite of all oppofition *, and having
difperfed emiflaries through the army of Mago the Car¬
thaginian general, exhorting the mercenary Greeks.to
forfake him, he was fo much intimidated, that in fpite
ft irdice of all the remonftrances Icetas could make, he fet fail
d e Car- for Africa, leaving his colleagde to carry on the war
tl mans. jn t|)e beft manner he could.
The day after the departure of Mago, Timoleon af-
faulted the city fo brifldy, that the troops of Icetas
were driven from the walls, and the Corinthians became
C id of inafters piace» Timoleon, by found of trumpet,
d ;ufe° invited the inhabitants to come and affirt in demolifliing
p jther the citadel and other caftles, which he called the nejis of
to demo- tyrants ; after which he caufed edifices to be erected in
I Jeon tlie Place where tlie citadel had ftood’ ^or the admird-
° ' ftration of jultice. He found the city in a molt miferable
fituation : for many having periffied in the wars and fe-
ditions, and others having fled to avoid the oppreffion
of tyrants, Syracufe, once fo wealthy and populous, was
now become almoft a defert *, infomuch that the horfes
were fed on the grafs which grew on the market-place,
epeo- Timoleon fupplied the city with inhabitants from Co-
P the rinth and other cities of Greece, at the fame time that
great multitudes from Italy and the other parts of Sicily
reforted thither. Timoleon diftributed the lands among
them gratis ; but fold the houfes, and with the money
arifing from the fale eftabliffied a fund for the fupport of
the poor. Having thus reftored Syracufe, he in like
manner delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the
tyrants who had taken poffeffion of them, all of whom
he put to death. After this he refigned his authority,
and led a retired life, honoured in the higheft degree by
.^ the Syracufans, and by all the cities in Sicily. After
1 , and is his death, he was honoured as a god 5 the expence of his
h wed as funeral was defrayed by the public ; fports, with horfe-
a u- races and gymnaftic exercifes, were held annually on
the day of his death j and it was decreed, that whenever
the Syracufans were at war with the barbarians, they
2. ftiould fend to Corinth for a general.
S cufe For 20 years the Syracufans enjoyed the fruits of
a nfalls Timoleon’s viftories; but new difturbances arifing, in a
a ^t!l® fhort time another tyrant ftarted up, who exceeded all
t nts that had gone before him in cruelty and other vices.
This was the celebrated Agathocles, of whofe exploits
againft the Carthaginians a full account is given under
the articla Carthage, N° 33—53.' He was poifoned
by one Moenon in the year 289 B. C. after having reign¬
ed 28 years, and lived 9?.— A fucceffion of tyrants fol¬
lowed, till at laft the city, being held by two rivals,
I ] SYR.
Toenion and Sofiftratus, who made war within the.very . Syracufe..
walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus was invited into Sicily, ^
in order to put an end to thefe diftra&ions. He will- pyrr},us
lingly complied with the invitation j and W'as everywhere king 0f
received with loud acclamations, as the deliverer not on-Epirus in¬
ly of Syracufe, but of all Sicily. As he had a fine army ^j1 ,nto
of 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe, with a fleet of 200 fail,
he drove the Carthaginians from place to place, till he
left them only the two ftrong polls of Eryx and Lily-
baeum. The former of thefe he took by affault, and
was himfelf the firft man who mounted the walls, after
having killed a great number of Africans with his own
hand. The Marnertines like wife, who had conquered
a confiderable part of the ifland, were everywhere de¬
feated and driven out, till at laft they were lhut up in
the city of Meffana. The Carthaginians, alarmed at
the rapidity of his conquefts, fent ambaffadors with pro-
pofals of peace upon very advantageous terms j but
Pyrrhus, puffed up with the expe&ation of reducing the
whole ifland, refufed to hearken to any terms unlefs
they would inftantly abandon it. So firm was be in
the belief of this, that he caufed his fon to affume the
title of king of Sicily; but in the mean time, having
difpleafed the Sicilians by his arbitrary behaviour, they
delerted from him in fuch numbers that he was glad to
fet out for Italy, for w'hich retreat the embaffies he re¬
ceived from the Samnites, Tarentines, and other Ita¬
lians, furniffied him with an honourable pretext, tie
embarked in the ffiips which he had brought with him
from Italy } but was met at fea by the Carthaginiahs,
who funk 70 of his vefiels, and difperfed or took the
reft ; fo that he faved himfelf in Italy with only 12
veffels, the poor remains of a fleet of 200 fail. No Syracufe
fooner were the Mamertines apprifed of his departure,
than they difpatched a body of 18,000 men to harafs^®^. ttmer‘
him after his landing. Thefe, having paffed the ftraits
before him, polled themfelves in the road which Pyrrhus
mull take in marching by land to Tarentum j and con¬
cealing themfelves among woods and rocks, attacked
him unexpectedly, and with great refolution. But
Pyrrhus behaved on thisoecafion with his ufual bravery.
The attack being made on his rear, he battened thither,
and made a dreadful flaughter of the enemy, till a wound
on his head obliged him to retire. 28
After the departure of Pyrrhus,. Hiero the fon of Hiero cho-
Hierocles, a defcendant of Gelon, the firft king of Sy-
racufe, was chofen general of the forces, along with°ufanefo£a“
another named Artemiclot'us. The two generals hadces.
nothing more at heart than to put an end to the con-
fufion and diforder which reigned in the city ; for which
reafon they entered it at the head of their forces. On
this occafion Hiero difcovered extraordinary talents for
government. By mere dint of infinuation and addrefs,
without ffiedding blood, or hurting a Angle citizen, he
calmed the minds of the people ; reconciled the fac¬
tions •, and fo gained the affe&ions of all, that he was
inverted with the whole civil as well as military power
in the ftate. Soon after this, he married the daughter
of one of the firft citizens ; and having diltinguiffied
himfelf by his exploits againft the Mamertines, was
unanimoufly eleCled king of Syracufe, in the year 2651s ele&ed
B. C. king of Sy-
Some time after Hiero’s acceffion to the throne, he racuie-
again defeated the Mamertines, and reduced them tojj11^26^
fuch ftraits, that they were obliged to call in the Ro¬
mans,
'Syracufe.
3°
Hierony¬
mus allies
with the
Carthagi-
• nians.
* See Car¬
thage, N°
123.
3i
Syracufe
inrelted.
32 ,
Incredible
effedts of
the ma¬
chines of
Archime¬
des.
SYR
mans to their affiftance. The confequences of this have
been fully related under the articles Rome and Car-
'IHAGE. Hiero, who had allied himftlf with the Cartha¬
ginians, being himfelf defeated by the Romans, and find¬
ing his allies unable to proteft him againft the power of
that republic, concluded an alliance with them •, and
continued faithful to them even in the time of the fe-
cond Punic war, when they were in the greateft difirefs.
In his reign flourifhed the celebrated mathematician
Archimedes, whofe genius he employed in fortifying the
city of Syracufe, by innumerable machines, in fuch a
manner as rendered it abfolutely impregnable to every
method of attack known at that time.
Hiero died about 211 B. C. and was fucceeded by
his grandfon Hieronymus : but he imprudently forfook
the counfels of his grandfather, and entered into an al¬
liance with the Carthaginians. Soon after this he was
murdered, in confequence of his tyranny and cruelty,
and the greateft diforders took place in the city; which
Hannibal, though then in Italy, found means to foment,
in hopes of keeping the Syracufans in his intereft. This
indeed he effefted ; but as his own afiairs in Italy began
to decline *, he could not prevent Marcellos from land¬
ing in Sicily with a formidable army, which the Sicili¬
ans could by no means refift. Syracufe was foon in-
vefted •, but the machines invented by Archimedes baf¬
fled all attempts to take it by affault. The immenfe
preparations which the conful had made for taking the
city by ftorm, could not have failed to accomplifli his
purpofe, had the place been otherwife defended than by
the contrivance of Archimedes. The Roman fleet con-
fifted of 60 quinqueremes, befides a far greater number
of other fhips. The decks were covered with foldiers
armed with darts, flings, and bows, to drive the befieg-
ed from the ramparts, which on one fide were waftied by
the fea, and to facilitate the approach to the walls. But a
machine of Marcellus’s own invention, called z/ambuca,
was what he chiefly depended on. The conful’s defign
wras to bring his fambuca to the foot of the walls of
Acradina; but, while it was at a confiderable diftance
(and it advanced very flowly, being moved only by two
ranks of rowers), Archimedes difcharged from one of
his engines a vaft ftone, weighing, according to Plu¬
tarch’s account, 1250 pounds, then a fecond, and imme¬
diately after a third •, all which, falling upon the fam¬
buca with a dreadful noife, broke its fupports, and gave
the galleys upon which it flood fuch a violent ftiock
,that they parted, and the machine which Marcellus had
raifed upon them at a vaft trouble and expence was bat¬
tered to pieces. At the fame time, feveral other ma¬
chines, which were not vifible without the walls, and
confequently did notleffen the confidence of the Romans
in the aflault, played inceflantly upon their {hips, and
overwhelmed them with {bowers of ftones, rafters, and
beams pointed with iron j infomuch that Marcellus, be¬
ing at a lofs what to do, retired with all poflible hafte,
and fent orders to his land-forces to do the fame j for
the attack on the land-fide was attended with no better
fiuccefs, the ranks being broken and thrown into the ut-
moft confufion by the ftones and darts, which flew with
fuch noife, force, and rapidity, that they ftruck the Ro¬
mans with terror, and dallied all to pieces before them.
Marcellus, furprifed, though not difcouraged, at this
artificial ftorm, which he did not expeft, held a council
©f war, in which it was refolved, the next day before
SYR
funrife, to come up clofe under the wall, and keep Sjracl <,
there. They were in hopes by this means to fecure l
themfelves againft the terrible ftorm of ftones and darts
which fell on the {hips when at a diftance. But Ar¬
chimedes had prepared engines which were adapted to t
all diftances. When the Romans therefore had brought
their fliips clofe under the wall, and thought themfelves f)
well covered, they were unexpe&edly overwhelmed with
a new fliower of darts and ftones, which fell perpendi¬
cularly on their heads, and obliged them to retire with
great precipitation. But they were no fooner got at
fome diftance, than a new {bower of darts overtook
them, which made a dreadful havock of the men, while
ftones of an immenfe weight, difcharged from other ma- i
chines, either difabled or broke in pieces moft of their V
galleys. This lofs they fuftained, without being able “
to revenge it in the leaft on the enemy. For Archi- [
medes had placed moft of his engines behind the walls,
and not only out of the reach, but even out of the fight,
of the enemy •, fo that the Romans were repulfed with a
dreadful {laughter, without feeing the hand that occa-
fioned it. What moft harafied the Romans in the at¬
tack by fea, was a fort of crow with iron claws, faften-
ed to a long chain, which was let down by a kind jof
lever. The weight of the iron made it fall with great
violence, and drove it into the planks of the galleys.
Then the befieged, by a great weight of lead at the
other end of the lever, weighed it down, and confe¬
quently raifed up the iron of the crow in proportion, t
and with it the prow of the galley to which it was faf-
tened, finking the poop at the fame time into the water.
After this the crow letting go its hold all of a fudden,
the prow of the galley fell with fuch force into the fea,
that the whole veffel was filled with water, and funk. |
At other times, the machines, dragging ftiips to the
ftiore by hooks, daftred them to pieces againft the points
of the rocks which projected under the walls. Other
veffels were quite lifted up into the air, there whirled
about with incredible rapidity, and then let fall into the <! $
fea, and funk, with all that were in them. How thefe
ftupendous works were effedled, few, if anyj have
hitherto been able to comprehend.
The troops under the command of Appiusfuffered no
lefs in this fecond attack than the fleet. In the whole
fpace of ground which the army, when formed, took up,
the laft files as well as the firft were overwhelmed with
{bowers of darts and flints, againft which they could not
poftibly defend themfelves. When they had with in¬
finite trouble brought the mantlets and covered gal¬
leries, under which they were to work the rams, near
the foot of the wall, Archimedes difcharged fuch large
beams and ftones upon them as cruftied them to pieces.
If any brave Roman ventured to draw too near the wall,
iron hooks were immediately let down from above,
which, taking hold of his clothes or fome part of his
body, lifted him up in the air and daftied out his brains
with the fall. Marcellus, though at a lofs what to do,
could not however forbear exprefling himfelf with plea-
fantry : Shall we perfift, faid he to his workmen, in mar¬
king war upon this Briareus, upon this giant with an
hundred hands ? But the foldiers were fo terrified, that
if they faw upon the w'alls only a fmall cord, or the leaft
piece of wood, they immediately turned their backs and
fled, crying out, that Archimedes was going to dilcharge
fome dreadful machine upon them.
[ 182 ]
r 13
n ’ese
i n ,i into
»' ckade.
h uilt ot
I ;jj aking
Df racu'.e.
| hs
|: T fity
p iered,
; a Archi¬
ll es kil-
k
36
5 icute
0 roved
t he Sa-
; I ns.
• SYR [ 183 •] SYR
The confuls, finding themfelves thus defeated in every often (liaken by earthquakes. E. Long
attempt, turned the fiege into a blockade, reduced moft
her places in tiie ifland, and defeated the forces
K. 27. N. Lat. Syracufe,
' S-yria.
of the 0 ,
which were fent againft them ; and at laft Marcellu
made himfelf mafler of Syracufe itfelf. He took the
opportunity of a feftival, when the foldiers and citizens
had drunk plentifully, to make a detachment fcale the
walls of Tyche, in that part of it which was neared to
Epipolas, and which was ill guarded. He prefently af¬
ter poffeffed himfelf of Epipolm •, whereupon the inha¬
bitants of Neapolis, as well as Tyche, fent deputies to
him, and fubmitted. Marcellus granted life and liberty
to all of free condition, but gave up thofe quarters of
the city to be plundered. The foldiers had orders to
fpare the lives of the citizens •, but they were cruel in
their avarice, (lew many of them, and among the reft
the incomparable Archimedes. He was very intent on
a demonftration in geometry, and calmly drawing his
lines, when a foldier entered the room, and clapped a
fword to his throat. “ Hold ! (faid Archimedes) one
moment, and my demonftration will be finiftied.1’ But
the foldier, equally regardlefs of his prayer and his de¬
monftration, killed him inftantly. There are different
accounts of the manner of his death ; but all agree that
Marcellus regretted it extremely, and ftiowed a lingular
favour to his relations for his fake.
The city of Syracufe continued fubje£l to the weftern
empire till its declenfion, when the ifland of Sicily, be¬
ing ravaged by different barbarians, the capital alfo un¬
derwent various revolutions *, till at laft, in the 9th cen¬
tury, it was fo deftroyed by the Saracens, that very few
traces of its ancient grandeur arc now to be feen. “ The
ancient city of Syracufe was of a triangular form, and
confifted of five parts or towns. The circuit, accord
SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of Alia, lying be¬
tween the Mediterranean on the weft, the Euphrates on
the eaft, and Arabia Deferta, Phoenicia and Paleftine,
on the fouth. t 1
In ancient times this country was called Aram, pro-Names, m-
bably from Aram the youngeft fon of Shem. At *
it was parcelled out into feveral petty ftates •, aft 0fsytia.
which feem afterwards to have been reduced under lub-
jedlion to the four principal ones, Zobah, Damafcus,
Hamath, and Gelhur. Afterwards the w'hole country
was divided into two parts only, viz. Ccelefyria and Phoe¬
nicia j though the Phoenicians, Idumeans, Jews, Gazites,
and Azotites, or the w'hole country of the Philiftines,
was included. After the death of Alexander, Syria, in ,
the great extent of the word, was divided, according to
Strabo, into Comagene, Seleucis of Syria, Coelefyria,
Phcenice on the fea coaft, and Judea in the midland.
Ptolemy, however, fubdivides thefe ; and in the Proper
Syria reckons only Comagene, Pieria, Cyrrhiftica or
Cyrrheftica, Seleucis, Caffiotis or Caliotis, Chalybonitis,
Chalcidice or Chalcidene, Apamene, Laodicene, Phoe¬
nicia Mediterranea, Coelefyria, and Palmyrene.
The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, till the time of
their being carried aw7ay by the kings of Affyria, is to¬
tally unknown, excepting a few particulars which may
be gathered from Scripture, and which it is needlefs
here to repeat. During the continuance of the Affy-
rian, Babylonian, and Perfian monarchies, the hiftory of
this country affords nothing remarkable ; but after the
death of Alexander, it gave name to a very confidera-
able empire, which makes a confpicuous figure in an¬
cient hiftory. At this time, however, it was not con¬
ing to Strabo, amounted to 180 ftadia, or 22 Englifti fined to Syria properly fo called, but comprehended all
• 1 1 r r 1 a  t 1. iA/r„ el. • tton .•.•.-/.TTt-.-.c.c tRo TTiinpr Aiin -ivliinVi formed
miles, and four furlongs. An account which Mr Swin¬
burne once fufpefled of exaggeration ; but, after fpend-
ing two days in tracing the ruins, and making reafon-
able allowances for the encroachments of the fea, he was
convinced of the exaftnefs of Strabo’s meafurement.
At prefent it is ftrongly fortified towards the land,
and the ditches of the baftions form the communications
between the two havens. It is very weak towards the
fea, but the (helves render it hazardous to debark on
that fide. The garrifon is one of the beft appointed in the
kingdom, but the heightsofAcradina command the w'orks.
About eighteen thoufand inhabitants are now con¬
tained in it. The dwellings are far from being memo¬
rials of ancient Syracufan architeflure or opulence. In
any other fituation they might be thought tolerable j
but to obfervers who refteft on the ftyle of thofe build¬
ings that probably once covered the fame ground, the
prefent edifices muft have a mean appearance. The
ancient temple of Minerva is now turned into a cathe¬
dral. The wTalls of the cella are thrown down, and on¬
ly as much left in pillars as is neceffary to fupport the
roof; the intercolumniations of the peril!vie are walled
up. This temple is built in the old Doric proportions
ufed in the reft of Sicily ; its exterior dimenfions are
185 feet in length and 75 in breadth. There are alfo
fome remains of Diana’s temple, but now fcarcely dif-
cernible. Befides thefe, there are few ruins in the ifland ;
and one is furprifed that any (hould exift in a place
'R'.Jueh had been fo often laid wafte by enemies, and fo
thofe vaft provinces of the Upper Afia which formed
the Perfian empire ; being, in its full extent, bounded
by the Mediterranean upon one fide, and the river In- 2
dus on the other. The firft king was Seleucus, one of^eucns
the generals of Alexander the Great; who, after thejY^Y
death of that conqueror, being made governor of Baby- Syria after
Ion, w;as tempted, by the example of Alexander’s other Alexander
captains, to fet up for himfelf. Eumenes, who had fin-the Great*
cerely at heart the intereft of Alexander’s family, (eli¬
cited his affiftance againft Antigonus, who had openly
revolted ; but Seleucus not only refufed his afliftance,
but attempted to deftroy Eumenes himfelf with his
whole army. Eumenes, however, found means to
efcape the danger without the lofs of a man. On this
Seleucus endeavoured to gain over his troops: but find¬
ing that impoffible, he made a truce with Eumenes, and’
granted him a fafe paffage through his province ; but
at the fame time fent an exprefs to Antigonus, defiring
him to fall upon him, before he was joined by the go¬
vernors of Upper Afia. Antigonus did not fail to fol¬
low his advice ; but having prevailed againft Eumencs
through treachery, he next thought of bringing Seleu- 3
cus himfelf under fubjettion. On his return to Baby- Obliged by
Ion, therefore, after having been feafted with his whole ^n£lg^'t"S
army by Seleucus, he demanded of him an account of
the revenues of his province. Receiving an unfavourable
anfwer to this requifition, Antigonus was fo much exafpe-
rated, that Seleucus, not thinking himfelf a match for
him at that time, thought proper to fly into Egypt.
By
Syria.
4
Becomes
matter of
Babylon.
An. 312.
B. C.
5
Defeats
Nicanor,
and reduces
SYR [1
By the flight of Seleucus, Antigonus was left matter
of all his provinces ; but his fon Demetrius being after¬
wards defeated by Ptolemy at Gaza, Seleucus began to
think of recovering what he had loll. Having received
from Ptolemy a very flender force, he fet out towards
Babylon, and procured reinforcements as he proceeded.
As he approached the city, thofe who favoured Anti¬
gonus retired into the citadel, but were foon obliged to
furrender •, and in that fortrefs Seleucus found his child¬
ren, friends, and domeftics, whom Antigonus had kept
prifoners ever fince his flight into Egypt.
Seleucus having made himfelf matter of Babylon, in
the year 312 B. C. began to prepare for encountering
Antigonus, who he knew would foon attack him with
all his force. Nicanor, governor of Media under An¬
tigonus, firft advanced againft him at the head of 10,000
-“foot and 7000 horfe; but Seleucus, with only 3000
Sufiana.an foot and 400 horfe, having drawn him into an ambufli,
cut off almoft the whole of his army, and fuch of the
foldiers as had efcaped the flaughter willingly enlifted
Under his banner.
The confequence of this vi&ory was the fubmiffion
of all Media and Sufiana but during his abfence from
the capital, Demetrius advanced towards it, and made
himfelf matter of it.
On the return of Seleucus to Babylon, he eaflly drove
out the troops left by Demetrius, recovered the cattle
which he had garrifoned, and fettled his authority on
fuch a firm foundation, that it could never afterwards
be moved. Having then marched again into Media,
he defeated and killed with his own hand Nicanor or
Nicator, whom Antigonus had fent againft him •, after
which, having fettled the affairs of IVIedia, he reduced
all Perfia, Baftria, and Hyrcania, fubje&ihg to his new
empire thefe and all the other provinces on this fide the
Indus which had been conquered.
Seleucus being now matter of all the countries which
lie between the Euphrates and the Indus, took the title
of king of Babylon and Media. But, not fatisfied with
thefe poffeflions, ample as they were, he csoffed the In¬
dus, in order to conquer thofe regions which had fub-
mitted to Alexander beyond that river. In this expe¬
dition, however, he was unfuccefsful j but returning
weftward againft his old enemy Antigonus, he defeated
and killed him at Ipfus, and reduced his fon Demetrius
to a very dependent ftate. Seleucus now betook him¬
felf to the building of a city, which he called Seleucia^
and which flood on the place where the city of Bagdad
now ftands. Befides thefe, he built a great many others ;
16 of which he called Antioch, from the name of his
brother Antiochus •, nine Seleucia, from his own name;
three Apamea, from Apama his firft wife ; one Stratoni-
cea, from his fecond wife Stratonice j and fix Laodicea,
from his mother Laodice.
In 284 Seleucus entered into a war with Lyfimachus,
with whom he had hitherto lived in ftrift amity. Out
of 36 general officers left by Alexander the Great, they
two furvived, and both were upwards of 70 years old.
Neverthelefs they were both filled with the ambition
and animufity of voung men. The two armies met at
6 a place called Curopedion in Phyrgia, where an obftinate
Defeats and engagement took place. Vi&ory was long doubtful:
Bills Lyfi- but at laft Lyfimachus was run through with a fpear,
and died on the fpot; on which his troops betook them-
felves to flight. This victory added to the poffeflions
84 ] s Y .R
of Seleucus all thofe provinces which had formerly been Syril
fubjedt to Lyfimachus, and from this vidtory he is ge-u-v<
nerally called Nicator, or the conqueror. His triumph,^.?
however, on this occafion, was but fhort-lived j tor treadiij
feven months after, he was marching towards Mace-ouflynl
don to take poffeffion of that kingdom, he was treach-dered,
eroufly murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, on whom he
had conferred innumerable favours. . g
Seleucus was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Soter, Antioij
who held the empire 19 years. He refigned to Anti-Soter.
gonus Gonatus all pretenfions to the crown of Macedon; ^
and having engaged in a war with Eumenes king of ' ' I
Pergamus, he was defeated by him, and obliged to yield q
up part of his dominions. He died in 261 B. C. and Antic
was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Iheosj who lia-Theos
ving engaged in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king £^2
of Egypt, the Parthians and Battrians took that oppor¬
tunity to revolt, and could never afterwards be reduced.
In 246 B. C. he was poifoned by his wife Laodice, who
raifed to the throne her own fon, named Seleucus Cal- I
linicus. He was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Seleucus Seieuj
Ceraunus, a weak prince, who was poifoned by a con- Calliik
fpiracy of two of his officers, when he had reigned one An.:
year j after which his brother Antiochus, furnamed the
Great, afcended the throne in 225 B. C. . ,
In the very beginning of his reign, two of his generals, Antih
Alexander and Molo, rebelled againft him. The for-the (Jit
mer had been appointed governor of Perfia, and the lat- An. .
ter of Media. Antiochus marched againft the rebels,
whom he defeated in a pitched battle *, on which their
urachus.
chiefs laid violent hands on themfelves. On his return supp6,
he received the fubmiffion of the Atropatii, a barbarous one 1
people in Media ; and put to death his prime minifter hojl
Hermias, whom he had found hatching treacherous de-*™jj
figns againft him. During his lifetime, however, theot!ie|'
traitor, by accufing Achseus of treafon, had obliged him
to revolt in his own defence •, fo that the king had ftill
two important wars on his hands, viz. one with Ptole¬
my king of Egypt, and the other againft Achseus. Af¬
ter fome deliberation, he refolved to march firft againft
the king of Egypt $ and was at firft very fuccefsful, re*
ducing many cities in Coelefyria and Paleftine, and de¬
feating the Egyptians in a pitched battle j but in the
year 217 B. C. being worfted in the battle of Raphia,
he was obliged to abandon all his conquefts } of which
Ptolemy immediately took poffeffion, and Antiochus
was obliged to cede them to him, that he might be at
leifure to purfue the war againft Achseus.
Antiochus having made vaft preparations for his ex¬
pedition, foon reduced Achseus to fuch diftrefs, that he
was obliged to (hut himfelf up in the city of Sardis,
which he defended for fome time with great bravery j
till at laft, being betrayed by two Cretans, he was de¬
livered up to the king, and by his order put to death. 3
Antiochus then undertook an expedition againft the Hut
Parthians, whom he obliged to conclude a peace on ts
very advantageous terms. He then turned his arms
againft the king of Baftria, whom he alio compelled to
agree to his terms. He then croffcd Mount Caucafus,
and entered India; where he renewed his alliance with
the king of that country. From India he marched into
Arachofia, Drangiana, and Carmania, eftablilhing or¬
der and difcipline in all thofe countries : then paffing
through Perfia, Babylonia, and Mefopotamia, he re¬
turned to Antioch, after an abfence of feven years.
In
Philip       -~j—    — ---
c lacedon invaded Afia Minor, in hopes of reducing it alfo, and
giinft the re{loring the Syrian empire to the fame extent it had in
the time of Seleucus Nicator. The free cities in Afia
; ‘204. Minor immediately had recourfe to the Romans, who
j, fent an embaffy to Antiochus on the occafion ; but as
JS both parties put on thofe haughty and imperious airs to
^ ,con' which they thought the greatnefs of their power gave
j eked by them a right, no fatisfa&ion was given, but every thing
1 Ro- tended to an open rupture. While matters were in this
ns. . fituation, Hannibal the Great being obliged to leave
^ | his own country, fled to Antiochus : from whom he
fu, h;m met with a gracious reception. As Hannibal had,
protec- while a child, fworn perpetual enmity againlt the Ro-
•• mans, he ufed all his eloquence to perfuade Antiochus
to make war with them ; and as the many victories
which he had gained over them left no room to doubt
of his capacity, Antiochus doubted nothing of being
able, by his afliftance, to conquer that haughty people.
Several embaffies paffed between the two nations j but
chiefly with a defign, on the part of Antiochus, to gain
time. Hannibal endeavoured to draw' his countrymen
into the confederacy againft Rome, but without effeft.
Antiochus having ftrengthened himfelf by feveral al-
'lettstheliances, at lafl: refolved to begin the w'ar in earneft. The
dte of king imprudently became the aggreflbr, by falling on a
iwibal. body of 500 Romans before war had been declared. He
alfo made King Philip his enemy, by entertaining the
,9 regent of Athamania, who was a pretender to the crown
s flume- of Macedon. To complete all, he himfelf fell in love,
beha- though above 50 years of age, with a beautiful young
lUr‘ woman of Chalcis, whom he married ; and became fo
great a flave to this paflion, that he entirely neglected
his affairs 5 the army gave themfelves up entirely to dif-
fipation and debauchery, and every trace of military dif-
T cipline vaniflied.
defeated ^e year 191 B. C. Antiochus was roufedfrom his
the Ro- lethargy by a declaration of war againft him at Rome,
ms at and fet out for ^Etolia. His army at this time amount-
lermopy- e(j no more tfjan 10,000 foot and 500 horfe. He
had been made to believe that be would receive a vaft
reinforcement in ^htolia : but when he came to make
the experiment, he foon found his miflake j all the
troops he could raife there amounted to no more than
4000 men. With this force, fo exceedingly inadequate
to the purpofe, he was obliged to oppofe the Roman ar¬
ray, who were advancing in conjunction -with the Ma¬
cedonians, and had already made furprifing progrefs.
Antiochus feized the ftraits of Thermopylae 5 but was
driven from them by the Romans, the king himfelf be¬
ing the firft that fled. Almoft his whole army was de-
ftroyed in the battle or in the purfuit, and Antiochus
returned with difgrace into Alla.
Soon after his return, Antiochus equipped a fleet of
200 fail ; on which he immediately embarked for the
Ibracian Cherfonefus, now Crim Tartary. He for¬
tified the cities of Lyfimachia, Seftus, and Abydos,
with others in that neighbourhood, to prevent the Ro¬
mans from croffing the Hellefpont. In the mean time
Polyxenidas the Syrian admiral fent intelligence to the
king that the Roman fleet had appeared off Delos ; upon
Vol. XX. Part I.
SYR [ 1
In the year 204 B. C. Antiochus entered into a
league with Philip of Macedon, on purpofe to deprive
Ptolemv Epiphanes, the infant king of Egypt, of all
his dominions. He defeated the Egyptian general, re¬
covered all Palefline and Coelefyria ; after which he
.i?
itiochus
191.
85 •] SYR
which he defired him tofeek them out and engage them Syria,
at all events. He did fo, and was defeated with the
Id’s of 40 (hips taken or funk in the engagement. This ^eet
was foon after revenged by the deltru&ion of the Rbo- defeated by
dian fleet by the artifice of Polyxenidas; but in the end that of the
the king’s affairs went everywhere to wreck. Having Romans,
laid fiege to the city of Pergamus, he was obliged to
raife it with lofs $ the Phoenician fleet commanded by 2t
Hannibal was defeated by the Rhodians j and foon after Meets with
the Syrian fleet under Polyxenidas was utterly defeated two other
by the Romans. Antiochus was fo much dilheartened''t[tests’an(*
by thefe repeated defeats, that he appeared like one in- ]jk{j one jn^
fatuated. Inftead of fortifying more llrongly thofe cities fatuatecj.
which lay on the frontiers of his kingdom, he entirely
deferted them : and thus Lyfimachia and Abydos, the
two keys to Afia, fell into the hands of the Romans
without the leaft refiftance.
The arrival of the Romans in Afia ftruck Antiochus
with fuch terror, that he inftantly (ued for peace. The
terms he offered were indeed very advantageous, but
by no means agreeable to the expe&ations of the Ro-
mans. They therefore gave him this final anfwer : Sues tor
I. That fince he had drawn upon himfelf the war, he peace, but
ftiould defray the whole expence of it ; 2. That hels refilled*
fhould reflore liberty in general to all the Greek
cities in Afia ; and, 3. That to prevent future hofti-
lities, he fliould relinquifh all Afia on this fide Mount
Taurus. Thefe terms, however, Hill appeared to him
fo intolerable, that he refolved to continue the war j
and determined alfo to take the moft imprudent me¬
thod of carrying it on, namely, by hazarding all on
the event of a general engagement. The king en¬
camped near Magnefia, and ffrongly fortified his camp.
The Romans infulted him in his trenches, and propofed
to attack his fortifications if he continued to decline an
engagement. At laft the kin^, thinking it would be
lhameful for him longer to refuie an engagement, being
at the head of an army far more numerous than that of
the enemy, in a friend’s country, and in the midft of
his allies, refolved at all events to accept the challenge,
and accordingly prepared for a decifive battle.
On the day of the battle the weather proved very pattie 0f
favourable to the Romans j for a thick fog riling in the Magneiia.
morning, the day was almoft turned into night, fo that
the Syrian commanders could not have all the corps
under their command in view, on account of their great
extent, nor fend them proper orders in time ; whereas
the fog was not thick enough to prevent the Roman ge¬
nerals from feeing their feveral bodies at the greateft
diftance, as they took up but little ground. Befides,
the damp which was oceafioned by the fog flaekened
the firings of the enemy’s bows, fo that the Aliatics
who ufed them could (hoot their darts and arrows but
faintly. The whole dependence of Antiochus in the
firft attack was on his armed chariots, which were to
cut their way into the Roman army. But Eumenes, king
of Pergamus, undertook to render them ufelefs, and even
fatal, to the enemy, After this advantage, the Roman
cavalry advanced, and fell on thofe whom the chariots
had put in diforder. The Syrians being already intimi- The Sy-
dated, after a faint refiftance gave way j and the Romans nans Re¬
made a great {laughter of their men and horfes, both be-^eat<!^*
ing borne down with the weight of their heavy armour.
Eumenes charged the left-wing, in which Seleucus
commanded, with fuch vigour, that he put it to flight
A a and
SYR [i
Syria. ancj i]JC fugitives flying to the phalanx for proteftion,
v ^ j)Ut hotly likevvife in diforder j which Dumitius ob-
ferving, advanced againfl. it at the head of his legion¬
aries, but could not break it till he ordered his men to
attack the elephants which the Syrians had placed
in the fpaces between the companies. The Romans
had learned, in their wars with Pyrrhus and Han¬
nibal, not to fear thofe monitors which were once fo
terrible to them. They attacked them, therefore, with
great refolution ; and driving them againfl; the pha¬
lanx, put that body into diforder, by means of thofe
very animals which had been polled there for its de¬
fence.
And their
camp ta¬
ken.
26
Antiochus
obtains
peace on
Very hard
Serins.
After a long and bloody contell, the Syrians were
totally routed, and the Romans walking over heaps of
dead bodies, marched up to the Syrian camp, attacked,
and plundered it. The riches they found in it are not
to be defcribed •, but the taking of it coft the Romans a
new battle, which proved more fatal to the Syrians
than that in the field ; for the Romans having, in fpite
of a moll defperate refinance, forced the intrenchments,
gave no quarter, but put all to the fword without diflinc-
tion. There fell this day in the battle, in the purfuit,
and in the plunder of the camp, 50,000 foot and 4000
horfe 5 1500 were taken prifoners, and 15 elephants.
In the confular army there were but 300 foot killed
and 25 horfe. Eumenes had only 15 of his men kill¬
ed ; fo that this viftory, as we are told by the ancients,
feemed a prodigy to all nations both of the eafi. and
weft.
Antiochus retired to Sardis with as many of his
forces that had efcaped the daughter as he could draw
together. From Sardis he foon marched to rejoin his
fon Seleucus, who had fled to Apamea. As for the
conful, he took advantage of the king’s defeat and
flight, making himfelf mailer of all the neighbouring
countries. Deputies haftened to him from all parts;
the cities of Thyatira, Magnefia, Trallis, Magnefia in
Caria, all Lydia, and Ephefus itfelf, though -highly
favoured by Antiochus, declared for the Romans. Po-
lyxenidas, upon the news of the king’s defeat, left the
port of Ephefus, and failed to Patara, where he landed
with a very fmall guard, and returned by land into Sy¬
ria. The conful took the road to Sardis, which open¬
ed its gates to him.
Antiochus finding his affairs in a bad fituation both
by fea and land, and not daring to appear before the
confular army in the field, fent Antipater his brother’s
fon, and Zeuxis, who had been governor of Lydia and
Phrygia, to fue for a peace. They were ordered to
treat chiefly with the elder Scipio, of whofe clemency
and good nature Antiochus entertained a high opinion.
Accordingly, on their arrival at Sardis, where the con¬
ful then was with his brother, they addrefled the latter,
and were by him prefented to the conful. Their fpeech
was very fubmiffive, and fuch as became a vanquiftied
people.
Hereupon a council was fummoned, and after long
debates the ambaffadors were called in; and Scipio A-
fricanus propofed terms that were very humiliating.
The ambaiTadors of Antiochus had been ordered to
refufe no terms; and therefore thefe were accepted and
the whole affair concluded. So that the Syrian ambaf¬
fadors now prepared to fet out for Rome, to get the con¬
ditions of peace propofed by Scipio ratified there. L.
86 ] SYR
Aurelius Cotta was fcnt with the ambaffadors to Rome, Sjn
to acquaint the fenate with the particulars of the treaty, '■“’"v—
When they appeared before the confcript fathers, they S
fpoke with great fubmiflion, and only defired them to
ratify the articles which the Scipios had offered to their
mailer. The fenate, after examining them, ordered
that a treaty of peace fliould be concluded with Antio¬
chus, and the articles of it engraved on brafs, and fixed
up in the Capitol. They only added one claufe, which
was, That the Syrians fliould change every year all
their hoftages, except the fon of King Antiochus, who
ihould conjinue at Rome as long as the republic thought
fit. The peace being thus ratified, and all Alia on this
fide Mount Taurus delivered into the hands of the Ro¬
mans, the Greek cities were by them reftored to their
liberty, the provinces of Caria and Lydia given to the
Rhodians, and all the reft that had belonged to Antio¬
chus bellowed upon Eumenes.
Antiochus did not long furvive his misfortune atH;3.:Ll
Magnefia. He died in 187, and with him fell the glory An. isV ;
of the Syrian empire. The Romans now gave laws to the B. C.
kings of Syria, infomuch, that when Antiochus Epi-
phanes the grandfon of Antiochus the Great hefitated
at obeying the commands of the fenate, one of the am¬
baffadors drew a circle round him with a rod on the
floor, and told him that he ftiould not go out of that
fpot before he had told him what he was to do. The Syria be-l
moll remarkable tranfaflions of this prince are his wars comes a
with the Jews, and perfecutions of them; of whicha^om.an
full account is given under the article Jews. After aPr0Ylnct,|
variety of ufurpers and tyrants, the kingdom of Syria
fell under Tigranes king of Armenia in the year 83
B. C.; and upon his overthrow by the Romans, it be¬
came a province of the dominions of the republic. From
them it was taken by the Saracens in the reign of the
caliph Omar, and is now a province of Turkey in Alia.
See Acre. 2. r
'Syria is in feme meafure only a chain of mountains, CWmate, |
varying in their levels, fituation, and appearances. Thei
part of the country, however, next the fea is in generalt^ec0Vir'°
law, and befides this there are feveral extenfive valleys.tr^
The climate on the fea-coaft and in thefe valleys is very
hot, but in the higher parts of the country it bears a
good deal of refembianee to that of France. Syria is 1
exceedingly fertile, and the variety of its productions is
very great. Befides wheat, rye, barley, beans* and the
cotton plant, which is cultivated everywhere, Paleftine
abounds in fefamum, from which oil is procured, and
doura as good as that of Egypt. Maize thrives in the
light foil of Balbec, and even rice is cultivated with
fuccefs on the borders of the marfliy country of Havula.
They have lately begun to plant fugarcanes in the gar¬
dens of Saide and of Bairout, and they find them equal
to thofe of the Delta. Indigo grows without cultivat¬
ing on the banks of the Jordan, in the country of Bifan,
and only requires care to make it of an excellent quali¬
ty. The hill-fides of Latakia produce tobacco. Gaza 7o/«q’/1
produces dates like Mecca, and pomegranates like Al- Travels,I
giers ; Tripoli affords oranges equal to thofe of Malta ;vo^11
Bairaut figs like thofe of Marfeilles, and bananas not
inferior to thofe of St Domingo ; Aleppo enjoys the ex-
clufive advantage of producing piftachios; and Damaf-
cus juftly boafts of poffeffing all the fruits known in
France. Its ftony foil fuits equally the apples of Nor¬
mandy, the plums of Touraine, and the peaches of /
Baris,
. $ Y S [ i
Paris. Twenty forts of apricots are reckoned there,
the done of one of which contains a kernel highly valued
through all Turkey. The cochineal plant, which grows
on all that coaft, contains perhaps that precious infedt
in as high perfcftion as it is found in Mexico and St
Domingo.
The inhabitants may be divided into three principal
claffes : the defcendants of the Greeks of the Lower
Empire ; the Arabs, their conquerors ; and the. Turks,
the prefent ruling power : and thefe again, the firit in¬
to three, the fecond into four, claffes ; befides three
wandering tribes of Turkomar s, Curds, and Bedouin
Arabs. The ancient inhabitants before, the Greeks
under Alexander are entirely loft. The inhabitants are
in general of a middling ftature, and the eyes of the
Women almoft everywhere beautiful, and their ftiape
corredl and well proportioned. The general language
is Arabic.
SARINGA, the Lilac, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs diandria, and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 44th order, Sepia rite. See Botany Index.
SYRINGE, a well-known inftrument, ferving to
imbibe or fuck in a quantity of fluid, and to fquirt or
expel the fame with violence. The word is formed
from the Greek o-vg<v|, or the Latin fyrinx, “ a pipe.”
—A fyringe is only a fingle pump, and the water af-
cends in it on the fame principle as in the common fuck¬
ing-pump. See Hydrodynamics.
SYRUP, in Pharmacy, a faturated folution of fugar,
made in vegetable decoftions or infufions. See MatE-
Ria Medica.
SYSTEM, in general, denotes an affemblage or
87 T A B
chain of principles and conclufions, or the whole 01 any
doftrine, the feveral parts whereof are bound together,
and follow or depend on each other 5 in which fenfe we 1
fay a fijstem of philofophy, fijstcm of divinity, &c. The
word is formed from the Greek mirnftct, “ compofition,
compages.”
System, in the animal economy, the vafcular, the
nervous, and the cellular. See Anatomy.
System, in Mafic, an affemblage of the rules for har¬
mony, deduced from fome common principle by which
they are reunited ; by which their connection one w ith
another is formed ; from whence, as from their genuine
fource, they natively flow ; and to which, if we would
account for them, we muft have recourfe. See the ar¬
ticles Chromatic, Diatonic, Enharmonic, IIar-
Mony, Interval, and Music.
System, in Botany. See Botany.
System, in AJlronomy. See Astronomy.
SYSTOLE, in Anatomy, the eontraftion of the
heart, whereby the blood is drawn off its ventricles in¬
to the arteries ; the oppolite ftate to which is called the
diaftole, or dilatation of the heart. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
SYSTYLE, in Architecture, that manner of placing
columns where the fpace betv'een the two Hiatts confifts
of two diameters or four modules.
SYZYGY, Syzygia, in. Afronomy, a term equally
ufed for the conjundfion and oppofttion of a planet with
the fun. The word is formed from the Greek o-v^vyiu,
which properly fignifies conjunBio. On the phenomena
and circumftances of the fyzygies a great part of the
lunar theory depends. See Astronomy.
Syftcrti
I!
Syzygy.
r [ 1 or t, the 19th letter and 16th confonant of our al-
5 phabet j the found whereof is formed by a ftrong
expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a hid¬
den drawing back of the tongue from the fore-part of
the palate, with the lips at the fame time open. The
proper found of t is expreffed in moft words beginning
or ending with that letter 5 as in take, tell, hot, put. Ti
before a voivel has the found of f, or rather of fhi, as
in creation, except when f precedes, as in quef ion; and
m derivatives from words ending in ty, mighty, migh¬
tier. Th has two founds 5 the one foft, as thou, father;
the other hard, as thing, think. The found is foft in
thefe words, then, thence, and there, with their deriva¬
tives and compounds-, and in the words that, this,thus,
thy, they, though ; and in all words in which th come§
between two vowels, as, whether, rather; and between
and a vowel, as burthen.
In abbreviations, amongft the Roman writers, T.
Hands for Titus, Titius, &e.; Tab. for Tabu/arius;
lab. P. H. C. Tabularius Provincice Hifpanuc Citeno-
ns; Tar. Taryuinius; Ti. Tiberius: Ti. F. Tiberii
.films; Ti. L. Tiberii libertus : Ti. N. Tiberii Nepos;
I* I, A. V. P. V. D. tempore judicern arbitrumve po-
fulat ut det ; T. M. P. terminum pofuit ; T. M. D. D. t
terminum dedicavit; Tr. trans, trihunus ; Tr. M. or ||
Mil. tribunus militum ; TR. PL. DES. tribunus plebis Tabafheer.
defgnatus ; TR. AER. tribunus cerarii; TRY. CAP. *
triumviri capitales; T. P. or TRIB. POT. trihunicia
potefate ; Tul. H. Tullus Uqfiilius.
Amongft the ancients, T, as a numeral, flood for one
hundred and fxty; and with a dafn at top, thus T, it
fignified one hundred and fxty thoufand. In mufic, T
Hands for lutti, “ all, or altogether.”
TAB AN US, the Breeze-fly ; a genus of infers
belonging to the order of diptera. See Entomology
Index.
TAB ARC A, a fmall ifland lying oppofite to a town
of the fame name, which divides the maritime coafts of
Tunis and Algiers, in Africa. It is two miles from the
land, and is in poffeflion of the noble family of the La-
mellini of Genoa, who have here a governor and a gar-
rifon of 200 men to proteiR the coral fiftiery. N. LaC
36. 50. E. Long. 9. 16.
TAB ASHLER, a Perfian word, fignifying a hard
fubftance found in the cavities of tbe bamboo or Indian
reed, and highly valued as a medicine in the Eaft Indies.
A a 2 Though
TAB
[ 188 ]
TAB
1 abaflieer. Though fome account was given of the tabafheer by
v the Arabian phyficians, no accurate knowledge of it
was obtained till Dr Rufl'el favoured the public with
his obfervations on it.
The tabalheer is produced from the female bamboo,
which is diftinguifhed from the male by a larger cavity.
The bamboos containing it make a rattling noife when
fhaken. Dr Ruflel having examined a bamboo brought
from Vellore, confiding of fix joints, found no tabalheer
in two of them : all the reft contained fome, but of va¬
rious quality and quantity the whole amounting to a-
bout 27 grains. The belt was of a bluilh white, re-
fembling fmall fragments of (hells, harder alfo than the
reft, but which might be ealily crumbled between the
fingers into a gritty powder ; and when applied to the
tongue and palate, had a flight faline and teftaceous
tafte ; the weight not exceeding four grains. The co¬
lour of the reft was cineritious, rough on the furface,
and more friable ; having fome particles of a larger
fize intermized, but light, fpongy, and fomewhat re-
fembling pumice ftones; which appearance, our author
fuppofes, led the Arabians to think that fire was con¬
cerned in the production. The two middle joints were
of a pure white colour within, and lined with a thin
film. In thefe the tabalheer was principally found.
The other joints, particularly the two upper ones, were
difcoloured within j and in fome parts of the cavity was
found a blackilh fubftance in grains or in powder, ad¬
hering to the fides, the film being there obliterated. In
two or three of the joints a fmall round hole was found
at top and bottom, which feemed to have been perfora¬
ted by fome infeCI.
Garzius informs us, that it is not found in all bam¬
boos, or in all the branches indifcriminately, but only in
thofe growing about Bifnagur, Batecala, and one part
of the Malabar coaft» Dr Rufl'el was informed by a
letter from a medical gentleman attending the embafly
to the Nizam, that though tabalheer bears a high price
at Hydrabad, it is never brought thither from Bifnagur;
and that fome of what is fold in the markets comes from
the pafs of Atcour in Canoul; and fome from Emna-
bad, at the diftanceof about 80 miles to the north-weft ;
but that the molt part comes from Mafulipatam. That
fold in the markets is of two kinds ; one the rate of a
rupee per dram, but the other only half that price ; the
latter, however, is fuppofed to be factitious, and made
up moftly of burnt teeth and bones. Dr Ruflel himfelf
alfo, is perfuaded that the tabalheer met with in com¬
merce is greatly adulterated. The above-mentioned
gentleman likevvife informed the doClor that tabalheer
was produced in great quantities at Sylhat, where it is
fold by the pound, from one rupee to one and a half;
forming a confiderable article of trade from Bengal to
Perfia and Arabia. There is, however, a third kind,
much fuperior in quality, being whiter, purer, and alfo
harder and heavier.
Dr Ruflel fuppofes that the tabalheer is the juice of
the bamboo thickened and hardened. T’..e following
obfervations on its medical effefts were taken from a
Perfian rvork, intitled the “ Tofut ul Monein of Ma-
hommed Monein Hofeiny,” by Mr Williams a furgeon
in the fervice of the Eaft India company. The taba-
Iheer puts a ftop to bilious vomitings and to the bloody
flux. It is alfo of fervice in cafes of palpitation of the
heart, in faintings, and for ftrengthening thofe members
of the body that are weakened by heat. It is ufeful al¬
fo for the piles, mid for acute or burning fevers, and for
puftules in the mouth (thrulh) ; and, given with oxy-
mel, is of fervice againft reftleflnefs, melancholy, and
hypochondriacal affeCtions. The habitual internal ufe
of it is prejudicial to the virile powers. It is alfo faid
to be prejudicial to the lungs. Its corre&ives are the
gum of the pine and honey. The dofe of it is to the
weight of two d’herems, or feven maftias.
TABBY, in Commerce, a kind of rich filk which
has undergone the operation of tabbying.
TABBYING, the palling a filk or fluff under a
callender, the rolls of which are made of iron or copper
varioufly engraven, which bearing unequally on the Huff
renders the furface thereof unequal, fo as to refleft the
rays of light differently, making the reprefentation of
waves thereon.
TABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or fcri-
vener, much the fame with our notaries public, who are
often called tabelliones.
TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of
building, in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs com¬
mand of God, for the performance of religious worlhip,
facrifices, &c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites in
the wildernefs: and, after their fettlement in the land
of Canaan, made ufe of for the fame purpofe till the
building of the temple of Jerufalem. It was divided
into two parts ; the one covered, and properly called
the tabernacle; and the other open, called the court.
The curtains which covered the tabernacle were made
of linen, of feveral colours, embroidered. There were
ten curtains, 28 cubits long and four in breadth. Five
curtains faftened together made up two coverings, which
covered up all the tabernacle. Over thefe there were
two other coverings; the one of goat’s hair, the other
of Iheep’s fkins. The holy of holies was parted from
the reft of the tabernacle by a curtain made fall to four
pillars, Handing ten cubits from the end. The length
of the whole tabernacle was 3 2 cubits, that is, about 50
feet; and the breadth 1 2 cubits or 19 feet. The court
was a fpot of ground 100 cubits long, and 50 in breadth,
enclofed by 20 columns, each 20 cubits high and 10 in
breadth, covered with filver, and Handing on copper
bafes, five cubits diftant from one another ; between
which there were curtains drawn, and faftened with
hooks. At the eaft end was an entrance, 20 cubits
wide, covered with a curtain hanging ioofe.
Feajl of TABERNACLES, a folemn feftival of the He¬
brews, obferved after harveft, on the 15th day of the
month Tifri, inftituted to commemorate the goodnefs
of God, who protected the Ifraelites in the wildernefs,
and made them dwell in booths, when they came out
of Egypt. On the firft day of the feaft they began to
erefl booths of the boughs of trees, and in thefe they
were obliged to continue feven days. The boughs were
placed in the open air, and were not to be covered with
cloths, nor made too clofe by the thicknefs of the boughs;
but fo loofe that the fun and the liars might be feen, and
the rains defcend through them. For further particulars
of the celebration of this feftival, fee Levit. ch. xxiii.
TABERNiE, in Ancient Geography. See TRES
Tabernce.
1 ABERN2E.MONTANA, in Botany, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of
monogynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the
Tabaflu
taberti
montar
TAB
*- tlie 30th order, Contorts. There are
follicles, and the feeds are immerfed in pulp. There
are eight fpecies, all of foreign growth.
, T ABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, ufually made
of wood or done, and fupported on pillars or the like,
for the commodious reception of things placed thereon.
Table is alfo ufed for the fare or entertainment fer-
ved up.
Table, in Mathematics, fyItems of numbers calcu¬
lated to be ready at hand for the expediting aftronomi-
cal, geometrical, and other operations.
TABLE-Book. See Writing.
TABLE-Mountain, a mountain of Africa, being the
molt wefterly cape or promontory in that part of the
world, and near the Cape of Good Hope. The bay *
which is formed thereby is called the Table-bay.
Laws of the Twelve TABLES, were the firft fet of
laws of the Romans : thus called either becaufe the Ro¬
mans then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tablets co¬
vered with wax •, or rather, becaufe they were engraved
on tables or plates of copper, to be expofed in the moil
noted part of the public forum. After the expullion of
the kings, as the Romans were then without any fixed
or certain fyftem of law, at leaft had none ample enougli
to take in the various cafes that might fall between par¬
ticular perfons, it was refolved to adopt the belt and
wifeft laws of the Greeks. One Hermodorus was firft
appointed to tranllate them, and the decemviri after¬
wards compiled and reduced them into ten tables. Af¬
ter a world of care and application, they were at length
enafted and confirmed by the fenate and an affembly of
the people, in the year of Rome 303. The following
year they found fomething wanting therein, which they
fupplied from the laws of the former kings of Rome,
and from certain cuftoms which long ufe had authorif-
ed : all thefe being engraven on two other tables, made
the law of the twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman
jurifprudence, the fource and foundation of the civil or
Roman law.
TABLES of the Law, in Jewifh antiquity, two tables
on which were written the decalogue, or ten command-
ments, given by God to Mofes on Mount Sinai.
TABOO, a word ufed by the South fea iflanders,
nearly of the fame import as prohibited or interdidted.
It applies equally to perfons and things, and is alfo ex-
preffive of any thing facred, devoted, or eminent.
TABOR, a mountain of Galilee, about 12 miles from
the city of Tiberias. It rifes in the form of a fugar loaf,
in the midft of an extenfive plain, to the height of 30
ftadia, according to Jofephus. The afcent is fo eafy,
that one may afcend on horfeback. On the top there
is a plain two miles in circumference.
The fituation of Mount Tabor is mold delightful.
Rifing amidft the plains of Galilee, it exhibits to the
enchanted eye a charming variety of profpedls. On
one hde there are lakes, rivers, and a part of the Me¬
diterranean ■, and on the other a chain of little hills,
With fmall valleys, fhaded by natural groves, and en¬
riched by the hands of the hufbandman with a great
number of ufeful produdlions. Here you behold an im-
menfity of plains interfperfed with hamlets, fortreffes,
and heaps of ruins •, and there the eye delights to wan¬
der over the fields of Jezrael or Mageddon, named
by the Arabs Ebn-Aamer, which fignifies “ the field of
the fons of Aamer.” A little farther you diftinguilh
Tabor
Tacitus.
[ 189 ] TAG
two horizontal the mountains of Hermon, Gilboa, Samaria, and Arabia
the Stony. In ihort, you -experience all thofe fenfations
which are produced by a mixture and rapid fucceflion
of rural, gay, gloomy, and majeftic objedts.
It was upon this enchanting mount that the apoftle '
Peter laid to Chrift, “ It is good for us to be here : and
let us make three tabernacles 5 one for thee, and one for
Mofes, and one for Elias.”
Flavian Jofephus, governor of Galilee, caufed the
fummit of this mountain, for the fpace of two miles and
a half, to be furrounded with walls. The inhabitants
of Tabor long braved the power of the Roman armies ;
but being deprived of water in confequence. of the great
heats, they were forced to furrender at difcretion to
Placidus, the general of Vefpaiian.
Several churches were built upon this mountain by
St Helen, who founded here alfo fome monafteries. Of
the two moft remarkable, one was dedicated to Mofes,
and inhabited by Cenobites of the order of St BenedidI,
who followed the Latin rites: the other was dedicated
to the prophet Elias by monks of the order of St Bafil,
attached to the Greek rites. The kings of Hungary
eredled here alfo a pretty fpaciqus convent for fome
monks belonging to that nation, of the order of St Paul
the firft hermit. Tabor was alfo the feat of a biftiop,
dependant on the patriarchate of Jerufalem.
When Godfrey of Bouillon feized on this mountain,
he repaired the ancient churches, which were beginning
to fall into ruins. Under Baldwin I. in 1113, the Sa¬
racen troops retook Tabor j and their fanguinary fury
gained as many vidiories as there were priefts and Ceno¬
bites. This mountain again fell into the hands of the
Chriftians; but the Catholic ftandard was not long dif-
played on it. Saladin pulled it down the year follow¬
ing, and deftroyed all the churches. The Chriftians
retook it once more in 1253 ; and their zeal made them
rebuild all the facred places. At this time Rome being
accuftomed to give away empires, Pope Alexander IV.
granted Tabor to the Templars, who fortified it again.
At length, in the courfe of the year 1290, the fultan
of Egypt deftroyed and laid wafte the buildings of this
mountain, which could never be repaired afterwards j
fo that at prefent it is uninhabited.
TACAMAHACA, in Pharmacy, a gum refin, ob¬
tained from the fagara oftandra and populus balfamiferaj
and having a fragrant fmell, a bitterifti naufeous tafte,
and fuppofed to be ftimulant and tonic in its effefls.
TACCA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
dodecandria. See Botany Index.
TACHYGRAPHY, from ’vmyytifbort, and y%x$a>,
I write, or the art of writing ftiort-hand. See Steno¬
graphy.
TACITUS, CAiys Cornelius, a celebrated Roman
hiftorian, and one of the greateft men of his time, ap¬
pears to have been born about the year of Rome 809 or
810, and applied himfelf early to the labours of the
bar, in which he gained very confiderable reputation. Murphy's
Having married the daughter of Agricola, the road to Tranjlation
public honours was laid open to him in the reign of0-/ ^ac^tus°
Vefpafian ; but during the fanguinary and capricious
tyranny of Domitian, he, as well as his friend Pliny,
appears to have retired from the theatre of public af¬
fairs. The reign of Nerva reftored thefe luminaries of
Roman literature to the metropolis, and we find Taci¬
tus engaged, in A. U. C. 850, to pronounce the funeral
oration
f A C [ 19° ] T A C
Tacitus.
Biographi¬
cal Diction
ary.
Baillet Vie
de Dei
Cartes,
tom. ii.
Study of
Hi/lory,
Letter v.
oration of tbe venerable Virginius Rufus, the colleague
of the emperor in the confulfhip, and afterwards fuc-
teeding him as conful for the remainder of the year.
The time of his death is not mentioned by any ancient
author, but it is probable that he died in the reign of
Trajan.
H *s works which ftill remain are, 1. Five books of
his Hiitory. 2. His Annals. 3. A Treatife on the dif¬
ferent Nations which in his time inhabited Germany :
and, 4. The Life of Agricola his father-in-law. There
is alfo attributed to him a Treatife on Eloquence, which
others have afcribed to OuinLilian. The Treatife on the
Manners of the Germans was publifhed in 851.—In the
year 853, Pliny and Tacitus were appointed by the fe-
nate to plead the caufe of the oppreffed Africans againft
?»Iarius Prifcus, a corrupt proconful, who was convi&ed
before the fathers; and the patriot orators were honour¬
ed with a declaration that they had executed their truft
to the entire fa t is fa £t ion of the houfe. The exaft time
when Tacitus publifhed his hi dory is uncertain, but it
■was in fome period of Trajan’s reign, who died fudden-
ly, A. U. C. 870, A. D. 1x7.—The hiftory comprifes
a period of 27 years, from the acceffion of Galba, 822,
to the death of Domitian, 849. The hiftory being fi-
nifhed, he did not think he had completed the tablature
of flavery ; he went back to the time of Tiberius : and
the fecond work, which, however, comes firft in the
order of chronology, includes a period of 54 years, from
the accelhon of Tiberius, 767, to the death of Nero,
821 : this work is his “ Annals.”
It is remarkable, that princes (and politicians have
always held the works of Tacitus in the higheft efteem ;
which looks as if they either found their account in
reading them, or were pleafed to find courts, and the
people who live in them, fo exactly defcribed after the
life as they are in his writings. Part of what is extant
was found in Germany by a receiver of Pope Leo X.
and publifhed by Reroaldus at Rome in 1515. Leo was
fo much charmed with Tacitus, that he gave the recei¬
ver a reward of 500 crowns ; and promifed not only in¬
dulgences, but money alfo and honour, to any one who
fhould find the other part ; which it is faid was after¬
wards brought to him. Pope Paul III. as Muretus re¬
lates, wore out his Tacitus by much reading it ; and
Cofmo de Medicis, who was the firft great duke of
Tufcany, and formed for governing, accounted the
reading of him his greatefl pleafiire. Muretus adds,
that feveral princes, and privy-counfellors to princes,
read him with great application, and regarded him as a
fort of oracle in politics. A certain author relates, that
Queen Chriftina of Sweden, though extremely fond of
the Greek tongue, which fhe made “ the diverfion of
her leifure hours, was not reflrained by that from her
ferious ftudies ; fo fhe called among others Tacitus’s
Hiftory. fome pages of which fhe read conftantly every
dav.” Laftly, Lord Boling'woke, an authority furely
of no mean rank, calls him, “ a favourite author,” and
gives him manifeftly the preference to all the Greek and
Roman hidorians.
No author has obtained a more fplendid reputation
than Tacitus. He has been accounted, and with good
reason, the moft cultivated genius of antiquity ; and we
muft not feek for his parallel in modern times. It is
impoflible not to admire and recommend his intimate
knowledge of the human heart, the fpirit of liberty
-a
which he breathes, and the force and vivacity with Ta<
which he perpetually txprefles himfelf. The reader of T
tafte is ftruck by the greatnefs of his thoughts and the'*5
dignity of his narration ; the philofopher by the com.
prehenfive powers of his mind ; and the politician by the
fagacity with which he unfolds the fprings of the moft
fecret tranfadlions. Civil liberty and the rights of
mankind never met with a bolder or a more able after-
tor : fervitude, debalement, and tyranny, appear not
in the writings of any other author in jufter or more
odious colours. He ha^ been cenfured almbfcure ; and
indeed nothing can be more certain than that he did not
write for the common mafs of men. Rut to theft who
are judges of hi- eompofitions, it is no matter of regret
that his manner i- his own, and peculiar. Never were
defcription ai d f« niiment fo wonderfully and fo beauti¬
fully blended ; and never were the adtions and charac¬
ters of men delineated with fo much ftrength and pre-
cifion. He has ail .he* merits of other hiftorians, with¬
out their defedfs. He poffeffes the diftindtnels of Xe¬
nophon without his uniformity ; he is more eloquent
than 1 ivy, and is free trom his fuperftition ; and he has
more knowledge and judgment than Polybius, without
his affedtation of reafoning on every oecafion.
One of the beft editions of the works of 'I acitus was
publifhed at Paris by Brotier, in 4 vois. 4to. There
have been four tranflations of his works into Englifh;
the firft by Green way and Sir Henry Saville, in the
reign of Elizabeth ; the fecond by Dryden and others;
the third by Gordon, which is remarkable for affedla-
tion of ftyle, though fome think it bears a ftriking re-
fembl&nce to the original; and the fourth and beft by
Murphy, in 1793, in 4 vols. 4to.
TACK, a rope ufed to confine the foremoft lower
corners of the courfes and ftay-fails in a fixed pofition,
when the wind crofles the ftiip’s courfe obliquely. The
fame name is alfo given to the rope employed to pull
out the lower corner of a ftudding-fail or driver to the
extremity of its boom.
The main-fail and fore-fail of a fhip are furnifhed
with a tack on each fide, which is formed of a thick
rope tapering to the end, and having a knot wrought
upon the largeft end, by which it is firmly retained in
the clue of the fail. By this means one tack is always
faftened to windward, at the fame time that the fheet
extends the fail to the leeward.
Tack, is alfo applied, by analogy, to that part of
any fail to which the tack is ufually faftened.
A fhip is faid to be on the ftarboard or larboard tack,
when Ihe is clofe-hauled, with the wind upon the ftar¬
board or larboard fide ; and in this fenfe the diftance
which fhe fails in that pofition is confidered as the length
of the tack ; although this is more frequently called
board. See that article.
To TACK, to change the courfe from one board to
another, or turn the fhip about from the ftarboard to
the larboard tack, in a contrary wind. Thus a fhip
being clofe-hauled on the larboard tack, and turning
her prow fuddenly to windward, receives the impreflion
of the wind on her head-fails, by which fhe falls off up¬
on the line of the ftarboard-tack. Tacking is alfo ufed jv?/.'f
in a more enlarged fenfe, to imply that manoeuvre in ;
navigation by which a fhip makes an oblique progreflion ^l l
to the windward, in a zig-zag direction. This, how¬
ever, is more ufually called beating, or turning to wind-
ward.
TAG r 191 ] T A I
ward. See Navigation, Sailing, and Nava/ Tac¬
tics, under War.
Tack, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxvii.
J TACKLE, among feamen, denotes all the ropes or
cordage of a {hip ufed in managing the fails, &c.
TACKSMAN. See Tenure. •
TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of dif*
pofing forces to the belt advantage in order of battle,
and of performing the feveral military motions and evo¬
lutions. See War.
TADCASTER, a town in the weft riding of York-
{hire, noted for the great plenty of limeftone dug up
near it *, and for being one of the firft places in which
a building was erefted for Sunday fchools. It is nine
miles from York, and 188 from London.
TADMOR. See Palmyra.
TADPOLE, a young frog before it has difengaged
itfelf from the membranes that envelope it in its firft
ftage of life. See Erpetology, p. 281.
TiENIA, a genus of animals belonging to the clafs
of vermes. See Helminthology, N° 29, 30.
TAFFETY, or Taffeta, in Commerce, a fine
fmooth filken (luff, remarkably gloffy. There are taf-
feties of all colours, fome plain, and others ftriped with
gold, filver, &c. others chequered, others flowered, &c.
according to the fancy of the workmen.
TAGANROK, or Taganrog, a fea-port town fi-
tuated at the head of the fea of Azof, and forming one
of the principal ports of the Ruffian empire. It Hands
on a fmall promontory, at the extremity of which is a
fortrefs of confiderable ftrength, and capable of accom¬
modating a numerous garrifon. The ftreets are wide
but unpaved, and from the lightnefs of the foil,, are ei¬
ther intolerably dufty, or ankle-deep in mud. The
houfes, which do not exceed a thoufand, are fmall, built
chiefly of wood, plaiftered with mud, and roofed with
bark. It is in north latitude 46°.
Taganrok is remarkable only as a place of trade, but
in this view is highly refpedlable. When Mr M‘Gill
vifited it in 1805, he found there upwards of 2CC veffels
of various fizes, waiting for cargoes. From its advan¬
tageous fituation, at the head of the fea of Azof, and
near the mouths of the rivers Don and Volga, and from
its being in the vicinity of a very fertile country, it has
become the centre of commerce for many ftaple articles.
Hither are brought, for exportation, vaft quantities of
grain, wool, hides, butter, tallow, bees-wax, and ho¬
ney from the fouthern provinces of Ruflia ; iron, tim¬
ber, pitch, and tar from Siberia •, caviar to the amount
of 50,000 puds annually from the Don and the Volga $
hemp amf flax from the neighbouring diftridls. Cor¬
dage and canvas are manufaftured here, and form a
confiderable article of traffic. The trade is carried on
chiefly by Ragufan and Greek fupereargoes, who re¬
main only till their commodities are collccled and {Lip¬
ped. For the Left accounts of this place, fee Pallas’s
Travels in the Ruffian Empire, and M‘G ill’s Travels in
Turkey, Italy, ancl Ritffia.
f AGAR A, a city of ancient India, the metropolis
»f a large diftrift called Anaca, which comprehended
the greateft part ol the Subah of Aurangabad, and the
outhern part of Concan. Arrian fays, that it was fitu-
-ted about ten days journey to the eaftward of Pulta-
Hdh ; which, according to the rate of travelling^n that
country with loaded carts, might be about 100 Britiffi
miles. T his fixes its fituation at Deoghir, a place of Tagara-
great antiquity, and famous through all India on ac- i?
count of the pagodas of Eloufa. It is now called Dou- .
let-abaci. v
1 AGE TES, Marygold, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs fyngenefia ; and in the natural fyftem
ranking under the 49th order, Compojitcc. See Botany
Index.
TAGUS, the largeft river of Spain ; which, taking’
its rife on the confines of Arragon, runs fouth-weft
through the provinces of New Caftile and Eftremadura 5.
and paffing by the cities of Aranjuez, Toledo, and
Alcantara, and then croffing Portugal, forms the har¬
bour of Liflxm, at which city it is about three miles
broad j and about eight or ten miles below this it falls
into the Atlantic ocean.
TAHOEREWA, one of the Sandwich iflands, is »
fmall, deftitute of wood, the foil fandy and unfertile ; is
fituated in north latitude 20° 38', in eaft longitude 203°
27'-
TAHOORA, one of the Sandwich iflands in the
South fea. It is uninhabited, and lies in north latitude
21° 43', and in eaft longitude 1990 36'. See SAND-
WlCH-lffands.
TAJACU, or Peccary, in Zoology, a fpecies of
hog. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
TAI-OUAN, the Chinefe name of the ifland of For-
mofa. SeeboRMOSA.—Tai-ouan is alfo the name of
the capital of the ifland.
TAIL, the train of a beaft, bird, or fiffi 5 which in
land animals, it is faid, ferves to drive away flies, &c.
and in birds and fiflies to direct their courfe, and affift
them in afcending or defcending in the air or water.
But the tail in all animals is of great ufe in directing
their motions.
Tail, or 1 ee-tail, in Law, is a conditional eftate
or fee, oppofed to fee-Jimple. See Fee.
A conditional fee, at the common law, was a fee re-
flrained to fome particular heirs exclufive of others; as
to the heirs of a man’s body, by which only his lineal
defendants were admitted, in exclufion of collate*.,1
heirs ; or to the heirs male of his body, in exclufion
both of collaterals and lineal females alfo. It was cal¬
led a conditional fee, by reafon of the condition expref-
fed or implied in the donation of it, that if the donee
died without fuch particular heirs, the land fliould re¬
vert to the donor. For this was a condition annexed by
law to all grants whatfoever, that on failure of the heirs
fpecified in the grant, the grant fhould be at an end,
and the land return to its ancient proprietor. Such con¬
ditional fees were ftridly agreeable to the nature of
feuds, when they firft eeafed to be mere eftates of life,.,
and were not yet arrived to be abfolute eftates in fee-
fimple.
Vv'ith regard to the condition annexed to theft* fees
by the common law, it was held, that fuch a gift (to a
man and the heirs of his body) was a gift upon condi¬
tion that it fliould revert to the donor if the donee had
no heirs of his body ; but if he had, it ftiould then re¬
main to the donee. They therefore called it a fee-fitti-
ple on condition that he had iffue. Now we muft ob-
ferve, that when any condition is performed, it is thence¬
forth entirely gone; and the thing to which it was be¬
fore annexed becomes abfolute and wholly uncondition¬
al. So that as foon as the grantee had any iffue born,
his
T A I [ IQ2 ] r T A 1
liis eftate was fuppofed to become abfolute by the per¬
formance of the condition; at lealf for thefe three pur-
pofes: i. To enable the tenant to alienate the land, and
thereby to bar not only his own iffue, but alfo the
donor, of his intereft in the reverfion. 2. To fubjeft
him to forfeit it for treafon: which he could not do till
ilfue born longer than for his own life, left thereby the
the inheritance of the iffue and reverlion of the donor
might have been defeated. 3. To empower him to
charge the land with rents, commons, and certain other *
encumbrances, fo as to bind his iffue. And this was
thought the more reafonable, becaufe, by the birth of
iffue, the poflibility of the donor’s reverfion was render¬
ed more diftant and precarious: and his intereft feems
to have been the only one which the law, as it then
flood, was folicitous to protedl* without much regard
to the right of fuceeffiion intended to be vefted in the
iffue. However, if the tenant did not in fadl alienate
the land, the courfe of defcent was not altered by this
performance of the condition; for if the iffue had after¬
wards died, and then the tenant or original grantee had
died, without making any alienation, the land, by the
terms of the donation, could defcend to none but the ^
heirs of his body; and therefore, in default of them,
muft have reverted to the donor. For which reafon, in
order to fuJbjeft the lands to the ordinary courfe of de¬
fcent, the donees of thefe conditional fee-fimples took
care to alienate as foon as they had performed the con¬
dition by having iffue; and afterwards repurchafed the
lands, which, gave them a fee-fimple abfolute, that
would defcend to the heirs general, according to the
courfe of the common law. And thus flood the old law
with regard to conditional fees: which things, fays Sir
Edward Cokej though they feem ancient, are yet necef-
fary to be known, as well for the declaring how the
common law flood in fuch cafes, as for the fake of an¬
nuities, and fuch-like inheritances, as are not within the
ftatutes of entail, and therefore remain as the common
law. The inconveniences which attended thefe limited
and fettered inheritances were probably what induced
the judges to give way to this fubtle fineffe (for fuch it
undoubtedly was), in order to fhorten the duration of
thefe, conditional eftates. But, on the other hand, the
nobility, who were willing to perpetuate their poffef-
fions in their own families, to put a flop to this prac¬
tice, procured the flatute of Weftminfter the fecond
(commonly called the ftatute de donis conditisnalibus')
to be made; which paid a greater regard to the private
will and intentions of the donor, than to the propriety
of fuch intentions, or any public confiderations whatfo-
ever. This ftatute revived in fome fort the ancient feo-
dal reftraints which were originally laid on alienations,
by enabling, that from thenceforth the will of the do¬
nor be obferved; and that the tenements fo given (to a
man and the heirs of his body) fhould at all events go
to the iffue, if there were any; or if none, fhould revert
to the donor.
Upon the conftru&ion of this a£! of parliament, the
judges determined that the donee had no longer a con¬
ditional fee-fimple, which became abfolute and at his
own difpofal the inftant any iffue was born; but they
divided the eftate into two parts, leaving the donee a
new kind of particular eftate, which they denominated
& fee tail; and veiling in the donor the ultimate fee-
Smple of the land, expe&ant on the failure of iffue;
which expe$ant eftate is what we now call a reverjion. V ;
And hence it is that Littleton tells us, that tenant in n
fee-tail is by virtue of the ftatute of Weftminfter the
fecond. The expreflion fee-tail, or feodum talliatum,
was borrowed from the feudifts (fee Crag. /. j-. t. 10.
§ 24, 2.j.), ambng whom it fignified any mutilated or
truncated inheritance, from which the heirs general
were cut off; being derived from the barbarous verb
ta/iare, to cut; from which the French tailler and the
Italian tagliare are formed, (Spelm. Gloff. 531.).
Having thus Ihovvn the original of ellates tail, we now
proceed to confider what things may or may not be en¬
tailed under the ftatute de donis. Tenements is the on¬
ly word ufed in the ftatute: and this Sir Edward Coke
expounds to comprehend all corporeal hereditaments
whatfoever : and alfo all incorporeal hereditaments
Which favour of the reality, that is, which iffue out of
corporeal ones, or which concern or are annexed to or
may be exercifed within the fame; as rents, eftovers,
commons, and the like. Alfo offices and dignities,
which concern lands, or have relation to fixed and cer¬
tain places, may be entailed. But mere perfonal chat¬
tels, which favour not at all of the reality, cannot be
entailed. Neither can an office, which merely relates
to fuch perfonal chattels; nor an annuity, which char¬
ges only the perfon, and not the lands of the granter.
But in thefe laft, if granted to a man and the heirs of
his body, the grantee hath ftill a fee conditional at com¬
mon law as before tire ftatute, and by his alienation
may bar the heir or reverfioner. An eftate to a man
and his heirs for another’s life cannot be entailed; for
this is ftridlly no eftate of inheritance, and therefore not
within the ftatute de donis. Neither can a copyhold
eftate be entailed by virtue of the ftatute; for that
would tend to encroach upon and reftrain the will of
the lord; but, by the fpecial cuftom of the manor, a
copyhold may be limited to the heirs of the body; for
here the cuftom afeertains and interprets the lord’s
will.
As to the feveral fpecies of eftates-tail, and how they
are refpe&ively created; they are either general or fpe¬
cial. Tail-general is where lands and tenements are gi¬
ven to one, and the heirs of his body begotten: which
is called tail-general; becaufe, how often foever fuch
donee in tail be married, his iffue in general, by all and
every fuch marriage, is, in fucceflive order, capable of
inheriting the eftate-tailjoer formam doni. Tenant in
tai/fpecial is where the gift is reftrained to certain heirs
of the donee’s body, and does not go to all of them in
general. And this may happen feveral ways. We
(hall inftance in only one; as where lands and tene¬
ments are given to a man and the heirs of his body, on
Mary his now wife to be begotten. Here no iffue can
inherit but fuch fpecial iffue as is engendered between
them two; not fuch as the hufband may have by ano¬
ther wife; and therefore it is called fpecial tail. And
here we may obferve, that the words of inheritance (to
him and his heirs) give him an eftate in fee; but they
being heirs to be by him begotten, this makes it a fee
tail; and the perfon being alfo limited, on whom fuch
heirs (hall be begotten (viz. Mary his prefent wife),
this makes it a fee-tail fpecial.
Eftates in general and fpecial tail are farther diver-
fified by the diftinftion of fexes in fuch entails; for both
of them may either be in tail male or tail female. As
T A I [ 193-J T A I
1 if lands be given to a man, and bis heirs-male of his
' body begotten, this is an eftate in tail male general j but
if to a man, and the heirs-female of his body on his pre-
fent wife begotten, this is an eftate in tail female fpe-
cial. And in cafe of an entail male, the heirs-female
ftiall never inherit, nor any derived from them •, nor, 2
converfo, the heirs-male in cafe of a gift in tail female.
Thus, if the donee in tail male hath a daughter, who
dies leaving a fun, fuch grandfon in this cafe cannot in¬
herit the eftate tail*, for he cannot deduce his defcent
wholly by heirs-male. And as the heir-male muft con¬
vey his defcent wholly by males, fo muft the heir-female
wholly by females. And therefore if a man hath two
eftates-tail, the one in tail male and the other in tail fe¬
male, and he hath iffue a daughter, which daughter
hath iffue a fon; this grandfon can fucceed to neither
of the eftates, for he cannot convey his defcent wholly
either in the male or female line.
As the word heirs is neceffary to create a fee, fo, in
farther imitation of the ftridnefs of the feodal donation,
the word body, or fome other words of procreation, are
neceffary to make it a fee-tail, and afcertain to what
heirs in particular the fee is limited. If, therefore, ei¬
ther the words of inheritance or words of procreation be
omitted, albeit the others are inferted in the grant, this
will not make an eftate-tail. As if the grant be to a
man and the iffue of his body, to a man and his feed, to
a man and his children or offspring; all thefe are only
eftates for life, there wanting the words of inheritance,
“ his heirs.” So, on the other hand, a gift to a man,
and his heirs male or female, is an eftate in fee-fimple
and not in fee-tail; for there are no words to afcertain
the body out of which they (hall iffue. Indeed, in laft:
wills and teftaments, wherein greater indulgence is al¬
lowed, an eftate-tail may be created by a devife to a
man and his feed, or to a man and his heirs-male, or by
other irregular modes of expreflion.
There is ftill another fpecies of entailed eftates, now
indeed grown out of ufe, yet ftill capable of fubftfting
in law; which are eftates in hbero maritagio, or Fp.aNK-
MARRIAGE. See that article.
The incidents to a tepancy in tail, under the ftatute
Weftminfter 2. are chiefly thefe: 1. 1 hat a tenant in
tail may commit wafte on the eftate-tail, by felling tim¬
ber, pulling down houfes, or the like, without being im¬
peached or called to account for the fame. 2. T hat the
wife of the tenant in tail {hall have her dower, or thirds,
of the eftate-tail. 3. That the huihand of a female te¬
nant in tail may be tenant by the curtefy of the eftate-
tail. 4. That an eftate-tail may be barred, or deftroyed,
by a fine, by a common recovery, or by lineal warranty
defcending with affets to the heir. See Assets.
Thus much for the nature of eftates-tail: the efta-
blifhment of which family law (as it is properly ftyled by
Pigott) occafionedinfinitedifficultiesand difputes. Chil¬
dren grew difobedient when they knew they could not
be fet afide: farmers were oufted of their leafes made by
tenants in tail; for if fuch leafes had been valid, then,
under colour of long leafes, the iffue might have been
virtually difinherited: creditors were defrauded of their
debts; for, if a tenant in tail could have charged his
eftate with their payment, he might alfo have defeated
his iffue, by mortgaging it for as much as it was worth:
innumerable latent entails were produced to deprive pur-
chafers of the lands they had fairly brought; of fuits in
Vol. XX. Part I.
confequence of which, our ancient books are full: and I
treafons were encouraged, as eftates-tail were not liable 1
to forfeiture longer than for the tenant’s life. So that
they were juftly branded as the fource of new contentions
and mifehiefs unknown to the common law; and almoft
univerially confidered as the common grievance of the
realm. But as the nobility were always fopd of this fta-
tule, becaufe it prelerved their family-eftates from for¬
feiture, there was little hope of procuring a repeal by
the legiftature; and therefore, by the connivance ot an
aftive and politic prince, a method was deviled to e-
vade it.
About 200 years intervened between the making of
the ftatute de donis, and the application of common re¬
coveries to this intent, in the 12th year of Edward IV.;
which were then openly declared by the judges to be a
fufficient bar of an eftate-tail. For though the coilrts
had, fo long before as the reign of Edward III. very
frequently hinted their opinion that a bar might be et-
fe&ed upon thefe principles, yet it was never carried in¬
to execution; till Edward IV.obferving (in the difputes
between the houfes of York and Lancafter) how little
effe£I attainders for treafon had on families whofe eftates
were protected by the fanftuary of entails, gave his coun¬
tenance to this proceeding, and fuffered laltarum’scafe
to be brought before the court: wherein, in confequence
of the principles then laid down, it was in effect deter¬
mined, that a common recovery fuffered by tenant in tail
fhould be an effectual deftru&ion thereof. Thefe com¬
mon recoveries are fi&itious proceedings, introduced by
a kind of pin fraus, to elude the ftatute de donis, which
was found fo intolerably mifchievous, and which yet one
branch of the legiflature would not t!»en confent to re¬
peal; and that thefe recoveries, however clandeftinely
begun, are now become by long ufe and acquiefcence a
moft common affurance of lands; and are looked upon
as the legal mode of conveyance, by which a tenant in
tail may difpofe of his lands and tenements:- fo that no
court will fuffer them to be ftiaken or reflefted on, and
even afts of parliament have by a fide-wind countenan¬
ced and eftablifhed them.
This expedient having greatly abridged eftates-tail
with regard to their duration, others were foon invented
to ftrip them of other privileges. The next that was
attacked was their freedom from forfeitures for treafon.
For, notwithftanding the large advances made by re¬
coveries, in the compafs of about threefcore years, to¬
wards unfettering thefe inheritances, and thereby fub-
jedling the lands to forfeiture, the rapacious prince-
then reigning, finding them frequently refettled in a fi-
milar manner to fuit the convenience of families, had
addrefs enough to procure a ftatute, whereby all eftates
of inheritance (under which general words eftates-tail
were covertly included) are declared to be forfeited to
the king upon any conviftion of high-treafon.
The next attack which they fuffered, in order of time,
was by the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28. whereby cer¬
tain leafes made by tenants in tail, which do not tend to
the prejudice of the iffue, were allowed to be good in
law, and to bind the iffue in tail, But they received a
more violent blow in the fame feffion of parliament, by
the conftru&ion put upon the ftatute of fines, by the
ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. which declares a fine duly
levied by tenant in tail to be a complete bar to hint
and his heirs, and all other perfons claiming under fuch
B b entail.
Tall
II.
1 alapoins.
T A L [ -194 ] T A L
entail. This was evidently agreeable to the intention
of Henry VII. whofe policy it was (before common re¬
coveries had obtained their full ftrength and authority)
to lay the road as open as poffible to the alienation of
landed property, in order to weaken the overgrown
power of his nobles. But as they, from the oppofite
reafons, were not ealily brought to confent to fuch a
provifion, it was therefore couched, in his aft, under
covert and obfcure expreffions. And the judges, though
willing to conftrue that flatute as favourably as pofiible
for the defeating of entailed eftates, yet hefitated at giv¬
ing fines fo extenfive a power by mere implication, when
the ftatute de donis had exprefsly declared that they
fhould not be a bar to eftates-tail. But the ftatute of
Henry VIII. when the doftrine of alienation was better
received, and the will of the prince more implicitly
obeyed than before, avowed and eftablilhed that inten¬
tion. Yet, in order to preferve the property of the
crown from any danger of infringement, all eftates-tail
created by the crown, and of which the crown has the
reverfion, are excepted out of this ftatute. And the
fame was done with regard to common recoveries, by
the ftatute 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 28. which enafts,
that no feigned recovery had againft tenants in tail,
where the eftate was created by the crown, and the re¬
mainder or reverfion continues ftill in the crown, {hall
be of any force and tflfeft. Which is allowing, indi-
reftly and collaterally, their full force and effeft with
refpeft to ordinary eftates-tail, where the royal prero¬
gative is not concerned.
Laftly, by a fiatute of the fucceeding year, all eftates-
tail are rendered liable to be charged for payment of
debts due to the king by record or fpecial contraft \ as
fince, by the bankrupt laws, they are alfo fubjefted to
be fold for the debts contrafted by a bankrupt. And,
by the conftruftion put on the ftatute 43 Eliz. c. 4. an
appointment by tenant in tail of the lands entailed to a
charitable ufe is good without fine or recovery.
Eftates-tail being thus by degrees unfettered, are
now reduced again to almoft the fame ftate, even before
ifiue born, as conditional fees were in at common law,
after the condition was performed by the birth of iftue.
Eor, firft, the tenant in tail is’ now enabled to alienate
his lands and tenements by fine, by recovery, or by cer¬
tain other means ; and thereby to defeat the intereft as
well of his own iffue, though unborn, as alfo of the re-
verfioner, except in the cafe of the crown : fecondly, he
is now liable to forfeit them for high treafon: and, laftly,
he may charge them with reafonable leafes, and alfo with
fuch of his debts as are due to the crown on fpecialties,
or have been contrafted with his fellow-fubjefts in a
courfe of extenfive commerce.
TAILZIE, in Scots Law, the fame with Tail. See
Law, N° clxxx. 9.
TALAPOINS or Talopins, priefts of Siam.—
They enjoy great privileges, but are enjoined celibacy
and aufterity of life. They live in monafteries contigu¬
ous to the temples : and what is lingular, any one may
enter into the priefthood, and after a certain age may
quit it to marry, and return to fociety. There are tala-
poinefles too, or nuns, who live in the fame convents,
but are not admitted till they have palfed their fortieth
year. The talapoins educate children 5 and at every
new and full moon explain the precepts of their religion
in their temples j and during the rainy feafon the^
4
preach from fix in tne morning till noon, and from one Tala-
in the afternoon till five in the evening. They drefs in 11
a very mean garb, go bareheaded and barefooted ; and ^ale ;
no perfon is admitted among them who is not well Ikil- {1
led in the Baly language.
They believe that the univerfe is eternal; but admit
that certain parts of it, as this wrorld, may be deftroyed
and again regenerated. They believe in a univerlal per¬
vading fpirit, and in the immortality and tranfmigration
of the foul j but they extend this laft doftrine, not only
to all animals, but to vegetables and rocks. They have
their good and evil genii, and particular deities, who
prefide over forefts and rivers, and interfere in all fub-
lunary affairs.
For the honour of human nature, we are happy to
find fo pure a fyftem of morality prevail among thefe
people : It not only forbids its followers to do ill, but
enjoins the neceflity of doing good, and of ftifling every
improper thought or criminal defire.
Thofe who wifti to perufe a more particular account
of the talapoins, may confult Voyage de M. de la Lou-
here; and Sketches relating to the Hiftory, &c. of the
Hindoos.
TALC, a fpecies of mineral arranged under the mag-
nefian earths. See Mineralogy Index.
TALENT, fignifies both a weight and a coin very
common among the ancients, but very different among
different nations.
The common Attic talent of weight contains 60 At¬
tic minse, or 6000 Attic drachmae ; and weighed, ac¬
cording to Dr Arbuthnot, 59 lbs. II oz. gr. Eng-
lifh Troy weight. There was another Attic talent, by
fome faid to confift of 80, by others of 100 minae. The
Egyptian talent was 80 minae ; the Antiochian alfo 80 ;
the Ptolemaic of Cleopatra 86-y j that of Alexandria
96; and the Infular talent 120. In the valuation of
money, the Grecian talent, according to Dr Arbuth¬
not, was equal to 60 minse, or, reckoning the mina at
3I. 4s. 'yd. equal to 193I. 15s. The Syrian talent, in
this valuation, confifted of 15 Attic minse j the Ptole¬
maic of 20 j the Antiochian of 60 ; the Euboic of 60 j
the Babylonic of 70 ; the Greater Attic of 80 ; the
Tyrian of 80 the Eginean of 100 j the Rhodian of
100 \ and the Egyptian of 80 minse.
There is another talent much more ancient, which
Dr Arbuthnot calls the Homeric talent of gold, which
feems to have weighed fix Attic drachms or three darics,
a daric weighing very little more than a guinea. Ac¬
cording to this talent, fome reckon the treafure of King
David, particularly that mentioned I Chron. xxii. 14.
which, according to the common reckoning, would a-
mount in gold talents to the value of 547,500,000!. and
the filver to above 342,000,000!. j or, reckoning accord¬
ing to the decuple proportion of gold to filver, the tivo
fums would be equal. As David reigned in Judsea after
the fiege of Troy, it is not improbable but Homer and
he might ufe the fame numeral talent of gold.
Among the Romans there were two kinds of talents,
the little and the great talent : the little was the com¬
mon talent ; and whenever they fay limply talentum,
they are to be underftood of this. The little talent was
60 minse or Roman pounds j the mina or pound tftima-
ted at 100 drachmae or denarii : it was alfo eftimated
at 24 great fefterces, which amounted to 60 pounds.
The great talent exceeded the lefs by one-third part.
Bud sens-
; T A L
BuJecus computes, that the little talent
worth 75I. Rerling, and the greater 99I. 6s. 8d. fterling.
The greater of gold was worth 1125I. fterling.
Talent, as a fpecies or money, among the Hebrews,
was lometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the
{hekel of gold, called zltojlater, and weighing only four
drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by thefe talents as we
do by pounds, &c. Thus a million of gold, or million
of talents of gold, among them, was a million of ihekels
or nummi; the nummus of gold being the fame weight
with the (liekel, viz. four drachms.
But the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which they
called cica7-, was equivalent to that of 3000 Ihekels, or
113 lb. xo oz. r dwt. ic4 gr. Englifti Troy weight, ac¬
cording to Arbuthnot’s computation.
TALIACOTIUS, Caspar, chief furgeon to the
great duke of Tufcany, was born at Bononia in Italy in
x -53. He wrote a Latin treatife entitled Chirurgia Nota
de Curtis Membris, in which he teaches the art of en¬
grafting nofes, ears, lips, &c. giving reprefentations of
the inftruments and proper bandages ; many, however,
are of opinion that he never put his art in pra&ice. But
his doftrine is not Angular j for Alexander Bencdiftus,
a famous chirurgical writer, has defcribed a fimilar ope¬
ration.
TALIO, {lex talionis'), a fpecies of punifhment in
the Mofaic law, whereby an evil is returned fimilar to
that committed againft us by another •, hence that ex-
preflion, “ Eye for eye, tooth for tooth.” This law
was at firft inferted in the 1 2 tables amongft the Ro¬
mans ; but afterwards fet afide, and a power given to
the pnetor to fix upon a fum of money for the damage
done.
TALISMANS, magical figures cut or engraved
with fuperititious obfervations on the charadterifms and
configurations of the heavens, to which fome aftrologers
have attributed wonderful virtues, particularly that of
calling down celeftial influences. I he talifmans of Sa-
mothrace, fo famous of old, were pieces of iron formed
into certain images, and fet in rings j thefe were efteem-
ed prefervatives againft all kinds of evils. There were
likewife taliftnans taken from vegetables, and others
from minerals.
TALL AGE, (lollagium), from the Trench faille, is
metaphorically ufed tor a part or fhare of a man’s fub-
ftance carved out of the whole, paid by way of tribute,
toll, or tax.
TALLOW, in Commerce, the fat of certain animals
melted and clarified. It is procured from nioft animals,
but chiefly from bullocks, (beep, hogs, and bears. Some
kinds of tallow are ufed as unguents in medicine, fome
for making foap and drefling leather, and fome for mak¬
ing candles. See Fat, Chemistry Index.
Tallow Tree. See Croton, Botany Index.
TALLY, is a ftick cut in two parts, on each where¬
of is marked, with notches or otherwife, what is due be¬
tween debtor and creditor, as now ufed by brewers, &c.
And this was the ancient way of keeping all accounts,
one part being kept by the creditor, the other by the
debtor, &c. Hence the tallier of the exchequer, whom
we now call the teller. But there are two kinds of tal¬
lies mentioned in our ftatutes to have been long ufed in
the exchequer. The one is termed tallies of debt, which
are in the nature of an acquittance for debts paid to thfc
king, on the-payment whereof thefe tallies are delivered
[ 195 1 T A L
of filver was to the debtors, who carrying them to the clerk of the
pipe-office, have there an acquittance in parchir. it for
their full difeharge. The other are tallies of reward or
allowance, being made to ffieriffs of counties as a re-
cotnpenfe for fuch matters as they have performed to
their charge, or fuch money as is call upon them in their
accounts of courfe, but not leviable, &.c. In the exche¬
quer there is a tally-court, where attend the two deputy-
chamberlains of the exchequer and the tally-cutter : and
a tally is generally the king’s acquittance for money paid
or lent, and has written on it words proper toexprefson
what occafion the money is received.
TALLT-Man, a perfon that fells or lets goods, elotheSj
&c. to be paid by fo much a-week.
TALMUD, a colleftionof Jewifii traditions. There
are two works which bear this name, the I almud of Je-
rufalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Each of thefe is
compofed of two parts ; the Mifiina, which is the text,
and is common to both, and the Gemara or commentary.
See Mishna and Gemara.
The Miihna, which comprehends all the laws, infti-
tutions, and rules of life which, befide the ancient He¬
brew feripture, the Jews thought themfelves bound to ob-
ferve, was compofed, according to the unanimous tefti-
mony of the Jews, about the clofe of the fecond century.
It was the work of Rabbi Jehuda (or Juda) Hakkadoffi,
who was the ornament of the fchool at Tiberias, and is
faid to have occupied him forty years. The commen¬
taries and additions which fucceeding Rabbis made were
colle&ed by Rabbi Jcchanan Ben Eliezer, fome fay in
the 5th, others fay in the 6th, and others in the 7th
century, under the name of Gemara, that is, completion;
becaufe it completed the Talmud.- A fimilar addition
was made to the Miffina by the Babylonifli doflors in
the beginning of the 6th century according to Enfield,
and in the 7th according to others'.
'The Miihna is divided into fix parts, of which every
one which is entitled order is formed of treatifes, every
treatile is divided into chapters, and every chapter into
miffinas or aphorifms. In the frf part is difeuffed what¬
ever relates to feeds, fruits, and trees : in the fecond
feafts : in the third women, their duties, their di'orders,
marriages, divorces, contrails, and nuptials : in the
fourth are treated the damages or Ioffes fuftained by
beafts or men, of things found, depofits, ufuries, rents,
farms, partnerffiips in commerce, inheritance, fales and
purchafes, oaths, witneffes, arrefts, idolatry; and here are
named thofe by whom the oral law was received and
preferved : in the fifth part are noticed what regards
facrifices and holy things : and the fixth treats on purifi¬
cations, veffels, furniture, clothes, houfes, leprofy, baths,
and numerous other articles. All this forms the Miffina.
As the learned reader may wiffi to obtain fome notion
of rabbinical eompofition and judgment, we (hall grati¬
fy his curiofity fufficiently by the following fpecimen :
“ Adam’s body was made (if the earth of Babylon, his
head of the land of Ifrael, his other members of other
parts of the world. R. Meir thought he was com pad! of
the earth gathered out of the whole earth ; as it is writ¬
ten, thine eyes did fee nn> fudfiance. Now it is elfewhere
written, the eyes of the Lord are over all the earth. R,
Aha exprefsly marks the twelve hours in which his vari¬
ous parts were formed. His ftature was from one end of
the world to the other ; and it was for his tranfigreffiort
that the Creator, laying his hand in anger on him, lef-
B b 2 fened
Tally
Talmud.
TAM [ 196 ] TAM
Talmud fened him •, for before (fays R. Eleazar), ‘ with his hand
,r he rea< .' ed the firmament.’ R. Jehuda thinks his fin
l am.Hiunn. jierely . but [{. Xfaac thinks that ‘ it was nourishing
his foretkin.’
The Talmud of Babylon is mod valued by the Jews •,
and this is the book which they mean to exprefs when
they talk of the Talmud in general. An abridgement
of it wras made by Maimonides in the 12th century, in
which he rejected fome of its greateft abfurdities. The
Gemara is duffed with dreams and chimeras, with many
ignorant and impertinent quedions, and the dyle very
coarfe. The Milhna is written in a dyle comparatively
pure, and nsay be very uieful in explaining pafiages of
the New Tedament where the phrafeology is limilar.
This is indeed the only ufe to which Chridians can ap¬
ply it j but this renders it valuable. Lightfoot had ju-
dicioufly availed himfelf of fuch information as he could
derive from it. Some of the popes, with a barbarous
zeal, and a timidity of fpirit for the fuccefs of the Chri-
flian religion, which the belief of its divinity can never
excufe, ordered great numbers of the Talmud to be
burned. Gregory IX. burned about 20 cart-loads, and
Paul IV. ordered 12,000 copies of the Talmud to be
dedroyed.
The lad edition of the Talmud of Babylon, printed
at Amderdara, is in 12 vols folio. The Talmud of
Jerufalem is in one large folio.
TALPA, the Mole j a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order of ferae. See MAMMALIA Index.
TAMANDAU. See Myrmecophaga, Mamma¬
lia Index.
TAMARINDUS, the Tamarind-tree*, a genus
of plants \ according to Linnaeus belonging to the clafs
of triandria *, but Woodyille, Schreber, and other bota-
nids, have arranged it under the clafs of monadelphia.
See Botany Index.
T AMARIX, the TamaRISC, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandria ; and in the natural fy-
dem ranging under the 13th order, Succulents. See
- Botany Index.
T AM B OUR, in ArchiteBure^ a term applied to the Co¬
rinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome refem-
blance to a drum, which the French call tambour. Some
choofe to call it the vafe, and others campana or the bell.
Tambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber work,
covered with a ceiling, withinfide the porch of certain
churches } both to prevent the view of perfons paffing
by, and to keep off the v. ind, &c. by means of folding-
doors, &c.
Tambour, alfo denotes a round courfe of done, fe-
veral whereof form the diaft of a column, not fo high as
a diameter.
Tambour, in the arts, is a fpecies of embroidery. The
tambour is an indrument of a fpherical form, upon which
is dretched, by means of a dring and buckle, or other
fuitable appendage, a piece of linen or thin filken duff j
which is wrought with a needle of a particular form,
and by means of filken or gold and diver threads, into
leaves, flowers, or other figures.
TAMBOURIN, is the name of a dance performed
on the French flage. The air is lively, and the move¬
ments are quick.
The fame name is applied to a mufical indrument,
formed of a hoop, over which is dretched a piece of
parchment ox vellum, while bells and hallow hemi-
5
fphercs of brafs are loofely hung in holes cut in theTambo:
hoop. The tambourin is ufed only as an accompani- II
ment to other indruments. Tanu
TAMERLAN E, or Timur Bek, a celebrated prince' r
and conqueror. At the age of 25 he attained the higiieft
dignities, with furprifiug courage, and an ambition ado-
niihing to all the world. Endeavouring to perfect the
great talents which he had received from nature, he fperit
nine years in different countries j where ins great ienfe
and elevated genius appeared in councils and affemblies
while-his intrepidity and valour, whether in perfonal
combats or pitched battles, drew upon him the admira¬
tion of all mankind. He made himftlf mader of the
three empires of Jagatay Khan, Tufhi Khan, and Hula,
ku Khan**, fo that his power, riches, and magnificence
were immenfe. There remain vad monuments of his
grandeur in the cities, towns, cadles, and walls, which
he built: in the rivers and canals which he dug, as well
as the bridges, gardens, palaces, hofpitals, mofques, and
monaderies, which he erefted in divers parts of Alia in
fo great a number, that a king might be accounted very
powerful and magnificent, who thouid have employed
36 years only in building the great edifices which
Timur caufed to be founded.
Timur, according to the hidorian Arabfhah, was in
his perfon very corpulent and tall. He had a large fore¬
head and big head. His countenance was agreeable,,
and his complexion fair. He wore a large beard, was
very drong, and well limbed 5 had broad fhoulders, thick
fingers, and long legs. His conditution was amazingly
vigorous; but he was maimed in one hand and lame of
the right fide. His eyes appeared full of fire ; his voice
was loud and piercing ; he feared nothing ; and when
far advanced in years, his underdanding was found and
perfect, his body vigorous and robud, his mind condant
and undiaken like a rock.
He did not like raillery, and could not bear a lie.
There was no joking or fooling before hi mg for he lov¬
ed the naked truth, even although it was to his own dif-
advantage. He neither grieved if he mifearried in any
attempt, nor appeared overjoyed on any great fuccefs.
The device of his feal was, “ I am fincere and plain.”
He had a clear and folid underdanding, was furprifingly
happy in his conjeflures; vigilant, aflive, and undiaken
in his refulutions. He took great delight in reading hi-
dory, and was well Verfed in the date of countries, pro- ’
vinces, and cities. He was penetrating, fubtle', clofe,
and diffembling*, jud by inclination, liberal from difpo-
fition ; but ambition had in a great meafure extinguifh-
ed his humanity ; war had familiarized him to blood j
and his religious zeal had infpired hi m with the "mod
cruel, implacable, and pernicious fanaticifm.
He died on the id of April 1405, in the 71 d year
of his age and 36th of his reign. When he found death
approaching, he fent for his principal officers, declared
his grandfon his heir, and made them fwear to execute
his will. Having recommended brotherly love and con¬
cord to the princes his children, he ordered one of the
do&ors to read the Koran at his bed’s head, and often re¬
peat the unity of God. At night he feveral times made
profeflion of his belief, “ That there is no other God
than God,” and then expired. See Moguls, N° i 5, &cf
TAMTAM, a flat drum ufed by the Hindoos, re-
fembling a tabor, but it is larger, and founds louder.
J AMUS, Black Briony, a genus of plants belong¬
ing
T ois
j, ier.
■ TAN [197
in* to the clafs dioecia j and in the natural fyftem rank¬
ing under the nth order, Sannentacea:. See Botany
Index.
' T AN, the bark of the oak after it has been ground
and ufed by the tanner. The fmalleft fort is generally
made up in little fquare cakes called turf, and fold for
firing. The coarfer fort is fometimes dried in the fun,
and ufed by bakers for heating their ovens, &c. but its
chief ufe is for making hot-beds to raife pine-apples and
other plants.—William III. introduced the ufe of it from
Holland, for the purpofe of raifing orange trees ; after
which it was difcontinued for many years : but about
I'-iO, when ananas were firfl. brought into England, it
came'into general ufe, and has ever fince been in great
e{lunation with gardeners for all the purpofes of forcmg,
&c. on account of its ftrong and lading fermentation.
The fmaller the tan the quicker it heats ; but the larger
fort acquires heat more gradually and retains it longer :
the fkilful gardener therefore ufes the one or the other,
or a mixture of both, according to the time and purpofe
for which it is wanted. It is fume time after the tan
comes out of the tanner’s pit before it begins to heat,
and therefore it is not fit for immediate ufe *, but having
lain a week or two, it enters into a date of fermenta¬
tion, and if put into hot-beds properly prepared, will re¬
tain a moderate heat for three or four months. When
it becomes ufelefs for the hot-houfe, it is faid by Miller
and others to be an excellent manure for fome kinds of
land. '
The word tan is fometimes, though improperly, uled
for the bark itfelf, which is the chief ingredient in the
tanning of leather. Oak bark, on account of its great
adringency and gummy-refinous properties, is preferred
to all other fabdances for the purpofe of tanning, as it
not only preferves the leather from rotting, but alfo, by
condenfmg the pores, renders it impervious to water?
See Tanning.
For an account of tan or tannin, confiderea as a che¬
mical principle, fee CHEMISTRY, N° 2504.
TAN ACETUM, Tansy, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs fyngenefia ; and in the natural fydem
ranging under the 49^ order, Compoftcr* See Botany
Index.
TANAiCIUM, a genus of plants belonging tp the
didynamia clafs •, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 25th order, Putaminece. See Botany Index.
TAN AGRA, Tanager, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of pa [feres. See O R NIT H o L OGY~ In dex.
TANAIS, or Don. See Don.
TANGENT of an Arch, is aright line drawn per¬
pendicularly from the end of a diameter, paffing to one
extremity of the arch, and terminated by a right line
drawn from the centre through the other end of that
arch, and called the fecant. See Geometry.
TANGIER, a port-town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco and kingdom of Fez, fituated at the entrance
of the ftraits of Gibraltar, in W: Long. 5. 50. N. Lat.
38. 49. In 1662, this place belonged to the Portu-
guefe, and was given to King Charles II. upon his mar¬
riage with the Infanta of Portugal •, but, he growing
weary of the charge of keeping it, caufed it to oe blown
up and deftroyed in 1684 ; ever fince which time it has
been only a poor fifiiing town. Anciently it was called
Tingis, and gave name to the province of Mauritania
Tingitana.
Tank
11.
Tanning.
] tan
TANK, in the language of Indoftan, a place Inolof-
ed for receiving and retaining rain water. Euiing the
periodical rains the tanks are filled, and thus in the my „ — . i
feafon furnilh water for the rice fields and cattle. Some
of them are of great extent, meafuring 300 or 400 ieet ^
on the fide ; they are of a quadrangular form, and lined
with granite, defcending in regular ileps from the mar¬
gin to the bottom.
TANNER, one who dreffes hides by tanning them.
See Tanning-
Tanner, Dr Thomas, an Englifti prelate and cele¬
brated antiquarian, born in 1674. vVa<i admitted of
Queen’s college Oxford, where a fimilarity of tafte tor
antiquities produced a clofe friendfhip between him and
Edmund Gibfon afterwards bifhop of London. In 1697,
he was chofen fellow of his college ; and having already
publifhed fome fpecimens of his antiquarian refearches j
foon after became known to Dr Moore bilhop ot Nor¬
wich, who made him chancellor of his diocefe. In
1722, he was made archdeacon of Norwich, and in
1731 bifhop of St Afaph. He died at Oxford in 1735 ?
and after his death was publifhed an elaborate work, in
which he is faid to have been employed for 40 years,
under this title, Bibliotheca Britannica Hibernica, five
de Scriptoribus qui in Anglia, Scotia, ct Hibernia, ad
feeculi XVII. initium floruerunt, &c.
TANNING, the art of converting hides and ikms
into leather. This art has been praftiied for many cen¬
turies in Britain j but fome improvements have been
made on it, efpecially in France, fuggefted by the dif-
eoveries of modern chemiftry. Thefe improvements ive
Hi all briefly notice after having deferibed the method
lately pra&ifed in the neighbourhood of London, where
the belt Britifli leather is manufactured. The general
principles on which the improvements are founded, will
naturally come to be confidered, after dtferibing the
procefles themfelves. 1
The leather tanned in England is generally divided B.fWnt
by the manufaflurers into three kinds, butts or backs,
hides, and fkins. Butts are made from the ftoutai and
heavieft ox hides, and arc ufed chiefly for the loles of
flout fhoes and boots. Hides, or crop-hides, are-made
from cow hides, or the lighter ox hides, and are employ¬
ed for ordinary foies. The term fins is applied to all •
the other kinds of leather, comprehending that made
from the fkins of calves, feals, dogs, kids, 8cg. 3
Butts are tanned as follows. After the horns are ^t.hod of
taken off,, the hides are laid fmooth in heaps for two days tunning
in fummer, and five or fix in winter ; they are then hung butts,
on poles in a clofe room, called a fmoke-houfe, in which
is kept a fmouldering fire of wet tan j this oecafions
a fmall degree of putrefa&ion, by which means the hair
more eafily comes off, by fpreading the hide on a fort of
wooden horfe or beam, and feraping it with a crooked
knife. The hair being taken off, the hide is thrown
into a pool of water, to cleanfe it from the dirt, &c.
which being done, it is again fpread on the wooden
beam, and the greafe, loofe flefh, extraneous filth, fete,
carefully taken off: the hides are then put into a pit of
ftrong liquor, called oone, prepared in pits kept for the
purpofe, by infufing ground oak bark ’in water, which
is termed colouring. The hides are then removed into
another pit, called a fcouring, which confifts of water
ftrongly impregnated with vitriolic of fulphuric acid, or
a vegetable acid prepared from rye or barley. This
& t operation
Tanning.
^ *“v 
Of tanning
hides.
4
Of tanning
^tins.
TAN [ 198 ] T A N
Operation is called rai/ing. The hides are then taken
out of the fcouring, and fpread fmooth in a pit ufually
filled with water, called a binder} with a quantity of
ground bark, lire wed between each. After lying a
month or fix weeks, they are taken up, and the decay¬
ed bark and liquor being drawn out of the pit, it is
again filled with ttrong ooze, when they aie put in as
before, with bark between each hide, i hey now lie
two«r three months, at the expiration of which the
fame operation is repeated ; they then remain four or
five months, when they again undergo the fame pro-
ceis-, and after being three months in the lad pit, are
completely tanned, unlefs the hides are lb remarkably
flout as to require an additional pit or layer. The
whole procefs requires from n to 18 months, and
fometimes two years, according to the fubflance of the.
hide, and difcretion of the tanner. When taken out
of the pit to be dried, they are hung on poles ; and af¬
ter being compreffed by a Heel pin, and beaten out
fmooth by wooden beetles, the operation is completed.
Hides are thus managed. After the horns are taken
off, and the hide is walked, they are put into a pit of
water, faturated with lime, and having mixed with it a
quantity of tne fame fubltance, where they remain a
few days, when they are taken out, and the hair fcraped
off on a wooden beam, as before defcribed ; they are
then walked in a pit or pool of water, and tke loofe
lletk, &c. being taken off, they are removed into a pit
of weak ooze, where they are taken up and put down
two or three times a day, for the firlt week ; every fe-
cond or third day they are Ihifted into a pit of frefk
ooze, fomewhat ilronger than the former, till at the
end of a month or fix weeks they are put into a llrong
ooze, in which they are handled once or twice a week
.vitfi frelk baik lor two or three months. 1 hey are
then removed into another pit, called a /ayer, in which
they are laid fmooth, with bark ground very fine, llrew-
ed above each hide. After remaining here two or
three months, they are generally taken up, when the
ooze is withdrawn, and the hides putin again withfrelh
ooze and frelk bark, where, after lying two or three
months more, they are completely tanned ; except a
very few llout hides which may require an extra layer.
They are then taken out, and hung on poles, and being
fmoothed by a Heel pin, are, when dry, ready for
fale.
skins are to be walked in water, &c. and put into
lime pits as before mentioned, where they are taken up
and put down every third or fourth day for two or
three weeks, in order to deftroy the fcarf-lkin. The
kair is then leraped off, and the cxcrefcences being re¬
moved, they are put into a pit of water impregnated
m uh pigeons dung, called 71 grainer, which in a week
or 10 days foaking out the lime, greafe, and fapona-
ceous matter, foftens the {kins, and prepares them for
the reception of the ooze. They are then put into a
pit of weak ooze, in the fame manner as the hides, and
being frequently handled, are by degrees removed into
a tironger, and Hill Ilronger liquor, for a month or fix
weeks, when they are put into a very ftrong ooze, with
frelk bark ground very fine, and at the end of two or
three months, according to their fubfiances, are fuffi-
ciently tanned ; when they are taken out, hung on poles,
and dried.
The lighter forts of hides, called drejjing bides, as
well as horfe hides, are managed nearly in the fame ^Jnn‘i'S
manner as Ikins, and axe -ufed for coach work, harnefs W^r'
work, &c.
The principal objeftions to this old method of tanningObjcttio,
are, that it is extremely tedious, and very expenlive.totlleo11
Various means have been fuggefted for introducing am6tho(!i'
cheaper and more expeditious method of tanning. Among
the earlieft of thefe we may notice that of Ur Macbride.
This method confiils chiefly in the ufe of fulphuric in- Dr J
1U ad of acetous acid, for raifing or diftending the pores bride’s^
of the leather, and in fubftituting lime water, or a fo-proven^
lution of lime, for what has been called the mi/k of lime
or a confiderable quantity of lime diffufed in water.
According to a report made to the committee of com¬
merce of the Dublin fociety, it appeared that Dr Mac-
bride’s method produced a laving of more than 20 per¬
cent. to the manufaflurer, while the hides were com¬
pletely tanned in a much Ikorter time. It does not
appear, however, that this method ever came into ge-
neral ufe.
The experiments of M. Seguin, made in the end of
the 18th century, on the nature of the tanning princi¬
ple, led him to fuggeft a method of tanning which is
certainly much more expeditious than the old method.
It has been adopted in England by Mr William Def-
mond, and by his direftions has been pradtifed with
confiderable fuccefs, by forae of the principal tanners in
Warwicklkire, Staffordfhire, and fome of the neighbour¬
ing counties. I he following direblisms, communicated
by Mr Defmond to the editor of the Philofophical Ma¬
gazine, will fufficiently explain this new procefs. 6
Provide five veffels, called dige/Iers, of any conveni- MrDef.
ent materials and dimenfions, with an aperture at thenH^51
bottom ol each. Let them be placed near each other,^
and elevated on Milages or other wife ; fo that a fmall
veffel may be placed under them. Fill the digefters
with tan, viz. the bark of certain trees, fucb as of oak,
cut fmall, or ground to a coarfe powder. Pour water
on the tan in the firil digeller, where it may Hand fome
time, or be immediately drawn off. This liquor is to
be poured @n the tan in the fecond digeller; from that
to the third, and fo on, until it comes through the tan
in the laft digefter. I he liquor is then highly colour¬
ed, and marks from 6° to 8° on the hydrometer for
falls. I his liquor is to be ufed for tanning the thickeft
hides, and may be called tke tanning lixivium. If you
take a fmall quantity of it in a glafs, and pour on it a
few drops of a foiution of animal glue, the clear liquor
becomes turbid, and a wkitilk fubftance falls to tke bot¬
tom. Ike precipitate thus obtained, is a fure indica¬
tion that the liquor contains the tanning principle ; for
this reafon, that glue being of the fame nature with the
fkins or hides of which it is made, whatever fubftance
onites itfelf indiffolubly with the former, will do fo
likewife with the latter.
This foiution is made by diffolving a little common
glue in water over a moderate, fire ; by means of it, not
only oak bark, but alfo the bark of feveral other trees,
as well as different Ihrubs, and plants, all which may be
called tan, are found to contain the tanning principle ;
and by employing the foiution as before, it will be al¬
ways eafy to afcertain whether any given fubftance con¬
tains this principle.
In the courfe of thefe lixiviations it may be obferved,
1. I hat the liquor running from the firlt digefter, at
length
TAN [ i
ran. ’• length lofes its colour. If in this ftate a little of it be
1 ’ ' put into a glafs, and the former experiment be repeated,
the liquor no longer becomes turbid, but remains clear,
which thews .that it contains no more of the tanning
principle •, but if a few drops of a folution of fulphate of
iron be poured into the fame glafs, the liquor becomes
thick and black, which is not to be poured on the tan
in the fecond digeiler, but afterwards ufed for taking oflf
the hair qr wool. It is known by the name of ga///c
lixivium, as it appears to contain the fame principles
Avilh galls. .
The liquid fulphate of iron is obtained by diifolving
a fmall quantity of iron in diluted fulphuric acid, or by
diffolving green copperas in water. This folution feryes
to afcertain fuch fubftances as contain the gallic prin¬
ciple. Lime water will alfo produce this effedt. _
When the liquor ceafes to grow black by the mixture
of the fulphate of iron, it will be in vain to pour any
more water on the tan in the firft digefter. This tan
being thus exhaufted, muft be removed, and new tan
put in its place.
The liquor, after running through all the digelters,
at laif grows weak. All the liquor that marks from 6°
to 8° on the hydrometer, muft be added to the ftock of
tanning lixivium. What proceeds afterwards from the
laft digefter is to be poured on the new tan in the firft.
Then the frefti water is to be conveyed on the tan in
the fecond digefter, and the liquor of the firft fet afide,
while it marks 6° or 8° on the hydrometer, and added
to the tanning lixivium, which muft always be carefully
feparated from the gallic. In this manner, the tan in
all the digefters may be renewed, and the lixiviations
continued.
The number of thefe lixiviations, as well as the mode
of making them, may be varied at pleafure •, the eflen-
tial point is to repeat them fo as to give the liquor a fuf-
ficient degree of concentration, which may be detei-
mined by the hydrometer, and proportioned to the
quicknefs required in the operation, and the thicknefs
of the hides and ikins to be tanned *, all which experi¬
ence will foon teach. As all kinds of tan are not
equally good, it will fometimes happen that fix or more
filtrations will be neceflary to obtain a lixivium of 6° or
8°, in which cafe the number of digefters muft. be in-
creafed, and the fame method purfued as above 5 and
when a weaker lixivium is wanted, three or four filtra¬
tions will be fufficient.
The perfon dire&ing thefe lixiviations fhould be pro¬
vided with the folution of glue and fulphate of iron, al¬
ready defcribed, in order to afcertain the qualities of the
different lixivia, as well as with a hydrometer properly
graduated, to determine their degree of concentration
or fpecific gravity.
In tanning cow and ox hides with this lixivium, they
ftiould firft be walhed in running water, well cleaned,
and fleftied in the ufual way. For removing the hair,
the hides are to.be fteeped for two or three days in a
vat filled with the gallic lixivium, and a mixture of ful-
phurie acid, marking 66° on the hydrometer for acids,
and in the proportion of one to a thoufand, or one pint
to 125 gallons. During this fteeping, the hair is fepa¬
rated from the hides in fuch a manner, that it may be
eafily known when they are to be taken out of the vat,
that is, when the hair is quite loofe. It is to be fcraped
eff with a round knife on the horfe or beam.
99 J TAN
When railing is neceffary, the hides are hnmerfed for Tanning*
10 or 12 hours in a vat filled with water, and of ',, y" 1 ^
its volume of mineral acid, of the lame quality with the
former, and the operation of railing is finilhed. J he
hides are repeatedly walhed, and the round knife is
ufed, alter which they are prepared for tanning.
The reft of the procefs confifts in tanning, proper!^*
fo called j for which purpofe, the hides are to be fteep¬
ed fome hours in a weak lixivium of only 1° or 2° j to
obtain which, that is to be taken which runs from the
fecond digefter, or fome already ufed for tanning. They
are next put into a ftronger lixivium, where in a few
days they will be brought to the fame degree of fatura-
tion with the liquor in which they are immerfed. The
ftrength of the liquor being then much diminilhed, it
muft be renewed •, and when the hides are completely
faturated, or fully tanned, which is known by cutting-
off a bit of the edge, remove the leather, and let it drjr
flowly in a ihady place.
For calf Ikins, goat Ikins, &c. thefe are firft flelhed
with the knife, and worked in running water like the
others. They are then fteeped in lime water, in which
there Ihould be more lime than the water can diffolve
at once. What is not diffolved will fubfide, but muft
be mixed with the water, by ftirring it feveral times a-
day. In two or three days the Ikins are to be removed
when the hair is found quite loofe, it is fcraped off on
the horfe. They are then waftied and preffed well, till
the water running from them is perfe&ly clear, and the
lime totally extracted. They are firft fteeped in a weak
lixivium, then tanned as above 5 but the tanning lixi¬
vium muft not be nearly fo ftrong as that for hides.
Lime is ufed for thefe foft Ikins inftead of a mixture
of gallic lixivium and fulphuric acid, becaufe the acid
always fwells the leather more or lefs, and becaufe the
lime may be more eafily extracted from them, by walk¬
ing and compreffing them, than from the thick hides,
which, when limed, are harlh and apt to crack, if the
lime be not wholly extra&ed before they are tanned.
Among the different methods of immerfion which
may be pra&ifed in the courfe of thefe operations, the
beft way feems to be that of fufpending the hides and
Ikins vertically in the lixivia, by means of tranfverfe rods
or bars, and at fuch a diftance afunder as not to touch
each other in any one point. If they are laid out the
one over the other, they will require frequent handling,
in order that all the parts may be equally faturated,
airi to prevent the folds or plaits that would other wife
be formed in them. In fome cafes it will be found ex¬
pedient to mix freftr tan from time to time with the lixi¬
vium, which will depend on the ftate and quality of the
hides and Ikins to be tanned, as well as on the purpofes
for which they are intended. All thefe confiderations
muft be left to the judgment of the manufafturer 5 but
they do not change the principle on which this mode of
tanning is founded..
Mr Defmond afferts, that befides the very great fav-
ings in point of time and labour, the leather tanned ac¬
cording to the above method being more completely fa¬
turated, will be found to weigh heavier, to wear better,* Thilof
and to be lefs fufceptible of moifture, than the leather
tanned in the uiual way *. ^
In explaining the principles on which the feveral principles
parts of the tanning procefs depend, we muft firft re-of tanning*
mark, that the principal objed of tanning is, to com¬
bine
Tanning.
TAN [ 20
bine the'gelatinous part of the hides with the tanning
principle of aflringent vegetables as intimately as poffi-
ble, and thus produce that compound which we call
leather, and which is infoluble in wrater. The chief
part of the procefs therefore confifts in fteeping the hides
in a folution of tannin till they are fufficiently impreg¬
nated wdth the tanning principle ; and to this operation
the others are fubfervient, only as they prepare the
hides to be more eafily afted on by the tanning prin¬
ciple.
The infulions of oak bark, when chemically exami¬
ned, are found to contain two principal fubllances, one
precipitable by folution of gelatine made from glue or
ilinglafs, and this gives a denfe black, Avith folution of
common fulphate of iron; the other not precipitable
by folution of gelatine, but precipitating the falts of iron
of a brownifh black, and the falts of tin of a fawn co¬
lour.
The former of thefe is the tanning principle, or the
tannin of Seguin ; it is effential to the converlion of
Ikin into leather. The latter is the colouring or extrac-
tr'e matter; it is capable of entering into union with
Ikin, and it gives to it a brown colour ; but it does not
render it infoluble in boiling water.
It has been generally fuppofed that the infufion of
oak bark contains a peculiar acid, called gallic acid ;
but fome late experiments render this opinion doubtful;
and this principle, if it exifts in oak bark, is in intimate
combination with the extractive or colouring matter.
In the common procefs of tanning, the Ikin, which
is chiefly compofed of gelatine, (lowly combines in its
organized form with the tannin and extractive matter
of the infufions of bark ; the greater proportion of its
increafe of weight, however, is owing to tannin, and '
from this fubftance the leather derives its characterJftic
properties ; but its colour, and the degree of its flexibi¬
lity, appear to be influenced by the quantity of colour¬
ing matter that it contains. When (kin, in large quan¬
tity, is fufFered to exert its full aCtion on a fmall portion
of infufion of bark, containing tannin and extractive
matter, the fluid is found colourlefs. It gives no preci¬
pitate to folution of gelatine, and produces very little -
cffeCt on the falts of iron or of tin. The tanning prin¬
ciple of oak bark is more foluble in water than the ex¬
tractive matter ; and the relative proportion of tannin
to extractive matter is much greater in strong infufions
of oak bark than in weak ones ; and when (trong infu-
(ions are ufed for tanning, a larger proportion of tannin
is combined with the matter of (kin.
The (late of the (kin with regard to its impregnation
with tannin may be eafily afeertained by cutting it tranf-
verfely with a fnarp knife, as the tanned part will appear
of a nutmeg colour, while thg unimpregnated part re¬
tains its whitenefs. Though the impregnation of the
(kins with tannin be an effential part of the procefs,
fomething more is required to give the leather its pro¬
per degree of ftrength and pliability. The infufions of
oak bark, efpecially the weaker infufions, contain, be-
fides tannin, more or lefs of extraClive matter, which is
abforbed by the (kins during the tanning procefs. Hence
is appears, that a folutiori of tannin alone would not con¬
vert the (kins into leather ; and that as concentrated
infufions of oak bark contain a lefs proportional quanti¬
ty of extraClive matter, they are not fo well calculated
for the purpofes of tanning as the weaker infufions.
o ] , TAN
This is an important conclufion, as it (hejvs that the Tarn
vulgar opinion of tanners refpeCling the propriety of the ^—7^
old methods, and what they call Jeeding the leather, is
founded on rational principles. In faCl it appears, that,
though, in the quick method, recommended by Seguin
and Defmond, the leather may be more expeditioufly,
and perhaps more completely impregnated with tannin,
it is deficient in ftrength and pliability, from the want
of its due proportion of extraClive matter.
Having thus explained the principles on which the
material part of the tanning procefs depends, we mull
briefly notice the rationale ol the preliminary opera¬
tions.
Chaptal has (hewn, that when (kin is immerfed in a
tanning liquor, without having been previouily freed
from its cuticle or fcar(-£kin, the impregnation of tannin
takes place only on the flefti fide. This (hews the ne-
ceflity, efpecially in the thicker hid^s or butts, of remo¬
ving the cuticle, before deeping the hides in the tanning
liquor. The fmall degree of putrefaClion to which the
butts are fubjeCted, has this effeCl, and the fteeping of
the hides and (kins in lime water contributes to the fame
end ; for though lime does not leem to be capable of
diffolving the cuticle, it renders it friable, fo that it is
eafily removed by the inftruments employed for feraping
off the hair. Not only the cuticle, but likewife the
foft matter of the extremity of the hair is aCled on by
lime ; and this effeCt muft conliderably tend to facilitate
the procefs of depilation. The fame fubftance mixing
with the fat on the flefliy fide of the (kins, forms a foapy
compound, which, with other extraneous matter, is re¬
moved by the fubfequent waftnngs.
It has been fuppofed that the acids in which the (kins
are fteeped, previous to their immerfion in tanning li¬
quors, have the efteCI of opening their pores, and thus
rendering them more eafily penetrable by the tanning
principle and extraClive matter. We believe that this
opinion is erroneous, as we cannot fee how acids, the
obvious effect of which feems to be that of contra&ing
animal matter, can enlarge the pores of the (kins. It
is probable that they produce fome other advantageous
effect not yet fufficiently underftood, in preparing the
(kins for being more perfectly adted on by the tanning
liquors.
The principal eflject of the grainer, or the pigeons
dung employed in the thinner (kins, feems to be that of
promoting putrefaction, and rendering the (kins lefs
elaftic, though the alkali evolved during the fermenta¬
tion of the dung, may affift in removing the fat on the
flelh fide of the (kins. g
As from the prefent great demand, and confequentSubtt1
fcarcity of oak timber, oak bark has become a very ex-tor oaf
penlive article, it may be proper to enumerate a few of^ar"'
the principal vegetable fubftanecs, efpecially thofe indi¬
genous to Great Britain, that may be fubftituted for it.
Of thefe the bark of the Scotch fir appears to be mod
deferving of attention, and was fome years ago employ¬
ed by a gentleman in Ireland with great fuccefs. Se¬
veral fpecies of willow afford a good fubftitute for oak
bark, particularly the Leicefter willow, of which the
entire bark produces a greater quantity of folid extra#
than the*entire bark of oak. Next to thefe may be
mentioned the bark of the common elm, the root of tor-
mentil {tormentilla vulgaris, Lin.) which has been long
employed in the north of Scotland as an article of do-
meftk
fa:
Taor
T A 0 f 20
ig ftieftlc tanning. To thefe may be added the herb avens
(gsi/m urbanum, Lin.), feveral fpecies of cinquefoil,
112 and of biftort, common ladies mantle {alchemilla vulga-
yIs\ and the root of the common water-flag {iris pfeu-
xtacorus, Lin.). Of plants not indigenous to Britain,
'but generally cultivated here, we may particularly no¬
tice the horfe-chefnut, the bark of which is a llrong
aftringent, and might be employed, we think, with
great advantage in tanning. The moft powerful tan--
ning fubftance, however, with which we are acquainted,
is the juice or extract of the mimofa catechu, commonly
called Japan earth, one pound of which will tan as much
leather as feven or eight pounds of oak bark.
Our limits will not permit us to extend this article,
by deferibing the proceffes for tanning employed in
other countries. On the method purfued in Ruffia, our
readers may confult Tooke’s View of the Ruffian Em¬
pire; and of the French method of tanning, an ample
account has been given in a publication by De Lalande.
Another on the fame fubjeft may foon be expefted from
Chaptal. The moft complete work on Britilh tanning,
and on other proceffes to which leather is fubjedled,
with which we are acquainted, is a fmall volume entit¬
led The Art of Tanning and Currying Leather, publifh-
ed by the Dublin Society in 1*780. Several ufeful pa¬
pers on this fubjedl: may alfo be found in Nicholfon’s
Philofophical Journal, and Tilloch’s Philofophical Ma¬
gazine.
For an account of other proceffes conne&ed with the
leather manufa&ure, fee Leather and CuRRYING.
TANTALIUM, a new metal which has been de-
tefted in two minerals. See Mineralogy, p. 250.
TANTALUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Phrygia
and Paphlagonia, was the fon of Jupiter and the nymph
Plota. He one day entertained the gods at his table 5
when, to prove their divinity, he ferved up his fon Pe-
lops cut in pieces. All the deities, except Ceres, per¬
ceived his cruelty and impiety, and would not touch his
provilions. That goddefs, whofe thoughts were folely
employed about her daughter Proferpine, inadvertently
ate a part of his left (boulder. Pelops, however, was
reftored to life; and an ivory thoulder given him in the
room of that which had been eaten ; while Tantalus
was thrown into Tartarus, where he was puniihed with
perpetual hunger and thirft. He was chained in a
lake; the water of which reached up to his chin, but
retired when he attempted to drink. The branch of a
tree loaded with fruit hung down even to his lips, but
on his attempting to pluck the fruit the branch fprung
upwards.
Tantalus, a genus of birds belonging to the order
•f gralias. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
T ANT ALUV S Cup. See SCIENCE, Amufements of
N°33.
TANZY, or Tansy. See Tanacetum, Botany
Index.
TAORMINA, a town in Sicily,' which is fituated
on a high rock, and is 88 miles fouth of Medina. Of
its origin little is known. A colony from the ifle of
Naxos fettled at the foot of Etna, at no great diftance
from the ftiore, and at about a league or a league and a
half from the prefent (ituation of Taormina. Dionyfius
*be Tyrant attacked this colony, and either took or fet
Are to their city. The inhabitants retired to the rocks
of Mount Taurus; among which they found a tradl of
VOL. XX. Part X.
1 3 , TAP
ground fufficiently level and fecure, and of fufficient i
extent. Here therefore they built a city; which, after
the mountain, they named Tauromenium. It was at...
length raifed to a very flourithing ftate by trade, and
became celebrated as a feat of the arts, the remains of
which (how that the fine arts muft have been once fuc-
cefsfully cultivated at Tauromenium.
Among other remains are ftill to be feen a fpacious
theatre, a tomb, and a large natural grotto, which ap¬
pears to have been anciently adorned within with artifi¬
cial ornaments. After the inhabitants of Taormina em¬
braced Chriftianity, they ftill continued to vifit this
grotto with devout veneration. Inftead of the Pagan
divinities to whom it had before been facred, they (ub-
ftituted a faint, the venerable St Leonard. But St Leo¬
nard did not long draw crowds to this grotto; and the
Chriftians have either defaced its Pagan decorations, or
fuffered them to fall into decay by the injuries of time.
It is now black and fmoky ; and it is with difficulty
that any remains of the Greek paintings with which it
Was once ornamented can be diftinguiftied.
TAPE-worm. See Ttenia, Helminthology
Index.
TAPER, Tapering, is underftood of a piece of
timber, or the like, when thick at one end, and gra¬
dually diminifhing to the other ; as is the cafe in pyra¬
mids, cones, &c.
To meafure TAPER-Timber, &c. See SLIDING
Rule.
TAPER-Bored, is applied to a piece of ordnance
when it is wider at the mouth than towards the breech.
Taper, alfo denotes a kind of tall wax candle, pla¬
ced in a candleftick, and burnt at funeral proceflions,
and in other church folemnities.
Tapers are made of different fizes ; in feme places, &s
Italy, &c. they are cylindrical ; but in moft other
countries, as England, France, &c. they are conical or
taper ; whence poflibly the name ; unlefs rve rather
choofe to derive taper, in the adjeftive fenfe from the
fubftantive taper, in the Saxon tapen or tapon, cereus,
“ wax-candle.” Both kinds are pierced at bottom for a
pin in the candleftick to enter.—There are two ways of
making tapers, the firft with the ladle, the fecond by
hand ; for which fee Candle.
Pafchal TAPER, among the Romanifts, is a large ta¬
per, wheron the deacon applies five bits of frankincenfe,
in holes made for the purpofe in form of a crofs ; and
which he lights with new fire in the ceremony of Eafter
Saturday.
The Pontifical makes Pope Zofimus the author of
this ufage ybut Baronius will have it more ancient, and
quotes a hymn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope
he fuppofes to have only eftablifhed the ufe thereof in
parifh-churches, which, till then, had been reftrained
to greater churches.
F. Papebroch explains the original of the pafchal ta¬
per more diftinftly, in his Conatus Chronico-Hiforicus,
&c. It feems, though the council of Nice regulated
the day whereon Eafter was to be celebrated, it laid it
on the patriarch of Alexandria to make a yearly canon
thereof, and to fend it to the pope. As all the other
moveable feafts were to be regulated by that of Eafter,
a catalogue of them was made every year ; and this was
written on a taper, cereus, which was bleffed in the
church with much folemnity.
C c Thi?
Taper.
TAP [ 202 ] TAP
Taper, This taper, according to the abbot Challelain, was
lapeiiry. noj_ a Wax-candle made to be burnt; it had no wick,
~ nor was it any thing more than a kind of column of
wax, made on purpefe to write the lift of moveable
feafts on ; and which would fuffice to hold that lift for
the fpace of a year.
For among the ancients, when any thing was to be
•written to laft for ever, they engraved it on marble or
fteel *, when it was to laft a long while, they wrote it
on Egyptian paper *, and when it was only to laft a
ftiort time, they contented themfelves to write it on wax.
In procefs of time they came to write the moveable
feafts on paper, but they ftill faftened it to the pafchal
taper. Such is the original of the benedi&ion of the
pafchal taper.
TAPESTRY, a kind of cloth made of wool and
{ilk, adorned with figures of different animals, See. and
formerly ufed for lining the walls of rooms, churches,
&.c.
The art of weaving tapeftry is fuppofed to have been
borrowed from the Saracens j accordingly the workmen
employed in this manufacture in France were formerly
called Sarcrzins or Sarazinois. Guicciardini aferibes
the invention of tapeftry hangings to the inhabitants of
the Netherlands; but he has not mentioned at what time
the difeovery was made. This art was brought into
England by William Sheldon, near the end of Henry
VIII.’s reign. In 1619 a manufacture was eftabliihed
at Mortlake in Surry by Sir Francis Crane, who recei¬
ved 2000I. from King James to encourage the defign.
The firft manufacture of tapeftry at Paris was fet up un¬
der Henry IV. in 1606 or 1607, by feveral artifts
whom that monarch invited from Flanders. Under
Louis XIV. the manufacture of the Gobelins was infti-
tuted, which has introduced very beautiful cloths, re¬
markable for ftrength, for elegance of defign, and a
happy choice of colours. The fineft paintings are co¬
pied, and eminent painters have been employed in mak¬
ing defigns for the work.
Tapeftry-work is diftinguiftied by the workmen into
two kinds, viz. that of high and that of low warp ;
though the difference is rather in the manner of work¬
ing than in the work itfelf; which is in effeCt the fame
in both : only the looms, and confequently the warps,
are differently fituated ; thofe of the low warp being
placed flat and parallel to the horizon, and thofe of the
high warp ereCted perpendicularly. The Englifh an¬
ciently excelled all the world in the tapeftry of the high
warp; and they ftill retain their former reputation,
though with fome little change : their low warps are
ftill admired ; but as for the high ones, they are quite
laid afide by the French. The French, before the re¬
volution, had three confiderable tapeftry manufactures
befides that of the Gobelins ; the firft at Aubuffon in
Auvergne, the fecond at Felletin in the Upper Marche,
and the third at Beauvais. They were all equally efta-
blifhed for the high and the lo-w warp; but they had
all laid afide the high warp excepting the Gobelins.
There were admirable low warps like wife in Flanders,
generally exceeding thofe of France j the chief and al-
snoft only Flemifti manufactures were at Bruffels, Ant-
werp, Oudenard, Lifle, Tournay, Bruges, and Valen¬
ciennes; but of the ftate of thefe. manufactures now we
Ve ignorant,
The ufual widths of tapeftry are from two ells to Tspei-
three ells Paris meafure. '"“Y*
The ManufaBitre of Tapeflry of the High Warp,—.
The loom on which it is wrought is placed perpendicu¬
larly : it confifts of four principal pieces; two long
planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers or
beams. The planks are fet upright, and the beams
acrofs them, one at the top and the other at the bottom,
or about a foot diftance from the ground. They have
each their trunnions, by which they are fufpended on
the planks, and are turned with bars. In each roller is
a groove, from one end to the other, capable of contain¬
ing a long round piece of wood, faftened therein with
hooks. The ufe of it is to tie the ends of the warp to.
The warp, which is a kind of worfted, or twifted wool-
len thread, is wound on the upper roller ; and the work,
as faft as wove, is wound on the lower. Withinfide
the planks, which are feven or eight feet high, fourteen
or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick, are
holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put
thick pieces of iron, with hooks at one end ferving tofu-
ftain the coat-ftave : thefe pieces of iron have alio holes
pierced, by putting a pin in which the ftave is drawn
nearer or fet farther off; and thus the coats or threads
are ftretched or loofened at pleafure. The coat-ftave is
about three inches diameter, and runs all the length of
the loom ; on this are fixed the coats or threads, which
make the threads of the warp crofs each other. It has
much the fame effeft here as the fpring-ftave and tred-
dles have in the common looms. The coats are little
threads faftened to each thread of the warp with a kind
of Aiding knot, which forms a fort of mafh or ring.
They ferve to keep the warp open for the paffage of
broaches wound with filks, woollens, or other matters
ufed in the piece of tapeftry. In the laft place, there
are a number of little flicks of different lengths, but all
about an inch in diameter, which the workman keeps
by him in balkets, to ferve to make the threads of the
warp crofs each other, by palling them acrofs; and,
that the threads thus croffed may retain their proper fi«
tuation, a packthread is run among the threads above
the flick.
The loom being thus formed, and mounted with its
warp, the firft thing the workman does is to draw on
the threads of this warp the principal lines and ftrokes
of the defign to be reprefented on the piece of tapeftry;
which is done by applying cartoons made from the
painting he intends to copy to the fide that is to be th$
wrong fide of the piece, and then, with a black lead
pencil, following and tracing out the contours thereol
on the thread of the right fide ; fo that the ftrokes ap*
pear equally both before and behind.
As for the original defign the work is to be finiflied
by, it is hung up behind the workmen, and wound on
a long ftaff, from which a piece is unrolled from time
to time as the work proceeds.
Befides the loom, &c. here deferibed, there are three
other principal inftruments required for working the
filk or the wool of the woof within the threads of the
warp; thefe are a broach, a reed, and an irtm needle.
The broach is made of a hard -wood, feven or eight
inches long, and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in
a point with a little handle. This ferves as a (buttle;
the filks, woollens, gold, or filver. to be ufed in the
3
}T A P [ 20
ry. 'work being wound on it. The reed or comb is alfo of
“^v/ood, eight or nine inches long, and an inch thick on
the back, whence it grows lefs and lefs to the extremity
of the teeth, which are more or lefs apart, according to
the greater or lefs degree of finenefs of the intended
work. Laitly, the needle is made in form of the com¬
mon needle, only bigger and longer. Its ufe is to prefs
clofe the wool and filks when there is any line or colour
that does not fit well.
All things being prepared for the work, and the work¬
man ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wrong fide
of the piece, with his back towards the defign : fo that
he works as it were blindfold, feeing nothing of what
he does, and being obliged to quit his poft, and go to
the other fide of the loom whenever he would view and
examine the piece, to correct it with his prefiing-needle.
To put filk, &c. in the warp, he firft turns and looks
at the defign ; then, taking a broach full of the proper
colour, he places it among the threads of the warp,
which he brings crofs each other with his fingers, by
means of the coats or threads faftened to the ftaff; this
he repeats every time he is to change his colour. Ha¬
ying placed the filk or wool, he beats it with his reed
or comb •, and when he has thus wrought in feveral
rows over each other, he goes to fee the effe6ls they
have, in order to reform the contours with his needle,
if there be occafion. As the work advances, it is rolled
upon the lower beam, and they unroll as much warp
from the upper beam as fuffices them to continue the
piece : the like they do of the defign behind them.
When the pieces are wide, feveral workmen may be em¬
ployed at once.
We have but two things to add: the firft is, that the
kigh warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the
low warp, and takes up almoft twice the time and trouble.
The fecond is, that all the difference that the eye can
perceive between the two kinds, confifts in this, that in
the low warp there is a red fillet, about one-twelfth of
an inch broad, running on each fide from top to bottom,
which is wanting in the high warp.
Manufa&ure of Tapejlry of the Low Warp.—The
loom or frame, whereon the low warp is wrought, is
much like that of the weavers j the principal parts there¬
of are two ftrong pieces of wood forming the fides of the
loom, and bearing a beam or roller at each end : they
are fuftained at bottom with other ftrong pieces of wood
in manner of treftles •, and, to keep them the firmer, they
are likewife faftened to the floor with a kind of but-
treffes, which prevent any (baking, though there are
fometimes four or five workmen leaning on the fore-beam
at once.
The rollers have each their trunnions, by which they
are fuftained : they are turned by large iron pins three
feet long. Along each beam runs a groove, wherein is
placed the wich, a piece of wood of about two inches
diameter, and almoft of the length, of the roller : this
piece fills the groove entirely, and is faftened therein,
from fpace to fpace, by wooden pins. To the two
wiches are faftened the two extremities of the warp,
which is wound on the farther roller, and the work, as
it advances, on the nearer.
Acrofs the two fides, almoft in the middle of the loom,
paffes a wooden bar, which fuftains little pieces of wood,
not unlike the beam of a balance : to thefe pieces are
faftened firings, which bear certain fpring (laves, w'here-
Tar.
3 1 T A R
with the workman, by means of tw’o treddlos under the Tapeftry
loom whereon he fets his feet, gives a motion to the
coats, and makes the threads of the warp rife and fall u>
alternately. Each loom has more or fewer of thefe
fpring-ftaves, and each ftaff more or fewer coats, as the
tapeftry confifts of more or fewer threads.
The defign or painting the tapeftry-man is to follotV
is placed underneath the warp j where it is fuftained
from fpace to fpace with ((rings, by means of which the
defign is brought nearer the warp.
The loom being mounted, there are two inftruments
ufed in working it, viz. the reed and the (lute. The (lute
does the office of the weaver’s (buttle j it is made of an
hard polilhed wood, three or four lines thick at the
ends, and fomewhat more in the middle, and three or
four inches long. On it are wound the filks or other
matters to be ufed as the woof of the tapeftry. The
comb or reed is of wood or ivory *, it has ufually teeth
on both fides; it is about an inch thick in the middle,
but diminifties each way to the extremity of the teeth :
it ferves to beat the threads of the woof clofe to each
other, as fad as the v/orkman has paffed and placed them
with his flute amongft the threads of the warp.
The rvorkman is feated on a bench before the loom,
with his bread againft the beam, only a cuftrion or pil¬
low between them ; and, in this pofture, feparating, with
his fingers, the threads of the warp, that he may fee the
defign underneath, and taking a flute, mounted with a
proper colour, he paffes it among the threads, after ha¬
ving raifed or lowered them, by means of the treddles
moving the fpring-ftaves and coats.
Laftly, to prefs and clofe the threads of the filk or
yarn, &c. thus placed, he ftrikes each courfe (i. e. what
the flute leaves in its paffing and coming back again)
with the reed.
TAPIOCA, a fpecies of (larch, which the Brazileans
make from the roots of the caffada plant. See Jatro-
pha, Botany Index.
TAPIR, a quadruped of the order of belluse, refem-
bling the hippopotamus. See Mammalia Index.
TAPPING, in general, the aft of piercing a hole in
a veffel, and applying a tube or canula in the aperture,
for the commodious drawing off the liquor contained
therein.
Tapping, in Surgery. See Paracentesis, Sur¬
gery Index.
TAPROBANA, the ancient name of the ifland of
Ceylon. See Ceylon, and Geography, N° 28.
TAR, a thick, black, unftuous fubftance, obtained
chiefly from old pines and fir-trees by burning them with
a clofe (mothering heat. It is prepared in great quan¬
tities in Norway, Sweden, Germany,.Ruffia, and North
America, and in other countries where the pine and fir
abound.
Becher, the celebrated chemift, firft propofed to make
tar from pit-coal. Manufaftures for this purpofe have
been ellablifhed many years ago in the biffiopric of
Liege, and in feveral parts of England. In the year
j'y8i, the earl of Dundonald obtained a patent for ex-
trafting tar from pit-coal by a new procefs of diftillation.
Great hopes were entertained of the value of this difeo-
very, but we have not heard that it has anfwered expec¬
tation.
Tar, which is Weil known for its economical ufes, is
properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine,and has been
C c 2 much
T A li [ 204 ] TAB
much ui'ed as a medicine both internally and externally.
Tar-water, or water impregnated with the more foluble
parts of tar, was formerly a very popular remedy.
TARANTO, the ancient Tarentum, a fea-port
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Terra de Otranto. It is a llrong and populous place,
with an archbilhop’s fee, and the title of a principality.
It is feated on a peninfula, and is defended by a llrong
caflle •, but the harbour is choked up. E. Long. 17.
29. N. Lat. 40. 35.
TARANTULA, a fpecies of aranea, fo called from
Taranto, the place where it is faid to abound. See
Aranea, Entomology Index.
TARASCON, an . ancient and populous town of
France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone,
and late province of Provence, with a well-built caftle,
ieated on the river Rhone, oppofite Beaucaire, with
which it communicates by a bridge of boats. Its com¬
merce confills in oil, brandy, ftarch, and fluffs that are
much worn, one fort being of coarfe filk, and the other
of the fame material and wool. It is 10 miles north of
Arles, and 375 fouth by eafl of Paris. E. Long. 4. 45.
N. Lat. 43. 46.
TARAZONA, a flrong town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Arragon, and on the frontiers of Old Calliie,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated partly on a rock, and
partly in a fertile plain, on the river Chiles. It was
taken from the Moors in mo. W. Long. 1. 26.
N. Lat. 42. 10.
TARCHONANTHUS, Flea-bane, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs fyngenefia 5 and in the na¬
tural fyftem ranging under the 49th order, Compojiue.
See Botany Index.
TARE, is an allowance for the outfide package that
contains fuch goods as cannot be unpacked without de¬
triment ; or for the papers, threads, bands, &c. that in-
clofe or bind any goods imported loofe ; or though im¬
ported in calks ; ehefls, &c. yet cannot be unpacked
and weighed neat.
Tare, or Vetch. See Vjcia, Botany Index.
TARGET, a kind of lliield or weapon of defence
made ufe of by the ancients.
TARGIONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of cryptogamia, and natural order of Alga:. See
Botany Index.
TARGUM, a name given to tile Chaldee para-
phrafes of the books of the Old Teflament. They are
called paraphrafes or expqfitions, becaufe they are rather
comments and explications than literal tranflations of
the text. They are written in the Chaldee tongue,
which became familiar to the Jews after the time of
their captivity in Babylon, and was more known to them
than the Hebrew itfelf. So that when the Hebrew text
was read in the fynagogue, or in the temple, they ge¬
nerally added to it an explication in the Chaldee tongue
for the fervice of the people, who had but a very im-
perfeft knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. It is pro¬
bable, that even from the time of Ezra this cuftom be¬
gan, fince this learned feribe, reading the law to the
people in the temple, explained it, with the other priefts
that were with him, to make it underftood by the peo¬
ple (Nehem. viii. 7—9.).
But though the cuftom of making thefe forts of expo-
fttions in the Chaldee language be very ancient among
ihe Hebrews, ^et have they no written ’paraphrafes or
targums before the era of Onkelos and Jonathan, who Targm
lived about the time of our Saviour. Jonathan is placed'■“v
about 30 years before Chrift, under the reign of Herod
the Great. Onkelos is lomething more modern. The
Targum of Onkelos is the moft of all efleemed, and
copies are to be found in which it is inferted verfe for
verfe with the Hebrew'. It is fo ftiort and fo Ample,
that it cannot be fufpedted of being corrupted. This
paraphraft wrote only upon the books of Moles ; and
his ftyle approaches nearly to the purity of the Chaldee,
as it is found in Daniel and Ezra. This targum is
quoted in the Mifna, but was not known either to Eu-
febius, St Jerome, or Origen.
The Targum of Jonathan fon of Uziel is upon thu
greater and Idler prophets. He is much more diffufe
than Onkelcs, and efpecially upon the Idler prophets,
where he takes great liberties, and runs on in allegories.
His ftyle is pure enough, and approaches pretty near to
the Chaldee of Onkelos. It is thought that the Jewilh
dodors who lived above 700 years after him made fomt.
additions to him.
The Targum of Jofeph the Blind is upon the Hagio-
grapha. This author is much more modern, and lei’s
efleemed than thofe we have now mentioned. He has
written upon the Pfalms, Job, the Proverbs, the Can¬
ticles, Eccldiaftes, Ruth, and Eft.her. His ftyle is a
very corrupt Chaldee, with a great mixture of words
from foreign languages.
The Targum of Jerufalem is only upon the Penta¬
teuch \ nor is that entire or perfed. There are whole
verfes wanting, others tranfpofed, others mutilated j
which has made many of opinion that this only is a
fragment of fome ancient paraphrafe that is now loft.
There is no targum upon Daniel, or upon the books of
Ezra and Nehemiah.
Thefe targums are of great ufe for the better under-
ftanding not only of the Old Teftament, on which they
are written, but alfo of the New. As to the Old Tefta¬
ment, they ferve to vindicate the genuinenefs of the pre-
fent Hebrew text, by proving it to be the fame that was
in ufe when thefe targums were made, contrary to the
opinion of thofe who think the Jews corrupted it after
our Saviour’s time. They help to explain many words
and phrafes in the Hebrew' original, and they hand
down to us many of the ancient cuftoms of the Jews.
And fome of them, with the phrafcologies, idioms, and
peculiar forms of fpcecb, which tve find in them, do in-
many inftances help as much for the better illuftration
and better under (landing of the New Teftament as of
the Old ; the Jerufalem Chaldee dialed, in which they'
are written, being the vulgar language of the Jews in
our Saviour’s time. They alfo very much ferve the
Chriftian caufe againft the Jews, by interpreting many
of the prophecies of the Meftiah in the Old Teftament
in the fame manner as the Chriftians do. Many in-
ftances are produced to this purpofe by Dr Prideaux in
his ConneEl. of the Hi/}, of the Old and New Teftament,
vol. iv. p. 777, Sic.
Thefe targums are publifhed in the fecond edition of
the great Hebrew Bible fet forth at Bafil by Buxtorf
the father, anno 1610 5 for he has redified the Chaldee
text, and reformed the vowel pointings in it •, the tar¬
gums having at firft been written without vowel points,
which were afterwards added very erroi.eoufiy by fome
Jews.
l
1 .
' ■
TAR IF,
T A ft
t 205 J
T A ft
Ttj
1
Tan
Div QS.
! ot lj:.
| pen ^
Taj v.
TARIF, a table containing the names of different
forts of merchandife, with the duties to be paid as fet¬
tled among trading nations. .
' TARPA, Spurius Mecius, a Latin critic m the
time of Julius Caefar and Auguftus. He had his tri¬
bunal in the temple of Apollo, where, with four affift-
ants he paffed fentence on the works of the poets. Ci-
cero’and Horace make honourable mention of this critic.
TARPAULIN, a piece of canvas, well tarred over,
to keep off the rain from any place. The term is alfo
often applied in a burlefque fenfe to a perfon that has
been all his life bred to the fea.
TARPEIAN, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to a ftcep rock in Rome j whence, by the law
of the twelve tables, thofe guilty of certain crimes were
precipitated. It took its name from Tarpeia, a veftal
virgin, who was killed by the Sabines, as related under
the article Rome, N° 24.
TAR WIN the Elder, king of Rome, iucceeded
Ancus Martins 615 B. C. See Rome, N° 35—40-
Tar quin the Prmd, a tyrant and ufurper. See
Rome, N° 49—5L
TARRAGON, or Dragon-wort. See Botany
IfldidOC»
TARROCK, a fpecies of lor us. See Ornithology
Index.
TARSHISH, a town frequently mentioned by an¬
cient authors, the fituation of which it is ditLcult to a.-
certain. See OpHIR.
TARTAN, in fea language, a fmail coafling veffel
navigated in tire Mediterranean, with only one maft
and a bowfprit, the principal fail, which is very large,
being extended by a lateen-y-ard. V, hen tartans put up
a fquare fail, it is called a fail of fortune.
TARTAR, a hard folid fubtlance which feparates
from wine after complete fermentation, and adheres to
the top and lides of the talk.?. It is an impure taiti ate of
potalh with the acid in excefs. See Chemistr Y, N° 999.
TARTARIC ACID. See Chemistry, p. 529.
TART ARY, a name given by geographers and hif-
torians to a confiderabde extent of territory in Afia, ly¬
ing between Ruflia and China, and including a great
variety of nations, now chiefly dependent on thefe two
empires. The whole country is ufualiy divided into
Wefern Tart ary, and Eajiem or Cfamefe Tartary, of
which the former includes Weftern 1 urkifian, Kha-
rifrh, and Great Bucharia-, while the latter comprehends
the country of the Mongu/s and the Mdnudfhurs, now
both fubjeft to Rufira, and Little Bucharia. I he geo¬
graphy of feveral parts of this extenfive trail has already
been confidered under the articles Bucharia, China,
and Russja, and we Ihall here confine ourfelves to that
which is now commonly known by the name of Inde¬
pendent Tartan/, by which we undertfand that extent
of country now poffefied by the Kirg/iifes, and the Uf-
beck Tartars, including the Khariim, and Great and
Little Bucharia.
Independent Tartary thus defined, extends from the
Cafpian fea on the weft to the mountains of Belur on
the eaft, a fpace of about 870 Bvitilh miles, and from
the mountains of Gaur in the fouth, to the fouthern
boundaries of the Ruffian empire on the north, including
nearly 1 1500 Britifh miles. About half of this extent
is occupied by the Kirghifes to the north, and the Ui-
becks to the fouth.
The country of the Kirghifes is feparatcd from Si-, 'iattary.
beria by the great ileppe or defert of Iffim, an exten- ^
live plain interfered by a river of the fame name, and j^irghifes-
abounding with lakes of fait and bitter waters. Ev’en
the foil of this Ileppe is in many places impregnated
with fait and nitre, though in fcveral fpots the foil, is
by no means unfruitful. There are no towns, as the in¬
habitants dwell Avholly in tents.
The Kirghifes have been long divided into three
principal hordes, called the great, middle, and lefjer. ^ Of
thefe, the two latter are now regarded as fubjefts of the
Ruffian empire, though they feem by no means to be
dependent on that power. The great horde, defended
by mountains on the fouth and eaft, are properly inde¬
pendent. This laft horde is fuppofed to contain about
60,000 families, while the leffer and middle hordes are!
laid to comprehend each about half that number, i he
whole population is computed at about 500,000.
The Kirghifes have gradually moved from the eaft
towards the weft. Their manners are deferibed at eon-
liderable length by Pallas. Their tents are of a iort
of felt 5 their drink kumifs, made of acidulated mares
milk. The great horde is confidered as the fource of
the other two. Being fettled near the mountains of
Alak, or Ala Tau, this horde has been called the Ala-
tanian Kirghifes. They lead a wandering life, Loci
the borders of the Upper Sirr, near i aftikund, to the- _
Iteppe of Iffim. Each horde has its particular khan 5
but the middle horde, when Pallas vifited this country,
was contented with a prince, who feemed to acknow¬
ledge the khan of the leffer horde; and in 1777, this
khan was called Nor Halt, an equitable prince. Their
features are Tartaric, with flat nofe and fmall eyes, but
not oblique like thofe of the Monguis and Chinefe.
They have borfes, camels, cattle, ffieep, and goats.
Some individuals of the middle horde, it is faid, had
10,000 borfes, 300 camels, 4000 cattle, 20,000 fficep,
and upwards of 2000 goats ; while in the lefier horde
were proprietors of 5000 horfes, and a proportional
number of the other animal?. Their dromedaries fur-
niffi a confiderable quantity of vvoolly hair, fold to the.
Ruffians and Bucharians, being annually clipped like
that of Ibetp. Their chief food is mutton ; end the
lamb is fo exquifite, that it is fent from Orenburg to St
Peterfbuitg for the tables of the palace. The lamb
{kins are the moft celebrated next to thofe of Bucharia ;
but the wool of the {beep is coerfe, and ufed only for
domeftic purpofes, for felts and thick clhths. 1 he fttppes
fupply them with objefls of the chafe, wolves, foxes,
marmots, antelopes, &c. In the fouthern and eaftem
mountains are found wild ftieep, the ox of Tibet, which
feems to delight in fnowy alps; with ebaeals, tigers,
and wild affes. ,
As the Kirgbifians regard each other as brethren,
they are obliged to employ Oaves who are captives taken
in their ir.curfions. Iheir diefs confifts oi clofe vefts,
large trowfers, and pointed boats. The ladies adorn
their heads with the necks of herons, difpofed like horns.
They appear to be Mahometans, but have a more re¬
laxed creed.
The Kirghifians carry on fome trade with Ruffia*
The chief traffic is at Orenburg, and wholly by ex¬
change ; but the middle horde proceed to Omlk. About
150,000 ftieep are annually brought to Orenburg, with
horfes, catthy lamb Ikins, camels wool, and fometimes
Haves-
4
Ufbeks.
Town of
Khiva.
TAR [206
x artary, fiaves. In return they take manufa&ured articles, chief-
ly clothes and furniture. From Bucharia, Khiva, and
Tafhkund, they receive arms and coats-of-mail, which
•Raffia refufes, in return for camels and cattle. They
are extremely fond of the Kalmuk women, who long
retain their charms ; and often marry them if they will
adopt the Mahometan religion. They have an annual
feftival in honour of the dead. About the beginning of
the 17th century this people, who wTere formerly Sha-
manians, became children of circumcilion, by the exer¬
tions of the priefts of Turkiftan.
The country of the Ulbek Tartars includes Kharifm
and part of Great Bucharia. The former of thefe ex¬
tends from the river Gihon to the Cafpian fea, and is
bounded on the north and eafl: by vaft deferts. Its
length is about 40D Britifli miles, and its breadth rather
lefs than 350. The chief town is Khiva, befides which
there are five walled cities or towns, within half a day’s
journey of each other. The khan is abfolute, and inde¬
pendent of any but the high prieft, or lama, by whom
he is controlled. The Kievinlki Tartars differ little
from the Kirghifes, but furpafs even them in treachery.
Their manners are nearly the fame, except that the
Kirghifes live in tents, while the others inhabit cities and
villages. Their only trade is with Bokhara and Perfia ;
whither they carry cattle, furs, and hides, which they
procure from the Kirghifes and Turkoman Tartars.
The place itfelf produces little more than cotton, lamb
furs, of a bad quality, and fome raw filk ; part of
which they manufaflure. The town of Khiva Hands
on a rifing ground, with three gates, and a ffrong thick
wall of earth much higher than the houfes, with turrets
at fmall diftances, and a broad deep ditch full of water.
It occupies a large fpace, and commands a pleafant pro-
fpe£! j but the houfei are built with mud, having flat
roofs covered with earth. It is 17 days journey from
the Cafpian fea, and 33 from Orenburg, allowing 40
verfts to the day’s journey.
The people of Khiva bring to Orenburg large quan¬
tities of raw cotton ; but the coafts of the Cafpian are
held by fome remains of Turkomans in the north, and
by Ufbeks in the fouth. A confiderable trade is car¬
ried on with Manguftilak. As the merchants of Khiva
brought gold and gems to Aftrakan, probably from the
two Bucharias, it was fuggefted to Peter the Great
that thefe produ&s were found in Kharifm, in confe-
quence of which he attempted a fettlement. But the
Ruffians, to the number of 3000, were cut off by the
Ufbeks.
Great Bucharia, by far the mold important part of
Independent Tartary, extends for about 700 Britilh
miles in length from north to fouth, by a medial breadth
of about 350, being bounded on the north by the
mountains of Argun, and divided from Kharifm and
Corazan by the river Amu, and extenfive dererts, while
on the fouth and eaft it has for its boundaries the moun¬
tains of Gaur and of Beber.
The chief city of Great Bucharia is Samarcaxd, on
the fouthern bank of the river Sogd. The other places
of note are Bokhara on the fame river, Balk on the
river Dehalh, Zouf, and Kotlan.
The face of the country prefents a great variety,
abounding with rivers, hills, and mountains, but being
in general deficient in wood. Near the rivers the foil
is very productive, the grafs fomefimes exceeding the
"Great Buc-
hana.
] TAR
height of a man; and in fome parts much induftry is Tarta
fhown in the cultivation of rice and other grain. ‘"•-y
The rivers are, the Amu and Sirr. Befides the fea
of Aral, already defcribed under that head, there are
feveral confiderable lakes, particularly that of Palkati
Tengis, or Balcaffi, being about 140 miles long by 70
broad.
“ In all the regions of the earth (fays Sir William
Oufeley), there is not a more flourilhing or a more de¬
lightful country than this, efpecially the diftrift of Bok¬
hara. If a perfon Hand on the Kohendis (or ancient
caftle) of Bokhara, and caff his eyes around, he lhall
not fee any thing but beautiful and luxuriant verdure
on every fide of the country ; fo that he would imagine
the green of the earth and the azure of the heavens
were united ; and as there are green fields in every
quarter, fo there are villas interfperfed among the green
fields. The Sogd, for eight days journey, is all de¬
lightful country, affording fine profpe&s, and full of
gardens and orchards, and villages, corn fields, and vil¬
las, running ftrcams, fefervoirs, and fountains, both on
the right hand and on the left. You pafs from corn
fields into rich meadows and pafture lands; and the
ftraits of Sogd are the fineft in the world.”
The religion of the Ufbeks and Bucharians is the Rejjgj(
Mahometan of the Sunni fed, and the government oftheTa
the khans is defpotic. There are no accounts to be
met with of the Hate of the population, but it is be¬
lieved that on any emergency they could mufter an
army of 100,000. The revenue of thefe fertile pro¬
vinces is not certainly known, though that of Corafan
is faid to amount to half a million fterling annually, and
it is probable that the revenue of Great Bucharia is at
leaf! equal to that of Corafan. 8
Befides the caravans to Perfia, Hindoftan, and China, Trade,
fome trade is carried on with the Ruffians $ the Bucha-
rian merchants not only furnilhing their own produds,
but others from the eaftern countries to which they
trade. t
The manners and cuftoms of the Uibeks are fimilarMania
to thofe of the other Tartars *, but they are fuppofed to
be the molt fpirited and induftrious of thefe barbarians.
Though many refide in tents in the fummer, yet in
winter they inhabit the towns and villages. They are
accuftomed to make fudden inroads into the Perfian
provinces. The native Bucharians are comparatively
fair, and correspond in form and features with thofe of
Little Bucharia. The Bucharians never bear arms.
The Ufbeks, on the contrary, are no ftrangers to the
ufe of the mufket, and it is faid that even their women
are not averfe to warfare. The language is Turkilh,
but that of the Bucharians has never been invefligated,
though it be probably a dialed of the Perfian. Their
literature would furnifh an ample theme, Samarcard
having been a celebrated fchool of oriental fcience, cul¬
tivated even by monarchs, as Ulug Beg and others.
“ Such are the generofity and liberality of the inha¬
bitants, that no one (favs Sir William Oufeley) turns
afide from the rites of hofpitality ; fo that a perfon con¬
templating them in tins light, would imagine that all
the families of the land were but one houfe. When a
traveller arrives there, every perfon endeavours to at-
trad him to himfelf, that he may have opportunities of
performing kind offices for the firanger; and the belt
proof of their hofpitable and generous difpofition is that
every
T A S [ 207 ] T A S
m I every peafant, though poffeffing but a bare iufhciency,
I allots a portion of his cottage for the reception of a
1 Ta mieft. On the arrival of a ftranger they contend one
with another for the pleafure of taking him to their
home, and entertaining him. Thus, in a6ts of hofpita-
lity, they exceed their incomes. I happened once to
be in Sogd, and there I faw a certain palace, or great
building, the doors of which were faftened back with
nails againtt the walls. I alked the reafon of this, and
they informed me that it was a hundred years and more
fmce thofe doors had been (hut, all that time they had
continued open day and night j ftrangers might arrive
there at the moft unfeafonable hours, or in^ any num¬
bers, for the matter of the houfe had provided every
thing neceffary both for the men and for their beafts $
and he appeared with a delighted and joyful countenance
when the guefts tarried a while.”
For a more particular account of the manners and
cuftoms of the Tartars, fee the articles Bukharia and
KaLMUKS ; Pallas’s Travels in the Southern Provinces
of the Ruffian Empire, and Tooke’s View of the Ruffian
Empire. An account of the Bafchkirs, alfo a tribe of
wandering Tartars, and of the Tartars of the Krimea,
has been given under Russia.
We cannot here enter on the hiftory of Tartary.
The moft interefting parts of it will be. found under the
articles China and Mogul, and we may refer thofe
who wifh for a more detailed account to the 4th volume
of the Modern Univerfal Hiflory, and to the Vlfwtic Re¬
fear ches.
Krim Tartary. See Crimea.
TARTRATES, in Chemiflry, are faline bodies, cam-
pofed of an alkaline, earthy, or metallic bafe, and tar¬
taric acid.
TASSEL, a pendant ornament at the corners of a
culhion, &c. In building, talfels denote thofe pieces
of board that lie under the ends of the mantlet trees.
TASSO, Torquato, a celebrated Italian poet, was
born at Sorrento in the kingdom of Naples, in I544‘
He was the fon of Bernardo Taffo, and of Portia de
Roffi, a lady of an illuftrious family of Naples.
At three years of age Taffo was committed by his
father to the care of Angeluzza, a man of great learn¬
ing, who at this tender age, it is faid, began to teach
him grammar ; at four he was fent to the Jefuits col¬
lege, and at feven was well acquainted with Latin and
Greek. At the age of 12 he went from Rome to Man¬
tua, where his father had entered into the fervice of the
duke Guglielmo Gonzaga j he had then completed his
knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages •, he was
well acquainted with rhetoric and poetry, and matter of
Ariftotle’s Ethics. He was foon after fent to the uni-
verfity of Padua ; and at 18, publiftied his Rinaldo, a
poem on the plan of Homer’s Odyffey. This extended
his fame through all Italy $ but his father went to
Padua, to remonftrate againft his apparent purpofe of
giving himfelf up to philofophy and poetry, and made
ufe of many hartti expreflions, which Taffo heard with
great patience. “ Of what ufe is that philofophy on
which you value yourfelf fo much ?” “ It has enabled
me (replied Taflb) to endure the harttmefs of your re¬
proofs.”
He foon after went to Bologna, by the invitation of
the city and college j but in a fhort time he returned to
Padua at the urgent defire of Scipio Gonzaga, who had
been elefted prince of the academy eftaulithed in that falfb1.
city under the name of the JEtherei. In this retreat he /"*=”
fornaed the defign of his Jerufalem Delivered, invented
the fable, difpoled the parts, and determined to dedi¬
cate it to the houfe of Efte and being preffed to refide
at Ferrara, he gave his confent. rIhe duke of lerrara
gave him an apartment in his palace, where he lived in
peace and affluence, and profecuted his work, which he
deterrpined to dedicate to the duke, and which was
publithed book by book, as he finiftied them.
At the age of 30 he finilhed his Jerufalem, and the
whole was reprinted and publiftied together, the fuccefs
of which was aftoniftiing. It was tranftated into Latin,
French, Spanifti, and even the oriental languages, al-
moft as foon as it appeared. Soon after the publication
of his Jerufalem he loft his father, who had been ap¬
pointed governor of Oftia on the Po by the duke of
Mantua j and a pretended friend to Taffo, belonging to
Ferrara, to whom he had incautioufty committed fome
tranfadlions of a very delicate nature concerning his pa¬
tron the duke, had the perfidy to betray him. This
coming to the ears of the duke, he (hut up Taffo in pri-
fon, from which, however, he found mekns to efcape,
after a year’s confinement, and retired to 1 urin, being
then about 34 years of age, and was recommended to
the duke of Savoy, who (bowed him many marks of ef-
teem and regard. Fearing, however, that he might be
delivered up to the duke of Mantua, he fecretly retired
to Rome, and went diredlly to his friend Mauritio Ca-
taneo, by whom he ivas received with great kindnefs,
and his prefence made the whole city rejoice. Here
he endeavoured to make his peace with the duke, and
was fortunate enough to fucceed.
After this he lived at Mantua about a year, in great
favour with the prince j but growing weary of a ttate
of dependence, he refolved to go to Naples, and en¬
deavour to recover his mother’s jointure, which had
been feized by her relations ; but as this law fuit had
no appearance of being foon determined, he went from.
Naples to Rome, where he continued about a year, in
high favour with Pope Sextus Quintus, and then went
to Florence, at the earneft defire of Ferdinando, grand
duke of Tufcany, who had been cardinal at Rome when
Taffo firft refided there.
Having fpent another year at Florence, he returned
to Naples, where he corre&ed his Jerufalem Delivered.
Cardinal Cynthio, who was a great patron of learn¬
ing and genius, and knew Taffo when he firft refided
at Rome, prevailed with him once more to leave his
retreat at Naples and live with him in that city, where
he continued till he was 50, and then returned to
Naples to profecute his law fuit, from which place,
however, he was foon recalled \ and being introduced
to the pope, his holinefs faid, “ that his merit would
confer as much honour on the laurel he was about
to receive, as the laurel had formerly conferred on
others.”
It happened that while they waited for fair weather,
for the purpofe of celebrating the folemnity of Taffo’s
coronation with laurel, that great poet took his laft
illnefs, and died on the 15th day of his ficknefs, aged
51. His poems have acquired him an immortal repu*
tation, the chief of which are, 1. Jerufalem Delivered.
2. Jerufalem Conquered. 3. Rinaldo. 4. The Seven
Days of the Creation. 5. The Tragedy of Torimond,
T A S
Tafia, 6. Arnlnta, &c. All his works were printed together
1 afte' at Florence in 1724, in 6 vols. folio, with the pieces
for and againlt his Jerufalem Delivered.
TASTE, a certain fenfation excited in the mind by
certain bodies, which are called frtpid, applied to the
tongue and palate, and moirtened with faliva. This is
the original and proper meaning of the word (fee
Metaphysics, N° 46.) •, but as the qualities of bodies
which produce thefe fenfations are unknown, they have
got the names of the fenfations thettrfelves, by fubtlitu-
ting the caufe for the effett. Taftes have been divided
into fimple and compound, and philofophers have en¬
deavoured to afeertain the number ot each fpecies. At¬
tempts have likewife been made to determine from their
taftes the effects of different fubftances on the human
body, taken into the ftomach as food or phyfie; but by
ftating the refults of fuch inquiries, we fhould be more
likely to miftead than to communicate ufeful informa¬
tion.
Taste is likewife ufed in a figurative fenfe, to denote
.that faculty by which we perceive whatever is beautiful
or fublime in the Works of nature or of art. This fa¬
culty relifhes fome things, is difgufted with others, and
to many is indifferent. It has alfo been called an in¬
ternal fenfe, and by one philofopher, a reflex fetfle, while
others have confidered it as the joint exertion of per¬
ception and judgment in fome cafes, and as a play of the
•imagination in others.
To decide among thefe different opinions, it will be
neceffary to afeertain, if we can, what are the objefts
of this faculty, Scarlet, blue, green, and yelloxv, are all
beautiful colours, and a cube and a fpkere are beautiful
figures; but it does not appear to us, that a man could
be laid to have either a good or a bad taftefor relithing
the perception of a fear let more than that of a yellow
colour, or ^ fpherical more than a cubical figure.
With refpedt to the objects of the external fenfe, we
are fo conftituted by nature as to relifh thole kinds of
food which are moft wholefome, and fuch a tafte is juft-
ly laid to be found and uncorrupted. It is in the high-
eft perfeftion too at firft, for it depends not on culture
of any kind, and is incapable of improvement. The
revet fe is the cafe with rtfpeef to internal tafte. Every
voice, it is true, unites in applauding elegance, fimpli-
city, fpirit in writing, and in blaming afte&ation, or a
falfe brilliancy ; but when critics come to particulars,
this feeming unanimity vanifhes. Perhaps no man ever
beheld the rifing or fetting fun without feeling emotions
of pleafure ; yet it is certain that the emotions of the
clown are not the fame, at leaft in degree, with thofe
of the philofopher. Any beautiful objedf prefented to
the eye, gives a pleafing fenfation to the mind ; and it
appears to us that the clown feels nothing more than a
mere fenfation from the view' of the rifing fun, fimilar
to what he w'ould feel from a blazing heath. In poetry
and painting the vulgar are always delighted with the
melody of the verfe, and the brilliancy of the colours,
and think of nothing elfe as beauties.
If this be fo, the pleafures which the vulgar derive
from what are called objects of tafte, are mere gratifi¬
cations of the fenfes; but very different is the pleafure
which the man of cultivated tafte derives from the beau¬
ties of nature or of art. The mere fenfation of the
lown is followed by a train of ideas which hurries him
A
beyond the objetl before him to its beneficent effe&s Tt
and its Almighty Creator.
The nature of any perfon’s tafte, therefore, is gene-
rally determined from the eharadfter of his imagination
and the foundnefs of his judgment. The fimple percep.
tion of the objedt we find is infufficient to excite thefe
emotions, unlefs it is accompanied with this operation
of mind. Thus, when we feel the beauty or fublimitv
of natural icenery, we are confcious of a variety of
images in our minds, very different from thofe which
the objefts the mfelves can prefent to the eye.
If the mind E in fuch a ftate as to prevent this free¬
dom of imagination, the emotion is not perceived. In
fo far as the beauties of nature or art affect the external
fenfes, their effedt is the fame on every man who is in
poifeftion of theft fenfes. But to a man in pain or in
grief, the iame feene will not produce any feeling of
admiration, which at other times W'ould have produced
it in perftdlion.
There are many objedls of tafte which produce not
their full effcdl on the imagination, but through the
medium of the judgment. The beauty of the Farnefe
Hercules is one kind of beauty ; that of the gladiators
in the palace of Chighi, another \ and that of the Apol¬
lo Belvidere a third. Each of thefe figures is acknow¬
ledged to be perfedl in its kind; but according to Sir
Joflma Reynolds, the higheft perfedlion of the human
figure is not to be found but in that form which might
be taken from them all, and which would partake of
the adlivity of the gladiator, of the delicacy of the A-
pollo, and of the mufcular ftrength of the Hercules.
In this view the perfedtion of thefe ftatues confifts in
fomething which being perceived by the eye, is refer¬
red by the underftanding to what we know of the cha-
radlers of Hercules, Apollo, and the gladiator, and
which we fuppofe it was the intention of the ftatuaries
to exprefs. There are befides, objedls of which tafte is
fometimes faid to judge, though they have little or no
effedl whatever on the imagination. A book of ab«
ftradl fcience, written in a prolix and intricate ftile,
may be faid to be in a bad tafte •, and had Swift, in his
clear and fimple ftile, Written an TZJfay on the Human
Under/} an ding, his work, fuppofing him mafter of the
fubjedt, would undoubtedly have difplayed more tafte
than Locke’s, in which the terms are fometimes vague,
and the period often encumbered. This is the cafe of
Berkeley, who is admitted by all to have been a waiter
of good tafte, though neither the Principles of Human
Knowledge, the Dialogues on Matter, nor the Minute
Philofopher, is capable of affording pleafure, either to
the fenfes or the imagination. His beauty confifts
merely in the perfpicuity of his ftile, of which the un¬
derftanding alone is the judge. The metaphyfical w’rit»
ings of Dr Reid poffefs in an eminent degree the fame
beauty 5 and no man of true tafte can read them with*
out admiring the elegant fimplicity of the compofition
as much as the ftrength of the reafoning, and feeling
from the whole a pleafure which the poetical ftyle of
Shaftefbury cannot communicate.
If this be a juft account of the pleafures of tafte, that
faculty cannot be properly confidered as a mere internal
fenfe, fince to its enjoyments a well-ftored fancy is ne¬
ceffary in fome cafes, and the reafoning power in all j
and the poet and the painter who wiftied to excel in
their
[ 208 ]
T A S
[ 209 1
T A S
.> :
Aa ny
De< 4
t|iejr refpecilve profeffxons, muft not content themfelves,
— the one with filling the ear of the reader with melliflu¬
ous founds, and the other with dazzling or deceiving
the eye of the fpe&ator by. the brilliancy of his colours,
but both mult ft rive for fame by captivating the imagi¬
nation ; whilft the architefl, who afpires to a fimilar
celebrity, muft make the purpofe of his ornaments ob¬
vious to every perfon capable of judging. The land-
fcapes of Claude Lorrain, the mufic of Handel, and poe-
try of Milton, excite feeble emotions in our minds,
when our attention is confined to the qualities they
prefent to our fenfes, or when it is to fuch qualities of
their compofition that we turn our regard. It is then
only we feel the fublimity or beauty of their, produc¬
tions, when our imaginations are kindled by their power,
when we lofe ourfelves amid the number of images
that pafs before our minds, and when we waken at latt
from this play of fancy as from the charm of a romantic
dream.
*1 ourfe It is well obferved by Sir Jolhua Reynolds , that
tiWi ‘Waftafte is fometimes praifed in fuch terms by orators and
the yni poets? v/ho call it infpiration, and a gift from heaven,
that though a ftudent by fuch praife may have, his at¬
tention roufed, and a defire excited of obtaining this
gift, he is more likely to be deterred than encouraged
in the purfuit of his objedl. “ He examines his. own
mind, and perceives there nothing of that divine infpi¬
ration with which he is told fo many, others have been
favoured. He never travelled to heaven to gather new
ideas •, and he finds himfelf poffeffed of no other quali¬
fications than what mere common obfervation and a
plain underftanding are able to confer. Ihus he be¬
comes gloomy amidft the fplendour of figurative decla¬
mation, and thinks it hopelefs to purfue an objedl which
he fuppofes out of the reach of human induftry. But
on this, as on many other occafions, we ought to di-
ftinguilh how much is to be given to enthufiafm, and
how much to common fenfe j taking care not to lofe
in terms of vague admiration that folidity and truth of
principle upon which alone we can reafon.” Whoever
pofleffes the ordinary powers of perception, fenfibility of
heart, good fenfe, and an imagination capable of being
roufed by the ftriking objedls of nature and of art, may,
without infpiration, become, by mere experience, a man
of fine tafte in the objects of which he afpires to be a
critical judge.
This being the cafe, we may eafily account for the
variety of taftes which prevail among men, not only as
individuals but as nations. We have already mention¬
ed the difference in one inftance between the European
tafte and the African refpefting female beauty and
we may now affirm, as we hope to prove our affirma¬
tion, that the one tafte is equally correct with the
other. The charms of female beauty exift not in the
mere external form and colour confidered by themfelves
(for then the inanimate ftatue of the Venus de Medicis
would give more delight to the European beholder than
the fineft woman that ever lived) j but we affociate ex¬
ternal beauty with fweetnefs of difpofition, and with
all the train of endearments which take place in the
union of the fexes; and it is this afibciation which de¬
lights the man of tafte, as giving refinement to an ap¬
petite which itfelf is grofs and fenfual. A fimilar aflb-
xfiation muft be formed in the bread of the African
who has any tafte j and as he never knew feminine foft-
. Vol. XX. Part I.
Tafte.
nefs, or any of the endearing qualities of the fex, but
united with thick lips, a flat nofe, .a black fkin, and
woolly hair—a fable beauty of that defcription mu.lt
excite in his breaft the lame emotions that are excited in
the breaft of an European by the fair woman with Gre¬
cian features.
But is there not an ideal or perfect beauty of the hu¬
man form ? There certainly is, as of every other natu¬
ral objedl ; but it cannot be the fame in Europe as in
Africa, unlefs to a Being who is acquainted with all the
peculiarities of form, national and individual, that are
to be found among the inhabitants of the whole earth.
It has been fuppofed, and we think completely proved,
by one of the beft writers that we have on the philofo-
phy of tafte *, that the fublimity or beauty of forms * Mr Al-:~
arifes altogether from the aflbciations we connetl with/o».
them, or the qualities of which they are expreffive to
us. The qualities exprefled by the male and female
forms are very different j and we would by no means
think the woman beautiful who Ihould have the form of
the Farnefe Hercules, or admire the lhapes of the hero
who {hould be formed like the Venus de Medicis ; be-
caufe the proportions of fuch a woman would indicate
ftrength and intrepidity, where we wilh to find only
gentlenefs and delicacy } and the delicate form of the
hero would indicate foftnefs and effeminacy, where the
oppofite qualities only can be efteemed. As we affoci¬
ate with the female form many defirable qualities, every
woman is efteemed more or lefs beautiful as her figure
and features indicate a greater or fmaller number oi
thefe qualities ; and the fame is the cafe with refpeft to
the qualities which adorn the male charafter, and the
form and features by which they are expreffed. Upon
comparing a number of human beings with one another,
we find, that with refpeft to every feature and limb,
there is one central form to which nature always tends,
though Ihe be continually deviating from it on the right
hand and on the left : (See Nose). This form there¬
fore is confidered as the moil perfedl form of the fpecies,
and moil expreffive of the qualities for which that ipe-
cies is valued j but in Africa, the central form, with
refpedl to the proportions of the human body and the
features of the human face, is very different from what
it is in Europe ; and therefore the ideal or perfedl
beauty of the human form and features cannot be the
fame in both countries. No doubt, if a man could ex¬
amine the limbs and features of every individual of the
human race, he would difcover one central form belong¬
ing to the whole, and be led to efteem it the ftandard
of beauty ; but as this is obvioufly impoffible, the com¬
mon idea or central form belonging to each great clafs
of mankind muft be efteemed the ftandard of beauty in
that clafs, as indicating moft completely the qualities
for which individuals are efteemed. I hus there is a
common form in childhood and a common form in age }
each of which is the more perfeft as it is the more
remote from peculiarities : but though age and child¬
hood have fomething in common, we {hould not deem
the child beautiful who was formed exa£lly like the
moft handfome man, nor the man handfome who was
formed exa&ly like the moft beautiful child. This
doftrine is well illuftrated by Sir Joftiua Reynolds,
who has applied it to every objett efleemed beautiful
in nature > and proved, that the fuperiority of Claude
Lorrain over the landfcape-painters of the Dutch and
D d Flemiffi
T A S [ 2i
Flemifh fchools, arife chiefly from his liaving generali¬
zed his conceptions, and formed his pi&ures by com¬
pounding together the various draughts which he had
previoully made from various beautiful feenes and pro-
fpe6ts. “ On the whole (fays he), it feems to me that
there is but one prefiding principle which regulates and
gives liability to every art. The works, whether of
poets, painters, moraliOs, or hxltorians,. which are built
upon general nature, live fur ever j while thofe which
depend for their exillence on particular cuftoms and
habits, a particular view of nature, or the flutluation of
falhion, can only be coeval with that which firft raifed
them from obfeurity. Ail the individual objects which
are exhibited to our view by nature, upon clofe exami¬
nation, will be found to have their blemilhes and de¬
fers. The moll beautiful forms have fomething about
them like weaknefs, minutenefs, or imperfection. But
it is not every eye that perceives thefe blemilhes: It
mult be an eye long ufed to the contemplation and com-
parifon of thefe forms ; which alone can difeern what
any fet of objeCls of the fame kind has in common, and
what each wants in particular.”
From thefe reafonings the fame great artill concludes,
that the man who is ambitious of the charaCler of pof-
fefling a correCt talte, ought to acquire a “ habit of
comparing and digetling his notions. He ought not to
be wholly unacquainted with that part of philofophy
which gives him an infight into human nature, and re¬
lates to the manners, charafters, paflions, and affeftions.
He ought to know fomething concerning mind, as well
as a great deal concerning the body, and the various ex¬
ternal works of nature and of art; for it is only the
power of dillinguilhing right from wrong that is pro¬
perly denominated tafe.
“ Genius and talte, in the common acceptation, ap¬
pear to be very nearly related; the difference lies only
in this, that genius has fuperadded to it a habit or power
of execution. Or we may fay, that talle, when this
power is added, changes its name, and is called genius.
They both, in the popular opinion, pretend to an entire
exemption from the rellraint of rules. It is fuppofed
that their powers are intuitive ; that under the name of
genius great works are produced, and under the name
of tajle an exaCl judgment is given, without our know¬
ing why, and without being under the leall obligation
to reafon, precept, or experience.
“ One can fcarce Hate thefe opinions without expo-
fing their abfurdity ; yet they are conllantly in the
mouths of men, and particularly of illiterate and affect¬
ed connoiffeurs. The natural appetite, or talte of the
human mind, is for truth ; whether that truth refults
from the real agreement or equality of original ideas
among themfelves, from the agreement of the reprefen-
tation of any obje£l with the thing reprefented, or from
the correfpondence of the feveral parts of any arrange¬
ment with each other. It is the very fame talle which
relilhes a demonttration in geometry, that is pleafed
Avith the refemblance of a picture to an original, and
touched with the harmony of mufic.
“ But befides real, there is allb apparent truth, or
opinion, or prejudice. With regard to real truth, when
it is known, the talle which conforms to it is and mull
be uniform. With regard to the fecond fort of truth,
which may be called truth upon fufferance, or truth by
courtefy, it is not fixed but variable. However, whilft
5
o ] T A S
thefe opinions and prejudices on whicl} it is founded
continue, they operate as truth ; and the art, whofe of¬
fice it is to pleafe the mind as well as inllruft it, rnuft
diredt itfelf according to opinion, or it will not attain its
end. In proportion as thefe prejudices are known to be
generally diffufed or long received, the tafle which con¬
forms to them approaches nearer to certainty, and to\
fort of refemblance to real feienee, even where opinions
are found to be no better than prejudices. And fince
they deferve, on account of their duration and extent,
to be confidered as really true, they become capable of
no fmall degree of liability and determination by their
permanent and uniform nature.
“ Of the judgment which we make on the -works of
art, and the preference that we give to one clafs of art
over another, if a reafon be demanded, the quellion is
perhaps evaded by anfwering, I judge from my tafle;
but it does not follow that a better anfvver cannot be
given, though for common gazers this may be fufficicnt.
Every man is not obliged to invelligate thecaufes of his
approbation or dillike. The ails would lie open for
ever to caprice and cafualty, if thofe who are to judge
of their excellencies had no fettled principles by which
they are to regulate their decifions, and the merit or de-
fe£l of performances were to be determined by unguided
fancy. And indeed we may venture to afi'ert, that
whatever fpeculative knowledge is neceffaiy to the ar-
tift, is equally and indifpenfably neceflary to the critic
and the connoiffeur.
“ The firtl idea that occurs in the confideration of
what is fixed in art or in talle, is that prefiding principle
which we have already mentioned, the general idea of
nature. The beginning, the middle, and the end of
every thing that is valuable in talle, is cornprifed in the
knowledge of what is truly nature; for whatever ideas
are not conformable to thofe of nature or univerfal opi^
nion, mull be confidered as more or lefs capricious ; the
idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which
nature produces, but alfo the nature and internal fabric
and organization, as I may call it, of the human mind
and imagination. General ideas, beauty, or nature, are
but difierent ways of exprefling the lame thing, whether
we apply thefe terms to llalues, poetry, or piflure. De¬
formity is not nature, but an accidental deviation from
her accuftomed practice. This general idea therefore
ought to be called nature : and nothing elfe, correctly
fpeaking, has a right to that name. Hence it plainly
appears, that as a work is conduced under the influence
of general ideas, or partial, it is principally to be confi-
deied as the effect of a good or a bad talte.”
Upon the whole, we may conclude that the real fub-
llance, as it may be called, of what goes under the name
of taj'le, is fixed and eltablifhed in the nature of things;
that there are certain and regular caufes by which the
imagination and paflions of men are affected ; and that
the knowledge of thefe caufes is acquired by a laborious
and diligent inveftigation of nature, and by the fame
flow progrefs as wifdom or knowledge of every kind,
however inilantaneous its operations may appear when
thus acquired. A man of real talle is always a man of
judgment in other refpefts; and thofe inventions which
either difdain or fhrink from reafon, are generally more
like the dreams of a diftempered brain than the exalted
enthufiafm of a found and true genius. In the midft of
the highelt: flights of fancy or imagination, reafon ought
'
>T A V [2
IJ le t0 prefide from firft to laft .; and he who diall decide on
the beauties of any one of the fine arts by an imaginary
Ta- nier. jnnate fenfe ur feeling, will make as ridiculous an ap-
  ' pearailCe as the connoitTeur mentioned by Dr Moore,
who praifed as a work of the divine Raphael the wretch¬
ed daubing by a Svvifs copyift. The reader who willies
for further inftrudlion in the philofophy of tafle, may
con full Gerard’s Effay on Tafte, with the diflertations
of Voltaire, D’Alembert, and Montefquieu j Dr Blair’s
Leftures on the Belles Lettres 5 Dr Reid’s Efliiys on
the Intellectual Powers of Man j Alifon’s Effays on the
Nature and Principles of Tafte j and Sir Joftma Rey¬
nold’s Difcourfes delivered in the Royal Academy.
TATE, Nahum, an Englifti poet, born in Ireland
about the middle of the reign of Charles II. where he
received his education. He was made poet-laureat to
King William upon the death of Shadwell, and held
that^place until the reign of George I. whofe firft birth¬
day ode he lived to write, and executed it with unufual
fpirit. He died in the Mint in 1716. He was the
author of nine dramatic performances, a great number of
poems, and a verfion of the Pfalms in conjunction with
Dr Brady.
TATI AN, a writer of the primitive church in the
fecond century. He was born in Aflyria, and trained
up in the heathen religion and learning. Coming over
to Chriftianity, he became the difciple of Juftin Martyr,
whom lie attended to Rome, While Juftin lived, he
continued fteadily orthodox : but after Juftin’s death he
made a fchifm, and became the author of a new feft,
condemning marriage, enjoining abftinence from wine
and animal food, and fuffering only water to be ufed in
the holy myfteries ; whence his followers were called
Encratitce and Hydroparajlatce. None of his works are
now extant, but his piece againft the Gentiles j or, as it
is ufually entitled, his Oration to the Greeks.
TATIUS, Achilles, a native of Alexandria, wTas
the author of a book on the fphere, which Father Pe-
tau tranllated into Latin. There is alfo attributed to
him a Greek romance on the loves of Leucippe and
Clitophon, of which Salmafius has given a beautiful
edition in Greek and Latin with notes. Suidas fays,
that this Achilles Tatius was a Pagan, but that he
afterwards embraced the Chriftian religion, and be¬
came a bilhop. Photius mentions him in his Biblio¬
theca.
TATONNEUR. See Lemur, Mammalia In¬
dex.
TATTOOING, or Tattowing, an operation in
ufe among the illanders in the South fea for marking
their bodies with figures of various kinds which they
confider as ornamental. It is performed by punChiring
the fkin, and rubbing a black colour into the wounds.
The inftrument ufed fomewhat refembles a comb, the
teeth of which are repeatedly ftruck into the Ikin by
means of a fmall mallet. It is very painful ; but
the children are forced by their relations to fubmit
to it.
TATTOU, a beat of a drum at night to advertife
the foldiers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in the
garrifon, or to their tents in a camp.
TAVERNIER, John Baptist, a French traveller,
was born in 1605. In the courfe of 40 years he tra¬
velled fix times to Turkey, Perfia, and the Eaft Indies,
and vifited all the countries in Europe, travelling moftly
I
i ] TAW
on foot. His travels have been frequently reprinted in
fix volumes i2tno. He died on his feventh journey to
the eaft, at Mofcow, in 1686.
TAVIRA, or Tavila, a confiderable town of Por¬
tugal, and capital of the province of Algarve, with a
handfome cafthe, and one of the beft harbours in the
kingdom, defended by a fort. It is feated in a fertile
country, at the mouth of the river Gilaon, between
Cape Vincent and the ftrait of Gibraltar, 100 miles
weft by north of Cadiz. W. Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 37,
18.
Tavernier
Tawieg.
TAVISTOCK, a town of Devonlhire in England,
fituated on the river Tavey or Tave. W. Long. 4. 12.
N. Lat. 50. 37. It fends two members to parliament,
and gives the title of marquis to the noble family of
Ruffel duke of Bedford.
TAUNTON, a large, elegant, and well built town
of Somerfetlhire, 146 miles from London. It confifts
principally of four ftreets paved and lighted \ the mar¬
ket-place is fpacious, and has a handfome market-houfe,
with a town hall over it, which was finilhed in 1773.
It has an extenfive woollen manufactory j and in 1780
a filk manufactory was introduced. Its caltle, the ruins
of which remain, was in 1645 defended for the parlia¬
ment by Colonel Blake againlt an army of 10,OOO men
under Lord Goring, but was difmantled by Charles II.
In 1685 the duke of Monmouth made this place his
head-quarters. Its church, which is large and beauti¬
ful, is a fine fpecimen of the florid Gothic ftyle of ar¬
chitecture. The tower, which is lofty, is of excellent
workmanlhip, crowned at the top with four llately pin¬
nacles, 32 feet high. The whole perhaps is not equal¬
led in the kingdom. Taunton is pleafantly feated on
the river Tone, which is navigable to Bridgewater j is
reckoned the belt town in the county ; and fends two
members to parliament. W. Long. 3. 17. N. Lat. 50.
TAURIS, or Tebris, a town of Perfia, and capital
of Aderbeitzan. It was formerly the capital of Perfia,
and is now the moft confiderable next to Ifpahan •, for
it contains 15,000 houfes, befides many feparate fliops,
and about 200,000 inhabitants. It is about five miles
in circumference, and carries on a prodigious trade in
cotton, cloth, filks, gold and filver brocades, fine tur¬
bans, and fhagreen leather. There are 300 caravanfe-
ras, and 250 mofques. Some travellers fuppofe it to be
the ancient Ecbatana j but of this there is no certain¬
ty. It is feated in a delightful plain, furrounded
with mountains, from whence a ftream iffues, which
runs through the city. E. Long. 47. 50. N. Lat. 38.
18.
TAURUS, a great chain of mountains in Afia, which
begin at the eaftern part of Little Carimania, and ex¬
tend very far into India. In different places they have
different names.
Taurus, in Ajlronomy, one of the 12 figns of the
zodiac.
TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repeating of the fame
thing in different words.
TAWING, the art of drefling fkins in white, fo
as to be fit for divers manufaftures, particularly gloves,
&c.
All fkins may be tawed j but thofe chiefly uled for
this purpofe are lamb, fheep, kid, and goat fkins.
The method of tawing is this : Having cleared the
D d 2 fkins
TAW
Tawing, (kins of wool or hair by means of lime, they are laid in
a large vatt of wood or ftone, fet on the ground, full of
water, in which quicklime has been flaked j wherein
they are allowed to lie a month or fix weeks, accord¬
ing as the weather is more or lefs hot, or as the fkins
are required to be more or lefs foft and pliant.
While they are in the vatt, the water and lime are
changed twice, and the fkins are taken out and put in
again every day : and when they are taken out tor the
lafl: time, they are laid all night to foak in a running
water, to get out the greateft part of the lime ; and in
the morning are laid together by fixes one upon another,
upon a wooden leg, and are fcraped ftoutly one after ano¬
ther, to get the fleflr off from the flefhy fide, with a cut¬
ting two-handled inftrument called a knifei and then
they cut off the legs (if they are not cut off before) and
other fuperfluous parts about the extremes. T hen they
are laid in a vatt or pit with a little water, where they
are fulled with wooden peftles for the fpaee of a quarter
of an hour ; and then the vatt is filled up with water,
and they are rinfed in it.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pave¬
ment to drain, and afterwards caff into a frefli pit of
water, out of which they rinfe them well, and are laid
again on the wooden leg, fix at a time, with the hair
fide outermoft : after which they rub a kind of whet-
flone very brifkly, to foften and fit them to receive four
or five more preparations, given them on the leg both
on the fieIh fide and the hair-fide, with the knife, after
the manner above mentioned.
After this they are put into a pit of water and wheat-
en bran, and ftirred about in it with wooden poles, till
the bran is perceived to flick to them, and then they
are left : as they rife of themfelves to the top of the
water by a kind of fermentation, they are plunged down
again to the bottom j and at the fame time fire is fet to
the liquor, which burns as eafily as if it were brandy,
but goes out the moment the fkins are all covered.
They repeat this operation as often as the fkins rife
above the water ; and when they have done rifing they
take them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the flefhy
fide outwards, and pafs the knife over them to fcrape off
the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the
fkins in a large bafket, and load them with huge ftones
to promote the draining: and when they have drained
fufficiently, they give them their feeding', which is per¬
formed after the manner following :
For 100 of large fheep fkins, and for fmaller in pro-"
portion, they take eight pounds of alum and three of
fea-falt, and melt the whole with water in a veffel over
the fire, pouring the folution out, while yet lukewarm,
into a kind of trough, in which is twenty pounds of
the fineft wheat-flour, with the yolks of eight dozen
of eggs of all which is formed a kind of pafte, a
little thicker than children’s pap ; which, when done, is
put into another veffel, to be ufed in the following man¬
ner.
They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in
which the pafte was prepared, mixing two fpoonfuls of
the pafte with it; to do which they ufe a wooden fpoon,
which contains juft as much as is required for a dozen of
fki ns: and when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of
the fkins are plunged into it; but they take care that the
s
T A X
water be not too hot, which would fpoil the pafte and Tawo
burn the fkins. T.x,tic
After they have lain fome time in the trough they "—v’
take them out, one after another, with the hand, and
ftretch them out; this they do twice : and after they
have given them all their pafte, they put them into tubs,
and there full them afrefti with wooden peftles.
They then put them into a vatt, where they are fuf-
fered to lie for five or fix days, or more; then they take
them out in fair weather, and hang them to dry on cords
or racks: and the quicker they are dried the better; for
if they be too long a drying, the fait and alum within
them are apt to make them rife in a grain, which is an
effential fault in this kind of drefling.
When the fkins are dry, they are made up into bun¬
dles, and juft dipt in fair water, and taken out and
drained : they are then thrown into an empty tub; and
after having lain fome time are taken out and trampled
under foot.
They then draw them over a flat iron inftrument, the
top of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom
fixed into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them ;
and having been opened, they are hung in the air
upon cords to dry ; and being dry, they are opened a
fecond time, by palling them again over the fame inftru¬
ment.
In the laft place, they are laid on a table, pulled out,
and laid fmooth, and are then fit for fale.
TAXATION. Befides thofe expences which are
necefiary to the exiftence, or conducive to the comfort
and enjoyment of private individuals, there are others
of which the benefit is dire£lly applicable to the whole
fociety. Thefe benefits indeed are chiefly of a negative
kind, but they are not therefore the lefs effential. They
confift in the prefervation of perfon and property from
that violence both internal and external, to which the
irregular paffions of human nature continually expofe
them. The regular adminiftration of juftice, and de¬
fence againft foreign enemies, are fo effential to the
well-being of a people, that they can with no propriety
hefitate, when neceffary, to part even with a large por¬
tion of their income in order to provide for the proper
accomplifhment of thefe objedb. A certain pomp and
magnificence too, in thofe who are to take the lead in
thefe departments, have been deemed both ornamental to
the fociety, and neceffary for fecuring refpedf and obe¬
dience from the body of the people. If, befides thefe
grand and indifpenfable advantages of foreign and inter¬
nal fecurity, public funds can be applied to any other
purpofes, evidently tending to promote the national
well-being, yet beyond the reach of private exertions,—•
to canals, high roads, or public inftitutions of any de-
feription,—there can be no doubt furely as to the pro¬
priety of fuch an application.
It is evident, therefore, that the money which is ne-
ceffary for the above purpofes, forms a perfectly necef¬
fary and proper part of national expenditure. The go¬
vernment of the country, indeed may, as elfewhere ob-
ferved (Political Economy), economically fpeaking,
be confidered as part of its fixed capital, effential to the
advantageous employment of the reft. Without the fe¬
curity which the labourer thence derives, of reaping the
fruits of his induftry, he would have little motive to
aftion ; every thing would be the prey of the ftrongeft,
[ 212 ]
tax
[ 213 ]
TAX
and all impulfe to aftivity ceafmg, unlverfal poverty
1^ Pnfae At the fame time we may obierve with
aslo other fitted capital^ that the expence
; “expedient only fo far as it is neceflary, and that it the
famePfunaions can be performed at a (mailer coft, a de¬
cided gain arifes to the public^ It becomes therefore
an important objea to inquire in what manner the of¬
fices of government may be adequately performed, with
the leaft burden on the people.
We have formerly, under the head of Political E-
rnKOMY (lightly illuftrated fome leading principles re-
foefting public revenue. But as the fubjedf is important,
we (hall confider it here in fomewhat greater detail.
Taxes may be arranged in the following manner.
1 AfTelTed taxes, or thofe which the fubjedl is required
td pay direftly into the hands of the fovereign or com¬
monwealth. Under this title are comprehended all the
taxes which bear the above name •, all income or capi¬
tation taxes, and every fpecies of land taxes. _ 1 he e
taxes are almoft always intended to fall upon I"c0“e(*
2. Taxes upon commodities, which are paid, in the hrit
rn(lance, not by the confumer, but by the producer, or
importer. Thefe taxes fall upon confumption *, the man
who does not ufe the articles, pays no tax. T hey ope¬
rate thus partly as fources of revenue, and partly as
fumptuary laws. 3. Stamp duties, or duties upon thole
deeds which regulate the transference of property.
Thefe duties fall chiefly upon capital.
I. AffeJTed Taxes.—Affeffed taxes, according to the
above definition, feem to be the mod fimple and diredt
mode of raifing a revenue. The money comes at once
from the pockets of the people into thofe of the love-
reio-n. No tax is fo certain of yielding a revenue, i he
money is demanded, and mud be paid. Where pro¬
perly arranged alfo, they may probably be made to (all
more equally than any other, upon the different clades,
according to their ability. In abfolute governments,
therefore, and in governments little (killed in the (cience
of finance, thefe taxes are commonly preferred as tho.e
which can be levied with the lead trouble. 1 hey have
likewife this merit that they cod little in the colleaion,
and confequently nearly their whole amount is brought
into the treafury.
Affeffed taxes, however, are liable to many objec¬
tions. None are fo heavily felt. In other cafes the
tax is concealed under the price of the commodity with
which it confounds itfelf; but here the money is paid
direftly without any thing in return. It mud generally
too be paid in a confiderable fum at oace, a circum-
dance which mud often be produftive of ferious incon¬
venience, while the fame fum, broken down into fmall
portions, might have been paid without difficulty. For
thefe reafons, much greater difcontent is excited by
thefe taxes than by taxes upon commodities. A double
revenue perhaps, may, in the latter way, be raifed with
lefs murmuring. In popular governments, therefore,
and in thofe where finance has been reduced to a fydem,
the obje£I has generally been to avoid direct affedment
as much as poffible. In this country, the greater part,
by far, of the revenue had been raifed by taxes upon
commodities, till, within thefe lad twenty years, tlie
preffure of public wants made it neceffary to have re-
courfe to every mode of raifing money which promifed
to be effeftual, and thus the affeffed taxes have been rai e
to a very great amount. The mod important of thole
taxes"may be included under /and tax, capitation taxes,
houfe tax, and income tax.
Land Tax.—There is n® clafs of men who may with
more propriety be burthened with an extraoroinary un-
pofition, than the proprietors of land. 1 hey enjoy
commonly a liberal income, without care or trouble of
their own. Their property, being of permanent ^alue*
is much preferable to any fource of income which ex¬
pires with its poffeffor. From being local and immove¬
able, it is peculiarly dependent on the prote&mg influ¬
ence of government, and may therefore be reaionaoly
called upon to contribute fomething more than the com¬
mon diare to its fupport. In almoit all countries, there¬
fore, the landholders, bed.des being liable to the lame
burdens with the red of the fociety, are fubjedt to a
peculiar tax, called land tax. _
In India and other great oriental empires, the prin¬
cipal revenue of the fovereign is derived from land. It
arifes, however, not properly in the way of tax, but of
rent. The fovereign, in thofe abfulute governments is
judged to be the foie proprietor of all the land in his
dominions, which are let out by him or bis deputy, to
the farmers. This is alfo the principal fource of the
revenue which we derive from our Fad Indian poflei-
dons. It is otherwife, however, in all the European
countries. There, almod all the land is private pro¬
perty, and the contribution which government draws
from it is therefore a tax.
The adherents of the economical fydem have propo-
fed to fubditute a land tax in the room of every other.
They maintain that all taxes mud finally fall upon the
produce of land, fince it alone affords that furplus reve¬
nue, out of which public contributions can be drawn.
Were this do&rine true, much trouble and expenee
would doubtlefs be faved, exchanging the prefent com¬
plicated and laborious fydem of taxation, for one (o Inn-
pie and eafy. But we have already endeavoured to
ffiow, under the head of Political Economy, that
the principles of this feft have no folid foundation •,
that manufactures and commerce are fources of wealto,
as well as agriculture, though in a fomewhat interior
degree. It will follow, therefore, that they are equal¬
ly liable to be affeaed by taxation. _ It is in vain to
urge that the merchant mud have his profit, and the
labourer his hire, and that otherwife they will not em¬
ploy their capital and labour. Were a tax to be impo-
fed upon any one branch of indudry, leaving the re
untouched, there is no doubt, that wages and profit m
that branch mud rife, till the merchant or labourer is
placed on a level with the red of the community, other-
wife he will transfer his capital and indudry to fome
other branch. But where the impodtion falls indiicn-
minately upon the different employments of labour and
dock, there is no fuck refuge j the labourer and mer¬
chant mull differ a diminution of income •,,.nor. is there
any procefs by which he can throw this diminution upon
the landlord. „ , . „
.Other perfons of a much lefs informed character, are
often heard urging, that we have only to lay the impo-
dtion upon the landlords-, and .that they will not be
long of indemnifying themfelves.by raifing. the reut of
their lands. Such arguments will make little imprei-
fion upon thofe who have at all attended to the true
principles of political economy. The value of lands, as
of every other article, is determined by the demand ano.
[ 2
tlie fupply. A tax upon the rent cf land tvould have
no tendency, either to increafe the one, or to diminifh
the other, confequently no tendency to raife the value
of land. Indeed, were we to fuppofe, according to this
hypothefis, that proprietors have an unlimited power of
railing their lands, whenever they are fo inclined, it is
quite contrary to common fenfe to fuppofe that they
fliould not exert that power, without waiting for the
llimulus of a tax.
For thefe reafons, land cannot, with any propriety,
be made the foie fubjedt of taxation 5 but it is very fair,
as above obferved, that it thould pay fomewhat more
than other fources of revenue. A difficulty, however,
arifes from the variations to which its value is fubjedt,
fometimes on the decreafing, but more commonly on
the increafing fide. The rate which, at one time, is
equitable, becomes quite otherwife at another. An at¬
tempt, on the part of government, to keep up a conti¬
nual furvey -of all the lands in the kingdom, would be
attended with very heavy expence, and would, after
all, be probably fruitlefs. Befides, fuch a meafure
Would operate as a difcouragement to the improvement
of land, when fo large a fhare would go out of the
hands of the improver. Thefe objedtions have weighed
10 flrongly with the legiflature of this country, that they
have not raifed this tax, fince its firft impofition in the
reign of King William. It was then meant to be at
the rate of four {hillings in the pound, though in fadt,
it was by no means fo much. It was alfo very un¬
equally diffributed, even at the beginning; a ferious
evil, which, however, it might have required very great
trouble to avoid. Since that time, a great and general
rife has taken place in the value of land, which has
made this tax much higher dill, than when it was ori¬
ginally impofed. It has alfo rendered it, however, dill
more unequal. Although almod all the land in Great
Britain has improved ; yet this improvement has taken
place in very different proportions, according as each
didridt differed in natural advantages, and in the induf-
try of the inhabitants. The land tax accordingly is, at
the prefent moment, mod exceedingly unequal ; but as
it fortunately happens, that there is fcarcely a didridt
in Great Britain which has not improved more or lefs,
the general moderation of the tax has rendered its in¬
equality lefs grievous.
A method has been propofed of obviating this drfad-
vantage, by keeping a regider, in which the landlord
and tenant {hall be jointly obliged to enter the rent which
the land bears, a new entry being made at every varia¬
tion. . A valuation may be made of the lands which the
proprietor keeps in his own poffeffion. Something of
this kind, it is faid, adlually takes place in the Vene¬
tian territory. The difcouragement to improvement in¬
deed dill remains, but even this might be obviated by
an equitable, and even liberal allowance being made,
for any fums which the landlord may fatisfa&orily
prove to have been expended in this way. The chief
objection to the plan feems to be the danger of cojlu-
fion between the farmer and landlord, who w'ould have
a mutual intered in reprefenting the rent as lefs than it
really was. The agreement indeed might, by law, be
made obligatory on the farmer only to the extent of
the Turn regidered ; but it may be doubtful, whether
even this regulation would always be an adequate fecu-
4 1 TAX
rity againd Iraud. The valuations would neceifarilv r
depend a good deal upon the difcretion of the revenue
officer ; which, in an arbitrary government at lead
might become a ferious obje&ion. The additional ex’
pence of fuch a plan would be condderable ; but, pro¬
vided it could be made toanfwer thepurpofe, this ought
not to deter from its adoption.
Frederick of Pruffia impofed a higher tax upon lands
held by a noble, than upon thofe held by a bafe tenure.
He conceived that the privileges and flattering advan¬
tages^ nobility were fueh as to compenfate for this
additional charge. We are rather difpofed to confider
this proceeding as fevere. A nobleman, with the fame
income, is poorer than a CQmmoner, becaufe he has a
greater rank to fupport ; and in the prefent Rate of
Europe, a great proportion of the nobility are extreme¬
ly poor. 1 his extreme, however, is much better than
that of France before the revolution, of the Auftrian
Fates, and of moft of the old governments of Europe.
There the nobility, pcffeffing the chief influence in the
adminiftration, had obtained for themfelves liberal ex¬
emptions, and thrown the principal weight of this as
of other taxes, upon the inferior orders. In Sardinia
and in feme provinces of France, lands held by a noble
tenure paid nothing whatever.
Some taxes upon land are proportioned, not to its
rent, but to its produce. This is the cafe in the Afiatic
countries. In China, a tenth, and in India, a fifth of
the whole produce of the land, are claimed by govern¬
ment. In England and Ireland, the church is fupport-
ed by a tax of this kind, which is called tit/ie.
Thefe taxes are liable to two very great objeflions.
They are, in the firft place, unequal. It is rent only
that can be the proper fubjed of taxation ; that part of
the produce which is neceftary to pay the expenee of cul¬
tivation, ought to remain untouched. But this expence
is far greater in poor than in rich lands. In the
former, perhaps, the produce may be little more than
fufficient to pay the expences incurred ; while in rich
lands, not only the neceffity of labour is lefs, but the
produce greater. If, by well employed capital, and
coflly cultivation, the farmer fucceeds in extracting to¬
lerable crops from an ungrateful foil, it is both cruel
and unjuft that he fhould be obliged to pay as much as
if he had no fuch obftacle to ftruggle with.
But if this tax be objectionable on the ground of
equity, it is ftill more fo, on that of expediency. The
firft excitement to labour and improvements of every
kind, muft undoubtedly be the profpeCt of enjoying
their fruits. Where the rate of taxation is fixed/this
profpeCt remains unimpaired ; for whatever addition the
proprietor or farmer can, by fuch means, make to the
produce of his land, is all his own. But the cafe is
very different, when it muft be fo deeply fhared in by
perfons who have done nothing to forward this increafe
of produce. A fovereign prince indeed may derive,
from fuch an ^arrangement, fome motive to encourage
agriculture, and improve the means of communication,
fo as to raife the value of its produce. But this advan¬
tage, which will fcarcely ever counterbalance the at¬
tendant evils, difappears altogether, when this impofi¬
tion is to be paid for the fupport of an ecclefiaftical
body. Thefe, being only life-renters, and feldom pof-
fefled of much capital, cannot be expeded to co-operate
TAX [21
Ta,atJ in any meafare for the improvement of the lands. '1 he
' H' arrines too, which are likely to take place between
the pallor and his flock, form a moral argument agaxnlt
this mode of fupport.
It mult not be concealed, however, that a permanent
commutation of tithes would be a meafure little favour¬
able to the interefts of the clergy. It feems both juft
to th-mfelves, and advantageous to the public _ that
when the country is in a ftate of improvement, this bo¬
dy (hould not be left behind-, it fhould.be able to
keep pace with the other members of the fociety.^ I his
it can never do, if it has merely a certain fixed fum al¬
lotted for its maintenance, without the poffibility ot
augmentation. This evil has, in faa, been ferioufiy
felt in the church of Scotland, the income of whole
members, notwithftanding all that has been done for
their relief, is ftill very inferior to what it was thirty or
forty years ago. A fource of income, which rifes ot
falls with the value of land, feems the moft effie&ual
mode of maintaining this proportion between the in¬
come of the clergy, and of the reft of the fociety; we
need not, therefore, bonder, that the clergy fhould be
fo tenacious of it.
To reconcile thefe contrarieties, would certainly be
attended with difficulty, yet it does not feem to be ab-
folutely impoflible. The firft objedl: would be, to tranf-
fer the tax from the produce to the rent. Ihis might
be done by forming a correa eftirnate, on an average of
a few years, of the value of the tithe 5 and then aifign-
ing a claim to fuch a proportion of the rent, as would
be equal to that value.. This would remove all difcou-
ragements to the exertion of the cultivator. ihofe
which prefs againft the exertions of the landlord would
indeed remain in full force, though without any mcreafe.
In moft cafes, thefe exertions would be of very fmall
importance, when compared with thole of the former.
But, befides, a fcheme might probably be contrived ii-
milar to that above fuggefted, by which the landlord
might receive an adequate allowance for any improve¬
ments. he might make.
The ground-rent of houfes forms part of the retK of
land. In remote country fituations, it is often no more
than the fame land would yield, if employed for the
purpofes of agriculture. But in the vicinity, and ftili
more in the heart of a great town, competition, and
the value attached by convenience or fafhion to fome
particular fituations, raife this rent to a very, extra¬
vagant height.
Ground-rent feems to be a ftill more proper fubjedb
of taxation than that of common land, it arifes com¬
monly from circumftances entirely independent of any
care or attention on the part of the proprietor. T et
ground rents have never been confiuered as a feparate
iubje£t of taxation. This has probably been from the
difficulty of diftinguiftnng them from the building rent.
In every tax upon houfes, however, part muff fall up¬
on the ground rent, provided that be able to bear it.
By diminifhing the demand for houfes, it will diminifh
alfo the demand for ground to build them on.
Capitation or Poll Taxes,—afford one of the eafieft
and moft obvious modes of taxation. To lay an affeff-
ment upon every individual without exception, feems
the moft effe&ual mode of preventing all trouble, and
leaving no room for evafton. In moft of the abfolute
governments, where the fovereign does not claim the
5 1 TAX
foie property of the lands, as in iurkey and Ruffia, poll
taxes are impofed in lieu of land tax.
The rudeft form of this impofttion is, when it is
laid equally upon every individual. An equality of
this kind is the moft grievous inequality. 1 o make the
pooreft fubje6t pay as much as the richeft, is palpably
unjuft. The only cafe, where i'uch a tax can be pro¬
per, is where it falls upon Haves. In this cafe, it is
paid, not by the (lave, but by the matter. The num¬
ber of Haves forms the moft accurate left of the value of
his property and accordingly, in Ruffia, an eftate is
defcribed, not by the number of acres,, but by the
number of Haves which it contains. 1 his tax has alfo
the good property of encouraging manumiffion. In
all other cafes, fuch a tax can only be rendered toler¬
able by its extreme moderation.
Nations were not long of perceiving the prepofterous
nature of this arrangemennt, and of feeking to fubftitute
fome more equitable one in its place. Fortune was evi¬
dently the moft correct ftandard to proceed upon; but
a clofe inquifition into private concerns was conceived to
be burdenfome and oppreffive. If each individual were
to report his own fortune, could the report be trufted
to ? If, on the other hand, the affieffment were to be
regulated by the officers of government, according to
what they fiippofed to be his wealth, a door was opened
to vexatious and arbitrary proceedings. In order to a-
void thefe oppofite dangers, it has been common to re¬
gulate the contribution according to the rank of the con¬
tributor, which it is fuppofed will bear at leaft a certain
proportion to his fortune. 1 his was the cafe with the
different poll taxes impofed in this country during the
reign of King William. It was the cafe alfo in France
with regard to that part of the tuille which fell upon the
nobility. It is extremely unequal ; for many men of
rank have no fortune correfponding; and where it fo
happens, their rank impoverifhes them, by the expenee
which is requifite for its fupport. Yet, as rank affords
a certain approximation to fortune, it is certainly better
to fix it. according to that ftandard, than to leave it to
the arbitrary appointment of the officers of government.
Inequality is a lefs evil than uncertainty.
In that part of the taille which fell upon the inferior
orders, the latter mode was adopted. This tax was the
fubjeft perhaps of more grievous difcontent, than any
other which yielded an equal revenue. It cannot be
fuppofed that the mtendant fhould not be often fwayed
by motives of favouritifm, private intereft, or private re-
fentment; and the very uncertainty to which the people
were expofed, formed a fevere hardfhip. They were
tempted to conceal their wealth, and even to employ in¬
adequate itiftruinents of trade or agriculture, in order to
deceive the watchful eye of the intendant.
Houfe Tax.—In order to avoid the defed? incident to
the above modes of affeffment, rent of houfes has been
fixed upon as affording the beft criterion of the amount
of a man’s income. It certainly affords a tolerable cri¬
terion of his expenditure; and though this may often
differ confiderably from his means, yet as it is rather the
object of government to difeourage profufe expenditure,
there may be no harm in fuch an inequality.
The moft equitable mode of taxing houfes, would
evidently be in the proportion of their rent. In this
country, accordingly, part of the land tax is made to
fall upon the rent of houfes. This branch of the land
tax
1
TAX
Taxation, tax is fubject to the fame inequalities, both original and
acquired, as the other branches. The affciTment, not
upon each houfe, but upon each didrift, continues inva¬
riably the fame. In general, it is dill higher than upon
land. The value of houfes, however, has not rifen fo
invariably as that of land ; hence, in feme diftridls
where the population has decreafed, the tax falls with
eonfiderable weight. Since that time another tax has
been impofed upon houfes which is in proportion to the
rent, and varies with it. The heavieft tax upon houTes,
however, is now that which is regulated by the number
of windows.
At the time of the original impofition of the houfe
tax, it feems to have been conlidered difficult or impof-
lible to afeertain and follow the fluctuations of the rent.
Some obvious and undeniable circumftance, connected
Tvith the very form and conftruCtion of the houfe, was
therefore feleCted. The mod ancient is the number of
hearths. Hearth money is a very ancient duty, and
feems to have exided even before the Conqued. Under
Charles II. a tax of two {hillings on all hearths was
granted to the crown for ever. This tax was grievous
to the people, on account of the domiciliary vifits to
which it neceffarily fubjefts them. It had befides the
word kind of inequality, prefling harder on the poor
than the rich. A man of 20I. a-year may have two
hearths} a man of 200I. not above four or five. A man
of 1000I. will fcarcely have ten. Hearth money, there¬
fore, was aboliffied at the Revolution. In its dead was
afterwards fubdituted the window tax, which could be
afeertained without entering the houfe of the contribu¬
tor. It was foon found, however, to be liable to the
fame inequality as hearth money. In confideration of
this, the rate was greatly increafed with the increafe of
the number of windows, and houfes having lefs than fix
were entirely exempted. If, however, as would rather
appear, the rent can be afeertained in a fatisfaftory
manner, it would feem better to lay the whole of the
houfe tax upon it direftly, rather than by any circuitous
and doubtful mode.
There are two parts of houfe rent j the ground rent,
or that which is given for the ufe of the ground on
which the houfe ftands *, and the building rent, which
is paid, to the builder, as a remuneration for his trouble
and expence. The ground rent, as above obferred,
mud pay a (hare of the tax ; but the building rent can¬
not be affeded by it. The builder jimft have his profit,
otherwife he would turn his capital and induftry into an¬
other diredion. This rule, however, is fomewhat modi¬
fied by the very durable nature df the fubjeft. When
the tax is firft impofed, it is very probable that the fup-
ply of houfes may continue for fome time nearly ade¬
quate to the demand ; in which cafe the proprietor muft
lower his price in order to get his houfes let. As the
old houfes decay, however, new ones are wanted, which
will not be built without an adequate remuneration j
and thus the general law will again operate.
Income Tax.—The objeCt of all the different affeffed
taxes is to make the fubjeft contribute an equitable pro¬
portion of his income to the expences of the ftate. But
thofe which we have above enumerated, though they
may procure an approximation to this point, can never
attain it with perfeft precifion. If therefore an income
tax, eftabliftied on juft principles, could be collefted
without any farther grievances, than the always una-
T A X
voidable payment of the contribution, it wpuld certain^ Tsj
be the moft equitable affeffment of any, and might with '-“■'1
propriety fuperfede all other taxes of this defeription.
Serious, however, are the difficulties which attend it.
The correftnefs of the efiimate muft always depend, in
a great meafure, on the honour of the contributors j but
all men are not honeft.; and the cheating of the king,
is, according to the popular code, fo venial an offence
that accurate returns cannot, in all cafes, be expefted.
If, on the other hand, the colleftors, -as in the French
taille, take upon themfelves to farm this eftimate, a door
is opened to arbitrary and opprefiive exaftions. The
impoffibility alfo of efeaping the tax by any fptcies of
privation makes its weight more fenfibly felt, than in
thofe which are in any degree voluntary. For all thefe
reafons, an income tax has hitherto been among the laft
refources to which a nation has had recourfe in its ex-
tremeft neceflity.
Moft of the capitation taxes, as formerly obferved,
partook more or lefs of the nature of the income tax.
The fubfidies, fo frequent in our early finance, were,
like the tail/e, compofed, partly according to rank, and
partly according to fortune. Among the nobility, aliena¬
tion of eftates was yet rare, and the difproportion be¬
tween rank and wealth, much greater than in fubfequent
times. The eftimate of income feems to have been
made by the colleftors. Such impofitions, however,
were ill brooked by a free and turbulent people ; the
fubfidies became more and more unproduftive j and at
laft were entirely given up. The firft was impofed un¬
der Richard II. in 13705 the laft under Charles II. in
l673*
In fome fmall republican ftates, a tax of this kind is
levied, the amount of which is entirely regulated by the
good faith of the contributor. At Hamburgh every ci¬
tizen is faid to have placed in the public coffers a fum,
which is declared upon oath to be one fourth per cent,
of his whole property, which, reckoning intereft at five
per cent, would be one twentieth of his income. It was
not fuppofed that this mode of colleftion gave occafion
to any fraud. The good faith of the people and their
confidence in their government, fupplied the place of
compulfory laws. The fecrecy was confidered neceffary
by a mercantile ftate j but in fome of the fmall Swifs
republics, every citizen declared publicly upon oath the
amount of his income, and was affeffed accordingly. Such
unfufpefted good faith could only exift in thefe fmall
ftates, where patriotifm was ardent, and the confidence
of the people in their government entire.
Since the difcontinuance of fubfidies, nothing of this
kind had been attempted in Britain, till the year 179 >
when the accumulating weight of public debt fuggefted
to Mr Pitt the neceffity of railing a large portion of the
fupplies within the year. For this purpofe, there ap¬
peared a neceffity for having recourfe to an income tax 5
and fo ftrong a fenfe was entertained by the nation of
the preffing nature of the exigency, that it was fubmit-
ted to with lefs reluftance than might have been ex¬
pefted.
An attempt was at firft made to conneft this impofi-
tion with the former affeffed taxes. Thefe were to be
tripled j but if any perfon was able to prove, that this
charge amounted to more than a tenth of his income,
he was relieved from all which exceeded that propor¬
tion. At the fame time, a voluntary fubfeription was
[ 216 ]
TAX
[ 217 ]
TAX
onened; but tlie produce, though honourable to na¬
tional patriot!fm, afforded but a flender fupply to public
wants. Thefe irregular and uncertain approximations
towards an income tax were foon given up, and their
place fupplied by the tax itfelf, in its own fliape.
To obviate the inconveniences of difclofure or arbi¬
trary affeffment, meafures have been adopted, as effec¬
tual probably as any that could be devifed. The com-
midioners of income tax are chofen by the freeholders of
the county, or by the eleftors in a borough, in the fame
manner as a member of parliament, excepting that a
fmaller qualification is requifite. To the office of thefe
commiffioners, public opinion attaches a certain dignity,
which makes it be performed gratuitoufly, and by the
moft diftinguifhed perfons in the diftrhff. Thefe are,
by oath, bound to iecrecy. The ftatements are given,
in the firft inftanee, by the contributor ; but if the
commiffioners are not fatisfied with his return, they can
require from him fatisfa&ory explanations. According
to the fources of income, the perfon is affeffed at the a-
mount of one year, or at an average qf three years. The
refult of thefe regulations feems to have been fuch as to
obviate, almoft entirely, the chief inconveniences attach¬
ed to this mode of taxation. The fimple payment of
the income tax indeed, is moft grievoufty complained of;
but the acceffories of difclofure, or arbitrary afleffment,
which were confidered as prefenting unfurmountable ob-
ftacles to this meafure, fcarcely feem to be complained
of at all.
The moft important confideration in fuch a tax relates
to the proportion in which it ftiould be paid by the dif¬
ferent members of the community. 1 hat the loweft or¬
ders, who fubftft by the labour of their hands, ought to
be exempted, feems univerfally agreed. This would
produce the fame effeift as a tax upon the neceffaries of
life, theeffedls of which we {hall difeufs hereafter. But
independent of this clafs, an equal impofition upon the
higher and middling claffes of the community would be
extreme inequality. The larger the income, the lefs of
it muft be fpent upon neceffaries or common convenien¬
ces, and the more upon objects of mere fhow and often-
tation. Thefe laft can certainly admit more eafily of re¬
trenchment ; and as the opulent have a greater ftake in
the country, it feems reafonable that they ftiould contri¬
bute fomewhatmore in a feafonof public exigency. A
gradation continually augmenting, fuch as takes place
in moft of the other afftffed taxes, feems to be ftrongly
called for in this. The full proportion of ten per cent,
was, from the firft, impofed upon incomes of 200I. a-
year, and though this was infinitely too low, yet at a
fubfequent period (in 1806) it was brought down to
150I. This fum, according to the prefent rate of ex¬
pence, is the very low7eft at which any family in the
middling rank can poffibly be fupported. The whole of
this clafs, therefore, a clafs which has fo many claims to
the favour of the legiflature, is affeffed to the very fame
amount as the higheft claffes. The firft conveniences of
life are taxed at the fame rate as its moft fuperiluous
luxuries. Certainly loocl. a-year ought to be the firft
income liable to the very heavy charge of 10 per cent. ;
and the deficiency hence arifing might be very fairly
fupplied by an increafe, gradually augmenting, upon in¬
comes above that amount. Fifteen per cent, perhaps,
ought to be the utmoft that it ever rofe to j but this
charge might doubtlefs be more eafily fupported by an
Vol. XX. Part I.
income of 10,0001. a-year, than half of it by one of Taxation
2®ol. or 300I.
Modifications ought alfo to take place, according to
the fource from which theincome isderived. That which
arifes from capital is undoubtedly of greater value than
mere profeffional income. It does not expire with its
poffeffor •> it relieves him from the care and anxiety of
laying up a provifion for his family, and allows him to
fpend his whole income, when, to another perfon, it
would be the moft culpable imprudence. Of all fpecies
of capital, land feems to be the moft valuable and dur¬
able. It ftands alfo moft in need of the protection of
the ftate. It generally, too, comes to its polieffor by
inheritance, and is not the fruit of his own induftry.
With regard to money, although its value is ftill much
fuperior to falaries or profeffional profits, yet it feems ra¬
ther to be the policy of government to favour its accumu¬
lation, which a very great addition of charge might dif-
courage. Money befides is a more moveable fpecies of
property than land, or even than profeffional income. If
heavily taxed, the proprietor might withdraw into ano¬
ther country, and his capital, with the induftry which it
fupported, be thus loft to the community.
The prefent tax makes no diftinftion between income
which dies with its poffeffor, and income arifing from
land or capital. Yet fuch a diftinflion, if it appeared
eligible, might eafilybe made under the prefent fyftem
of collection, which demands a ftatement, not only of
the amount of income, but of the fource from which
it arifes. The propriety, however, of fuch a charge de¬
mands fome confideration. Land, it is true, is well able
to bear a confiderable ftiare of the public burthens. But
land, in this country, and in almoft every other, is the
fubjeCt of a peculiar tax, over and above what is paid
by income arifing from other fources. If therefore it
were alfo to pay a greater proportion of the income tax,
the preffure might become unjuftly fevere. The land
tax in this country amounts to about two millions.
Were we to fuppofe the ftiare of the income paid by
land to amount to 5,000,000k (a large allowance), land
would then pay fourteen per cent, which feems as
much as can reafonably be exaCted. No fuch burden,
at leaft in any fenfible degree, falls upon ftock ; but for
the reafons above ftated, the propriety of taxing it hea¬
vily feems fome what equivocal.
According to the original bill, as propofed by Mr
Pitt, very liberal exemptions were granted on account
of children. To encourage marriage and the rearing
of families, has been generally confidered by legiftators
as an important object. From fome recent fpeculations,
however it has appeared doubtful whether it be defir-
able to remove the obftacles to marriage which arife
from the difficulty of fubfiftence. Whether from thefe
views, or for the mere wifti of rendering the tax more
productive, this exemption-has been gradually circum-
feribed. The laft regulation made refpeCting it feems
to be of a very capricious nature. An allowance of
four per cent, is given, but only for the number of
children exceeding two. This allowance befides is
given, not out of the income tax itfelf, but out of the
affeffed taxes. It is difficult to conceive any motive for
this laft regulation ; and, efpecially in the cafe of the
middling claffes, it may fometimes render the exemption
nugatory. 1
Other AJfeJfed Taxes.— A confiderable revenue is raifed
E e in
T AX [2
Taxation. Jn country by taxes on men fervants, pleafure horfes,
carriages, dogs, &c. Thefe are all luxuries, the ufe of
which is confined to the moft opulent elaflfes j they form,
therefore, extremely proper fubje£ts of taxation. The
income tax indeed, modified as above ftated, might per¬
haps come inftead of all fuch taxes $ but while that tax
favours the higher above the middling clalfes, thefe in
queftion tend to remedy that inequality. One afieff-
ment, however, is of a different nature j that upon la¬
bouring horfes. It is not likely, and certainly could
never be intended, that this tax fhould reftrain the ufe
of thefe indifpenfable inftruments of agriculture. Nei¬
ther can the duty fall upon the farmer, who, in all cafes,
muft have his profits. To fecure this, he mult pay the
lefs rent, in proportion as he pays the more tax 5 and
this duty will finally operate as a land tax. It does
not feem, however, to have any advantages above a di¬
rect affeffment of the fame nature. It will bear hard
upon the farmer who is in the middle of his leafe at
the time of its being impofed. If at all heavy, it may
have fome tendency to limit the ufe of fuch horfes, and
to encourage inferior fubftitutes. The tax was firlt
laid at 2s. and was juflified only by its extreme light-
nefs. It was then gradually raifed to 14s. j but a pro-
pofal to raife it ftill higher was thrown out by parlia¬
ment, and has never been again revived.
2. Taxes upon Commodities.—The experience of the
difcontent excited by direct affelfments, and of the dif¬
ficulty of proportioning them equally, led to the impo-
fition of taxes on confumable commodities. Thefe be¬
ing laid in the firft inftance on the commodity at the
time of its production or importation, are finally paid
by the confumer in the increafed price of his goods.
No taxes are fo little felt, or excite fo little difcontent.
The duty, mingling with the price of the goods, is con¬
founded with it ; and, unlefs when the tax is firft im¬
pofed, and a fudden rife in confequence takes place, the
great mafs of the people are even ignorant, how much
of what they pay goes to government, and how much
conftitutes the mere price of the goods. The payment
is alfo made in the moft convenient manner, and may
be divided into the fmalleft portions. The power of
not paying by ceafing to confume the article taxed, goes
a great way in fupprefling murmurs. Thus, indeed,
thofe whofe expence does not keep pace with their for¬
tunes, pay an unequal Ihare of the common contribu¬
tion. But as the law is generally difpofed to recom¬
mend economy, it will not perhaps confider this as a
ferious objeftion.
For thefe reafons, the modern fyftem of finance, par¬
ticularly in this country where it is fo much an objeft
to avoid difcontent, has fhewn a decided favour to this
mode of raifing a revenue. And perhaps, upon the
whole, they are the beft of any ; yet the evils with
which they are attended are by no means inconfiderable.
1. Thefe taxes take more out of the pocket of the
people, in proportion to what they put in that of the
public, than anv other. This arifes from the extenfive
and minute fuperintendence which is neceffary for their
p oper colleftion. For this purpofe, a number of officers
muft be kept, whofe falaries form a ferious dedudtion
from the produce. In Smith’s time, this expence amount¬
ed to above ^ per cent, on the duties of excife, and
above 10 per cent, on thofe of cuftoms. The great
18 ] TAX
augmentation of revenue which has taken place fince Taxati
that time, has been produced more by an increafe of T
duty on articles formerly taxed, than by the introduc¬
tion of new fubjefts of taxation. The expence of col¬
lection, however, bears ftill a larger proportion to the
amount collected, than either in the ftamps or alfeffed
taxes.
There is another way, in which the burden of thefe
taxes is rendered heavier on the public. The merchant
or producer advances the tax, often a confiderable time
before he can difpofe of the article. He muft therefore
have not only indemnification to the. amount of the duty,
but alfo profit on the advance which he has made.
It is univerfally obferved, that when a new7 tax is im-
pufed, the article rifes more than in proportion to it. The
public commonly murmur, and complain that the mer¬
chant has merely made the tax a pretence for this dif-
proportionate increafe in the price of his article. The
truth is, however, that the merchant has a reafonable
claim to receive the fame profit on that part of his ca¬
pital, which he has employed in advancing the tax, as
upon that which he employed in the original purchafe
of the commodity.
2. Though the collection of thefe taxes is lefs griev¬
ous to the great mafs of the people, yet it falls heavier
on certain clafles. Thefe are the dealers in excifeable
commodities. As evafion is much eafier here than in
affeffed taxes, a more grinding fyftem of fuperintendance
becomes requifite. The tax-gatherer muft have con¬
tinual accefs to every part, not only of the workfhop,
but even of the private houfe, of the dealer in them.
No time, no place, can be exempt from his vifits. The
power with which he is invefted may alfo, if he be fo
difpofed, give occafion to infolence at leaft, if not to op-
preflion. Now7, as the dealers in thefe commodities form
a part, and even a pretty numerous part of the fociety,
any hardftiip falling upon them muft be a confiderable
evil. It is felt, befides, though not direClly, by the reft
of the fociety. It has already been obferved, under the
head of Political Economy, that every difagreeable
circumftance attendant on any profeflion, neceflarily
raifes the rate of wages and profit in that profeflion. It
cannot be fuppofed, that the dealers in thefe commodi¬
ties will fubmit to the hardftiips we have noticed, with¬
out claiming fome indemnification in the price of their
goods. Thus the firft inconvenience will be augment¬
ed, and ftill more will be taken from the people, with¬
out any addition to the revenue of the public.
3. Thefe taxes give birth to the trade of fmuggling,
a trade at once injurious to the public, and ruinous to
the individual. Unfortunately the lax ftate of public
morals, in regard to this point, offers a ftrong temptation
to grafp at the extraordinary profits which fmuggling
affords ; and from the fame caufe, the produce of fuch
traffic, when fuccefsful, is always fure of a ready fale.
This trade, however, in the end, generally ruins not on¬
ly the fortune, but alfo the morals of him by whom it
is purfued. It trains to the practice of falfehood, per¬
jury, and other vices, without which it cannot be car¬
ried on with any chance of fuccefs.
4. Such taxes always alter more or lefs, the natural,
and confequently the moft advantageous direftion of na¬
tional induftry. The tax upon wine muft diminifti the
confumption of that article, and confequently the in¬
duftry
b
T A.x c 219 ]
n. duftry employed in producing it. Wine indeed is not
li a commodity of Britith produdtion j but it muft be pur •
chafed with Britifli commodities, and if the merchant
cannot import it, neither can he afford a market for
thefe Britilh articles which were to be given in exchange
for it. Dr Smith feems to imagine, that thefe taxes
produce an abfolute defalcation in the amount of na¬
tional produce j a fuppofition in which we are inclined
to differ from him. Although there is a diminution
in the demand for this particular article ; yet as the fum
levied is not withdrawn from the national expenditure,
but is merely transferred from one clafs of perfons to
another, it muft ftill fupport a demand, if not for the
fame, at leaft for fome other fpecies of commodities.
Thus the public will fuffer chiefly from the inconve¬
niences attendant on the change. Other reftraints, how¬
ever, for which there is no fuch compenfation, are ne-
celfarily attendant on the colleftion of fuch duties. In
order to render this efficacious, regulations muft often
be made, as to the manner in which the trade is to be
carried on ; and it is always to be apprehended, that
governments will be more attentive to the fecurity of
the revenue, than to the eafe of the public. In arbi¬
trary and unenlightened governments, this propenfity
becomes often fo powerful, as to throw the mort formid¬
able obftacles in the way of that free circulation of com¬
modities on which the profperity of trade, and of all in-
duftry, eflentially depends.
The commodities on which thefe duties are impofed,
may be either the neceflaries or the luxuries of life. Be¬
tween thefe two diviffons the line is not eafily drawn.
Neceflaries,ftridlly fpeaking, are confined to thofe things,
without which life cannot be fupported or health pre-
ferved. Yet, though the philofopher may reafon thus,
the fovereign cannot confine his people within fuch ftridl
limits. In regard to food indeed, which is entirely a
domeftic arrangement, this definition may hold , but in
clothing and lodging, the arrangements of which are in
the eye of the public, long cuftom may impofe obliga¬
tions of decency and propriety, which fall little ffiort
of abfolute neceffity. Every thing, in this refpedl, muft
be confidered as neceflfary, which a common labouring
perfon of the loweft clafs cannot want, without incurring
the reproach, or exciting the commiferation, of others in
the fame ftation.
Taxes upon the neceffaries of life have the fame effedl
with taxes upon the wages of labour. Dr Smith, and
moll other writers, feem to conceive that the immediate
effeft of fuch taxes is to raife the wages of labour. But
we do not fee that fuch can be the cafe. Nothing can
raife the wages of labour, except an augmentation of the
funds deftined for its fupport. But thefe funds, far from
being raifed by fuch taxes, are fomewhat diminifhed.
The employers of the poor, being themfelves affedled
by them, will be lefs able to pay wages than before. It
is quite a fallacy to urge, that the labourer, if he does
not get fufficient wages, will refufe to work. This
might be, if the tax affefled only a certain clafs of la¬
bourers, and left the reft free. The labourer, if he could
not, over and above the tax, obtain the regular ftandard
rate, would withdraw to other employments. The
confequence would be, a rife of the wages of the taxed
labour, with a flight fall in thofe of every other, propor¬
tioned to the additional number who would thus be
thrown upon it. But where the tax falls equally upon
TAX
labour of every defcription, as taxes upon the neceflaries Taxation,
of life muft do, there is no new quarter to which the * 'M i
labourer can turn j there is nothing either to raife or to
lower wages ; the fupply of and demand for labour con¬
tinue the fame. The effect of the tax is merely to di-
minilh the fubfiftence of the labourer in proportion to
its amount.
This, however, is merely the firft effedt; for the di-
miniffied fubfiftence will foon begin to adl upon the po¬
pulation, which turnifties the fupply of labour. Were
wages at the time lo low as to furmfti merely the ne-
ceffaries of life according to the firft definition, that is,
fuch neceflaries as it could not fubfift without, the ine¬
vitable confequence feems to be, that part of the labour¬
ing poor muft perilh for want. Such a calamitous ef-
fedt feems adlually to refult, in the crowded population
of fome eaftern empires, when a deficient crop produces
a fcarcity of fubfiftence. Happily, however, the la¬
bouring poor are feldom fo wholly without refource. In
general the wages are fufficient to allow them a portion
of the other defcription of neceflaries, and even of lux¬
uries, by retrenching which, they can, in the eyent of
fuch a tax, preferve themfelves from abfolute ftarvation.
In the end, however, the difcouragement to marriage,
and difficulty of rearing children, will reduce the po¬
pulation. This redudfion, diminiffiing the fupply of la¬
bour, will increafe wages, till they cover the amount of
the tax. The fame fum, divided among a fmaller num¬
ber, will make more to each.
High wages operate as a complete tax upon every
fpecies of manufadlured produce. The manufadlurer
muft charge upon the price of his goods the whole fum
which he has paid to his workmen with a profit. In
the market of the world, therefore, he muft, otter is pa¬
ribus, be underfold by the manufadlurer who refides in
a country where labour is cheaper. When thefe high
prices, however, are the refult of national profperity,
when they improve the fubfiftence of the labourer, and
lay a foundation for increafed population, this difadvan-
tage will weigh very light in the balance. But where
they are the refult of diminilhed population, and attend¬
ed with no improvement in the condition of the labour¬
ing poor, they form one of the greateft evils with which
a nation can be afflidled.
For thefe reafons, taxes upon the neceflaries of life,
though certainly produdlive, have always been found to
be oppreffive and ruinous to the profperity of a ftate.
Luxuries, therefore, form the proper objedfs of taxation.
As every one, if unable to purchafe his ufual quantity,
can either diminiffi it or abftain altogether, the rife of
the article has no tendency to induce fuch a degree of
want, as to check population, and thus caufe a rife to
the wages of labour. This power of abftinence may
indeed lead to a certain inequality j but as this inequa¬
lity is altogether voluntary, it can neither excite mur¬
muring, nor be confidered as a ferious hardihip. The
greateft irregularity is in the cafe of abfentees, by whom
fuch taxes are evaded altogether.
It is not, however, we muft obferve, from the mere
luxuries of ftiew and oftentation that any important or
permanent revenue is to be drawn. Thefe are confined
chiefly to perfons of large fortune, who are few in num¬
ber, and are always fubjedl to the influence of faffiion,
fo that little dependence can be placed on their regular
confumption. The luxuries from which alone a great
E e 2 revenue
Taxation.
TAX [ 220 ] TAX
revenue can be drawn are thofe which, among the higher
and middling claffes, have come to be confidered almoft;
as necefl’aries, and which are extenfively ufed by fuchas
are in eafy circumftances, even among the lower orders.
The only drink neceflary foi; fupporting the human
conftitution in perfeft health, feems to be pure water.
Men, however, have an univerfal propenfity for fome-
thing more, both to gratify their tafte, and to exhilarate
their fpirits. Fermented and fpirituous liquors, tea,
coffee, &c. are had recourfe to with this view, and are
habitually ufed in various forms and degrees, by almoft
every inhabitant of this country. Such articles form
therefore the grand bafis of this fyftem of taxation.
Of all fuperfluities, tea feenss to be one of the greateft.
It affords neither nourifhment nor ftrength, and is ge¬
nerally confidered by phyficians as injurious to the hu¬
man conflitution. Being imported befides from a re¬
mote country, the intercourfe with which was, by the
mercantile fyftem, ftigmatized as injurious, it was con¬
fidered as every way a fair fubjedf of taxation. Very
high duties were accordingly accumulated upon it,
which, in 1783, amounted to nearly 30 per cent, on the
value, befides an exeife of is. on every pound. It wTas
found that fo high a duty opened a wide door to the
fmuggling of a commodity of fo fmall bulk, and which
was then imported in large quantities by all the neigh¬
bouring countries. It was calculated, that though duty
was paid on five or fix millions of pounds, the confump-
tien of Great Britain amounted to more than double
that quantity. A plan was therefore brought forward
by Mr Pitt to fubftitute in its room an additional tax
on windows. Smuggling was no doubt checked, and
the people were, on the whole, gainers 5 yet the new
tax, being affelfed, was more heavily felt by the public
than its predeceffor, which was only a duty on confump-
tion. Since that time, the exigency of the times has made
it again necelfary to have recourfe to this article ; and
the tax upon tea has been raifed even higher than
it was previous to the commutation tax. The diminu¬
tion, however, of the Indian trade carried on by the
other powers, joined to the ftrifter precautions againft
fmuggling, has prevented its renewal to nearly the fame
extent as formerly. Tobacco is a ftill more complete
fuperfluity than tea, yet its ufe is very extenfive. It has
therefore been juftly confidered as one of the propereft
of all fubje&s of taxation, and duties have been laid up¬
on it, amounting to five or fix times the original value
of the article.
Wine is the wholefomeft of all fermented liquors,
and is even pretty extenfively ufed as a medicine. Thefe
circumftances might feem to entitle it to fome favour,
which, however, it has not experienced. Being entire¬
ly a foifeign commodity, and being particularly cultiva¬
ted by a nation long the objeft of our commercial jea-
loufy, it has incurred the decided hoftility of the mer¬
cantile fyftem. Duties have been impofed, eonfiderably
exceeding the original value. A preference has alfo
been fhewn to the wines of Portugal and Spain, (though
inferior in quality), which has rendered them the com¬
mon drink of this country.
Spirits are an article entenfively confumed in this
country, and on which a high duty may, with the
greateft propriety, be impofed, for the purpofes not on¬
ly of revenue, but of moral regulation. They afford no
aouriihment, and are in the higheft degree liable to
4
abufe. They are affected by the general tax on malt; Tax
but pay, befides, a confiderable one when manufaclu.t
red. In order to obviate the fmuggling which was car¬
ried to a great extent in the making of fpirits, it has
been found advifable to lay the duty on the ftill, in pro¬
portion to its contents. It is paid by the month ; and
the diftiller, when he choofes at any time to intermit
his operations for that period, may, by giving due no¬
tice to the officers of revenue, avoid being charged.
When this plan was firft adopted, the duty was com¬
paratively very low. But Mr Pitt foon found him-
felf completely deceived as to the produ&ivenefs of
this rate of duty. It was raifed therefore fucceffively
to 162I. its prefent rate. This fyftem lays the diftiller
under a temptation to work very rapidly, which is fup-
pofed to be injurious to the quality of the fpirits. It
obliges them alfo to work without intermiffion, which
they did at firft without even the exception of Sunday,
till that practice was prohibited by the legiflature. It
may be proper to notice, that this mode of impofilion
is confined to Scotland, and that in England it is laid
upon the wort or wafli.
Fermented liquors from malt are much more ufeful.
They are the moft nutritive perhaps of any fpecies of
drink, and are orf that account well fuited to thofe who
are engaged in hard labour. Neither do they offer the
fame temptations to excefs ; yet their extenfive ufe, and
the neceflity of raifing a revenue, have led the legifla¬
ture to confider them as a ftaple fubjedt of taxation, and
they are now charged with a duty of nearly 100 per
cent. Dr Smith advifes the transference of the whole tax
on beer to the malt tax. The latter appears to be lefs
liable to fmuggling, and it obviates the prefent exemp¬
tion enjoyed by private brewers, which is evidently un-
reafonable and unequal. The only objedlion feems to
be, that, being impofed at an earlier period of the ma-
nuiadlure, it obliges the manufadturer to lie longer out
of h is advance, and confequer.tly to demand a greater
profit; though this might perhaps be obviated by al¬
lowing him a longer credit. The additional taxes,
however, impofed upon this article, have been all laid
upon beer or porter. In general, it would appear that
confiderable unneceffary trouble is occafioned by taxing
fucceffively different ftages of a manufadture. By lay¬
ing the -whole either upon malt, or upon beer, a confi¬
derable expenee of celledHon might be faved, without
any diminution of the produce.
There are many fpecres of food which cannot, ftridlly
fpeaking, be confidered as neceflaries of life, fince their
place can be fupplied by fome lefs expenfive fubftitute.
Butcher meat can be fupplied by eggs, butter, and
other produdts of milk j wheaten bread by other bread
of inferior grains, It may be obferved, however, that
the impofition of a tax on the fuperior article would
produce an increafed demand for the inferior; and con-
fequently raife its price. Accordingly, both butcher
meat and wheaten bread are univerfally numbered
among the neceffaries of life ; nor do we recolledl, in
the Britiffi fyftem of taxation, an inftance of folid food
liable to duty. Tim is not the cafe in other countries,
particularly in Holland. Heavy taxes are there impo¬
fed upon both articles. All butcher meat pays a duty
of more than 7 per cent, of its value. All cattle, be¬
fides, pay about 5s. per annum. The tax upon ground
com is alfo very heavy and undiftinguifliing. Wheat
Pay5-
TAX [ 22
- I on. nays 104 florins (nearly 9I.) per laft. Nor are the in-
—'ferior grains entirely exempted. Uye pays 42 florins
(about' 3I. Ios.) ; barley, beans, and oats, about 2I.
Smith is not difppfed to cenfure thefe heavy impofltions,
as they may 'have been rendered neceffary by the long
-wars in which this people were engaged for the fupport
of their independence ; and when proper fubjeffs of tax¬
ation are exhaufled, recourfe mutt be had to improper
ones. Upon examining the lift, however, of Dutch
taxes, we do not find that the taxes upon articles of
luxury are fo very high, as to have reduced the legiila-
tors of that country to fuch an extremity. The excife
upon the aam of wine, equal to 40 Englith gallons, is
only 14 florins, or about il. 5s. Tobacco, fo fair an
article of taxation, and fo much ufed in Holland, is
taxed only by a flight licence, eftimated at little more
than a halfpenny a pound. Beer and fpirits are taxed
Hill more moderately than wine. Befides, even fuppo-
fing all the articles of luxury to be exhaufted, we fhould
conceive it more advifable to have recourfe to affeffments
upon income to the neceflary extent, than to duties up¬
on articles of necefilty. Accordingly, in this country,
a larger revenue in proportion to the population, is now
raifed than ever was raifed in Holland, without having
recourfe to thefe ruinous refources.
Clothes and furniture are, to a certain extent, as
much neceflaries of life as food. The quantity of
them, however, which comes under this defcription, is
much lefs j by far the greater part of the expence which
is laid out in this way being for the purpofe of conve¬
nience at moft, if not of mere (hew and oftentation.
There feems therefore noreafon for fparing any, beyond
thofe plaineft articles which decency demands from the
lowed of the people. This clafs of commodities, how¬
ever, has met with peculiar indulgence, in confequence
of the favour entertained by the mercantile fyftem for
manufactures of every kind. Woollens and hardwares,
the two ftaples of England, have been completely ex¬
empted. The fame favour has been fliewn to linen,
the ftaple of the filter kingdoms. Yet, provided a cor-
refponding drawback were allowed on exportation, there
does not appear any good reafon why the finer forts of
all thefe fabrics Ihould not be made afubjeCt of revenue.
Printed linens and cottons, which have recently been
fo abundantly produced both in England and Scotland,
have been made to pay a confiderable tax.
But though the legiflature of this country has been
thus laudably attentive to avoid touching on the firfl:
neceffaries of life, there are Hill feveral particulars in
which it has failed. One of the moft important of thefe
is coal, an article of the firfl: utility, the univerfal fuel
of this country, and the material of many of its moll
important manufactures. It is the lefs able to bear any
duty, becaufe from its local and bulky nature, the ex¬
pence of tranfport is often very heavy. London is fup-
plied with coal from Newcallle, which is 300 miles di-
Itant. If a bounty could in any cafe be advifable, it
would be in fuch a cafe. The legillature, however, has
judged otherwife, and has impofed upon every ton of
fea-borne coal, a duty of 3s. 6d. Coals carried by land
or inland navigation are duty free. Through the exer¬
tion of Lord Melville, Scotland, to the north of St
Abb’s Head, has been freed from this duty 5 a circum-
ftance which has materially contributed to her rapid
profperity.
1 ] TAX
Salt, though it may not be requifite for the fupport location,
of life, has yet, by immemorial ufage among civilized ve¬
nations, been conftituted a neceffary of lile. Notwith-
ftanding this, the fmall quantity ufed by each individual,
and the minute portions in which it is purchafed, make
a tax upon it be levied with lefs murmuring than molt
other taxes. Governments, taking advantage of this
circumftance, have almoft universally made it a fource
of revenue.
In this country the tax on this article preffes with
the greater feverity, as fait is effential to the fifliery,
one of the moft important fources of national wealth.
It is true, the duty is drawn back, when fait is fo em¬
ployed : but the facility of fmuggling by means of this
drawback, produces the neceflity of ftriCt regulations,
which cramp extremely this branch of induftry, efpe-
cially when carried on in that fmall fcale which is pe¬
culiarly fuited to it.
Leather, foap, and candles, are alfo neceflaries of
life taxed in this country. But though thefe articles
are to a certain extent neceffary, by far the greateft
confumption of them is for purpofes of luxury. Al¬
though therefore thefe taxes do prefs upon the poor,
their weight is not very fevere. It might feem eafy
enough, at leaft in the firft and laft of them, to exempt
thofe coarfer forms of the commodity, which are ufed
by the lower claffes, and thus the deficiency of revenue
might be compenfated by an increafe on the more ex-
penfive forms.
Taxes may be impofed either upon exportation or
importation. The duties of cuftoms were at firft levied
on both indifcriminately j but as the mercantile fyftem
gained ground, and an anxious defire prevailed to en¬
courage exportation and check importation, in the hope
of increafing the fpecie in the country, all the new du¬
ties were laid upon the latter, while the former was
more and more exempted. Although this fyftem may
not have taken its rife from the moft enlightened views,
yet no reafonable exception can be taken to it. The
taxes impofed by any government ought to fall upon
the confumption of its own people, not upon that of
others *, and as this is a maxim of juftice, fo it is equally
recommended by policy. Were a government to tax
its own exported Commodities, thefe commodities would
alfo have to pay the taxes of the country into which
they were imported** Loaded with this double bur¬
den, they could not advantageoufly come into competi¬
tion with firrilar articles, either the produce of that
country, or imported from another which followed a
more liberal policy. It is only therefore upon goods
imported or produced for home confumption, that thefe
taxes can with propriety fall. From fimilar views, the
materials of manufafture have been generally exempted
from duty. We have already obferved, that, provided
thefe manufadlures be objeds of luxury, there is no
good reafon why they ftiould not pay a tax. But there*"'
U an evident advantage in levying the duty after, ra¬
ther than before, the ruanufafturing procefs. In the
latter cafe, the merchant being obliged to advance it
fo early, muft have a profit on his advance, proportion¬
ed to the length of time which elapfes till the commo¬
dity is fit for fale ; and this profit muft be paid by the
confumer in the price of the goods.
Should we fuppofe indeed a nation to poffefs a mono¬
poly of any particular commodityj fuch a nation might
' impofso
I
TAX [ 222 ] TAX
Taxation, jmpofe a tax on its export, without danger of its mer-
v Thants being fupplanted in the foreign market. Still
this could not but be confidered as a fomewhat illiberal
fyftem ; and it would alfo bear hard upon the producer,
who w'ould Hill probably have a double fyftem of duties
to pay, fince it cannot be fuppofed that the foreign
country ftiould regard thefe monopolized commodities
with peculiar favour.
With the view of following up the principles of the
mercantile fyftem, importation duties have often been
laid upon goods, fo heavy as to amount to a prohibition.
Such duties are not intended to produce any revenue,
but to favour fome home manufadture, or to injure that
of fome foreign nation, which is an objedt of commer¬
cial jealoufy. In the fame manner, bounties are given
to forward the growth of fome branch of induftry, which
is the objedt of peculiar favour. In both cafes, the re¬
venue is facrificed, without any real advantage accruing
to the public. The induftry and capital of the nation
are thus turned from their natural diredtion into one
which is lefs advantageous, and the public is injured in-
ftead of being benefited.
It is an undoubted principle, that whether the tax
be paid at the time of importation, or at manufadture,
it ought to be paid only once. Some governments,
profoundly ignorant of the true principles of political
economy, have repeated the impofition at every fuccef-
five fale of the property. This is obvioufty unequal.
The value of property, and the frequency of its trans¬
ference, are two things altogether diftindt. One fpecies
of goods may thus come to pay ten or twelve times as
much as another of the fame value. But great as is its
inequality, its impolicy is ftill more glaring. It forms
the moft powerful check to that free interchange of
commodities which is the very foul of all induftry. It
tends to confine the confumption of every article to the
place of its produdtion, and thus to exclude all thofe
benefits which arife from the extenfion of the market.
Of this ruinous nature is the Spanifh a/cava/a, which
confifts in an impofition, originally of 10, but now only
of 6 per cent, on every fale without exception, whatever
be the nature of the property, or however frequently
repeated. The mere undiftinguifhing nature of fuch a
tax muft be a great evil ; but it is rendered far more
pernicious by the obftrudtion which it thus throws in the
way of every fpecies of commercial intercourfe.
It may be eftabliftied as a principle in regard to thefe
taxes, that they ought to be as uniform as poflible, and
not to vary in different parts of the country. Such va¬
riations neceffarily lead to reftraints on the free circula¬
tion of commodities. Each province becomes as an in¬
dependent kingdom, the frontier of which is guarded by
cuftomhoufes and by chains of officers, through which
whoever paffes muft fubmit not only to the payment of
duties, but to the inconvenience and delay of having
his goods fearched. Such was the cafe both in France
and in Spain, where each province having formerly
been feparate and independent, retained ftill its diftinft
fyftem of taxation. The tranfporting of goods from one
province to another was like exporting them to a foreign
country ; the fame barriers of cuftomhoufes, duties, and
revenue officers, obftrufted their paffage. One of the
circumftances which has moft contributed to the profpe-
rity of Great Britain is the uniformity of taxation
throughout, and confequently the entire freedom of
commerce from one part of the ifland to the other. TaKl,
This was the principal advantage which Scotland de-^
rived from the union ; and it has been fuch as fully to
compenfate for the increafed burdens to which that mea-
fure fubjedted her.
Duties upon confumption, inftead of being levied up¬
on the trader, may be levied upon the perfon confuming,
who may be made to pay a certain fum as a licence to
ufe the commodity. Such a mode of levy has feme of
the advantages of affeffed taxes, in regard to the facility
and cheapnefs of colleftion. It is ftill alfo in fome de¬
gree fpontaneous j but it muft obvioufty be, in moft
cafes, very unequal. Of two perfons, who ftiould pay
the fame fum for a licence to ufe wine, one might con-
fume twenty times the quantity of the other. A licence
has befides the difadvantage of being paid all at once,
and of being more fenfibly felt than taxes which con¬
found themfelves with the price of the commodity. In
general, therefore, it is a much lefs eligible form.
I here are a few inftances, however, of very coftly and
durable goods, fuch as coaches, plate, &c. where it is
found to be the moft convenient. Wine and other li¬
quors, when confumed in taverns, may, it is fuppofed,
be fairly required to pay more than when confumed in
private houfes. An attempt, however, to proportion
this addition to the quantity confumed, would be at¬
tended with unfurmountable difficulties. A licence is
therefore required to be taken out by innkeepers who
deal in thefe articles. This tax falls with equal weight
upon the great and fmall dealers j but it may be rather
confidered as defirable to check the multiplication of the
laft.
3. Stamp Duties.—Under the title of ftamp duties,
we would include all thofe which fall upon the deeds
which regulate the transference of property.
The firft of thefe duties, of which we find any men¬
tion, are thofe upon teftamentary donations. A law of
Auguftus impofed the vicejitna hereditatum, or twen¬
tieth penny, upon all inheritances. It was in Holland,
however, which was preffed by the fevereft neceflity of
raifing a revenue, and not very difcriminating in the
mode of doing it, that the fyftem of Jlump duties firft
originated, and was carried to a formidable extent.
Such were the difficulties of that ftate, that they are
faid to have publicly propofed a reward to any one who
flmuld fuggeft a new fource of revenue. This plan was
propofed and approved. From Holland it was, in 1671,
imported into this country, and has fince become one of
the great fources of public income. In other countries,
deeds regarding the transference of property are requi¬
red to be entered in a public regifter, and the tax laid
on the regiftration. A confiderable revenue was thus
raifed in France. Au&ion duties upon the fale of pro¬
perty, both moveable and immoveable, though fome¬
what different in point of form, coincide exactly with
thefe taxes in their effence and tendency.
Taxes of this nature are attended with confiderable
conveniencies to the contributors. From the nature of
the tranfadftion, there muft always be money in hand
with which the tax can be paid; and the time of pay¬
ment is thus the moft convenient of any. In many cafes,
the fum to be paid at a time is fmall. It is only part
of the fociety which is liable to them to any great ex¬
tent, and thefe only occafionally ; they are not felt as
intrenching on daily and habitual comforts $ nor do
fit
v-'
■TAX [22
Ion. they excite that general murmur, which is alone formi-
—' clable to government. It is not to be wondered at,
therefore, if the latter fliould avail themfelves of this
naffive difpofition in the people for the extenfion of this
fource of 1'upply. The truth is, however, that in all
eifential refpe&s, thefe taxes are among the molt impro¬
per of any.
r i. They are unequal, inafmuch as the value of any
property is altogether unconnected with the frequency
of its transference. This inequality would fubfift, even
though the ftamp duty were always in exaCt proportion
to the value of the property. But this is, in general,
far from being ftriCtly the cafe. It may be noticed,
however, that in the recent additions made to the ftatnp
duties in this country, the principle of equality has been
more attended to.
2. The greater part of fuch taxes fall not upon the
income, but upon the capital of the country 5 not upon
that fund which may be properly and fafely expended,
but upon that, the expenditure of which muft be ulti¬
mately ruinous. This circumftance is peculiar to thefe
duties; for though others, when very fevere, may
oblige the contributor to encroach on his capital, they
alone fall direCtly and immediately upon that fund. An
objection of this nature would alone be fufficient to dif-
fuade their adoption.
3. Such taxes, when they fall upon moveable goods,
have a direCt tendency to check commerce, and through
it every kind of induftry. They are then a complete
alcavala, differing from that ruinous impoft only by be¬
ing more moderate.
Thus we find, that the facility of collection, and the
avoiding of difeontent, which have tempted modern go¬
vernments to extend fo much this fource of revenue, are
altogether fallacious advantages, and bear no proportion
to the ill confequences with which fuch taxes are necef-
farily attended. It would therefore be much better
that the duties upon the transference of moveable goods
fhould be laid upon their original production. They
would thus pay only once, and no impediment would
be thrown in the w^ay of their free circulation. Duties
upon the fale of land and other immoveable goods,
ought to be converted into affefled taxes, payable on
their yearly ufe. In the prefent circumflances of this
country indeed, it is perhaps too much to expeCt that
taxes, which are paid without much murmuring, fhould
be taken off-, but the contiderations now ftated ought
certainly to deter from any farther addition to them.
Legacies from any diftant relation are a fort of acci¬
dental and unexpected advantage, and it is therefore to
be fuppofed, that the perfon receiving wall have fecured
a regular fource of fubfiftence independent of them. He
will not therefore, it is likely, be difpofed to complain
very grievoully, if this extrinfic fource of wealth be
fomewhat diminilhed by a duty to government. In this
country, accordingly, fuch legacies are chargeable with
a duty of 10 per cent. This tax feems one of the moft
unexceptionable of the kind, and only liable to the ob-
jeClion of falling upon capital. It is otherwife with
money left by a father or other very near relation. The
death of fuch perfons commonly diminilhes, inflead of
increafing, the wealth of the family 5 and the fum left
forms often the foie dependance of a great part of it.
Acqordinglv, in Great Britain, the duty on legacies to
3
3] T A Y
the neareft relations is very flight, and gradually in- Taxation
creafes as the confanguinity becomes more remote. Jl
Receipt ftamps, though they are formally paid by the .
feller, fall really upon the purchafer. The merchant,
who muft have his profit, will calculate the expence
which he is likely to be at in ftamps, and will lay a
correfponding augmentation on the price of his goods.
Such taxes, unlels very heavy, will fall upon income
only, not upon capital.
Bills of exchange, and policies of infurance, being
neceffary inftruments of trade, feem as improper fubjedls
of taxation as can well be. The only thing tolerable
in thefe taxes, as impofed in this country, is their mode¬
ration.
Audition duties feem liable to every objection which
can be ftated againft taxes of this defeription. They
are the more fevere, as they muft fall often upon unfor¬
tunate perfons who are reduced to the neceflity of difpo-
fmg, in this manner, of their property.
Stamps upon law proceedings tend to increafe the ex¬
pence of obtaining juftice, which is already complained
of in general as too heavy. 'They may indeed be fup¬
pofed to be of fome ufe in checking a litigious fpirit j
but this feems already to be done pretty effedtually
by the other expences attendant on judicial proceed-
ings.
Taxes upon indentures, or upon the entrance to any
profeffion, produce a monopoly to the perfons exercifmg
that profeflion. They thus tend at once to raife the
price of their labour and of its fruits, and to diminiftr
the neceflity of qualifying themfelves for its perform¬
ance. The chief weight of thefe taxes falls upon the
perfons exercifing the profeflion of the law. The pub¬
lic are apt to regard fuch perfons with a degree of hofti-
lity, which has probably induced government to believe
it might tax them without danger of exciting any gene¬
ral murmur. The truth is, however, that thefe taxes
fall not on the practitioners themfelves, but on thofe
who complain of them, on the perfons engaged in liti¬
gation } fo that their effeCt is precifely the fame with that
of taxes on law proceedings. It differs from them only
as a licence differs from a duty upon commodities, and is
lefs eligible, as falling more unequally. The perfons
who pay the fame fum at entrance, carry on their pro¬
feflion with very different degrees of fuccefs.
Some impofitions, which affume the form of ftamp
duties, are in reality taxes upon commodities. Such
are the game duty, the duty on cards, hats, plate, &c.
But moft of thefe feem to be unexceptionable fub-
jeCls.
TAXUS, the Yew-tree, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs dicecia, and in the natural fyftem ran¬
ging under the 51ft order, Conifer#. See Botany In¬
dex.
TAY, in Latin Tavus, or Taus, the largcft river in
Scotland, rifes in Braidalbane, on the frontiers of Lorn j
and having in the paffage of a few miles augmented its
ftream by the acceflion of feveral fmall rills, fpreads it-
felf into the lake called Loch Dochart; out of which
having run but a little fpace, it expands itfelf again.
Leaving this fecond lake, it rolls fome miles with a con-
fiderable body of water, and then diffufes itfelf in the
fpacious Loch Tay ; which, rekoning from the fources
of the river, is 24 miles in length, though, ftridtly
fpeaking.
T A Y [ 224 ] T A Y
A'Y’ fpeaking, the lake is but 13 : almofl as Toon as it iffues
ay °r* from hence, it receives the river Lyon, coming out of
Loch Lyon, and running through Glen Lyon j which,
having travelled in a manner parallel to it, from its
fource, for a fpace of 25 miles, at length joins the Tay
as it enters Athol, which it next traverfes, and, direft-
ing its courfe in a manner due eaft, receives almoft all
the waters of that country. Bending then to the fouth,
at the diftancebffix miles, it reaches Dunkeld ; which,
in the language of our anceftors, fignifies “ the hill of
hazels,” was the very centre of the old Caledonia, and
is at prefent efteemed the heart of the Highlands. The
river is very broad here, infomuch that there is a ferry-
■ boat over it at each end of the towm. Declining Hill
to the fouth-eaft, with a winding courfe, for above 12
miles, the Tay receives a large fupply of waters from
the county of Angus •, and then running fouth-weft for
eight miles more, is joined in that fpace by feveral ri¬
vers, the moft confiderable of which is the Almond.
Turning then to the fouth-eaft, at the diftance of about
three miles, this copious river comes with a fwelling
ftream to Perth.
The Tay, continuing ftiil a fouth-eaft courfe, re¬
ceives, a few miles below Perth, the river Erne-, which,
iffuing from a loch of the fame name, traverfes the
county of Strathern, and pafles by Abernethy, once the
capital of the Pifrifh kingdom. Swelled by the waters
of this laft river, the Tay, running next diredlly eaft,
enlarges itfelf till it becomes about three miles broad j
but contrafts again before the town of Dundee ; foon
after which it opens into the German occean. At the
entrance of the frith, there are fands both on the north
and on the fouth fide 5 the former ftyled Goa, the latter
Aber/ay and Drumlan; and before thefe, in the very
mouth of the frith, thofe which are called the Crqfs
Sands. At Buttonnefs, which is the northern promon¬
tory, there are two light-houfes. The fpace betw'een
the north and the fouth fands may be near a mile, with
about three fathoms water but being within the frith,
it grows deeper, and in the road of Dundee is full fix
fathoms. The frith of Tay is not indeed fo large or fo
commodious as that of Forth, but from Buttonnefs to
Perth it is not lefs than 40 miles ; and the whole may
be, without any great impropriety, ftyled a harbour,
which has Fife on one fide, and the {hires of Perth and
Angus on the other, both very fertile and pleafant coun¬
tries.
TAYLOR, Dr Jeremy, biftiop of Down and Con¬
nor in Ireland, was the fon of a barber at Cambridge,
where he was educated. Upon entering into orders, he
became divinity le&urer of St Paul’s in London ; and
was, by the intereft of Archbifliop Laud, elefred fellow
of All Souls college, Cambridge, in 1636. Two years
after he became one of the chaplains of the archbiftiop,
who bellowed on him the rectory of Uppingham in Rut-
landftrire. In 1642, he was chaplain to the king; and
a frequent preacher before him and the court at Oxford.
He afterward attended in the king’s army in the condi¬
tion of a chaplain. Upon the declining of his majefty’s
caufe, he retired into Wales, where he was permitted
to officiate as minifter, and to keep a fchool, in order
to maintain himfelf and his children. In this retirement
he wrote feveral of his wrorks. Having fpent feveral
■ years there, his family was vifited with ficknefs ; and
he loft three fons of great hopes within the fpace of
two or three months. This affli&ion touched him fo Taj!(
fenfib-ly, that it made him defirous to leave the country • '""“Y
and, going to London, he for a time officiated in a pri¬
vate congregation of loyalifls to his great hazard. At
length meeting with Edward lord Conway, that noble¬
man carried him over with him into Ireland, and fettled
him at Portmore, where he -wrote his DuBor Dubitan-
tiutn. Upon the Reftoration he returned to England.
Soon after, he was advanced to the biftiopric of Down
and Connor in Ireland ; and had the adminiftration of
the fee of Dromore granted to him. He was likewife
made privy-counfellor and vice-chancellor of the univer-
fity of Dublin ; which place he held till his death. He
died of a fever at Lifnegarvy in 1667, anc^ was interred
in a chapel which he himfelf had built on the ruins of
the old cathedral of Dromore.
Taylor, Z)r Brook, was born at Edmonton, Au-
guft 18th 1685. He was the fon of John Taylor, Efq.
of Bifrons-houfe in Kent, by Olivia, daughter of Sir
Nicholas Tempeft, of Durham, Baronet. His grand¬
father, Nathaniel Taylor, was one of thofe puritans
whom “ Cromwell thought fit to eled by a letter, dated
June 14th 1653, to reprefent the county of Bedford in
parliament.” The charader of his father partook in no
fmall degree of the aufterity that had been tranfmitted
to him in the line of his anceftors, and by the fpirit ni
the times in which they lived ; and to this caufe may be
afcribed the difaffedion which fometimes fubfifted be¬
tween the father and even fuch a fon as is the fubjed
of this article. T he old gentleman’s morofe temper,
however, yielded to the powers of mufic ; and the moft
eminent profeflbrs of the art in that period were hofpi-
tably welcomed in his houfe. His fon Brook was in¬
duced, by his natural genius, and by the difpofition of
Lis father, which he wiffied by all the means in his
power to conciliate, to dired his particular attention to
mufic ; and he became in very early life a diftinguiflied
proficient in it.—“ In a large family piece, he is re-
prefcnted at the age of 13 fitting in the centre of his
brothers andfifters ; the two elder of whom, Olivia and
Mary, crown him with laurel, bearing the infignia of
harmony.”
To mufic he added another accompliflrment, in which
he equally excelled. “ His drawings and paintings, of
which fome are ftill preferved, require not thofe allow¬
ances for error or imperfedion with which we fcan the
performances of even the fuperior dilettanti;—they will
bear the teft of fcrutiny and criticifm from artifts them-
felves, and thofe of the firft genius and profeflional abi¬
lities.” Though he was eminent in the culture and
pradice both of mufic and drawing in his early youth,
his whole attention was not occupied by thefe fafcinat-
ing arts. His claflical education was conduded at home
under a private tutor; and his proficiency in the ordina¬
ry branches of the languages and the mathematics was
fo great, that he was deemed qualified for the univerfity
at the early age of 15.
In 1701 he was entered a fellow commoner of St
John’s College, Cambridge. At that period mathema¬
tics engaged more particularly the attention of the uni¬
verfity ; and the examples of eminence in the learned
world, derived from that branch of fcience, attraded
the notice and roufed the emulation of every youth pof-
fefled of talents and of application. We may prefume,
that Brook Taylor, from the very hour of his admiffion
at
• T A Y r [ 2
lor. at college, adopted the courfe of ftudy which a Machin,
rmmmJ ?l Keil, and, above all, a Newton, had opened to the
mind of man, as leading to difcoveries of the eeleftial
fyftem.—That he applied early to thefe ftudies, and
without remiffion, is to be inferred from the early notice
and kind attention with which he was honoured by thofe
eminent perfons, and from the extraordinary progrefs
which he made in their favourite fcience,”
In 1708 he wrote his treatife On the Centre of Ofcil-
lation, which was not publilhed in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions till fome years afterwards. In 17C9, he
took his degree of Baeheler of Laws. In 171 2, he was
chofen a Fellow of the Royal Society. During the in¬
terval between thefe two periods, he correfponded with
Profeffor Keil on feveral of the moll abltrufe fubjedls of
mathematical difquifition. Sir William Young informs
us, that he has in his pofieflion a letter, dated in 1712,
addreffed to Mr Machin, which contains at length a
folution of Kepler’s problem, and marking the ufe to be
derived from that folution. In this year he prefented to
the Royal Society three different papers: one On the
Afcent of Water between two Glafs Planesj a fecond,
On the Centre of Ofcillation; and a third, on the Mo¬
tion of a ftretched String. It appears from his corre-
fpondence with Keil, that in 1713 he prefented a paper
on his favourite fubjedl of Mufic j but this is not prefer-
ved in the Tranfaftions.
His diftinguilhed proficiency in thofe branches of fci-
ence, which engaged the particular attention of the
Royal Society at this period, and which embroiled them
in eontefts with foreign academies, recommended him
to the notice of its mold: illuflrious members; and in
1714 he was eledted to the office of fecretary. In this
year he took at Cambridge his degree of Dodtor of
Laws: and at this time he tranfmitted, in a letter to
Sir Hans Sloane, An Account of fome curious Experi¬
ments relative to Magnetifm; which, however, was not
delivered to the Society till many years afterward, when
it was printed in the Tranfadlions. His application to
thofe ftudies to which his genius inclined was indefati¬
gable; for we find that in 1715 he publiffied in Latin
his Methodus Incrementorum; alfo a curious eflay pre-
ferved in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, entitled An
Account of an Experiment for the Difcovery of the
Laws of Magnetic Attradlion; like wife a treatife well
known to mathematicians, and highly valued by the
beft judges, on the Principles of Linear Perfpedtive.
In the fame year (fuch were his admirable talents, and
fo capable were they of being diredled to various fub-
jedts), he condudled a controverfial correfpondence with
the Count Raymond de Montmort, on tlie Tenets
of Malebranche ; which occafioned his being parti¬
cularly noticed in the eulogium pronounced by the
French academy on the deceafe of that eminent meta-
phyfician.
The new philolophy of Newton (as it was then cal¬
led) engaged the attention of mathematicians and phi-
lofophers both at home and abroad. At Paris it was in
high eftimation; and the men of fcience in that city
were defirous of obtaining a perfonal acquaintance with
the learned fecretary of the Royal Society, whofe repu¬
tation was fo generally acknowledged, and who had
particularly diftinguiffied himfelf in the Leibnitzian or
German controverfy, as we may denominate it, of that
period. In confequence of many urgent invitations, he
Vol, XX. Part I.
25 y T A Y
determined to vifit his friends at Paris in the year 1716.
He wms received with every poffible token of affeftion
and refpeft; and had an opportunity of difplaying ma¬
ny traits ol charafter, which mark the general fcholar
and accomplifhed gentleman, as well as the profound
mathematician. His company was courted by all k‘ who
had temper to enjoy, or talents to improve, the charms
of focial intercourfe.” Befides the mathe*naticians, to
whom he had always free accefs, he was here introduced
to Lord Bolingbroke, the Count de Caylus, and Bilhop
Bofluet.'
Early in 1717 he returned to London, and compofed
three treatifes, which were prefented to the Royal So¬
ciety, and publiffied in the 30th volume of the Tranfac-
tions. About this time his intenfe application had im¬
paired his health to a confiderable degree; and he was
under the neceffity of repairing, for relaxation and re¬
lief, to Aix-la-Chapelle. Having likewife a defire of
dire&ing his attention to fubjedls of moral and religious
fpeculation, he refigned his office of fecretary to the
Royal Society in 1718.
After his return to England in 1719, he applied to
fubjedts of a very different kind from thofe that had em¬
ployed the thoughts and labours of his more early life.
Among his papers of this date, Sir William Young has
found detached parts of A Treatife on the Jewiffi Sacri¬
fices, and a differtation of confiderable length On the
Lawfulnefs of eating Blood. He did not, however,
wholly negledl his former fubje&s of ftudy, but employ¬
ed his leifure hours in combining fcience and art; with
this view he revifed and improved his treatife on Linear
Perfpedlive. -Drawing continued to be his favourite
amufement to his lateft hour; and it is not improbable,
that his valuable life was ffiortened by the fedentary ha¬
bits which this amufement, fucceedinghis feverer ftudies,
occafioned. “ He drew figures with extraordinary pre-
cifion and beauty of pencil. Landfcape was yet his
favourite branch of defign. His original landfcapes are
moftly painted in water colours, but with all the rich-
nefs and ftrength of oils. They have a force of colour,
a freedom of touch, a varied difpofition of planes of
diftance, and a learned ufe of aerial as well as linear
perfpedtive, which all profeffional men who have feen
thefe paintings have admired.”
The work of Dr Brook Taylor in linear perfpedtive
was cenfured by Bernoulli, in a treatife publiffied in the
Adts of Leipfic, as “ abftrufe to all, and as unintelligi¬
ble to artifts for whom it was more efpecially written.”
It muft be acknowledged that this excellent work, for
fo it deferves to be called, was not level to the appre-
henfions of pradtitioners in the art of drawing and de¬
fign ; but it was much efteemed by mathematicians.
Three editions of it have been publiffied; and as it is
now fcarce, a republication of it in its moft improved
and perfedl ftate would be very acceptable. Mr Kir¬
by, however, has made it more plain and popular, in
his treatife entitled “ Brook Taylor’s Perfpedtive made
eafy ;” and this book, detailing and illuftrating the
principles of the original work, has been the vade me-
cum of artifts. Dr Brook Taylor was incenfed by the
invidious attacks of Bernoulli; and he publiffied An
Apology againft J. Bernoulli’s Objedtions, which may
be feen in the 30th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adtions. Bernoulli, with his ufual envy of Britift) ma¬
thematicians, had difputed our author’s right to his own
F f work.
Taylof.
T A Y [ 226 ] TEA
Faylor. work. We have no reafon to doubt Dr Taylor’s claims
v to the undecided difcovery of the method which he de-
fcribes, though he is not an original inventor. This
method was long before publithed by Guido Ubaldi, in
his Perfpe&ive, printed at Pefaro in 1600 where it is
delivered very clearly, and confirmed by moft elegant
demonftrations j and where it is a&ually applied to the
art of delineating the fcenes of a theatre.
Toward the end of the year 1720, Dr Brook Taylor
accepted the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke to fpend
fome time at La Source, a country-feat near Orleans,
which he held in right of his wife, the widow of the
Marquis de Villette, nephew of Madame de Maintenon.
In the next year he returned to England, and publiflied
the laft paper which appears with his name in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfa&ions, entitled, An Experiment made
to afcertain the Proportion of Expanfion of Liquor
in the Thermometer, with regard to the degree of
Heat.
In 1721, Dr Brook Taylor married Mifs Bridges of
Wallington in the county of Surry, a young lady of
good family, but of fmall fortune ; and this marriage
cccafioned a rupture with his father, whofe confent he
had never obtained. The death of this lady in 1725*
and that of an infant fon, whom the parents regarded
as the prefage and pledge of reconciliation with the fa¬
ther, and who aftually proved fuch, deeply affe&ed the
fenfibility of Dr Taylor. However, during the two
fucceeding years he refided with his father at Bifrons,
where “ the mufical parties, fo agreeable to his tafte
and early proficiency, and the alfeftionate attentions of
a numerous family welcoming an amiable brother, fo
long eftranged by paternal refentment, not only foothed
his furrows, but ultimately engaged him to a fcene of
country retirement, and domefticated and fixed his ha¬
bits of life. He could no more recur to the defultory
refources and cold folace of fociety, which cafual vL
fits, flight acquaintance, and diftant friendfhips, afford
the man—w’ho hath none to make and cheer a conjlant
homey
In 1725 he formed a new connexion; and with the
full approbation of his father and family, married Sa-
betta,. daughter of John Sawbridge, Efq. of Olantigh,
in Kent. In 1729, on the death of his father, he fuc-
ceeded to the family eftate of Bifrons. In the fol¬
lowing year he loft his wife in childbed. The daugh¬
ter whofe birth occafioned this melancholy event furvi-
ved, and became the mother of Sir William Young, to
whom we owe thefe memoirs of his grandfather.
In the interval that elapfed between the years 1721
and 1730, no produ&ion by Brook Taylor appears in
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions ; nor did he publifh in
the courfe of that time any work. His biographer has
found no traces of his learned labour, excepting a Trea-
tife of Logarithms, which was committed to his friend
Lord Paifley (afterward Abercorn), in order to be pre¬
pared for the prefs j but which probably never was print¬
ed. His health was now much impaired ; relaxation
became neceffary, and he was diverted by new connec¬
tions from the habit of fevere ftudy, which had diftin-
guilhed the early period of his life, and which had con¬
tributed to contrafl the duration of it. Happy in the
focial circle of domeftic enjoyment, and devoting his
attention to bufinefe or amufement as they occurred, his
application and his literary emulation feem to have de-
I
dined. He did not long furvive the lols of his fecond Taylo
wife j and his remaining days were days of increafing Tea,
imbecility and forrow. “Y'
“ The eflay entitled Contemplatio Plnlafophica, pub-
liftied by Sir William Young, 1793, appears to have
been written about this time, and probably with a view
to abftraH his mind from painful recolledions and re¬
gret. It was the effort of a ftrong mind, and is a moft
remarkable example of the clofe logic of the mathema¬
tician applied to metaphyfics. But the blow was too
deep at heart for ftudy to afford more than temporary
relief. The very refource was hurtful, and intenfe ftu¬
dy but accelerated the decline of his health. His friends
offered every comfort j in particular Lord Bolingbroke
preffed his confolation, and fought to call his mind from
regret of domeftic endearments to focial friendlhip at
Dawley.
The attention and kindnefs of his friends, however,
could not ward off the approaches of diffolution. “ Ha¬
ving furvived his fecond wife little more than a year,
Dr Brook Taylor died of a decline in the 46th year of
his age, December the 29th 1731, and was buried in
the church-yard of St Ann’s, Soho. I am.fpared (fays
his defcendant) the neceflity of clofing this biographi¬
cal Iketch with a prolix detail of his charafter : in tire
beft acceptation of duties relative to each fituation of
life in which he was engaged, his own writings, and
the writings of thofc who beft knew him, prove him to
have been the finifhed Chriftian, gentleman, and fcho-
lar.”
TATLOR-Bird. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
TEA, the dried leaves of the tea plant.—A com¬
modity wdth which we are fo wHl acquainted, which
affords a beverage fo generally ufed and fo generally a-
greeable, and which forms fo confiderable an article of
commerce,, muft excite curiofity to know fomething of
its hiftory, and of the nature of the plant from which it
is obtained.
The tea plant is a native of Japan, China, and Ton-
quin, and has not, as far as we can learn, been found
growing fpontaneoufly in any other parts of the world.
Linnaeus arranged it under the clafs of polyandria, and
order of monogyma, and Thunberg, one of the moft
diftinguiftied pupils of that illuftrious botanift, who re¬
fided 16 months in Batavia and Japan, has claffed it in
the fame manner as his matter. Several of the Britifti
botanifts, on the other hand, refer it to the order of
trigynia ; deriving their authority from a plant in the
duke of Northumberland’s garden at Sion-houfe, which
had three ftyles.
Linnaeus fays that there are two fpecies of the tea
plant j the bohea, the corolla of which has fix petals;
and the viridis or green tea, which has nine petals.
Thunberg makes only one fpecies, the bohea, confifting
of two varieties j the one with broad and the other with
narrow leaves.
The tea plant, which is an evergreen, grows to the
height of five or fix feet; Le Compte fays ten or twelve.
The leaves, which are the only valuable part of it, are
about an inch and a half long, narrow, indented, and
tapering to a point, like thole of the fweet briar, and 0
a dark green colour. The root is like that of the
peach tree, and its flowers referable thofe of the white
wild rofe. The Item fpreads into many irregular
branches*
—
TEA [2
branches. The wood is hard, of a whitilh green co-
J lour, and the bark is of a greenifh colour, with a bitter,
naufeous, and aftringent tafte. The fruit is fmall, and
contains feveral round blackiih feeds, about the bignefs
of a bean or large pea.
This plant delights in valleys, is frequent on the (lop¬
ing fides of mountains and the banks of rivers, where it
enjoys a foiithern expofure. It flouriihes in the northern
latitudes of Pekin as well as round Canton, but attains
the greateft perfection in the mild temperate regions of
Nankin. It is faid only to be found between the 30th
and 45th degree of north latitude. In Japan it is plant¬
ed round the borders of fields, without regard to the
foil; but as it is an important article of commerce with
the Chinefe, whofe fields are covered with it, it is by
them cultivated with care. The Abbe Rochen fays, it
grows equally well in a poor as in a rich foil; but that
there are certain places where it is of a better quality.
The tea which grows in rocky ground is fuperior to that
which grows in a light foil ; and the word kind is that
which is produced in a clay foil. It is propagated by
feeds; from fix to twelve are put into a hole about five
inches deep, at certain diltances from each other. The
reafon why fo many feeds are fown in the fame hole is
faid to be, that only a fifth part vegetate. Being thus
fown, they grow without any other care. Some, how¬
ever, manure the land, and remove the weeds; for the
Chinefe are as fond of good tea, and take as much
pains to procure it of an excellent quality, as the Euro¬
peans do to procure excellent wine.
The leaves are not fit for being plucked till the (lirub
be of three years growth. In feven years it rifes to a
man’s height; but as it then bears but few leaves, it is
cut down to the ftem, and this produces a new crop of
frefli ihoots the following fummer. We are informed
by Kcempfer, that there are three feafons in which the
leaves are colle&ed in the ides of Japan, from which
the tea derives different degrees of perfeftion.
The firft gathering commences at the end of Fe¬
bruary or beginning of March. The leaves are then
fmall, tender, and unfolded, and not above three or
four days old: thefe are called ftcki-tjiaa, or “ tea in
powder,” becaufe it is pulverifed ; it is alfo called im¬
perial tea, being generally referved for the court and
people of rank; and fometimes alfo it is named bloom
tea. It is fold in China for 2od. or 2s. per pound.
The labourers employed in colle£Hng it do not pull the
leaves by handfuls, but pick them one by *one, and take
every precaution that they may not break them. How¬
ever long and tedious this labour may appear, they ga¬
ther from 4 to 10 or 15 pounds a-day.
The fecond crop is gathered about the end of March
or beginning of April. At this feafon part of their
leaves have attained their full growth, and the reft are
not above half their fize. This difference does not,
however, prevent them from being all gathered indif-
criminately. They are afterwards picked and afforted
into different parcels, according to their age and fize.
The youngeft, which are carefully feparated from the
reft, are dften fold for leaves of the firft crop, or for
imperial tea. Tea gathered at this feafon is called too-
ijiaa, or “ Chinefe tea,” becaufe the people of Japan in-
fufe it, and drink it after the Chinefe manner.
The third crop is gathered in the end of May or in
the month of June, The leaves are then very numer-
27 ] TEA
ous and thick, and have acquired their full growth.
This kind of tea, which is called ben-tjiaa, is the
coarfeft of all, and is referved for the common people.
Some of the Japanefe colletSl their tea only at two fea¬
fons of the year, which correfpond to the fecond and
third already mentioned ; others confine themfelves to
one general gathering of their crop, towards the month
of June : however, they always form afterwards differ,
ent affortments of their leaves.
The fineft and moft celebrated tea of Japan is that
which grows near Ud-fi, a fmall village fituated clofe
to the fea, and not far diftant from Meaco. In the
diftrift of this village is a delightful mountain, having
the fame name, the climate of which is faid to be ex¬
tremely favourable to the culture of tea ; it is therefore
inclofed by a hedge, and furrounded with wide ditches,
which prevent all accefs to it. The tea (hrubs that
grow on this mountain are planted in regular order, and
are divided by different avenues and alleys.
The care of this place is entrufied to people who are
ordered to guard the leaves from duft, and to defend
them from the inclemency of the weather. The la¬
bourers who are appointed to colleft the tea abftain
from every kind of grofs food for fome weeks before
they begin, that their breath and perfpiration may not
in the leaft injure the leaves. They gather them with
the moft fcrupulous nicety, and never touch them but
with very fine gloves. When this choice tea has under¬
gone the procefs neceffary for its preparation, it is efcort-
ed by the fuperintendant of the mountain and a ftrong
guard to the emperor’s court, and referved for the ufe
of the imperial family.
As the tea (hrub grows often on the rugged banks of
deep mountains, accefs to which is dangerous, and fome¬
times impracticable, the Chinefe, in order to come at
the leaves, are faid to ufe a fingular ftratagem : Thefe
deep places are generally frequented by great numbers
of monkeys, which being irritated and provoked, to re¬
venge themfelves tear off the branches, and (bower them
down upon thofe who have infulted them. The Chinefe
immediately colled thefe branches, and (trip them of
their leaves.
When the tea leaves have been collected, they are
expofed to the (team of boiling water ; after which they
are put upon plates of copper, and held over the firs
until they become dry and fhrivelled, and appear fuch
as we have them in Europe. According to the telli-
mony of Koempfer, tea is prepared in the fame manner
in the ides of Japan. “ There are to be feen there
(fays this traveller) public buildings ereCted for the pur-
pofe of preparing the fre(h gathered tea. Every private
perfon who has not fuitable conveniences, or who is un¬
acquainted with the operation, may carry his leaves
thither as they dry. Thefe buildings contain a great
number of fmall ftoves raifed about three feet high, each
of which has a broad plate of iron fixed over its mouth.
The workmen are feated round a large table covered
with mats, and are employed in rolling the tea leaves
which are fpread out upon them. When the iron
^plates are heated to a certain degree by the fire, they
cover them with a few pounds of frefti gathered leaves,
which being green and full of fap, crackle as foon as
they touch the plate. It is then the bufinefs of the
workman to ftir them with his naked hands as quickly
as poffible, until they become fo warm that he cannot
F f 2 eafily
Tea.
Tea.
TEA [ 228 ]
eaflly endure the heat. He then takes off the leaves price till 17^7
with a kind of Ihovel, and lays them upon mats. The
people who are employed in mixing them, take a Imall
quantity at a time, roll them in their hands always in
the fame direflion ; while others keep continually ftir-
ring them, in order that they may cool fooner, and pre-
ferve their fhrivelled figure the longer. This procefs is
repeated two or three times, and even oftener, before
the tea is depofited in the warehoufes. Thefe precau¬
tions are necefiary to extraft all the moiflure from the
leaves.”
The people of Japan and China generally keep their
tea a year before uiing it, becaufe, when quite frefh and
newly gathered, it poffeffes a narcotic quality which
hurts" the brain. Imperial tea is generally preferved
in porcelain vafes, or in leaden or tin canifters covered
with fine mats made of bamboo. Common tea is kept
in narrow-mouthed earthen pots ; and coarfe tea, the
flavour of which is not fo eafily injured, is packed up in
balkets of ftraw.
An infufion of tea is the common drink of the Chi-
nefe •, and indeed when we confider one circumftance in
their fituation, we muft acknowledge that Providence
has difplayed much goodnefs in fcattering this plant
with fo much profufion in the empire of China. The
water is faid to be unwholefome and naufeous, and would
therefore perhaps, without fome corrective, be unfit for
the purpofes of life. The Chinefe pour boiling water
over their tea, and leave it to infufe, as we do in Eu¬
rope. ; but they drink it without any mixture, and even
without fugar. The people of Japan reduce theirs to a
fine powder, which they dilute with warm water until
it has acquired the confiftence of thin foup. Their
manner of ferving tea is as follows : They place before
the company the tea equipage, and the box in which
this powder is contained ; they fill the cups with warm
water, and taking from the box as much powder as the
point of a knife can contain, throw it into each of the
cups, and ftir it with a tooth-pick until the liquor be¬
gins to foam } it is then prefented to the company, who
fip it while it is warm. According to F. du Halde,
this method is not peculiar to the Japanefe 5 it is alfo
ufed in fome of the provinces'“of China.
The firft European svriter who mentions tea is Gio¬
vanni Botero, an eminent Italian author, who publilhed
a treatife about the year 1590, Of the Caufes of the
Magnificence and Greatnefs of Cities. He does not in¬
deed mention its name, but defcribes it in fuch a man¬
ner that it is impoflible to miftake it. “ The Chinefe
(fays he) have an herb out of which they prefs a deli¬
cate juice, which ferves them for drink inftead of wine :
it alfo preferves their health, and frees them from all
thofe evils which the immoderate ufe of wine produces
among us
f  Tea was introduced into Europe in the year 1610
merce, vol. j^y t}je Dutch Eaft India Company. It is generally
ii. p. 138. tjiat jt wa3 g,.^. imported from Holland into Eng¬
land, in 1666, by the lords Arlington and Offory., who
brought it into falhion among people of quality. But
it was ufed in coffee-houfes before this period, as ap¬
pears from an aft of parliament made in 1660, in which
a duty of 8d. was laid on every gallon of the infufion
fold in thefe places. In 1666 it was fold in London
for 60s. per pound, though it did not^coft more than
2s. 6d. or 3s. 6d. at Batavia. It continued at this
2
TEA
Te;
In 1715 green tea began to be ufed;
and as great quantities were then imported, the price
was leffened, and the praftice of drinking tea defcended
to the lower ranksf. In 1720 the French began toffe
fend it to us by a clandeftine commerce. Since that Jm!!
period the demand has been increafing yearly, and it
has become almoft a neceffary of life in feveral parts of
Europe, and among the loweft as well as the higheft
ranks.
The following table will give an idea of the quantity
of tea imported annually into Great Britain and Ireland
fince 1717:
From 1717 to 1726
1732 to 1742
1755 near
J 766
1785 about
1794 from
700,000 lbs.
1,200,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
12,000,000
16 to 20,000,000
Befides thefe immenfe quantities imported into Bri¬
tain and Ireland, much has been brought to Europe by
other nations. In 1766 the whole tea imported into
Europe from China amounted to 17 millions of pounds;
in 1785 it was computed to be about 19 millions of
pounds J. | Ro
Several refearches have been made in Europe to de-v«l.i
, . z' . A n 1 . Pnhf
termine whether the tea plant grows fpontaneoufly ; butRol,t
.1 r- r i 1  1 1 *1.1 IXTX 
* Ander-
fen's Com-
thefe refearches have been hitherto in vain. When
Captain Cook vifited Teneriffe in his laft voyage, Mr
Anderfon his furgeon was informed by a gentleman of
acknowledged veracity, that a flirub is common near
Santa Cruz which agrees exaftly with the defcription
given of the tea-plant by Linnaeus. It is confidered as
a weed, and large quantities are rooted out of the vine¬
yards every year : But the Spaniards who inhabit the
ifland fometimes make ufe of it, and afcribe to it all the
qualities of the tea imported from China.
Many attempts have been made to introduce this va¬
luable plant into Europe ; but from want of proper pre¬
cautions moft of thefe attempts have mifcarried. The
feeds, being of an oily nature, are apt to grow rancid
during a long voyage, unlefs proper care is taken to pre-
ferve them. There are two methods of preferving thefe
feeds: The firft is, to inclofe them in wax after they
have been dried in the fun ; the fecond is, to leave them
in their hulks, and Ihut them up clofely in a box made
of tin : but neither of thefe methods has been attended
with general fuccefs, whatever care has been taken to
obtain frelh feeds, or to preferve them. The belt me¬
thod would be, to fow frefh feeds in fine light earth im¬
mediately on leaving Canton, and to cover them with
wire to fecure them from rats and other animals that
might attack them. The boxes ought not to be too
much expofed to the air, nor to that kind of dew which
rifes from the fea. The earth in the boxes muft neither
be hard nor dry, and fhould from time to time be gently
watered with frefh or rain water ; and when the fhoots
begin to appear, they ought to be kept in a flight
moifture, and fheltered from the fun. The tea-plants
to be found in England have been procured by thefe
means only ; and though feveral of the young rifing
fhoots perilhed, the laft method propofed is proba¬
bly that which may be followed with greateft fuc-
cefs.
The fineft tea-plant known in England was raifed in
Kew
Indit
TEA [ 229
Kew gardens j it was carried thither by Sir J. Ellis,
who brought it from feed : but the firlf that ever
flourilhed in Europe was one belonging to the duke of
Northumberland at Sion, from a drawing of which our
engraving is taken. The plants which are cultivated in
the wardens near London thrive well in the green-houfe
during winter, and fome ftand that feafon in the open
air. Linnaeus, who obtained this (hrub in its growing
date contrived to preferve it in the open air in the
northern latitude of Sweden. France has alfo procured
fome plants. There can be no doubt but they would
fucceed in many countries of Europe, if proper care
were paid to their cultivation till they became inured
to the climate. It will be a great advantage if we can
rear that plant, which can never fuffer fo much from
change of foil as from growing mufty during the long
voyage from China. Befides, the demand for tea is
now become fo great, that the Chinefe find it neceffary,
or at leafi: profitable, to adulterate it. Bad tea is now
become an univerfal complaint. The abbe Grdfier
tells us, that there is a kind of mofs which grows in
the neighbourhood of the little city of Mang-ing-hien,
which is fold as a delicate fpecies of tea. If this deli¬
cious commodity is adulterated in China, can we flatter
ourfelves that none comes to us but what is pure and
unmixed ? How would our fine ladies like to be told,
that inftead of tea they drink nothing but the infufion
of mofs from the rocks of Mang-ing-hien (f) ?
Of the chemical qualities and effe&s of tea on the
conftitution, many various and oppofite opinions have
been formed. About’a century ago, Bontikoe, a Dutch
phyfician, bellowed extravagant encomiums on the be¬
nefits of tea. With him it was good for every thing ;
and any quantity might be drunk, even to the amount
of 200 difhes in a day. Whether Bontikoe in this cafe
a£led as a phyfician, or, being a Dutchman, was eager
to encourage the fale of an important article of his
country’s commerce, is not eafy to fay. On the other
hand, the pernicious effedts of tea upon the nervous
fyftem have been often repeated, and very oppofite
effefts have been aferibed to it. Some affirm that green
tea is mildly aftringent; others fay it is relaxing : Some
fay it is narcotic, and procures deep j while others con¬
tend, that taken before bed-time it affuredly prevents
it.
] TEA
Dr Lettfom, who has written the Natural Hiflory of (
the Tea Tree, made feveral experiments to determine its
chemical qualities. He found an infufion of it preferved
beef frelh j it is therefore antifeptic •, and from its link¬
ing a purple colour with the fait (fulphate) of iron, he
juftly concludes that it is aftringent; and he thinks al¬
fo, that the effential qualities of tea refide in its fragrant
and volatile parts.
We have heard much of the bad effedis of tea, but we
have neither felt nor obferved them. If it were fo per¬
nicious as it has been reprefented by fome, its eftedts
muft certainly be evident in China, where it is drunk by
all ranks ; yet fo far from being thought hurtful in that
country, it is in high eftimation. The prefent emperor
has compofed a kind of eloge on the virtues of tea. We
are told by thofe who have written the hiftory of China,
that inflammatory difeafes are lefs frequent there than in
many other countries, which is aferibed folely to the li¬
beral ufe of tea. It muft be obferved by all, that tea is
an antidote againft intemperance, and that he who re-
lilhes the one feldom runs into the other. Raynal fays,
that tea has contributed more to the fobriety of this na¬
tion than the fevereft laws, the moft eloquent harangues
of Chriftian orators, or the beft treatifes of morality.
We have no doubt but it may be hurtful to fome con-
ftitutions in particular circumftances •, but we fufpedt
that the nervous diforders fo often attributed to tea,
are rather owing to hereditary difeafes, to want of exer-
cife, and to irregularity in food or fleep, than to tea.
“ Weak tea drunk too hot (fays Dr Leake) will ener¬
vate, and if very ftrong, may prove equally pernicious
by affedling the head or ftomach. But when it is
drunk in moderation, and not too warm, with a large
addition of milk, I believe it will feldom prove hurtful,
but, on the contrary, falutary. After ftudy or fatigue
it is a moft refrefhing and grateful repaft •, it quenches
thirft, and cheers the fpirits, without heating the blood $
and the pleafing fociety, in which we fo often partake of
it is no inconfiderable addition to its value j for what¬
ever affords rational pleafure to the mind, will always
contribute to bodily health.
In this country teas are generally divided into three
kinds of green, and five of bohea 1 I he former are,
1. Imperial or bloom tea, with a large loofe leaf, light
green
Tea.
(f) There is very good reafon to believe, that the adulteration of tea is not confined to China. It is Pra^ed»
and often with too much fuccefs, among ourfelves. Mr Twining, a confiderable tea dealer in London, publiffiecl
a pamphlet fome years ago, in which he has expofed this infamous traffic. The information (he fays) was ol-
tained from a gentleman who had made very accurate inquiries into this fubjefL
The fmouch for mixing with black teas is made of the leaves of the affi When gathered, they are fii ft dued
in the fun, then baked : they are next put upon a floor, and trod upon until the leaves are fmalj then
fteeped in copperas with ffieep’s dung; after which, being dried on a floor, they are fit for ufe. ^ ere is a f ano¬
ther mode : When the leaves are gathered, they are boiled in a copper with copperas and. 8 fit L ufi.
liquor is drained off, they are baked and trod upon, until the leaves are frnall, after whlC^.are uut j!
The quantity manufadured at a fmall village, and within eight or ten miles thereof, cannot be aWained but is
fuppofed to be about 20 tons in a year. One man acknowledges to have made 600 weight m every week for fix
months together. The fine is fold at 4I. 4s. per cwt. equal to qd per lb. The coarfe is fold at 2l. 2s. p c vt.
equal to 4^ per lb. Elder buds are manufa&ured in fome places to repre ent ne teas. , r.
For the honour of human nature, we hope fuch a traffic as this is not very common ; but if ^ be, hoe c n-
cerned in it deferve exemplary puniffiment. The only way (Mr Twining ays) o e cape offordeJ . hut to
never to purchafe from thofe who offer their teas to fale at lower prices than genuine teas can be afforded, out to
purchafe them only from perfons of character.
tea [ 230 i ted
Tea, gteen colour, and a faint delicate fmell. 2. Hyfon, fo
leachers. ^ ca^e(j from t}je nanie of the merchant who firft imported
v it ; the leaves of which are clofely curled and fmall, of
a green colour, verging to a blue : And, 3. Single
tea, from the name of the place where it is cultivated.
The boheas are, 1. Souchong, which imparts a yellow
green colour by infufion. 2. Cambo, fo called from
the place where it is made 5 a fragrant tea, with a vio¬
let fmell ; its infufion pale. 3. Congo, which has a
learger leaf than the following, and its infulion fomewhat
deeper, refembling common bohea in the colour of the
leaf. 4. Pekoe tea j this is known by the appearance
of fmall white flowers mixed with it. 5. Common bo-
-hea, whofe leaves are of one colour. There are other
varieties, particularly a kind of green tea, done up in
roundifh balls, called gunpowder-tea.
TEA-Tree of New Zealand, is a fpecies of myrtle,
of which an infufion was drunk by Captain Cook’s peo¬
ple in their voyages round the world. Its leaves were
finely aromatic, aftringent, and had a particular pleafant
flavour at the firft infufion j but this went off at the next
filling up of the tea-pot, and a great degree of bitternefs
was then extrafted ; for which reafon it was never fuf-
fered to be twice infufed. In a fine foil in thick forefts
this tree grows to a confiderable fize ; fometimes.30 or
40 feet in height, and one foot in diameter. On a hilly
and dry expofure it degenerates into a fnrub of five or
fix inches; but its ufual fize is abought eight or ten feet
high, and three inches in diameter. In that cafe its
item is irregular and unequal, dividing very foon into
, branches, which arife at acute angles, and only bear
leaves and flowers at top. The flowers are white, and
very ornamental to the wh<*le plant.
Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, mentions a Ihrub which he calls a tea-tree mere¬
ly from its being ufed by the convids as a fuccedaneum
- for tea j for he had not feen the flower, nor did he
know to what genus it belonged. It is a creeping kind
✓ of a vine, running to a great extent along the ground j
the ftalk ftender ; the leaf not fo large as the common
bay leaf; the tafte fweet, exactly like the liquorice root
of the (hops.
TE ACHERS, perfons employed in conducing the
®ducation of the young.
We will venture to fay, that there is no clafs of men
to whom a nation is fo much indebted as to thofe em¬
ployed in inftrufting the young : For if it be education
that forms the only diftinftion between the civilized and
the favage, much certainly is due to thofe who devote
themfelves to the office of inftruftion. It mtift be the
duty therefore of every ftate to take care that proper
encouragement be given to thofe who undertake this of¬
fice. There aught to be fuch a falary as would render
it an objeft of ambition to men of abilities and learn¬
ing, or at leaft. as would keep the teacher refpeftable.
In Scotland, the office of a fehoolmatter was formerly
much more lucrative than at prefent, and moft of that
clafs had received liberal education ; and this is the rea¬
fon why the common people in Scotland have been fa¬
mous even to a proverb, for their learning. But at pre¬
fent the falary. of a country fchoolmafter, independent
«f fees for fcholars, is not greater than a ploughman can
earn, being feldom more than 81. 6s. 8d. the confe-
Jjuence of which is that this, which is in fa£l an honour¬
able, becaufe an ufeful profeffion, is now finking iutj'Ttll -
contempt. It is no longer an objeft to a man of learn- |f
ing ; and we muft foon be fatisfied with fchoolmafters TeDei
that can read, write, and caft accounts, a little better '""’T'
than the loweft of the people, or who from lome natural
deformity are unable to exercife a trade. And what in
this cafe muft become of the minds of the common peo-
pie ? They muft be totally uncultivated.
We have obferved a great difference between the cul¬
tivation of the common people in one part of Scotland
compared with another j and We have found, that where-
ever a fchoolmafter is looked upon as a mean profeffion
there is fcarcely a duly qualified perfon to be found to
undertake the office y and in thofe places the common
people are lamentably ignorant. In other places again,
where’the fchoolmafter is confidered as one of the prin.
cipal perfons in the parifh, there men of a liberal educa¬
tion, young divines, and preachers, do not think them¬
felves difgraced by exercifing this profeffion ; and there
the common people fhowr a degree of acutenefs, know¬
ledge, and obfervation, and poffefs fuch polifhed man¬
ners, as raife them very high above thofe of their own
rank in other parts of the country.
Many and keen have been the debates about a reform
of government of late years ; but little attention has
been paid to the formation of the minds of the common
people, who conftitute the greater part of the nation ;
of eourfe they are ready to join the ftandard of every
feditioUs demagogue who founds the alarm of oppref-
fion j and fliould they at length be roufed, their cruelty
and barbarity, like the common people of France, would
be exa&ly in proportion to their ignorance and want of
; principle.
We are willing to hope, then, that the government
and the moneyed men of the nation, who alone have pro¬
perty to lofe and money to beftow, will at length find it
to be their intereft to patronize fchoolmafters.
TEAF^ See Anas, Ornithology Index
TEARS, a lymph or aqueous humour, which is lim-
pid, and a little faltilh : it is feparated from the arterial
blood by the lachrymal glands and fmall glandulous
grains on the infide of the eyelids.
TEASELS, a plant cultivated in the weft of Eng¬
land for the ufe of clothiers. See Dipsacus, Botany
Index.
TEBETH, the tenth month of the Jewiffi ecclefia-
ftical year, and fourth of the civil. It anfwers to our
month @f December.
TECLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Weftphalia, capital of a county of the fame name,
with a caftle built on a hill. It was bought by the king
of Pruffia in 1707. E. Long. 8. 2. N. Lat. 52. 20.
TECHNICAL, expreffes fomewhat relating to arts
or fciences: in this fenfe wre fay technical terms. It is
alfo particularly applied to a kind of verfes wherein are
contained the rules or precepts of any art, thus digefted
to help the memory to retain them j an example where¬
of may be feen in the article Memory.
TECTONA, Teak-wood, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs pentandria. See Botany, p. 139.
TE Deum, the name of a celebrated hymn, ufed in
the Chriftian church, and fo called becaufe it begins
with thefe words, Te Deum laudamus, We praife thee,
:G God. It is fung in the Romiflr church with great
pomp
T E F
[ 23
_ , ooinp and folemnity upon the gaining of a Viaory, or
16 other happy event j and is believed to be the compofr-
T tion of St Ambrose bifliop of Milan.
^ TEES a river which rifes on the confines 01 Cum¬
berland, and running eatlward, divides the county of
Durham from Yorklhire, and falls into the German fea
below Stockton. . . .
TEETH, the bones placed in the jaws for chewing
food that it may be the more eafily digefted in the fto-
mach The anatomical ftru&ure^of the teeth has al¬
ready been afcribed under Anatomy. The difeafes
to which they are liable, as well as the molt fuccefsful
remedies for removing them, are fully detailed under
Medicine and Surgery.
Much attention has been paid to the beauty and pre-
fervation of the teeth among molt nations. The Romans
rubbed and wafhed them with great care; and when they
loft them, fupplied their place with artificial teeth made
of ivory ; and fometimes, when loofe, bound them with
gold. ' Ligatures of wire have been found to hurt the
natural teeth with which the artificial are connefted :
whereas filken twift cannot affed them to any confider-
able degree for feveral years.
Guilleman gives us the compofition of a pafte for
making artificial teeth, which (hall never grow yellow :
the compofition is white wax granulated, and melted
with a little gum elemi, adding powder of white ma-
ftich, coral, and pearl.
When feveral teeth are out in the fame place, it is
bdft to make a fet, or the number wanted, out of one
piece, all adhering together, which may be faftened to
the two next of the found or natural teeth. And even
a whole fet of artificial teeth may be made for one or
both jaws, fo well fitted to admit of the neceflary mo¬
tions, and fo conveniently retained in the proper litua-
tion by means of fprings, that they will anfwer every
purpofe of natural teeth, and may be taken out, cleaned,
and replaced, by the patient himfelf with great eafe.
The common trick of mountebanks and other fuch
practitioners, is to ufe various wafhes for teeth, the fud-
den effects of which, in cleaning and whitening the
teeth, furprife and pleafe people ; but the effects are
very pernicious. All the ftrong acid fpirits will do this.
As good a mixture as any thing can be, on this occa-
fion, is the following : take plantane-water an ounce,
honey of rofes two drams, muriatic acid ten drops; mix
the whole together, and rub the teeth with a piece of
linen rag dipped in this every day till they are whitened.
The mouth ought to be well wafhed with cold water af¬
ter the ufe of this or any other acid liquor; and indeed
the beft of all teeth wafhes is cold water, with or with¬
out a little fait; theconftant ufe of this will keep them
fllean and white, and prevent them from aching.
After all the numerous cures which have been propof-
ed for preventing the toothach, we will venture to re¬
commend the keeping the teeth clean as the moft effica¬
cious, and avoiding every kind of hot food, efpecially
hot liquids, as tea, &c. They who are conftantly ufing
powders generally deftroy their teeth altogether, as the
valetudinarian does his health.
TEETHING in children. See Medicine.
TEFF, a kind of grain, fown all over Abyffinia,
from which is made the bread commonly ufed through¬
out the country. We have no defcription of this plant
hut from Mr Bruce, who fays that it is herbaceous j. ..and
1 ] T e F
that from a number «f weak leaves furrounding the root
proceeds a ftalk of about 28 inches in length, not per-
fedtly ftraight, fmooth, but jointed or knotted at parti¬
cular diftances, This ftalk is not much thicker than
that of a carnation or julyflower. About eight inches
from the top, a head is formed of a number of fmall
branches, upon which it carries the fruit and flowers ;
the latter of which is fmall, of a crimfon colour, and
fcarcely perceptible by the naked eye but from the op-
pofition of that colour. The piftil is divided into two,
feemingly attached to the germ of the fruit, and has at
each end fmall capillaments forming a brulh. The fta-
mina are three in number; two on the lower fide of the
piftil, and one on the upper. 1 hefe are each of them
crowned with two oval ftigmata, at firft green, but after
crimfon. The fruit is formed in a capfula, confifting of
two conical hollow leaves, which, when clofed, feems
to compofe a fmall conical pod, pointed at the top. T he
fruit or feed is oblong, and is not fo large as the head
of the fmalleft pin ; yet it is very prolific, and produces
thefe feeds in fuch quantity as to yield a very abundant
crop in the quantity of meal.
Our author, from the fimilarity of the names, conjec¬
tures it to be the tipha mentioned, but not deferibed, by
Pliny ; but this conje&ure, which he acknowledges to
be unfupported, is of very little importance.
There are three kinds of meal made from teff, of
which the beft (he fays) is as white as flour, exceed¬
ingly light, and eafily digefted ; the fecond is of a
browner colour ; and the laft, which is the food of fol-
diers and fervants, is nearly black. I his variety he
imagines to arife entirely from the difference of foils in
which the feeds are fown, and the different degrees of
moifture to which the plant is expofed when growing.
The manner of making the meal or flour into bread is
by taking a broad earthen jar, and having made a lump
of it with water, they put it into an earthen jar at fome
diftance from the fire, where it remains till it begins to
ferment or turn four ; they then bake it into cakes of a *
circular form, and about two feet in diameter : it is of a
fpungy foft quality, and not a difagreeable fouriffi tafte.
Two of thefe cakes a-day, and a coarfe cotton cloth once
a-year, are the wages of a common fervant.
At their banquets of raw meat, the fleffi being cut in
fmall bits, is wrapt up in pieces of this bread; with a
proportion of foffil fait and Cayenne pepper. Before
the company fits down to eat, a number of thefe cakes
of different qualities are placed one upon the other, in
the fame manner as our plates, and the principal people
fitting firft down, eat the white teff; the fecond or coar-
fer fort ferves the fecond rate people that fucceed them,
and the third is for the fervants. Every man, when he
is done, dries or wipes his fingers upon the bread which
he is to leave for his fucceffor, for they have no towels;
and this is one of the moft beaftly cuftoms among them.
Of this teff bread the natives makes a liquor, by a pro-
cefs which our author deferibes in the following words:
The bread, when well toafted, is broken into Imall
pieces, which are put into a large jar, and have warm
water poured upon them. It is then fet by the fire, and
frequently ftirred for feveral days, the mouth of the jar
being clofe covered. After being allowed to fettle three
or four days, it acquires a fouriffi tafte, and is what they
call bou%a, or the common beer of the country. I he
bouza in Atbara is made in the fame manner, only m-
itead
Teff.
TEG [ 232 ] TEL
ftead of teff, cakes of barley meal are employed. Both
are very bad liquors, but the worft is that made of bar¬
ley.
TEFFLIS, or Tifflis, a town of Afia, in Georgia,
one of the feven nations between the Black fea and the
Cafpian. It is the capital of that country, the place of
refidence of its fovereign, and is called by the inhabit¬
ants Thilis-Cabar, “ warm town,” from the warm baths
in its neighbourhood. Though its circumference does
not exceed two Englilh miles, it contains 20,000 inha¬
bitants, of which more than half are Armenians $ the
remainder are principally Georgians, with fome Tartars.
According to Major Rennel, it has 20 Armenian and
15 Greek churches, and three metfheds. But Mr Coxe,
on the authority of Profeflfor Guldenftaedt, dates the
places of worfliip to be one Roman Catholic, 13 Greek,
and feven Armenian churches. There are fome magni¬
ficent caravanferas, bazars, and palaces in the city, but
no mofques; for the Georgians, though living under a
Mohammedan government, have always rifen up in arms
as. often as any attempts have been made to erefl fuch
places of Mohammedan worlhip. Many of the Romilh
miflionaries live here in difguife under the denomination
of phyficians, furgeons, and chemifts ; and the great
cures which they perform procure them much efteem,
though they are fometimes expofed to the infults of the
people when they attempt to make any profelytes to
their church. All the houfes are of done, with fiat
roofs, which ferve, according to thecudoms of the Ead,
as walks for the women. They are neatly built j the
rooms are wainfcotted, and the floors fpread with car¬
pets. The dreets feldom exceed feven feet in breadth j
and fome are fo narrow as fcarcely to allow room for a
man on horfeback : they are confequently very filthy.
Tefflis is a place of confiderable trade, efpecially in
furs, which are conveyed hence to Condantinople by
the way of Erzerum. As for the filks of this country,
they are bought up on the fpot by the Armenians, and
conveyed to Smyrna and other ports of the Mediterra¬
nean; but the greated part is fird fent to Erzerum to be
raanufaftured, the Georgians being very ignorant and
unfkilful in that refpedt. From hence, likewife, great
quantities of a root called boya is fent to Erzerum and
Indoflan for the ufe of the linen dyers. Here is likewife
a foundery, at which are cad a few cannon, mortars, and
balls, all of which are very inferior to thofe of the
Turks. The gunpowder made here is Very good. The
Armenians have likewife edablifhed in this tpwn all the
manufa&ures carried on by their countrymen in Perfia:
the mod flourifliing is that of printed linens. Ttfflis is
feated on the river Kur, at the foot of a mountain; and
on the fouth fide of it dands a large cadle or fortrefs,
built by the Turks in r 576, when they made themfelyes
maders of the city and country, under the command of
the famous Mudapha Pacha. It is 125 miles wed »f
Terki. E. Long. 63. 3. N. Lat. 41. 59.
TEGERHY, a principal town in Fezzan, in Africa,
about 80 miles fouth-wed of the capital. It collefts
from its lands little other produce than dates and Indian
corn. In this, as in every town in Fezzan, a market
for butcher-meat, corn, fruit, and vegetables, is regu¬
larly held. Mutton and goats flelh are fold by the quar¬
ter without weighing; the ufual price is from 32 1040
grains of gold-dud, or four or five fliilling'; Englilh mo-
: ney. The flelh of the camel, which is much more highly
valued, is commonly fold at a dearer rate, and is divid- Te»e
ed into fmaller lots. Agriculture and paflurage feem to 6||
be the principal occupations. Tele.-
TEGUMENT, any thing that furrounds or covers'*^
another.
TEIND, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxx.
CommiJJion of Teinds. See Commission.
TEIN PS, and Semiteints, in Painting, denote the
feveral colours ufed in a pidure, confidered as more or
lefs high, bright, deep, thin, or weakened and diminilh-
ed, &c. to give the proper relievo, foftnefs, or didance
&c. of the feveral objeds.
TELEGRAPH (derived from rn&t and is
the name very properly given to an indrument, by
means of which information may be almod indantane-
ouily conveyed to a confiderable didance.
The telegraph, though it has been generally known
and ufed by the moderns only for a few years, is by no
means a modern invention. There is reafon to believe
that amongd the Greeks there was fome fort of tele¬
graph in ufe. The burning of Troy was certainly
known in Greece very foon after it happened, and be¬
fore any perfon had returned from thence. Now that
was altogether fo tedious a piece of bufinefs, that con-
jedure never could have fupplied the place of informa¬
tion. A Greek play begins with a fcene, in which a
watchman defcends from the top of a tower in Greece,
and gives the information that Troy was taken. “ I
have been looking out thefe ten years (fays he) to fee
when that would happen, and this night it is done.”
Of the antiquity of a mode of conveying intelligence
quickly to a great didance, this is certainly a proof.
The Chinefe, when they fend couriers on the great
canal, or when any great man travels there, make fig-
nals by fire from one day’s journey to another, to have
every thing prepared; and mod of the barbarous na¬
tions ufed formerly to give the alarm of war by fires
lighted on the hills or rifing grounds.
Polybius calls the different inflruments ufed by the
ancients for communicating information •7rv^a-uoti,pyrf(ei
becaufe the fignals were always made by means of fire.
At fird they communicated information of events merely
by torches; but this method was of little ufe, becaufe it
was neceffary before-hand to fix the meaning of every
particular fignal. Now as eventsare exceedingly various,
it was impoflible to exprefs the greater number of them
by any premeditated contrivance. It was eafy, for
inflance, to exprefs by fignals that a fleet had arrived
at fuch a place, becaufe this had been forefeen, and fig¬
nals accordingly had been agreed upon to denote it; but
an unexpected revolt, a murder, and fuch accidents, as
happen but too often, and require an immediate remedy,
could not be communicated by fuch fignals; becaufe to
forefee them was impoflible.
./Eneas, a contemporary of Aridotle, who wrote aP#-
treatife on the duties of a general, endeavoured to cor-b°uk
reft thofe imperfect ions, but by no means fucceeded. ap‘
“ Thofe (fays he) who would give fignals to one ano¬
ther upon affairs of importance, muff firft prepare two
veffels of earth, exaftly equal in breadth and depth; and
they need be but four feet and a half deep, and a foot
and a half wide. They then muff take pieces of cork,
proportioned to the mouth of thefe veffels, but not quite
fo wide, that they may be let down with eafe to the
bottom of thefe veffels. They next fix in the middle of
this
TELE GRAPH.
/•«>. 2.
PLATE DXXVIII.
J£.MitcSlt/l S'cAlIp '
Te!f
Po!
ibid
;T E L
mh this cork a flick, which muft be of equal fize in both
thefe veffels. This flick muft be divided exaftly and
diftinftly, by fpaces of tliree inches each, in order that
fuch events as generally happen in war may be written
on them. For example, on one of thefe fpaces the follow¬
ing words may be written : ‘ A BODY OF HORSE are
marched INTO the country.’ On another, ‘ A BODY
OF INFANTRY, heavily armed, are arrived hither.’ On
a third, ‘ INFANTRY LIGHTLY ARMED. On a fourth,
‘ Horse and foot.’ On another, ‘ Ships then
t Provisions j’ and lb on till all the events which may
probably happen in the war that is carrying on are
marked in thefe intervals.
This being done, each of the two velfels muft have a
little tube or cock of equal bignefs, to let out the rvater
in equal proportion. Then the two veffels muft be filled
with water •, the pieces of cork, with their flicks thruft
through them, muft be laid upon them, and the cocks
muft be opened. Now, it is plain, that as thefe veffels
are equal, the corks will fink, and the flicks defeend
lower in the veffels, in proportion as they empty them-
felves. But to be more certain of this exaflnefs, it will
be proper to make the experiment firft, and to examine
whether all things correfpond and agree together, by an
uniform execution on both fides. \\ hen they are well
affured of this, the two veffels muft be carried to the
two places where the fignals are to be made and obferv-
ed : water is poured in, and the corks and flicks are put
in the veffels When any of the events which are writ¬
ten on the flicks fliall happen, a torch or other light is
raifed, which muft be held aloft till fuch time as ano¬
ther is raifed by the party to whom it is direfted. (1 his
firft fignal is only to give notice that both parties are
ready and attentive), ffhen the torch or other light
mull; be taken away, and the cocks fet open. When
the interval, that is that part of the flick where the
event of which notice is to be given or written, {hall
be fallen to a level with the veffels, then the man who
gives the fignal lifts up his torch j and on the other
fide, the correfpondent fignal-maker immediately turns
the cock of his veff*, and looks at what is writ on that
part of the ftiek which touches the mouth of the veffel:
on which occafion, if every thing has been executed ex-
atftllyand equally on both fides, both ivill read the fame
thing.”
This method was defe&ive, becaufe it could not con¬
vey any other intelligence except what was written on
the flicks, and even that not particularly enough. With
regard to ail unforefeen events, it was quite ufelefs.
w, A new method was invented by Cleqxenus (others
fay by Democlitus), and very much improved by Poly¬
bius, as he himfelf informs us. He deferibes this me¬
thod as follows : Take the letters of the (Greek) alpha¬
bet, and divide them into five parts, each of which will
confift of five letters, except the laft divifion, which will
have only four. Let thefe be fixed on a board in five
columns. The man who is to give the fignals is then
to begin by holding up two torches, which he is to keep
aloft till the other party has alfo fhown two. 1 his is
only to (how that both fides are ready, i hefe firft
torches are then withdrawn. Both parties are provided
with boards, on which the letters are difpofed as for¬
merly deferibed. The perfon who then gives the fignal
is to hold up torches on the left to point out to the other
party from what column he fhall take the letters as they
Vol. XX. Part I.
TEL
are pointed out to him. If it is to be from the fijrft co- Telegraphy
lumn, he holds up one torch ; if from the fecond, two j v '
and fo on for the others. He is then to hold up torches
on the right, to denote the particular letter ot the co¬
lumn that is to be taken. All this muft have been agreed
on before-hand. The man who gives the fignals muft
have an inftrument (&«;rr£«v), confifting of two tubes,
and fo placed as that, by looking through one of them,
he can fee only the right fide, and through the other
only the left, of him who is to anfwer. The board
muft be fet up near this inftrument j and the ftation on
the right and left muft be furrounded with a wall
(7rx£X7rnp£ct%8xt) ten feet broad, and about the height of
a man, that the torches raifed above it may give a clear
and ftrong light, and that when taken down they may¬
be completely concealed. Let us now fuppofe that this
information is to be communicated.—A number of the
auxiliaries, about a hundred, have gone over to the enemy.
In the firft place, words muft be chofen that will con¬
vey the information in the feweft letters pofliblej as, A
hundred Cretans have deferted, Kftflig ixxjtv xf nptav
w1<»/u,o?KV>rxv. Having written down this fentence, it is
conveyed in this manner. The firft letter is a K, which
is in the fecond column j two torches are therefore to be
raifed on the left hand to inform the perfon who receives
the fignals to look into that particular column. Then
five torches are to be held up on the right, to mark the
letter h, which is the laft in the column. Then four
torches are to be held up on the left to point out the g
(r), which is in the fourth column, and two on the
right to {how' that it is the fecond letter of that column.
Tire other letters are pointed out in the fame manner.
—Such was the pyrjia or telegraph recommended by
Polybius.
But neither this nor any other method mentioned by
the ancients feems ever to have been brought into gene¬
ral ufe ; nor does it appear that the moderns had thought
of fuch a machine as a telegraph till the year 1663,
when the Marquis of Worcefter, in his Century of
INVENTIONS, affirmed that he had difeovered “ a method
by which, at a window, as far as eye can difeover black
from white, a man may hold difeourfe with his corre¬
fpondent, without noife made or notice taken \ being ac¬
cording to occafion given, or means afforded, ex re na~
ta, and no need of provifion before hand j though much
better if forefeen, and courfe taken by mutual confent
of parties.” This could be done only by means of a
telegraph, which in the next fentence is declared to have
been rendered fo perfedt, that by means of it the corre-
fpondence could be carried on “ by night as well as by
day, though as dark as pitch is black.”
About 40 years afterwards M. Amontons propofed
a neur telegraph. His method was this: Let there be
people placed in feveral ftations, at fuch a diftance from
one another, that by the help of a telefcope a man in one
ftation may fee a fignal made in the next before him 5 he
muft immediately make the fame fignal, that it may be
feen by perfons in the ftation next after him, who are to
communicate it to thofe in the following ftation, and fo
on. Thefe fignals may be as letters of the alphabet, or
as a cipher, underftood only by the two perfons who are
in the diftant places, and not by thofe who make the
fignals. The perfon in the fecond ftation making the
fignal to the perfon in the third the very moment he fees
it in the firft, the news may be carried to the .greateft
G g diftance
[ 233 1
TEL [ 23+ ] T E L
Telegraph, diftance ;n as Httle time as is neeeflary to make the fig-
nals in the firft (tation. The diftance of the feveral fta-
tions, which muft be as few as polliole, is meafured by
the reach of a telefcopc. Amontons tried this method
in a fmall traft of land before feveral perfons of the
higheft rank at the court of France.
"it was not, however, till the French revolution that
the telegraph was applied to ufeful purpofes. Whether
M. Chappe, who is laid to have invented the telegraph
firft ufed by the French about the end of 1793* knew
any thing of Amontons’s invention or not, it is impof-
fible to fay •, but his telegraph was conftrufted on prin¬
ciples nearly fimiliar. The manner of ufing this tele¬
graph was as follows : At the firft ftation, which was on
the roof of the palace of the Louvre at Paris, M. Chappe,
the inventor, received in writing, from the committee of
public welfare, the words to be lent to Lille, near which
the French army at that time was. An upright poft
was eredled on the Louvre, at the top of which were
two tranfverfe arms, moveable in all direftions by a An¬
gle piece of mechanifm, and with inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. He invented a number of pofitions for thefe arms,
which flood as figns for the letters of the alphabet *, and
thefe, for the greater celerity and fimplicity, he reduced
in number as much as poflible. The grammarian will
eafily conceive that fixteen figns may amply fupply all
the letters of the alphabet, fince fome letters may be
omitted not only without detriment but with advantage.
Thefe figns, as they were arbitrary, could be changed
every week ; fo that the fign of B for one day might be
the fign of M the next ; and it was only neceflary that
the perfons at the extremity fhould know the key. The
intermediate operators were only inftru&ed generally in
thefe fixteen fignals ^ which were fodiftinft, fo marked,
fo different the one from the other, that they .were eafily
remembered. The conftruftion of the machine was
fuch, that each fignal was uniformly given in precifely
the fame manner at all times : It did not depend on the
operator’s manual {kill ; and the pofition of the arm
could never, for any one fignal, be a degree higher
or a degree low’er, its movement being regulated me¬
chanically.
M. Chappe having received at the Louvre the fen-
tence to be conveyed, gave a known fignal to the fecond
ftation, which was Mont Martre, to prepare. At each
ftation there was a watch towrer, where telefcopes were
fixed, and the perfon on watch gave the fignal of prepa¬
ration which he had received, and this communicated
fucceflively through all the line, which brought them all
into a ftate of readinefs. The perfon at Mont Martre
then received, letter by letter, the fentence from the
Louvre, which he repeated with his own machine ; and
this was again repeated from the next height, with in¬
conceivable rapidity, to the final ftation at Lille.
The firft defcription of the telegraph was brought
Review, ^rom Paris to Frankfort on the Maine by a former mem-
Jane 1796. ber of the parliament of Bourdeaux, who had feen that
which rvas ereffed on the mountain of Belville. As gi¬
ven by Dr Hutton from fome of the Englilh papers, it
is as follows. A A is a beam or mall of wood placed
Plate upright on a riling ground (fig. I.), which is about 15 or
DXXVIII. jg peet high. BB is a beam or balance moving upon
fig. x.
the centre A A. This balance-beam may be placed
vertically or horizontally, or any how inclined, by
means of ftrong cords, which are fixed to the wheel D,
5
on the edge of which is a double groove to receive the Tel^,
two cords. This balance is about 11 or 12 feet long, ^—y
and nine inches broad, having at the ends two pieces of
wood CC, which likewife turn upon angles by means of
four other cords that pafs through the axis of the main
balance, otherwife the balance would derange the cords 5
the pieces C are each about three feet long, and may be
placed either to the right or left, ftraight or fquare,
with the balance-beam. By means of thefe three the
combination or movement is very extenfive, remarkably
fimple, and eafily performed. Below is a fmall wooden
gouge or hut, in which a perfon is employed to obferve
the movements of the machine. In the mountain neareft
to this another perfon is to repeat thefe movements, and
a third to write them down. The time taken up for
each movement is 20 feconds 5 of which the motion
alone is four feconds, the other 16 the machine is fta-
tionary. Two working models of this inftrument were
executed at Frankfort, and fent by Mr W. Playfair to
the duke of York ■, and hence the plan and alphabet of
the machine came to England.
Various experiments were in confequence tried upon
telegraphs in this country j and one w'as foon after fet
up by government in a chain of ftations from the admi¬
ralty-office to the fea coaft. It confifts of fix oClagon
boards, each of which is poifed upon an axis in a frame,
in fuch a manner that it can be either placed vertically,
fo as to appear wfith its full fize to the obferver at the
neareft ftation, as in fig. 2. or it becomes invifible to himpjg ,
by being placed horizontally, as in fig. 3. fo that the
narrow edge alone is expofed, which narrow7 edge is from
a difiance invifible. Fig. 2. is a reprefentation of this
telegraph, with the parts all fhut, and the machine ready
to w’ork. T, in the officer’s cabin, is the telefcope
pointed to the next ftation. Fig. 3. is a reprefentation^
of the machine not at work, and with the ports all
open. The opening of the firft port (fig. 2.) expreffes
a, the fecond b, the third c, the fourth +/, the fifth e,
the fixth f, &c.
Six boards make 36 changes, by the moft plain and
fimple mode of working •, and they will make many
more if more wrere neceffary : but as the real fuperiorily
of the telegraph over all other modes ox making fig¬
nals confifls in its making letters, avc do not think that
more changes than the letters of the alphabet, and the
ten arithmetical ciphers, are neceffary ; but, on the
contrary, that thofe Avho Avork the telegraphs fhould
avoid communicating by Avords or figns agreed upon to
exprefs fentences j for that is the fure method never to
become expert at fending unexpected intelligence accu¬
rately.
This telegraph is Avithout doubt made up of the beft
number of combinations poffible ; five boards Avould be
infufficient, and feven would be ufelefs. It has been
objeCted to it, however, that its form is too clumfy to
admit of its being raifed to any confiderable height
above the building on Avhich it ftands $ and that it can¬
not be made to change its direction, and confequently
cannot be feen but from one particular point.
Several other telegraphs have been propofed to remedy
thefe defeCts, and perhaps others to Avhich the inftru¬
ment is ftill liable. The dial-plate of a clock Avould
make an excellent telegraph, as it might exhibit 144
figns fo as to be vifible at a great diftance. A telegraph
on this principle, with only fix divifions inftead of
* twelve,
Si/f
f01'
.TEL [ 235 ] TEL
r!,l,h. twelve, would be funple and cheap, and might be raifed
20 or 30 feet high above the building, without any dif¬
ficulty : it might be fupported on one pod, and therefore
turn round, and the contrail; of colours would always be
the fame.
,ment A very ingenious improvement of the telegraph has
94- been propofed in the Gentleman’s Magazine. It confifts
of a femicircle, to be properly elevated, and fixed per¬
pendicularly on a ftrong {land. The radius 12 feet; the
femicircle confequently fomewhat more than 36. This
to be divided into 24 parts. Each of thefe will there¬
fore comprife a fpace of 18 inches, and an arch of y° 30'
on the circumference. Thefe 24 divifions to be occu¬
pied by as many circular apertures of fix inches diame¬
ter ; which will leave a clear fpace of fix inches on each
fide between the apertures. Thefe apertures, beginning
from the left, to denote the letters of the alphabet,
omitting K, .1 confonant, V, X, and Q, as ufelefs for
this purpofe. There are then 21 letters. Th6 four other
fpaces are referved for fignals. The inilrument to have
an index moveable by a w’indlafs on the centre of the
femicircle, and having two tops, according as it is to be
ufed in the day or night ; one, a circular top of lac¬
quered iron or copper, of equal diameter with the aper¬
tures (and which confequently will eclipfe any of them
againll which it rells) ; the other, a fpear or arrow-
ihaped top, black and highly polifiied, which, in Hand¬
ing before any of the apertures in the day-time, will be
diftin&ly vifible. In the night, the apertures to be redu¬
ced by a diaphragm fitting clofe to each, fo as to leave
an aperture of not more than two inches diameter. The
diaphragm to be of well-polifiied tin ; the inner rim lac¬
quered black half an inch. All the apertures to be
illuminated, when the inftrument is ufed in the night¬
time, by fmall lamps; to which, if neceflary, according
to cireumflances, convex lenfes may be added, fitted into
each diaphragm, by which the light may be powerfully
concentrated and increafed. Over each aperture one of
the five prifmatic colours lead likely to bemillaken (the
remaining two being lefs dillingui(liable, and not want¬
ed, are bed omitted) to be painted •, and, in their natural
order, on a width of eighteen inches and a depth of four,
red, orange, yellow, green, blue •, or, dill to heighten
the contrad, and render immediately fuccedive apertures
more didinguidiable, red, green, orange, blue, yellow.
The whole inner circle beneath and between the aper¬
tures to be painted black.
When the indrument is to be ufed, the index to be fet
to the fignal apertures on the right. All the apertures
to be covered or dark when it begins tobeuftd, except
that which is to give the fignal. A fignal gun to
be fired to apprife the obferver. If the index is fet to
the fird aperture, it will denote that words are to be ex-
preffed ; if to the fecond, that figures; if to the third,
that the figures ceafe ; and that the intelligence is car¬
ried on in words. When figures are to be exprefled, the
alternate apertures from the left are taken in their order,
to denote from 1 to 10 inclufively ; the (econd from the
right denotes 100 ; the fifth 1000. This order, and
thefe intervals, are taken to prevent any confufion in fo
peculiarly important an article of the intelligence to be ~r(‘iegr
conveyed.
Perhaps, however, none of the telegraphs hitherto of¬
fered to the public exceeds the following, either in fim-
plicity, cheapnefs, or facility in working, and it might
perhaps, with a few trifling additions, be made exceed¬
ingly diflindt. It is thus deferibed in the Repertory of
Arts and Manufactures : For a nodturnal telegraph, let > ol. T.
there be four large patent refleftors, lying on the lame l1, 3° •
plane, parallel to the horizon, placed on the top ot an
obfervatory. Let each of thefe refleftors be capable, by
means of two winches, either of elevation or depreffiun
to a certain degree. By elevating or deprefling one or
two of the refledtors, eighteen very diflindt arrange¬
ments may be produced, as the following fcheme will
explain (a).
A B
E F G
coo
o
o 00
o
00 o
000
000
o 00
o
K
M
N
O
co
00 o
o
000
00
o o
o o
o o
00
CO
CO
it
O o
0 o
00
O 0
00
O o
CO
U 1 V
o o
00
00
For the fake of example, the above arrangements are
made to anfwer to the mod neceflary letters of the al¬
phabet ; but alterations may be made at will, and a
greater number of changes produced, without any addi¬
tion to the refledtors. In the firfl obfervatory there need
only be a fet oiJingle refledlors ; but in the others each
refledtor flrould be double, fo as to face both the' pre¬
ceding and fubfequent obfervatory'; and each obferva¬
tory fliould be furnifhed with two telefcopes. The pro¬
per diameter of the refledlors, and their diflance from
each other, will be afeertained by experience.
To convert this machine into a diurnal telegraph, no¬
thing more is neceflary than to infert, in the place of the
refledlors, gilt balls, or any other confpicuous bodies.
Were telegraphs brought to fo great a degree of per¬
fection, that they could convey information fpeedily and
didindlly ; wTere they fo much fimplified, that they could
be conArudted and maintained at little expence—the
advantages which would refult from their ufeare almofl;
inconceivable. Not to fpeak of the fpeed with which
information could be communicated and orders given in
time of war, by means of which misfortunes might be
prevented or inflantly repaired, difficulties removed, and
difputes precluded, and by means of which the whole,
kingdom could be prepared in an indant to oppofe an
G g 2 invading
(a) Each refledor, after every arrangement, mud be redored to its place.
TEL f 236 ] TEL
•Telegraph, invading enemy j it might be ufed by commercial men
Tchu a~ to convey a commiflion cheaper and fpeedier than an ex-
. C . prefs can travel. The capitals of diftant nations might
be united by chains of pofh, and the fettling of tbofe
difputes which at prefent take up months or years might
then be accomplifhed in as many hours. An eftabliih-
nient of telegraphs might then be made like that of the
pod ; and indead of being an expence, it would produce
a revenue. Until telegraphs ar« employed to convey in¬
formation that occurs very frequently, the perfons who
are ftationed to work them will never become expert,
and confequently will neither be expeditious nor accu¬
rate, though, with pradlice, there is no doubt but they
will attain both in a degree of perfedlion of which we
can as yet have but little conception.
Various other improvements of the telegraph might
have been mentioned, but our limits do not permit us to
dwell longer on the fubjeft.
TELEMACHUS, the fon of Ulyffes and Penelope,
was dill in the cradle when his father went with the reft
of the Greeks to the Trojan war. At the end of this
celebrated war, Telemachus, anxious to fee his father,
went to feek him; and as the place of his refidence,
and the caufe of his long abfence, were then unknown,
he vifited the court of Menelaus and Neftor to obtain
information. He afterwards returned to Ithaca, where
the fuitors of his mother Penelope had confpired to mur¬
der him, but he avoided their fnai'es; and by means of
Minerva he difcovered his father, who bad arrived in
the ifland two days before him, and was then in the
houfe of Eumgeus. With this faithful fervant and Ulyf-
fes Telemachus concerted how to deliver bis mother
from the importunities of her fuitors, and it was effected
with great fuccefs. After the death of his father, Te¬
lemachus went to the illand of JEsta., where he married
Circe, or, according to others, Caftiphone the daughter
of Circe, by whom he had a fon called Latinus. He
fome time after had the misfortune to kill his mother-
in-law Circe, and fled to Italy, where he founded Clu-
lium. Telemachus was accompanied in his vifit to Nef¬
tor and Menelaus by the goddefs of wifdom under the
form of Mentor, It is faid that, when a child, Tele-
machus fell into the fea, and that a dolphin brought him
fafe to fliore, after he had remained fome time under
water. From this circumftanee Ulyfles had the figure
of a dolphin engraved on the feal which he wore on his
Lectures on.
Rhetoric
and the
Belles
Lettres.
€i».
nng.
From thefe ftories, collected from Flomer and the
other poets of antiquity, the celebrated Fenelon, arch-
bifhop of Cambray, took the idea of his well-known
Adventures of Telemachuswhich, though not com-
pofed in verfe, isjuftly intitled to be efteemed a poem.
“ The plan of the work (fays Hr Blair) is in general
well,contrived; and is deficient neither in epic grandeur
nor unity of object.. The author has entered with much
felicity into the fpirit and ideas of the ancient poets, par¬
ticularly into the ancient mythology, which retains more
dignity, and makes a better figure in his hands than in
thofe of any. other modern poet. His defcriptions are
rich and beautiful ; efpecially of the fofter and calmer
fcenes, for which the genius of Fenelon was beft fuited;
filch as the incidents of paftbral life, the pleafures of vir¬
tue, or a country flourifhing in peace. There is an in¬
imitable fweetnefs and tendernefs in feveral of the pic-
ttfses of this kind which he has given)” and his mea-
fured profe, which is remarkably harmonious, gives the Telem
ftyle nearly as much elevation as the French language elm
is capable of lupporting even in regular verfe.
According to the fame eminent critic, “ the beft exe¬
cuted part of the work is the firft fix books, in which
Telemachus recounts his adventures to Calypfo. The
narration throughout them is lively and interefting.
Afterwards, efpecially in the laft 12 books, it becomes
more tedious and languid ; and in the warlike adven¬
tures which are attempted, there is a great defect of vi¬
gour. The chief objection againil this work being claf-
fed with epic poems, arifes from the minute details of
virtuous policy, into which the author in fome places
enters ; and from the difeourfes and inftruiftions of Men¬
tor, which recur upon us too often, and too much in the
ftrain of common-place morality. Though thefe were
well fuited to the main defign of the author, which was
to form the mind of a young prince, yet they feem not
congruous to the nature of epic poetry ; the object of
which is to improve us by means of afltons, chara&ers,
and fentiments, rather than by delivering profeffed and
formal inftruflion.”
Teleic
TELEPHIUM, True Orpine, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria ; and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 54th order, Mifcellunece. See
BoTANT Index.
TELESCOPE, an optical inftrument for viewing
diftant objeifts ; fo named by compounding the Greek
words far off, and a-ttoTtiu, l look at or contemplate.
This name is commonly appropriated to the larger fizes
of the inftrument, while the fmaller are called perspec¬
tive-glasses, spy-glasses, opera-glasses. A par¬
ticular kind, which is thought to be much brighter than
the reft, is called a NIGHT-GLASS.
To what has been faid already with refpedl to the in¬
ventor of this moft noble and ufeful inftrument in the
article Optics, we may add the two following claims.
Mr Leonhard Digges, a gentleman of the 17th cen¬
tury of great and various knowledge, pofitiveiy afferts in
his Stratioticos, and in another work, that his father, a
military gentleman, had an inftrument which he ufed in
the field, by which he could bring diftant objects near,,
and could know a man at the diftance of three miles.
He fays, that when his father was at home he had often
looked through it, and could diftinguith the waving of
the trees on the oppofitefide of the Severn. Mr Higges
refided in the neighbourhood of Briftol.
Francis Fontana, in his Celeftial Obfervations, pub-
liihed at Naples in 1646, fays, that he was aflured by a
Mr Hardy, advocate of the parliament of Paris, a per-
fon of great learning and undoubted integrity, that on
the death of his father, there was found among his
things an old tube, by which diftant objects were di-
ftinflly feen ; and that it was of a date long prior to
the telefcope lately invented, and had been kept by him
as a fecret.
It is not at all improbable, that curious people, hand¬
ling fpe&acle glafles, of which there were by this time
great varieties, both convex and concave, and amufing
themfelves with their magnifying power and the lingu¬
lar effedls which they produced in the appearances of
things, might fometimes chance fo to place them as to
produce diftindt and enlarged vifion. We know per¬
fectly, from the table and fcheme which Sirturus has
given us of the tools or diflies in which the fpedacle-
niakera •
TEL [ 237 ] TEL
1 f, e lakers falhioned their glafies, that they had convex fmall obliquities of incidence, the angle of refraclion 1
,1 f()rme(l t0 fpljfres of 24 inches diameter, and of was nearly one-third of the angle of incidence, ihis
• , f inferior fixes. He has given us a fcheme of a fet was indeed enough to have pointed out, with fuflicient
wb’ch he got leave to meafure, belonging to a fpedtacle- exadlnefs, the conftrudion of every optical inftrument
maker of the name of Rogette at Corunna in Spain •, and that we are even now poffeffed of; for this proportiona¬
te pavs that this man had tools of the lame fixes for eon- lity of the angles of incidence and refraction is ailumed
cave Vlafles. It alfo appears, that it was a general prac- in the confiruction of the optical figure for all of them.;
lice (of which we do not know the precife purpofa) to and the deviation from it is Itill confidered as the re-
ufe a convex and concave glafs together. If any per- Jinement of the art, and was not brought to any rule till
fon (hould chance to put together a 24-inch convex and 50 years after by Huyghens, and called by him aber-
a 12 inch concave (wrought on both fides) at the di- RATION. Yet even the fagaeious Kepler teems not to
fiance of fix inches, he would have ditlinff vifion, and have feen the advantage of any other conftruflion of
the objeft would appear of double fixe. Concaves of the telefcope ; he juft teems to acknowledge the po$i-
fix inches were not uncommon, and one fueh combined bility of it : and we are furprifed to fee writers giving
with the convex of 24, at the diftanee of nine inches, him as the author of the aftronomical telefeope, or even
would have diftinft vifion, and objects would be qua- as hinting at its conftruftion. It is true, in the laft
drupled in diameter. When fuel) a thing occurred, it propofition he (hows how a telefcope may be made ap-
was natural to keep it as a euriofity, although then?- parently with a convex eye-glafs: but this is only a
twnale of its operation was not in the leaft underftood. frivolous fancy; for the eye-glafs is directed to be made
We doubt not but that this happened much oftener than convex externally, and a very deep concave on the in-
in thefe two inftances. The chief wonder is, that it was fide ; fo that it is, in faft, a menifeus with the concavi-
not frequent, and taken notice of by feme writer. It is ly prevalent. In the 86th propofition, he indeed (hows
pretty plain that Galileo’s fir ft telefeope was of this kind, that it is poffible fo to place a convex glafs behind ano-
made up of fuch fpeflaele-glades as he could procure ; ther convex glafs, that an eye (hall fee objeas diftina,
for it magnified only three times in diameter ; a thing magnified, and inverted ; and he fpeaks very fagaciouf-
eafily procured by fuch glades as he could find with ly on the fubjea. After having faid that an eye placed
every fpeaacle-maker. And he could not but obferve, behind the point of union of the firft glafs will fee an-
in his trials of their glades, that the deeper concaves and objea inverted, he (hows that a fmall part only will be
(latter convexes he employed, he produced the greater feen ; and then he (hows that a convex glafs, duly pro-
amplification ; and then he would find lumfelf obliged portioned and properly placed, will (how more of it.
to provide a tool not uftd by the fpedlacle-makers, viz. But in (bowing this, he fpeaks in a way which (hows
either a much flatter tool for a convex furfaee, or a much evidently that he had formed no diftinft notions of the
fraaller fphere for a concave; and, notvvithftanding hjs manner in which this effeft would be produced, only
telling us that it was by i;eflefting on the nature of re- faying vaguely that the convergency of the fecond glafs
fraftion, and without any infiruaion, we are perfuaded would counteraft the divergency beyond the focus of
that he’ proceeded in this very way. His next telef- the firft. Had he conceived the matter with any toler-
cope magnified but five times' Now the (lighted ae- able diftinanefs, after feeing the great advantage of ta-
quaintance with the obvious laws of refraaion would king in a field greater in almoft any proportion, he
have direaed him at once to a very fmall and deep con- would have eagerly catehed at the thought, and enlar-
cave, which would been much eafier made, and have ged on the immenfe improvement. Had he but drawn
magnified more. But he groped his way with fueh one figure of the progrefs of the rays through two con-
fpeftacle-glaffes as he could get, till he at laft made vex glades, the whole would have been open to his
tools for very flat bbjetf-glades and very deep eye-glades,, view.- r j r
and produced a telefcope which magnified about 25 This ftep, fo eafy and fo important was relerved for
times, Sirturus faw it, and took, the mesfures of it. Father Schemer, as has been already obdrved m-tLc
He afterwards faw a fcheme of it which Galileo had article Optics; and the conftruaion of this, author, to-
fent to a German prince at Infpruck, who had it drawn g,ether with that of Janfen, are the models on .vhith au
(that is, the circles for the tools) on a table in his gal- refra&ing telefcopes are now conftruaed.; and in all
lery. The obje-a-glafs was a plano-convex, a portion that relates to their magnifying power, brightnefc, and
of a fphere, of 24 inches diameter ; the eye-glafs was a field of vifion, they may be conftmaed on Kepler’s prm-
double concave of two inches diameter ; the focal di- ciple, that the angles of refraaion are in a certain given
ftances were therefore 24 inches and one inch nearly. proportion to the angles of incidence. .
This muft have been a very lucky operation, for-Sirtu- But after Huyghens had applied his elegant geometry
rus favs it was the beft telefcope he had feen : and we to the difeovery of Snelhus, vix. the. proportionality, not
know that it requires the very beft work to produce this of the angles, but of the fines, and had afeertained the
magnifying power with fuch fmall fpheres. Telescopes aberrations from the foci of infinitely (lender pencils,
continued tube made in this way for many years; and the reafons were clearly pointed out why there were
Galileo, though keenly engaged in the obfervation of fuch narrow limits affixed.by nature to the performance
Jupiter’s fatellites being candidate for the prize held of optical inftruments, in confequence of the indiftindl:-
out by the Dutch for the difeovery of the longitude, nefs of vifion which refulted. from confiruiftions where
and therefore much interefted in the advantage which a the magnifying power, the quantity of light, or the field
convex eye-glafs would have given him, never made ofvifion, were extended beyond certain moderate bounds. .
them of any other form. Kepler publiffied his Diop- The theory of aberrations, .which that moft excellent
tries in 1611 ; in which he tells us, all that he or others geometer eftabliffied has enabled us to dimimffi this m-
difeovered of the law of refra&ion, vi?. that in very diilindtnefs arifing from any .of thefe caufes; and t his
. ' diminutions.
TEL [ 238 ] T E L
'Telefcopc. diminution is Uie foie aim of all tlie different conftruc-
' v ' lions which have been contrived fince the days of Gali¬
leo and Scheiner.
The defcription which has been already given of the
various conftru£f ions of telefcopes in the article Optics,
is fufficient for inftrudding the reader in the general
principles of their conftruftion, and with moderate at¬
tention will (how the manner in which the rays of light
proceed, in order to enfure the different circumftances
of amplification, brightnefs, and extent of field, and
even diftin&nefs of vifion, in as far as depends on the
proper intervals between the glaffes. But it is infufficient
for giving us a knowledge of the improvements which
are aimed at in the different departures from the original
contlruflions of Galileo and Scheiner, the advantage of
the double eye-glafs of Huyghens, and the quintuple
eye-glafs of Dollond: (till more is it infufficient for (bow¬
ing us why the higheft degrees of amplification and moft
extenfive field cannot be obtained by the mere propor¬
tion of the focal diftances of the glaffes, as Kepler had
taught. In ffiort, without the Huyghenian do&rine of
aberrations, neither can the curious reader learn the li¬
mits of their performance, nor the artift learn why one
telefcope is better than another, or in what manner to
proceed to make a telefcope differing in any particular
from thole which he fervilely copies.
Although all the improvements in the conftruflion of
telefcopes fxnce the publication of Huyghens’s Dioptrics
have been the produdlions of this illand, and although
Dr Smith of Cambridge has given the mofi: elegant and
perfpicuous account of this fcience that has yet appear¬
ed, we do not recolleft a performance in the Engliffi
language (except the Optics of Emerfon) which will
carry the reader beyond the mere fchoolboy elements of
the fcience, or enable a perfon of mathematical fkill to
underftand or improve the conflru&ion of optical inllru-
ments. The laft work on this fubjefl of any extent
(Dr Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vifion) is merely a parlour
book for the amufement of half-taught dilettanti, but is
totally deficient in the mathematical part, although it
is here that the fcience of optics has her chief claim to
pre-eminence, and to the name of a Disclipina accu-
rata. But this would have been ultra crepidam ; and
the author would in all probability have made as poor a
figure here as he has done in his attempts to degrade
his fpecies in his Commentaries on the Vibratiunculce of
Hartley ", motions which neither the author nor his am-
plificator were able to underfland or explain. Wetruft
that our readers, jealous as we are of every thing that
finks us in the fcale of nature’s -works, will pardon this
tranfient ejaculation of fpleen, when our thoughts are
called to a fyftem which, of abfolute and unavoidable ne-
cetfity, makes the DIVINE MIND nothing but a quiver¬
ing of that matter of which it is the AUTHOR and un¬
erring DIRECTOR. Sed mijfum faciamus.
We think therefore that we {hall do the public fome
fervice, by giving fuch an account of this higher branch
of optical fcience as will at leaft tend to the complete un-
derftanding of this noble inftrument, by which our con¬
ceptions of the extent of almighty power, and wifdom,
and beneficence, are fo wonderfully enlarged. In the
profecution of this we hope that many general rules will
emerge, by which artifts who are not mathematicians
may be enabled to conftrufl optical inftruments with
intelligence, and avoid the many blunders and defects Tdefc
which refult from mere fervile imitation. y
The general aim in the confirmation of a telefcope is,
to form, by means of mirrors or lenfes, an image of the
difiant obje6t, as large, as bright, and as extenfive as is
poffible, confiflently with diftinctnefs ; and then to view
the image with a magnifying glafs in any convenient
manner. This gives us an arrangement of our fubjeft.
We fhall firft (how the principles of conflrudtion of the
objeft-glafs or mirror, fo as that it fhall form an image
of the diftant object with thefe qualities 5 and then fliow
how to conitruft the magnifying glafs or eye-piece, fo
as to preferve them unimpaired.
This indiftiniftnefs which we wiflito avoid arifesfrom
two caufes \ the fpherical figures of the refracting and
reflecting furfaces, and the different refrangibiiity of
the differently coloured rays of light. The firft may be
called the spherical and the fecond the chromatic
indiftinCtnefs 5 and the deviations from the foci, deter¬
mined by an elementary theorem, given under Optics,
may be called the spherical and the chromatic aber¬
rations.
The limits of a work like this will not permit us to
give any more of the doCtrine of aberrations than is ab-
folutely neceffary for the conftruCtion of achromatic te¬
lefcopes ; and we muff refer the reader for a general
view of the whole to Euler’s Dioptrics, and other works
of that kind. Dr Smith has given as much as was ne-
ceflary for the comparifon of the merits of different
glaffes of fimilar conffrudion, and this in a very plain
and elegant manner.
We fhall begin with the aberration of colour, be-
caufe it is the moft fimple.
Let white or compounded light fall perpendicularly P
on the flat fide PQ (fig. 1.) of a planoconvex lens DX’l
PV£), whofe axis is CV and vertex V. The white
ray p P falling on the extremity of the lens is difperfed
by refraCtion at the point P of the fpherical furfaee, and
the red ray goes to the point r of the axis, and the vio¬
let ray to the point v. In like manner the white ray
qO is difperfed by refraCtion at Q, the red ray going
to r, and the violet to v. The red ray P r croffes the
violet ray in a point D, and £) r croffes P v in a
point E ; and the whole light refraCted and difperfed
by the circumference whofe diameter is PQ, paffes
through the circular area, whofe diameter is DE. Sup-
pofing that the lens is of fuch a form that it would col¬
led: red rays, refraded by its whole furface in the point
r, and violet in the point v ; then it is evident that the
whole light which occupies the furface of the lens will
pafs through this little circle, whofe diameter is DE.
Therefore white light iffuing from a point fo diftant that
the rays may be confidered as parallel, will not be
colleded in another point or focus, but will be difperfed
over the furface of that little circle : which is therefore
called the circle of chromatic difperfon; and the radi¬
ant point will be reprefented by this circle. The neigh¬
bouring points are in like manner reprefented by circles:
and thefe circles encroaching on and mixing with each
other, muft occafion hazinefs or confufion, and render
the pidure indiftind. This indiftindnefs will be greater
in the proportion of the number of circles which are in
this manner mixed together. This will be in the pro¬
portion of the room that is for them ; that is, in propor¬
tion to the area of the circle, or in the duplicate propor¬
tion
TEL [2
,e. tion of its diameter. Our firft bufinefs therefore is, to
mj 0btain meafures of this diameter, and te mark the con¬
nexion between it and the aperture and focal diilance
of the lens. r. ., . , r .
Let i be to r as the fine of incidence m glals to the
fine of refraXion of the red rays j and let i be to as
the fine of incidence to the fine of refraXion of the vio¬
let rays. Then we fay, that when the aperture PO is
moderate, v—r : v+r—2 i — DE : Pg,_ very nearly.
For let DE, which is evidently perpendicular to V r,
meet the parallel incident rays in K and L and the radii
of the fpherical furface in G and H. It is plain that
GPK is equal to the angle of incidence on the pofterior
or fpherical furface of the lens j and GPr and GP ^
are the angles of the refraXion of the red and the violet
rays; and that GK, GD, and GE, are very nearly as
the fines of thofe angles, becaufe the angles are fuppofed
to be fmall. We may therefore inftitute this proportion
PE : KD—i'—r:r—i; then, by doubling the con-
fequents DE : zKD—v—r: ir—2 i. Alfo DE :
2 KD + DE——r : 2 r— 2 i + v—r, =v — r : r +
<d 2 i. But 2 KD + DE is equal to KL or P£E
Therefore wre have D E : PQ^= v—r ^ r + v—2
E. D.
Cor. x. Sir Ilaac Newton, by moft accurate obfervn-
tion, found, that in common glafs the fines of refraXion
of the red and violet rays were 77 and 78 where the
fine of incidence was 50. Hence it follows, that v—r
is to =y-f r—2z as 1 to 555 and that the diameter of
the fmalleft circle of difperfion is TVth part of that of
the lens.
2. In like manner may be determined the circle of
difperfion that will comprehend the rays of any particu¬
lar colour or fet of colours. L hus all the orange and
yellow will pafs through a circle whofe diameter is
•™-th of that of the lens.
3. In different furfaces, or plano-convex lenfes, the
angles of aberration rPv are as the breadth PQ^ di¬
rectly, and as the focal diftance VF inverfely ; becaufe
any angle DPE is as its fubtenfe DE direXly and ra¬
dius DP inverfely. N. B. We call VF the focal di¬
ftance, becaufe at this diftance, or at the point I, the
light is moft of all conftipated. If we examine, the fo¬
cal diftance by holding the lens to the fun, we judge it
to be where the light is drawn into the fmalleft fpot.
When we refleX that a lens of 5! inches in diameter
has a circle of difperfion ro-th of an inch in diameter,
we are furprifed that it produces any piXure of an ob-
jeX that can be diftinguifhed. We ftrould not expeX,
greater diftinXnefs from fuch a lens than would be pro¬
duced in a camera obfcura without a lens, by fimply ad¬
mitting the light through a hole of Toth of an inch in
diameter. This, we know, would be very hazy and
confufed. But when we remark the fuperior vivacity
of the yellow and orange light in companfon with the
reft, we may believe that the effeX produced by the
confufion of the other colours will be much lefs fenfible.
But a ftronger reafon is, that the light is much denfer
in the middle of the circle of difperfion, and is exceed¬
ingly faint towards the margin. This, however, muft
not be taken for granted •, and We muft know .diftinXly
the manner in which the light of different colours is
dtftributed over the circle of chromatic dilperfion, be¬
fore we pretend to pronounce on the immenfe difference
between the indiflinXneB arifing from colour and that
39 ] TEL
arifing from the fpherical figure. We thinK this the TelciLo;^,
more neceffary, becaufe the illuftrious difcoveier of the
chromatic aberration has made a great miltake in the
companion, becaufe he did not confider the diiiribution
of the light in the circle of fpherical difperfion.. It is
therefore proper to inveftigate the chromatic diftribu-
tion of the light with the fame care that we beftow-
ed on the fpherical difperfion in Optics, and we (hall
then fee that the fuperiority of the refleXing tele-
feope is incomparably lefs than Newton imagined it to
be.
Therefore let EB (fig. 2.) reprefent a plano-convex Fig. 2.
lens, of which C is the centre and C r the axis. Let
us fuppofe it to have no fpherical aberration, but to col-
leX rays occupying its w hole furface to (ingle points in
the axis. Let a beam of white or compounded light
fall perpendicularly on its plane furface. T he rays will
be fo refraXed by its curved furface, that the extreme
red rays will be colleXed at r, the extreme violent rays
at w, and thofe of intermediate refrangibility at inter¬
mediate points, 0, y, g, b, p, v, of the line rw, which
is nearly °f ^ C. I he extreme red and violet
rays will crofs each other at A and D *, and AD will
be a feXion or diameter of the circle of chromatic dil¬
perfion, and will be about T’Tth of EB. We may fup¬
pofe iv r to be bifeXed in b, becaufe iv b \s to £ r
very nearly in the ratio of equality (for rb\rC~
£ A : c E, —b A : c B, — 10 £ : w C). The line r u>
will be a kind of prifmatic fpeXrum, red from r to 0,
orange-coloured from 0 to 3/, yellow from y to^, green
from g to b, blue from b to 72, purple Irom p to iq and
violet from v to w.
The light in its compound ftate muff be fuppofed uni¬
formly denfe as it falls upon the lens} and the fame
mull: be faid of the rays of any particular colour. New¬
ton fuppofes alfo, that when a white ray, fuch as e E,
is difperfed into its component coloured rays by refrac¬
tion at E, it is uniformly fpread over the angle DEA.
This fuppofition is indeed gratuitous ; but we have no
argument to the contrary, and may therefore confider it
as juft. The confequence. is, that each point w, v, p, b,
&c. of the fpeXrum is not only equally luminous, but
alfo illuminates uniformly its correfponding portion of
AD : that is to fay, the coating (fo to term it) of any
particular colour, fuch as purple, from the point/>, is
uniformly denfe in every part of AD on which it (alls.
In like manner, the colouring of yellow, intercepted by
a part of AD in its paffage to the point y, is uniform¬
ly denfe in all its parts. But the denfity of the differ¬
ent colours in AD is extremely different : for fince the
radiation in w is equally denfe with that in p, the den¬
fity of the violet colouring, which radiates from iu, and
is fpread over the whole of AD, muft be much lefs than
the denfity of the purple colouring, which radiates from
p, and occupies only a part of AD round the circle b.
Thefe denfities muft be very .nearly in the inverfe pro¬
portion of w b1 to p b1.
Hence we fee, that the central point b will be very
intenfely illuminated by the blue radiating from b and
the green intercepted from bg. It will be more faintly
illuminated by the purple radiating from vp, and the
yellow intercepted from g y ; and (fill more faintly by
the violet from w v, and the orange and red intercepted
from y r. The whole colouring will be a white, tend¬
ing a little to ydlownefis. The accurate proportion of
TEL l 240
JWc.icope^ thefe colourings may be computed from our knowledge
” of the pofition of the points o, y, g, &c. But this is of
little moment. It is of more confequence to be able to
determine the proportion of the total intenfity of the
light in b to its intenfity in any other point I.
For this purpofe draw r IR, I w W, meeting the lens
in R and W. The point I receives none of the light
which paffes through the fpace RW : for it is evident
that b I : CRrr^ A : CE, r= 1 : 55, and that CR rr
CW ; and therefore, fince all the light incident on EB
paffes through AB, all the light incident on RW paffes
through I i (b i being made —b I). Draw 0 IO, y IY,
glG, I/7 I v V. It is plain, that I receives red
light from RO, orange from OY, yellow from YG,
green from GE, a little blue from BP, purple from
PV, and violet from VW. It therefore wants fome of
the green and of the blue.
That we may judge of the intenfity of thefe colours
at I, fuppofe the lens covered with paper pierced with a
fmall hole at G. The green light only will pafs through
I ; the other colours will pafs between I and b, or be¬
tween I and A, according as they are more or lefs re¬
frangible than the particular green at I. This particu¬
lar colour converges to g, and therefore will illuminate
a fmall fpot round I, where it will be as much denfer
than it is at G as this fpot is fmaller than the hole at G.
The natural denfity at G, therefore, will be to the in-
creafed denfity at I, as ^ I* to ^ G*, or as gb1 to £ C%
or as b P to CG*. In like manner, the natural denfity
of the purple coming to I through an equal hole at P
will be to the increafed denfity at I as Z* P to CP*.
And thus it appears, that the intenfity of the differently
coloured illuminations of any point of the circle of dif-
perfion, is inverfely proportional to the fquare of the di-
ftance from the centre of the lens to the point of its fur-
face through which the colouring light comes to this
point of the circle of difperfion. This circumftance will
give us a very eafy, and, we think, an elegant folution
of the queftion.
Bifeft CE in F, and draw FL perpendicular to CE,
making it equal to CF. Through the point L defcribe
the hyperbola KLN of the fecond order, that is, having
the ordinates EK, FL, RN, &c. inverfely proportional
to the fquares of the abfciffge CE, CF, CR, &c. 5 fo
that FL : RNrr^L : or =CR* : CF2, &c. It
is evident that thefe ordinates are proportional to the
denfities of the feverally coloured lights which go from
them to any points whatever of the circle of difper¬
fion.
Now the total denfity of the light at I depends both
on the denfity of each particular colour and on the num¬
ber of colours which fall on it. The ordinates of this
hyperbola determine the firft 5 and the fpace ER mea-
fures the number of colours which fall on I, becaufe it
receives light from the whole of ER, and of its equal
BW. Therefore, if ordinates be drawn from any point
of ER, their fum will be as the whole light which goes
to I j that is, the total denfity of the light at I will be
* proportional to the area NREK. Now it is known that
CE X EK is equal to the infinitely extended area lying
beyond EK 5 and CRxRN is equal to the infinitely
extended area lying beyond RN. Therefore the area
NREK is equal to CR x RN—CE x EK. But RN
TEL
and EK are refpe&ively equal to and
There-
/CR
Telefct
fore the denfity at I is proportional to CF3X  
CFJ
= CF3 x
is ~ of CE
- ER
CE x CR’
CF3 .
CE
X
ER
CR.
CE X CR ’
But becaufe CF
CF3 CF
~ 2 CF’ —acon^ant quantity.
Therefore the denfity of the light at I is proportional to
AI , - . . „ , t
, or to j became the points K and I are fimilarly
fituated in EC and A b.
Farther, if the femiaperture CE of the lens be called
CF* AI
I, is rr-L and the denfity at I is
2 8 J 8 £ I
Here it is proper to obferve, that fince the point R
has the fame fituation in the diameter EB that the point
I has in the diameter AD of the circle of difperfion, the
circle defcribed on EB may be conceived as the magni¬
fied reprefentation of the circle of difperfion. The point
F, for inftance, reprefents the point f in the circle of
difperfion, which bifefts the radius b A ; and f receives
no light from any part of the lens which is nearer the
centre than F, being illuminated only by the light which
comes through EF and its oppofite BF'. The fame may
be faid of every other point.
In like manner, the denfity of the light in /> the
. EF
middle between b and A, is meafured by which is
EF
— jFjT’ or I* This makes the denfity at this point a
proper ftandard of comparifon. The denfity there is to
AI
the denfity at I as 1 to—, or as Z> I to AI j and this
is the fimpleft mode of comparifon. The denfity half
way from the centre of the circle of difperfion is to the
denfity at any point I as Z- I to IA.
Laftly, through L defcribe the common re£langular
hyperbola £ L », meeting the ordinates of the former in
h, L, and n : and draw i h parallel to EC, cutting the
ordinates in r, &c. Then CR : CE rzr E Z1 : R n,
and CR : CE—CR=E h : R n—E k, or CR : RE=
E Z : r w, and b X : 1A~E k \ r n. And thus wre have
a very fimple expreflion of the denfity in any point of
the circle of difperfion. Let the point be anywhere, as
at I. Divide the lens in R as AD is divided in I, and
then r 11 is as the denfity in I.
Thefe two meafures were given by Newton 5 the firft
in his Treatife dc Mundi Systemate, and the lalt in his
Optics, but both without demonftration.
If the hyperbola £ L s be made to revolve round the
axis CQ, it will generate a folid fpindle, which will
meafure the whole quantity of light which paffes through
different portions of the circle of difperfion. Thus the
folid produced by the revolution of L Zy will meafure
all the light which occupies the outer part of the circle
of difperfion lying without the middle of the radius.
This (pace is -|ths of the whole circle j but the quanti¬
ty of light is but ^th of the whole.
A
T E L
L 241 ]
TEL
; denlity of the light
the figure to turn
A flxll more iimple expreffion of the whole quantity
of light paffing through different portions of the circle
of chromatic difperfion may now be obtained as fol¬
lows :
It has been demonftrated, that tin
T . AI ER
at I is as or as —. buppofe
round the axis. I or R deferibe circumferences of circles $
and the whole light palling through this circumference
is as the circumference, or as the radius, and as the den-
ER
fity jointly. It is therefore as g-gXCR, that is, as
ER. Draw any flraight line Em, cutting RN in s,
and any other ordinate FL in x R j. The whole light
which illuminates the circumference deferibed by I is
to the whole light which illuminates the centre £ as ER
to EC, or as Rj1 to Crn. In like manner, the whole
light which illuminates the circumference deferibed by
the point yin the circle of difperfion is to the whole
light which illuminates the centre />, as F« to C tn.
The lines Cm, RS, F,v, are therefore proportional to
the whole light which illuminates the correfponding
circumferences in the circle of difperfion. Therefore
the whole light which falls on the circle whofe radius
is b I, will be reprefented by the trapezium in CRS ;
and the whole light which falls on the ring deferibed
by I A, will be reprefented by the triangle E j-R 5 and
fo of any other portions.
By confidering the figure, we fee that the diftribu-
tion of the light is exceedingly unequal. Round the
margin it has no fenfible denfity 5 while its denfity in
the very centre is incomparably greater than in any
other point, being expreffed by the afymptote of a hy-
A b
perbola. Alfo the circle deferibed with the radius 
contains -Jths of the whole light. No wonder then that
the confufion caufed by the mixture of thefe circles of
difperfion is lefs than one fhould expeft ; befides, it is
evident that the moft lively or impreffive colours oc¬
cupy the middle of the fpe&rum, and are there much
denfer than the reft. The margin is covered with an
illumination of deep red and violet, neither of which co¬
lours are brilliant. The margin will be of a dark claret
colour. The centre revives all the colours, but in a pro¬
portion of intenfity greatly different from that in the
common prifmatic fpe&rum, becaufe the radiant points
pi b, g, &c. by which it is illuminated, are at fuch
different diftances from it. It Avill be white ; but we
apprehend not a pure white, being greatly overcharged
with the middle colours.
Thefe confiderations (how that the coloured fringes,
which are obferved to border very luminous objefts feen
on a dark ground through optical inftruments, do not
proceed from the object-glafs of a telefcope or micro-
fcope, but from an improper conftru&ion of the eye-
glalfes. The chromatic difperfion would produce
fringes of a different colour, when they produce any at
all, and the colours would be differently difpofed. But
this difperfion by the obje£t-glafs can hardly produce
any fringes : its effeiR is a general and almoft uniform
mixture of circles all over the field, which produces an
uniform hazinefs, as if the object were viewed at an
improper diftance, or out of its focus, as we vulgarlv
exprefs it.
Vol. XX. Part I.
We may at prefent form a good guefs at the limit Telekope*
which this caufe puts to the performance of a tele-
fcope. A point of a very diftant objeiR is reprefent¬
ed, in the pidture formed by the obje<R~glafs, by a
little circle, whofe diameter is at leaft of the a-
perture of the obje<R-g]afs, making a very full allow¬
ance for the fuperior brilliancy and denfity of the cen¬
tral light. We look at this piRure with a magnifying
eye-glafs. This magnifies the piRura of the point. If
it amplify it to fuch a degree as to make it an objeR
individually diftinguiihable, the confufion is then fen¬
fible. Now this can be computed. An objeR fub-
tending one minute of a degree is dillinguifhed by the
dulled eye, even although it be a dark objeR on a
bright ground. Let us therefore fu.ppofe a telefcope,
the objeR-glafs of which is of fix feet focal didance,
and one inch aperture. The diameter of the circle of
chromatic difperfion will be y^th of an inch, which
fubtends at the centre of the objeR-glafs an angle of
about feconds. This, when magnified fix times by
an eye-glafs, would become a didinguidiable objeR; and
a telefcope of this length would be indidinR if it mag¬
nified more than fix times, if a point were thus fpread
out into a fpot of uniform intenfity. But the fpot is
much lefs intenfe about its margin. It is found expe¬
rimentally that a piece of engraving, haring fine crofs
hatches, is not fenfibly indidinR till brought fo fat
from the limits of perfeRly didinR vifion, that this
indidinRnefs amounts to 6' or 5' in breadth.—There¬
fore fuch a telefcope will be fenfibly didinR when it
magnifies 36 times; and this is very agreeable to ex¬
perience.
We come, in the fecond place, to the more arduous
talk of afeertaining the error arifing from the fpherical
figure of the furfaces employed in optical indruments.
-—Suffice it to fay, before we begin, that although geo¬
meters have exhibited other forms of lenfes which are
totally exempt from this error, they cannot be executed
by the artid ; and we are therefore redriRed to the
employment of fpherical furfaces.
Of all the determinations which have been given of
fpherical aberration, that by Dr Smith, in his Optics,
which is an improvement of the fundamental theorem
of that mod elegant geometer Huyghens, is the moft
perfpicuous and palpable. Some others are more con-
eife, and much better fitted for after ufe, and will there¬
fore be employed by us in the profecution of this article.
But they do not keep in view the optical faRs, giving
the mind a piRure of the progrefs of the rays, which it
can contemplate and difeover amidft many modifying
circumftances. By ingenious fubftitutions of analytical
fymbols, the inveftigation is rendered expeditious, con-
cife, and certain ; but thefe are not immediate fymbols
of things, but of operations of the mind ; objeRs fuffi-
ciently fubtile of themfelves, and having no need of fub¬
ftitutions to make us lofe fight of the real fubjeR ; and
thus our occupation degenerates into a procefs almoft *
without ideas. We (ball therefore, fet out with Dr
Smith’s fundamental Theorem.
t
I. In RefleBims.
Let AVB (fig. 3.) be a concave fpherical mirror, of Fig.
which C is the centre, V the vertex, CV the axis, and
F the focus of an infinitely (lender pencil of parallel rays
H h Pa(Fmg
TEL [242
Tekfcope. paffing through the centre. Let the ray a A, parallel
* to the axis, be refledted in AG, crofling the central
ray CV \x\f. Let APbe the fine of the femi-aperture
AV, AD its tangent, and CD its fecant.
The aberration F f from the principal focus of central
rays is equal to 4- of the excefs VD of the fecant above
the radius, or very near equal to \ of VP, the yerfed
fine of the femi-aperture.
For becaufe AD is perpendicular to CA, the points
C, A, D, are in a circle, of which CD is the diameter $
and becaufe Ay'is equal to Cy^ by reafon of the equali¬
ty of the angles f AC,fCA, and CAfl,,y'is the cen¬
tre of the circle through C, A, D, and^/D is = i CD.
But FC is = i CV. Therefore F/is 4 of VD.
But becaufe DV : VP zr DC : VC, and DC is very
little greater than VC when the aperture AB is mode¬
rate, DV is very little greater than VP, and Fyis very
nearly equal to of VP.
AV*
Cor. 1. The longitudinal aberration is rr v.—, for
AV*
PV is very nearly =
2 C V
AV}
Cor. 2. The lateral aberration FG is
Now PV:
] TEL
The aberration will be different according as the re- TelefcoJ
fraction is made towards or from the perpendicular 5'—>-1
that is, according as r is lefs or greater than i. They
or of r3 to z 3. The ab-
V l
are in the ratio of : to ,
a 1 dr
erration therefore is always much diminilhed when the
refraction is made from a rare into a denfe medium.
The proportion of the fines for air and glafs is nearly
that of 3 to 2. When the light is refraCled into the
glafs, the aberration is nearly ^ of PV ; and when the
light paffes out of glafs into air, it is about % of PV.
Cor. 1. Yf=
’AP* 1 a - •
nearly, and it is alio = —
2CV dl
X
AP*
2FV’
CV.
becaufe PV
AP*
ACV
nearly, and i \ d~ FV
Cor. 2. BecaufeyP
or FV
PA=Fy: FG
•AV=Fy: FG nearly,
AV
we have FG, the lateral aberration, =r Fyx
FV
2CV*' °r
FG : Fy = AP : Py = AV : i CV nearly, and there-
f ^ AV3 2 _ AV3
fore PG - 4 cv X CV “ 2 CV2*
2. In RefraEiions.
Fig. 4. or P*6!1 AVB (fig. 4. or 5.) be a fpherical furface fepa-
rating two refrafting fubftances, C the centre, V the
Vertex, AV the femi-aperture, AP its fine, PV its
verfed fine, and F the focus of parallel rays infinitely
near to the axis. Let the extreme ray a A, parallel to
the axis, be refraCted into AG, croffing CFiny which
is therefore the focus of extreme parallel rays.
The red angle of the fne of incidence, by the differ¬
ence of the fnes of incidence and refradion, is to the
fquare of the fine of refradion, as the verfedfne of the
femi-aperture is to the longitudinal aberration of the ex¬
treme rays.
Call the fine of incidence i, the fine of refraClion r,
and their difference d.
Join CA, and about the centre f defcribe the arch
AD.
The angle ACV is equal to the angle of incidence,
and C Ay is the angle of refraCtion. Then, fince the
fine of incidence is to the fine of refraClion as VF to CF,
or as Ay to C f that is, as Dy to Cf we have
cf : fv = cy: yD
by converfion CF : CV =r Cy: CD
altern. conver. CF—Cf: CV—CD=CF : CV
or - Fy: VDzrCF : CV, = r : </.
AP* AP* , AP*
cr+cv’ =^vne"rly>and PD—Tpi/v
AP* AP*
= nearly, = nearly. Therefore PV : PD
= FV : CV, and DV : PV=CF : FV nearly.
We had above F f: VDzzr : d ;
and now - VD : PV=CF : FV, = r : z ;
therefore - Fy: PV=r* : d iy
and Yf=~ X PV. E. D.
a 1
AV3
d* X 2FV£
T
= w x
AV3
2CV*
Cor. 3. Becaufe the angle F*A f’n proportional to
FG
FV
very nearly, we have the angular aberration FAy=-
X
AV3
2FV3
= -T X
AV3
2CV3'
In general, the longitudinal aberrations from the fo^
cus of central parallel rays are as the fquares of the
apertures direftly, and as the focal diftances inverfely $
and the lateral aberrations are as the cubes of the aper¬
tures direftly, and the fquares of the focal diftances in¬
verfely j and the angular aberrations are as the cubes of
the aperture direftly, and the cubes of the focal diftances
inverfely.
The reader muft have obferved, that to Amplify the
inveftigation, fome fmall errors are admitted. PV and
PD are not in the exaft proportion that we affumed
them, nor is Dyequal to FV. But in the fmall aper¬
tures which fuffice for optical inftruments, thefe errors
may be difregarded.
This fpherical aberration produces an indiftinftnefs
of vifion, in the fame manner as the chromatic aberra¬
tion does, viz. by fpreading out every mathematical
point of the obje£l into a little fpot in its pifture ;
which fpots, by mixing with each other, confufe the
whole. We muft now determine the diameter of the
circle of diffufion, as we did in the cafe of chromatic dif-
perfion.
Let a ray /3 a. (fig. 6.) be refrafted on the other fide
of the axis, into etH<p, cutting A fG in FI, and draw DXX
the perpendicular EH. Call AV a, a.V a,,V f (or VF,
or V <p, which in this comparifon may be taken as equal)
=f Yf~b, andyEzrip x.
AV* : «V*zzFy: F <p (already demonftrated) and F<p
= and r/—(or/?) = h = I—>
Plat
X «*—=— X a +* X a—a.
Aifo py: PA
=/E
TEL
[
jfcope.
e= EH : E or « :/=
/
~ E ip. Therefore
„ ax ,
ftp — —h*
243 ] TEL
, nit ru> ait) -D We are indebted to Father Bofcovich for the elegant ^efcope.
J ^ : ory : 0—^ ■ yr> ^•n(^ 1 ?»• : F determination of this diitribution, which we have given
in the article Optics. From this it appears, that the
light in the margin of the circle of fpherical aberra¬
tion, inftead of being incomparably rarer than in the
fpaces between it and the centre, is incomparably denfen
The indiilinbdnefs therefore produced by the interfec-
tion of thefe luminous circumferences is vaftly great,
and increafes the whole indiftinftnefs exceedingly. By
a grofs calculation which we made, it appears to be in-
creafed at lead: 500 times. The proportional indiftin£l-
nefs therefore, inftead of being 19001 to 1, is only
1QOO*
— nearly 7220 to I j a proportion
— — X a-\-ct.
a
Therefore
X « + * X and - = , X
X
- X
a
and
■x — — X * (a—a)* Therefore x is greateft when
a—a is greateft *, that is, when i a. Therefore
EH is greateft when P ?r is equal to the half of AP.
When this is the cafe, we have at the fame time — X «
a
(a—XI «*, and xzz^ b, or EH=^ FG. That
a
is, the diameter of the circle of aberration through which
the whole of the refradted light muft pafs, is ^ of the
diameter of the circle of aberration at the focus of pa¬
rallel central rays. In the chromatic aberration it was
•| j fo that in this refpedt the fpherical aberration does
not create fo great confufion as the chromatic.
We are now able to compare them, fince we have
now the meafure of both the circles of aberration.
It has not been found poflible to give more than four
inches of aperture to an objeft glafs of 100 feet focal
diftance, fo as to preferve fufficient diftindtnefs. If we
compute the diameter of the circle EH correfponding
to this aperture, we Ihall find it not much to exceed
of an inch. If we reftridl the circle of chro-
500
ftill fuffi-
120,000
matic difperfion to of the aperture, which is hardly
the fifth part of the whole difperfion in it, it is —L
O 2-2*
of an inch, and is about 1900 times greater than the
other.
The circle of fpherical aberration of a plano-convex
lens, with the plane fide next the diftant objeft, is equal
to the circle of chromatic difperfion when the femi-aper-
tur^ is about 150 : For we favv formerly that EH is ^
r* AP5
of FG, and that FG is =r — and therefore
1 2 AG
AP’ _. , . , AP ,
I his being made gives us
EG=L-x
•/ *
8 ACJ
AP
= */:
8 /’AC1
55 r*
which is nearly
AC
4
and
fponds to an aperture of 30° diameter, if r be to i as
3 to 2.
Sir Ifaac Newton was therefore well entitled to fay,
that it was quite needlefs to attempt figures which
ihould have lefs aberration than fpherical ones, while
the confufion produced by the chromatic difperfion re¬
mained uncorredted. Since the indiftindhiefs is as the
fquares of the diameters of the circles of aberration, the
difproportion is quite beyond our imagination, even
when Newton has made fuch a liberal allowance to'the
chromatic difperfion. But it muft be acknowledged,
that he has not attended to the diftribution of the light
in the circle of fpherical aberration, and has haftily fup-
pofed it to be like the diftribution of the coloured
light, indefinitely rare in the margin, and denfer in the
centre.
cienfly great to warrant Newton’s preference of the re-
fledting telefcope of his invention. And we mav now
obferve, that the refledting telefcope has even a great
advantage over a refradting one of the fame focal di¬
ftance, with refpedt to its fpherical aberration : For
we have feen {Cor, 2.) that the lateral aberration is
r* AV5
This for a plano-convex glafs is nearly
2 CV1
AV’
9 
4 2CV
And the diameter of the circle of aberration
AV’
is one-fourth of this, or — X
16 2CV
In like manner.
the lateral aberration of a concave mirror is
the diameter of the circle of difperfion is
AV’
2CV1’
AV’
Tcv1’
and
and
therefore if the furfaces w’ere portions of the fame fphere,
"the diameter of the circle of aberration of refradted rays
would be to that of the circle of aberration of refledted
rays as to or as 9 to 4. But when the refi adiing
and refledting furfaces, in the pofition here confidered,
have the fame focal diftance, the radius of the refradting
furface is four times that of the reftedting furface. The
proportion of the diameters of the circles of fpherical
aberration is that of 9 X 4Z to 4, or of 144 to 4, or 36
to 1. The diftindtnefs therefore of the refledtor is
36 X 36, or 1 296 times greater than that of a plano¬
convex lens (placed with the plane fide next the diftant
objedl) of the fame breadth and focal diftance, and will
therefore admit of a much greater magnifying power.
This comparifon is indeed made in circumftances moft
favourable to the refledtor, becaufe this is the very Worft
pofition of a plano-convex lens. But we have not as
yet learned tie aberration in any other pofition. In
another pofition the refradtion and confequent aberration
*of both furfaces are complicated.
Before we proceed to the confideretion of this very
difficult fubjedt, we may deduce from what has been al¬
ready demonftrated feveral general rules and maxims in
the conftrudtion of telefcopes, which will explain (to
fueh readers as do not wiffi to enter more deeply into
the fubjedt), and juftify the proportion which long prac¬
tice of the belt artilts has fandtioned.
Indiftindtnefs proceeds from the commixture of the
circles of aberration on the retina of the eye : For any
one fenfible point of the retina, being the centre of a cir¬
cle of aberration, will at once be affedted by the ad¬
mixture of the rays of as. many different pencils of light
as there are fenfible points in the area of that circle, and
will convey to the mind a mixed fenfation of as many
H h 2 vifible
TEL [ 244 ] T E . L
Telefcope. vifible points of the objeft. This number will be as the
area of the circle of aberrations, whatever be the fize of
a fenfible point of the retina. Now in vilion with tele-
fcopes, the diameter of the circle of aberration on the
retina is as the apparent magnitude of the diameter of
the correfponding circle in the focus of the eye-glafs j
that is, as the angle fubtended by this diameter at the
centre of the eye-glafs \ that is, as the diameter itfelf
dire£tly, and as the focal diftance of the eye-glafs in-
verfely. And the area of that circle on the retina is as
the area of the circle on the focus of the eye-glafs di-
reftly, and as the fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs inverfely. And this is the meafure of the apparent
indifUn# nefs.
Cor. In all forts of telefcopes, and alfo in compound
xnicrofcopes, an objeft is feen equally diftinft when the
focal distances of the eye-glaffes are proportional to the
diameters of the circles of aberration in the focus of the
objeft-glafs. »
Here we do not confider the trilling alteration which
■well conftruTed eye-glaffes may add to the indiltindt-
nefs of the firft image.
In refrafting telefcopes, the apparent indiftindlnefs
is as the area of the objeft-glafs diredtly, and as the
fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-glafs inverfely.
For it has been (hown, that the area of the circle of
difperfion is as the area of the objeft-glafs, and that the
fpherical aberration is infignificant when compared with
this.
Therefore, to make refle&ing telefcopes equally di-
ftinft, the diameter of the objeft-glafs muft be propor¬
tional to the focal diftance of the eye-glafs.
But in reflefting telefcopes, the indiftindlnefs is as
the fixth power of the aperture of the objeft-glafs di-
re£lly, and as the fourth power of the focal diftance of
the objefl-glafs and fquare of the focal diftance of the
eye-giafs inverfely. This is evident from the dimen-
lions of the circle of aberration, which was found pro-
AV3
CV1‘
Therefore, to have them equally diftinft, the cubes
of the apertures muft be proportional to the fquares of
the focal diftance multiplied by the focal diftance of
the eye-glaft.
By thefe rules, and a ftandard telefcope of approved
goodnefs, an artift can always proportion the parts of any
Inftrument he wifhes to conftruft. Mr Huyghens made
one, of which the objeft-glafs had 30 feet focal diftance
and three inches diameter. The eye-glafs had 3.3
inches focal diftance. And its performance was found
fuperior to any which he had feen ; nor did this appear
owing to any chance goodnefs of the objeft-glafs, be-
caufe he found others equally good which were con-
ftrudled on fimilar proportions. This has therefore been
adopted as a ftandard.
It does not at firft appear how there can be any diffi¬
culty in this matter, becaufe we can always diminiffi the
aperture of the obje6t-glafs or fpeculum till the circle of
aberration's as fmall as we pleafe. But by diminilhing
this aperture, we diminilh the light in the duplicate
ratio of the aperture. Whatever be the aperture, the
brightnefs is diminiftred by the magnifyingpower, which
fpreads the light over a greater furface in the bottom of
the eye. The apparent brightnefs muft be as the fquare
of the aperture of the telefcope directly, and the fquare
3
« portional to
of the amplification of the diameter of an objeci invtrfe- Teleftoj
ly. Objects therefore will be feen equally bright if the ^T-
apertures of the telefcopes be as the focal diftances of
the objedl-glafles dire&ly, and the focal diftances of the
fingle eye-glafs (or eye-glafs equivalent to the eye-piece)
inverfely. Therefore, to have telefcopes equally diftinft
and equally bright, we muft combine thefe proportions
with the former. It is needlefs to go farther into this
fubjedt, becaufa the conftrudtion of refradling telefcopes
has been fo materially changed by the corredtion of the
chromatic aberration, that there can hardly be given
any proportion between the cbjedl-glafs and eye-glatfes.
Every thing now depends on the degree in which we
can corredt the aberrations of the objedl-glafs. We
have been able fo far to diminifh the chromatic aberra¬
tion, that we can give very great apertures without its
becoming fenfible. But this is attended with fo great
an increafe of the aberration of figure, that this laft be¬
comes a fenfible quality. A lens which has 30° for its
femi-aperture, has a circle of aberration equal to its
chromatic aberration. Fortunately w-e can derive from
the very method of contrary refradtions, which wre em¬
ploy for removing the chromatic aberration, a corredtion
of the other. We are indebted for this contrivance alfo
to the illuftrious Newton.
We call this Newton’s contrivance, becaufe he was
the firft who propofed a conftrudtion of an objedt-glafs
in which the aberration was corrected by the contrary
aberrations of glafs and water.
Huyghens had indeed fuppofed, that our all-wife
Creator had employed in the eyes of animals many re¬
fradtions in place of one, in order to make the vifion
more diftindt; and the invidious detradtors from New¬
ton’s fame have catched at this vague conjedture as an
indication of his knowledge of the poffibility of deftroy-
ing the aberration of figure by contrary refradtions. But
this is very ill-founded. Huyghens has acquired fuffi-
cient reputation by his theory of aberrations. The fcope
of his writing in the paflage alluded to, is to ftiow that,
by dividing any intended refradtion into parts, and pro¬
ducing a certain convergence to or divergence from the
axis of an optical inftrument by means of two or three
lenfes inftead of one, we diminifh the aberrations four or
nine times. This conjedture about the eye was therefore
in the natural train of his thoughts. But he did not
think of deftroying the aberration altogether by oppo-
fite refradtions. Newton, in 1669, fays that opticians
need not trouble themfelves about giving figures to their
glafles other than fpherical. If this figure were all the
obftacle to the improvement of telefcopes, he could fhow
•them a conftrudtion of an objedt-glafs having fpherical
furfaces where the aberration is deftroyed j and accord-
ingly gives the conftrudtion of one compofed of glafs and
water, in which this is done completely by means of
contrary refradtions.
The general principle is this : When the radiant Fig. 7.
point R (fig. 7.), or focus of incident rays, and its con¬
jugate focus F of refradted central rays, are on oppofite
fides of the refradting furface or lens V, the conjugate
focus/of marginal rays is nearer to R than F is. But
when the focus of incident rays R' lies on the fame fide
with its conjugate focus F' for central rays, R'/' is
greater than R' F'.
Now fig. 8. reprefents the contrivance for deftroy-Fig.
ing the colour produced at F, the principal focus of the
convex
2XH
+ XH.
.TEL [ 245 ]
convex lens V, of crown glafs, by means of the con¬
trary refraflion of the concave lens v of flint glafs. The
incident parallel rays are made to converge to F by the
firft lens. This convergence is dirmniftied, but not en- 0
tirely deftroyed, by the concave lens v, and the focus is
formed in F. F and F therefore are conjugate foci of
the concave lens. If F be the focus of V for central
rays, the marginal rays will be collefted at fume pointy/*
nearer to the lens. If F be now confidered as the focus
of light incident on the centre of v, and F' be the con¬
jugate focus, the marginal ray p F would be refra&ed
to fome point/' lying beyond F. Therefore the mar-
ainal ray p f may be refraaed to F, if the aberration
of the concave be properly adjufled to that of the
convex.
This brings us to the moft difficult part of our iub-
jea, the compounded aberrations of different furfaces.
Our limits will not give us room for treating this in the
fame elementary and perfpicuous manner that \ve em¬
ployed for a Angle furface. We muff try to do it in a
compendious way, which will admit at once the different
furfaces and the different refraaivc powers of different
fubftances. This muff naturally render the procefs more
complicated ; but we. hope to treat the fubjea in a way
eafily comprehended by any perfon moderately acquaint¬
ed with common algebra j and we truft that our attempt
will be favourably received by an indulgent public, as
it is (as far as we know) the only differtation in our lan¬
guage on the conftruftion of achromatic inftruments.
We cannot but exprefs our furprife at this indifference
about an invention which has done fo much honour to
cur country, and which now conftitutes a very lucrative
branch of its manufacture. Our artifts infinitely furpafs
all the performances of foreigners in this branch, and
fupply the markets of Europe without any competition 5
yet it is from the writings on the continent that they
derive their fcientific inftruCtion, and particularly from
the differtations of Clairaut, who has wonderfully Am¬
plified the analyfis of optical prepofitions. We fliall  ^ f
freely borrow from him, and from the writings of Abbe “ 2a
Bofcovich, who has confiderably improved the firft
views of Clairaut. We recommend the originals to the
curious reader. Clairaut’s differtations are to be found
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, I75^> 5
thofe of Bofcovich in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Bologna, and in his five volumes of Opufcula, publiffied
at Baffano in 1785. To thefe may be added D’Alem¬
bert and Euler. The only thing in our language is the becomes x—
tranflation of a very imperfeCt work by Schaerfer.
TEL
is nearly equal to and MH is nearly equal
MX*
Telefcope.
Prop. I. Let the ray tn M, incident on the fpherical
furface AM, converge to G ; that is, let G be the focus
of incident rays. It is required to find the focus F of
refradled rays ?
Let tn exprefs the ratio of the fine of incidence and
refrattion *, that is, let m be to 1 as the fine of inci¬
dence to the fine of refraftion in the fubftance of the
fphere.
Then - MG : GSzrfin. MSH : fin. SMG,
and - tn : 1 =rfin. SMG : fin. SMH;
therefore twxMG : GS~fin. MSH : fin. SMH.
Now S,MSH :S,SMH=MH : HS. Therefore,finally,
tn MG : GS=MH : HS.
Now let MS, the radius of the refracting furface, be
called a. Let AG, the diftance of the focus of incident
rays from the furface, be called r. And let AH, the
focal diftance of refra&ed rays, be called x. Laftly, let
the fine MX of the femi-aperture be called e. Ob-
ferve, too, that a, r, x, are to be confidered as pofitive
quantities, when AS, AG, AH, lie from the furface in
the direction in which the light is fuppofed to move.
If therefore the refra£ling furface be concave, that is,
having the centre on that fide from which the light
comes j or if the incident rays are divergent, or the re-
frafted rays are divergent j then «, r, x, are negative
quantities.
It is plain that HScrr—a; GSmr—a; alfo AX
e*
= —nearly. HX=a
2a
2a
GX—r .
2a
Now add
to HX and to GX their differences from MH and MG,
We get MH
e , e
which (by the Lemma) are — and —
£>* f* e*
-f—, and MG=r 
' 2X 2a 2r
In order to
ftiorten our notation, make k~ — — This willjnake
a r
ke*
MG=r ,
2
Now fubftitute thefe values in the final analogy at
the top of this column, viz. MH : HSzrw.MG : GS 5
e* e
 1 
2a 2X
x—az=:m r-
mk e*
: r—a (or
a r £), becaufe k=.
ar
and ark — r—a. Now mul-
Lemma 1. In the right-angled triangle MXS (fig. 9.),
of which one fide MX is very fmall in comparifon of
either of the others ; the excefs of the hypothenufe MS,
, t v . • , MX*
above the fide XS, is very nearly equal to or to
MX*
—VQ-. For if about the centre S, with the radius SM,
we defcribe the femicircle AMO, we have AX xXO
=MX*. Now AX=MS—SX, and XO, is nearly
equal to 2MS or 2XS ; on the other hand, MS is
MX*
nearly equal to XS4--and in like manner MG
tiply the extreme and mean terms of this analogy. It
is evident that it muft give us an equation which will
give us a value of x or AH, the quantity fought..
But this equation is quadratic. We may avoid the
folution by an approximation which is fufficiently accu-
£>* • •
rate, by fubftituting for x in the fra£lion (which is-
very fmall in all cafes of optical inftruments), an ap¬
proximate very eafily obtained, and very near the truth.
This is the focal diftance of an infinitely (lender pencil
of rays converging to G. This we know by the com-
rnon optical theorem to be — “• Let this oe
m—zrdfcfl
called
T E L [ 246 ] TEL
'' v ■- called tp ; if we fubditute i in place of-—i,thisvalue '• j'freforc tbe aberration isexprefled by the fecond terra Tit,I
r a r>luloVrtiUC which we muft endeavour to fimplify.
of (p becomes = a m We n°W Perform the multiplication indicated by —
This gives us, by the by, an eafily remembered ex- ^ ; X ^ ^)> 13 PIain that — tnr
preffion (and beautifully fimple) of the refra&ed focus mk a deftroys the firft term mr a y^ mk of the nu-
of an infinitely flender pencil, eorrefponding to any di- merator of our fmall fraftion, and there remains of this
fiance r of the radiant point. For fince <2= —^ m numerator {m a* r k1—ar1 kl 4- * e* •which is
m—a k1 m / ’
- muft be = =
? am ’ am
a k
a m a
I i-, We equal to m* a1 f
a m V
r k*
m
r* kl
?nz a m*
)i*.
. — f/i' Lt/ r/t, u r/i * i*' nt' *
may even exprefs it more fimply, by expanding k, and The denominator was r* (ni—a k)', and the fraaion
:+u„ - 1 1 1 1    (& k* . k*\
it becomes — ——
<p a
now becomes-
mr
k
which
{m—a ky\mr .ml a
Now put this value of i in place of the - in the analo- is evidently =<p* (   (- ~ Now recol-
<P x \fn r mr a mi / 2
gy employed above.^ The firft term of the analogy left that t=L_l- Therefore _
becomes x —- _f_ Z or at—— . The ana- ,, .z" r ^ m\;a r'
2a 2a 2m im k « rp, f . k* —k*
~l 7—* Ihererore, inftead of <— -—.write .
mzr ’ m*
h1 . fk* kl h*
   > and we get the fradlion ffl*! —   —  _l
mr b y \m> 77? m* r ^
m k* mhz t m'1hz\et ,
V Z 7^1 i—"1 i— )~» which is
m 1 / 2 \m 7ns mi 7' ' m’r/21
equal to <p
, or x . The ana-
2 m 2 m
logy now becomes a? — ; a; a=zmr— -- C% : ark.
2 m 2
\h e1 x
Hence we obtain the linear equation 771 r x —
mk a e*
mr a -\-
ar'kx— j from which
we finally deduce
77i r a—i 771 a ke1-
2 771
ark1 e%
2 m
mkt\i
I—mf
~V ^j-.andfinallyto-? ^
ni—r
m kz\ex
r / 2*
'771 r—a r k— \mk e
We may fimplify this greatly by attending to the
PfnPntarxr tVsXI.—,.*  *1 _ « .1 r •
(p--r2
Therefore the focal diftance of refraaed rays is .vrrffi
-  J  r-‘*j ^it-at-ijr uy ULLCHUZIlg io me J
elementary theorem in fluxions, that the fraaion — ^ m~l(n.. _ m
X+x ^ m' \ r / 2*
dtlfers from the frafllon - by the quantity This confifts of two parts. The firft ? is the focal di-
v:: x‘. • fiance of an infinitely flender pencil of central rays, and
■^4; this being the fluxion of 2. Therefore^ the otheris the aberration
, yx—xy   anfing from the fpherical figure of the refraaine fur-
y '  * Now the preceding formula is near- face. 6
ly in this fituation. It may be written thus • ^ur for™ufa has thus at lafl put on a very fimple
a r k* e*\ form, and is vaflly preferable to Dr Smith’s for prac-
mr a (— \mak e1 J tice.
I.. r a r~j. „ > '-.a  when the lafl terms ^ aberration is evidently proportional to the fquare
of the femi-aperture, and to the fquare of the diftance <p
of the nnmeratnr cr,A A • ^ r „ • icuu-dpenure, ana to tne Iquare ot the diftance ©:
compariZ wUh thc fiV T" “k ^ VP u” but ‘n °rder to obtain lh!s fimplicity, feveral quantities
• j * , nd may be conhdered as the were negleaed. The aflumption of the equality of AX
;v and y while mrah the and mr—ark is the y.
1 reating it in this way, it may be dated thus :
to is the firft fource of error. A much more ac«
x—
+
curate value of it would have been
2 « e*
—, for it is
mr—ark   40*^-^*
really = ^~r. If for AX we fubftitute its ap-
r* [m—a £)* “ ——
mr a
or — ,
£>*
proximated value—, we fhould have AX= e~
2a
r(m—ak)
{mra^mk—(mr—ark) (mk a+
   m J
2 a 
2 a
2 ae* .
— 2- 0 have uied this value would not have
much complicated the calculus 5 but it did not occur to
m a us we had finifhed the invefligation, and it would
r(m—aT), or 7, ’ is evidently zz required the whole to be changed. The operation
the focal diflance of bo o , . ^ PaSe 24^* C°P I* r,ar* 3* another fource of error.
y ^en(Jer perfcil, But thefe errors are very inconfiderable when the aper¬
ture
r* (m—a k)*
X 4 e*.
The firfl term
mr a
J
(cope-
$ 10.
.TEL [ 247 1
tare is moderate. They increafe for the moft part with from N
an increafe of aperture, but not in the proportion of
any regular fundtion of it j fo that we cannot improve
the formula by any manageable procefs, and muft be
contented with it. The errors are precifely the fame
with thofe of Dr Smith’s theorem, and indeed with thofe
of any that we have feen, which are not vaftly more
complicated.
As this is to be frequently combined with fubfequent
operations, we fhorten the expreflion by putting 6 for
m -(k3 — Then will exprefs the aber-
m* \ r / 2
ration of the firft refra&ion from the focal diftance of an
infinitely flender pencil 5 and now the focal diftance of
refradted rays is /=$—Q1 6.
If the incident rays are parallel, r becomes infinite, and
g— k3 —. But in this cafe k becomes = -, and
m3 2 a
TEL
Alfo let ct be the thicknefs of the lens. Telefcope.
Then obferve, that the focal diftance of the rays re- "" v
fradted by the firft furface, (negledting the thicknefs of
the lens and the aberration of the firft furface), is the
diftance of the radiant point for the fecond refradtion, or
is the focal diftance of rays incident on the fecond fur¬
face. In place of r therefore we muft take <p j and as
in order to abbreviate the calcu-
we made h— ——
a r
lus, let us now make /= ^and make -7;— 7-—niL
by' f b '
.11 h
as we made — ~ ,
yam
make
l3
Laftly, in place of 5 =:
17?
y ) 2'
m3
/* '
m y,
111—I
—— , and yz
y ma
and y* 6 becomes
m—1 1
X —T-X -T
m3 a3
e
XT’
I)
This is the ab-
(2 m—1);««
erration of extreme parallel rays.
We muft now add the refradtion of another furface.
Lemma 2. If the focal diftance AG be changed by
a fmall quantity G'^, the focal diftance AH will alfo
be changed by a fmall quantity H /*, and we ftiall have
m • AG*: AW=G g -.Uh.
Draw M g, M h, and the perpendiculars G z, H d.
Then, becaufe the fines of the angles of incidence are in
a conftant ratio to the fines of the angles of refradtion,
and the increments of thefe fmall angles are proportion¬
al to the increments of the fines, thefe increments of the
angles are in the fame conftant ratio. Therefore,
We have the angle CMj^ to HM/i as m to 1.
Now : G i— AG : AM,
and G z : h k ~ m’ AG : HA,
and Ji k :H.h — MA : AH :
therefore G^ : H/z rz: zwAG2 : AH*.
The eafieft and moft perfpicuous method for obtain¬
ing the aberration of rays twice refradted, will be to
confider the firft refradtion as not having any aberration,
and determine the aberration of the fecond refradtion.
Then conceive the focus of the firft refradtion as ftiifted
by the aberration. This will produce a change in the
focal diftance of the fecond refradtion,, which may be
determined by this Lemma.
Prop. II. Let AM, BN (fig. to.) be two fpherical
furfaces, including a refradting fubftance, and having
their centres C and c in the line AG. Let the ray a A
pafs through the centres, which it will do without re¬
fradtion. Let another ray m M, tending to G, be re¬
fradted by the firft furface into MH, . cutting the fe¬
cond furface in N, where it is farther refradted into NI.
It is required to determine the focal diftance BI ?
It is plain that the fine of incidence on the fecond
furface is to the fine of refradtion into the furrounding
air as 1 to m. Alfo BI may be determined in relation
to BH, by means of BH, Na\ Be, and —, in the fame
m-
way that AH was determined in relation to AG, by
means of AG, MX, AC, and m.
Let the radius of the fecond furface be b, and let e
ftill exprefs the femi-aperture, (beeayfe it hardly differs
Thus we have got an expreflion fimilar to the other ;
and the focal diftance BI, after two refradtions, becomes
BI =/-/*/.
But this is on the fuppofition that BH is equal to y,
whereas it is really y—<p* 6—or. This muft; occafion a
change in the value juft now obtained of BI. The
fource of the change is twofold, ift, Becaufe in the
, 11 n 1 1
value ——, we mult put -r —
by L by — y1 i
caufe we muft do the fame in the fradlion In
and
s
n? /*
be-
.y..
the fecond place, when the value of BH is diminiftied
by the quantity y* 6BI will fuffer a change in the
proportion determined by the 2d Lemma. The firlf
difference may fafely be negledted, becaufe the value of
e2
0 is very fmall, by reafon of the coefficient — being
very fmall, and alfo becaufe the variation bears a very
fmall ratio to the quantity itfelf, when the'true value of
y differs but little from that of the quantity for which
it is employed. The chief change in BI is that which
is determined by the Lemma. Therefore take from BI
• . B I*
the variation of BH, multiplied by , which is very
ffl •f* # •
nearly rr——. The produdt of this multiplication xs
m f1 0 -|-
wf1 <
y*
This being taken from f, leaves us
f*
r
•/* (*7Z0-{-#')•
for the value of BIf—
In this value f is the focal diftance of an infinitely
flender pencil of rays twice refradted by a lens having
771 • 1
no thicknefs,« is the fhortening occafioned by the
thicknefs, and f1 (mi-f-O is the effedt of the two ab¬
errations arifing from tire aperture.
It will be convenient, for feveral collateral purpofes,
to exterminate from thefe formulae the quantities k, l
and y. For this purpofe make We have
n
a
ma
already k ~ ~ j and - — f-
j a r y a '
b"''y'- b a~^~ma mr
and / ~
Now for -7—- write •
b a
n
and
TEL
Telefcape. I i
l>—v——/ and we get /— ' 
ma tnr
[ 2+8 ]
Therefore 7.-7-
I \ \ m m x 1
Tft—l I
n r*
w/ (by conftruftion, page 347. Prop. II.) becomes z=
I
b
This laft value of^ (the reciprocal of the focus of a
llender pencil twice nefra&ed), viz. ^—--{-“■j is the
n r
fimpleft that can be imagined, and makes /z as a fubfti-
tute for — — ^; a moll ufeful fymbol, as we fhall fre¬
quently find in the fequel. It alfo gives a very Ample
expreflion of the focal diftance of parallel rays, which
we may call the principal focal diftance of the lens, and
diftinguilh it in future by the fymbol p ; for the expref-
when the inci-
And this gives us another very
- 1 m—
lion = -—
/ *
- becomes — = ——
r p n
dent light is parallel
Ample and ufeful meafure of f; for j- becomes =r
1 1 tti—
r' p n
-1—. Thefe equations ——-
r f n
, and
7:=“ 4- deferve therefore to be made very familiar
f P r 3
to the mind.
We may alfo take notice of another property of n.
It is half the radius of an ifofceles lens, which is equi¬
valent to the lens whofe radii are a and b: for fuppofe
the lens to be ifofceles, that is a~b ; then n— — —.
a a
Now the fecond a is negative if the firft be pofitive, or
pofitive if the firft be negative. Therefore — —
a b
l+b a+a 1 j l 2 , o XT .
—■--- ~ —— = —, and -rr— and n~~. Now the focal
o* aTa n a 2
diftance of this lens is *——and fo is that of the other.
n ’
and they are equivalent.
But, to proceed with our inveftigation, recolleft that
1 1 . m—1 m&Xe1   
we had 6 — — ( —   ) . Therefore m& =r
m* \ r /2
m—1 (k* k'\el . , , m—1 /
 I 1 And 6 was =  (—m3 l3
tn \m r J 2 m\
m /*\
4* )-£• Therefore md 6, the aberration (ne-
glefting the thicknefs of the lens) is f* -~-1 (~ _ i_
m \ m r
tn /*
m lx\ t?
■ m3 P -I I—.
r / 2
If we now write for k, /, and <p, their values as de¬
termined above, performing all the neceffary multipli¬
cations, and arrange the terms in fuch a manner as to
collefl in one fum the coefficients of a, n, and r, we ffiall
find 4 terms for the value of m 0, and 10 for the value
of V. ' The 4 are deftroyed by as many with contrary
figns in the value of tf', and there remain 6 terms to ex-
prefs the value of md+V, which we fliall exprefs by one
fymbol 9 } and the equation Hands thus :
_ wz—1 ftn%
tn \nJ
TEL
2 nP -f- m m-j-2
a ri*
a* n
+ m Telefco'
4 3 »z-f-2\ e*
arn ‘ r*n / 2'
-The focal diftance therefore of rays twice refra&ed
reckoned from the laft furface, or BI, correaed for
aberration, and for the thicknefs of the lens, is/—/
mtt
•pT —V confifting of three parts, viz. / the focal
diftance of central rays; /2 the correaion for the
thicknefs of the lens ; and/* y, the aberration.
Ihe formula at the top of this column appears very
complex, but is of very eafy management, requiring
only the preparation of the Ample numbers which form
the numerators of the fraaions included in the parenthe-
fis. When the incident rays are parallel, the terms va-
niffi which have r in the denominator, fo that only the
three firft terms are ufed.
We might here point out the cafes which reduce the
aberration exprefled in the formula laft referred to, to
nothing ; but as they can fcarcely occur in the objedl-
glafs of a telefcope, we omit it for the prefent, and pro¬
ceed to the combination of two or more lenfes.
Lemma 3* If AG be changed by a fmall quantity
G^, BI fuffers a change I z, and" G ^ : I /rrAG2 ;
BI*. For it is well known that the fmall angles GMg
and IN z are equal; and therefore their fubtenfes G 1,
I n are proportional to MG, NI, or to AG, AI nearly’
when the aperture is moderate. Therefore we have
(nearly)
G £ : I « : AG : BI
I n : 12 = AM : BI
G^ : G^=AG : AM
Therefore G^- : I z = AG* : BI*
Prop. III. To determine the focal diflance of rays
refradled by two lenfes placed near to each other on a
common axis.
Let AM, BN (fig. II.) be the furfaces of the firft Fje,n
lens, and CO, DP be the furfaces of the fecond, and °
let /3 be the thicknefs of the fecond lens, and $ the in¬
terval between them. Let the radius -of the anterior
furface of the fecond lens be a', and the radius of its
pofterior furface be b'. Let m' be to 1 as the fine of in¬
cidence to the fine of refraflion in the fubftance of the
fecond lens. Laftly, let p' be the principal focal dif¬
tance of the fecond lens. Let the extreme or marginal
ray meet the axis in L after paffing through both lenfes,
fo that DL is the ultimate focal diftance, reckoned from
the laft furface.
It is plain that DL may be determined by means of
a\ b', tn\ p', and Cl, in the fame manner that BI was
determined by means of a, b, m, p, and AG.
/*
The value of BI is f~m * 4 /» „ Take from
4)* ‘
this the interval and we have Cl—f—tnx
f
-2—
fl
J—/* ^bene-
/* y. Let the fmall part — ma,
glefled for the prefent, and let Cl be fuppofed —/
As we formed f,/ and by means of n, b, m, n, and
efcope
. TEL [
, r, kt as now form and ■?', for the fecond lens,
; by means of a', (= ^ — £>)’ and r'* wlU
be the focal dlftance of a {lender pencil refrafted by the
fivft furface,/will be the focal diftance of this pencil
after two refraaions, and q' will be the coefficient of
the aberration, negledting the thicknefs and interval of
the lenfes.
/*
Proceeding in this way, DL will be =/' —m /3 --
—f'q. But becaufe Cl is really lefs than /, by the
quantity mJ~ +2+/' q', we muft (by Lemma 3.)
. , DL
fubtraft the produfl of this quantity, multiplied by j^pi
pt\ f'1 f
(which is nearly — j, from f'—m /3 —q .
By this procefs we ffiall have
DL=/'-/'* (^? ++
The firft term/' of this value of DI is the focal dif¬
tance of a flender pencil of central rays refrafted by
both lenfes, neffie&ing their thicknefs and diftance ; the
fecond term, —/‘ (^r+jrr + 7rj 1S the correaion
neceffary for thefe circumftances ; and the third term,
 is the correction for the aperture 2 e.
And it is evident that p is a formula precifely fimilar to
containing the fame number of terms, and differing
only by the m\ o', and r7, employed in place of m, a,
n, and r.
It is alfo evident, that if there be a third lens, we
{hall obtain its focal diftance by a procefs precifely fimi¬
lar to that by which we obtained DL j and fo on for
any number of lenfes. #
Thus have we obtained formulae by which the foci
of rays are determined in the moft general terms j and
in fuch a manner as ftiall point out the connection of
the curvatures, thickneffes and diftances of the lenfes,
with their fpherical aberrations, and with the final aber¬
ration of the compound lens, arid give the aberrations in
feparate fymbols, fo that we can treat them by them-
felves, and fubjedt them to any conditions which may
enable us to corredl one of them by another.
We alfo fee in general, that the corrections for the
thicknefs and diftance of the lenfes are exhibited in
terms which involve only the focal diftances of central
rays, and have very little influence on the aberration^,
and ftill lefs on the ratio of the aberrations of the dif¬
ferent lenfes. This is a moft convenient circumftance ;
for we may negleCt them while we are determining q
and q', and in determining the ratio of the focal dif¬
tances of the feveral lenfes, on which the correction of
the chromatic aberration chiefly depends. I herefore,
in the conftruClion of a compound lens for uniting the
different colours, we may negleCt this correction for the
thicknefs and diftance till the end of the procefs. When
We apply it, we {hall find that it chiefly affeCts the final
focal diftance, making it fomewhat longer, but has
hardly any influence either on the chromatic or fpherical
aberration. We do not hefitate to fay, that the final
formulae here given are abundantly accurate, while they
Vol. XX. Part I.
249 ] TEL
, are vaftly more manageable than thofe employed by
Euler or D’Alembert. We have calculated trigono- ~
metrically the progrefs of the rays through one of the
glaffes, which will be given as an example, giving it a
very extravagant aperture, that the errors of the formu¬
lae might be very remarkable. We found the real aber¬
ration exceed the aberration affigned by the formula by
no more than /yth part, a difference which is quite m-
fignificant. The procefs here given derives its limplici-
ty from the frequent occurrence of harmonic proportions
in all optical theorems. This enabled Mr Clairaut to
employ the reciprocals of the radii and diftances with fo
much fimplicity and generality.
We confider it as another advantage of Mr Clairaut’s
method, that it gives, by the way, formulae for the
more ordinary queftions in optics, which are of wonder¬
ful fimplicity, pnd moft eafily remembered. The chief
problems in the elementary cnnftrucHon of optical in-
ftruments relate to the focal diftances of central rays.
This determines the focal diftances and arrangement of
the glaffes. All the reft may be called the refinement
of optics •, teaching us how to avoid or corredt the in-
diftindlnefs, the colours and the diftortions, which are
produced in the images formed by thefe fimple conftruc-
tions. We {hall mention a few of thefe formulas which
occur in our procefs, and tend greatly to abbreviate it
when managed by an experienced analyft.
Let m be to 1 as the fine of incidence to the fine of
refraction ; let a and b be the radii of the anterior and
pofterior furfaces of a lens 5 let r be the diftanee of the
radiant point, or the focus of incident central rays, and
/the diftance of the conjugate focus j and let p be the
principal focal diftance of the lens, or the local diftance
of parallel rays. Make — equal to j ^arne
letters o', !/, r', &c. exprefs the fame things for a fecond
lens j and b", r", &c. exprefs them for a third •, and
Telefcope.
fo
Then
1 m—
have -7.= 
y n
r
+
> fn —
“J /
„//>
&c.
Therefore when the incident light is parallel, and r
1 1 in'—1 I
j ‘~yr —
1 m
infinite, we have - ==
1>
n
P'
n'
m"—I
&.C.
And when feveral lenfes are contiguous, fo that their
intervals may be neglected, and there fore jj-. , belong-
i«ig to the firft lens, becomesbelonging to the fecond,
we have
r'-/-
/'’
_ x 1
p f
m— I , X
 L» j 
^ rt ^ r
11
ni—1
3y„-'
-I f m’—i
 i 1
m-
T I I
J L-
p ' p 1 r
1
r' P" P ' P
Nothing can be more eafily remembered than thefe
formulas, how numerous fo ever the glaffes may be.
Having thus obtained the neccffary analyfis and for-
I i mula,
TEL [250
Telefcope. tnula, it now remains to apply them to the conftru&ion
S  v m~' of achromatic lenfes j in which it fortunately happens,
that the employment of feveral furfaces, in order to
produce the union of the differently refrangible rays,
enables us at the fame time to employ them for correft-
ing each other’s fpherical aberration.
In the article Optics we gave a general notion of the
principle on which we may proceed in our endeavours
to unite the differently refrangible rays. A white or
compounded ray is feparated by refraction into its com¬
ponent coloured rays, and they are diffufed over a fmall
angular fpace. Thus it appears, that the glafs ufed by
Sir Ifaac Newton in his experiments diffufed a white
ray, which was incident on its pofterior furface in an
angle of 30°, in fuch a manner that the extreme red
ray emerged into air, making an angle of 50° 213-' with
the perpendicular ; the extreme violet ray emerged in
an angle of 510 15^' ; and the ray which was in the
confines of green and blue, emerged in an angle of 50°
48 If the fine of the angle 30° of incidence be call¬
ed 0.5, which it really i% the fine of the emergence of
the red ray will be o.JJ ; that of the violet ray will be
0.78 ; and that of the intermediate ray will be 0.774,
an exaCt mean between the t\yo extremes. 'I bis ray
may therefore be called the mean refrangible ray, and
the ratio of 774 to 50, or of 1.55 to I, will very pro¬
perly exprefs the mean refraCtion of this glafs j and we
have for this glafs /«—1.55. The fine of refraCKon,
being meafured on a fcale, of which the fine of incidence
occupies 100 parts, will be 154 for the red ray, 155
for the mean ray, and 156 for the violet ray. This
number, or its ratio to unity, is commonly taken to re-
prefent the refraftive power of the glafs. There is
fume impropriety in this, unlefs we confider ratios as
meafured by their logarithms: for if m be 1, the fub-
ftance does not refraCl at all. The refraClive power
can be properly meafured only by the refraction which
it produces *, that is, by the change which it makes in
the direction of the light, or the angle contained be¬
tween the incident and refraCted rays. If tw'o fubftances
produce fuch deviations always in one proportion, we
fhould then fay that their refraCtive powers are in that
proportion. This is not true" in any fubltances •, but
the fines of the angles, contained between the refraCted
ray and the perpendicular, are always in one proportion
when the angle of incidence in both fubftances is the
fame. This being a cognifable funCtion of the real re-
fraCtion, has therefore been affumed as the only conve¬
nient meafure of the refraCtive powers. Although it is
not ftriCtly juft, it anfwers extremely well in the moft
ufual cafes in optical inftruments: the refraCtions are
moderate ; and the fines are very nearly as the angles
contained between the rays and the perpendicular; and
the real angles of refraCtion, or defleCtions of the rays,
are almoft exaCtly proportional to m—I. The moft na¬
tural and obvious meafure of the refraCtive powers would
therefore be m—1. But this would embarrafs fome
very frequent calculations ; and we therefore find it
belt, on the whole, to take m itfelf for the meafure of
the refraCtive power.
The feparation of the red, violet, and intervening
rays, has been called difperjion ; and although this arifes
merely from a difference of the refraCtive power in re-
fpeCt of the difterent rays, it is convenient to diftinguifh
this particular modification of the refraCtive power by a
3
] TEL
name, and we call it the Dispersive Power of the Telefcoi
refraCting fubftance. ',T*
It is fufceptible of degrees ; for a piece of flint-glafs
will refraCt the light, fo that when the fine of refrac¬
tion of the red ray is 77, the fine of the refraCtion of
the violet ray is nearly 784 ; or if the fine of refraCtion of
the red ray, meafured on a particular fcale, is i.i;4, the
fine of refraCtion of the violet ray is 1.57. The difper-
fion of this fubftance, being meafured by the difference
of the extreme fines of refraCtion, is greater than thedif-
perfion of the other glafs, in the proportion of 3 to 2.
But this alone is not a fufficient meafure of the abfo-
lute difperfive power of a fubitance. Although the ratio
of 1.54 to 1.56 remains conftant, whatever the real mag¬
nitude of the refraCtions of common glafs may be, and
though we therefore fay that its difperfive power is con¬
ftant, we know, that by increafing the incidence and
the refraCtion, the abfolute difperfion is alfo increafed.
Another fubftance {hows the fame properties, and in a
particular cafe may produce the fame difperfion ; yet it
has not for this foie reafon the fame difperfive power.
If indeed the incidence and the refraCtion of the mean
ray be alfo the fame, the difperfive power cannot be faid
to differ ; but if the incidence and the refraCtion of the
mean ray be lefs, the difperfive power muft be confider-
ed as greater, though the aCtual difperfion be the fame;
becaufe if we increafe the incidence till it becomes equal
to that in the common glafs, the difperfion will now be
increafed. The proper way of conceiving the difperfion
therefore is, to confider it as a portion of the whole re¬
fraCtion ; and if we find a fubftance making the fame
difperfion with half the general refraCtion, we muft fay
that the difperfive quality is double ; becaufe by ma¬
king the refraCtion equal, the difperfion will really be
double.
If therefore we take m as a fymbol of the feparation
of the extreme rays from the middle ray, -m -is the na-
772—I
tural meafure of the difperfive power. We (hall exprefs
this in the Leibnitzian notation, thus —that we
in—1
may avoid the indiftinCtnefs which the Nev^tonian nota¬
tion would occafion when m is changed for m’ or m".
It is not unufual for optical waiters to take the whole
feparation of the red and violet rays for the meafure of
the difperfive power, and to compare this with the re¬
fraCting power with refpeCl to one of the extreme rays.
But it is furely better to confider the mean refraCtion as
the meafure of the refraCting power: and the deviation
of either of the extremes from this mean is a proper
enough meafure of the difperfion, being always half of
it. It is attended with this convenience, that being in¬
troduced into our computations as a quantity infinitely
fmall, and treated as fuch for the eafe of computation,
while it is really a quantity of fenfible magnitude ; the
errors arifing from this fuppofition are diminilhed great¬
ly, by taking one half of the deviation, and comparing
it with the mean refraCtion. This method has, how¬
ever, this inconvenience, that it does not exhibit at once
the refraCtive power in all fubftances refpeCting any
particular colour of light ; for it is not the ray of any
particular colour that fuffers the mean refraCtion. In
common glafs it is the ray which is in the confines of
the yellow and blue; in flint-glafs it is nearly the mid¬
dle
TEL
[ 25
* efcope. die blue ray j and in other fubftances It is a different
' ray. Thefe circumftances appear plainly in the different
proportions of the colours of the prifmatic fpeftrum ex¬
hibited by different fubftances. This will be confidered
afterwards, being a great bar to the perftt&ion of achro¬
matic inftruraents.
The way in which an achromatic lens is conftru&ed
is to make ufe of a contrary refraftion of a fecond lens
to deftroy the difperfion or fpherical aberration of the
fir ft.
The firft purpofe will be anfwered if be equal to
* n
J ^
  For, in order that the different coloured rays
rr
may be collefted into one point by two lenfes, it is only
neceffary that J-;, the reciprocal of the focal diftance
of rays refracted by both, may be the fame for the
extreme and mean rays, that is, that
ni-
m-\-d m — 1
_i 1 be of the fame value with f-
n' r n
nj 1 1 . , , ..dm diri
  — -4- which rauft happen it 1   be =0, or
n' r n «
dm dm'
3. The ratio
trl—i
! ] TEL
4. The radii of the furfaces a,b ; (f, id; a", W. Telefcope.^
5. The principal focal diftances, or the focal
diftances of parallel central rays, - p, p\ p"-
6. The focal diftance of the compound lens P.
7. The diftance of the radiant point, or of
the focus of incident rays on each lens r, r', r1'.
8. The focal diftance of the rays refracted
by each lens - - -
9. The focal diftance of rays refradted by
the compound lens -
10. The half breadth of the lens
Alfo the following fubfidiary values :
•7 ‘
r_ r 11
n a b ’ n'
I I
I
2. 7=
m—xhtd* 2mt-j-m m-j~2 3 m* + m
fid
\ n
—— . This may be feen in another way, more
n n
comprehenfible by fuch as are not verfant in thefe dif-
cuflions. In order that the extreme colours which are
feparated by the firft lens may be rendered parallel by
the fecond ; we have ftiown already that n and n' are
proportional to the radii of the equivalent ifofceles
lenfes, being the halves of thefe radii. They are there¬
fore (in thefe fmall refraflions) inverfely proportional to
the angles formed by the furfaces at the edges of the
lenfes. n! may therefore be taken for the angle of the
firft lens, and n for that of the fecond. Now the fmall
refradlion by a prifm, whofe angle (alfo fmall) is n\ is
m—1 X «• The difperfive power being now fubftituted
for the refradlive power, we have for this refradtion of
the prifm dmy.n'. This muft be deftroyed by the op-
pofite refradtion of the other prifm dnf y.n. Therefore
dm dni .
dmY.n'—dm!Xn, or -—r- In llke manner,
n tv
this effedt will be produced by three lenfes if —
.dm" .
4—— be =0, &c.
n"
Laftly, the errors arifing from the fpherical figure,
which we expreffed byR* (7+7') will be corredted
if q-\-q' be =ro. We are therefore to difcover the ad-
juftments of the quantities employed in the preceding
formulae, which will infure thefe conditions. It will
render the procefs more perfpicuous if we colled! into
one view the fignifications of our various fyrribols, and
the principal equations which we are to employ.
1. The ratios to unity of the fines of mean
incidence in the different media are - m, m', m"
2. The ratio of the differences of the fines
c . dm
01 the extremes - - ——= u.
dm'
m \ n* an* a'n r n*
1 ^ -j- ^—2r"^—. And q and q" muft be formed
arn x r* n ) 2 7 7
in the fame manner from m!, a\ n\ d ; and from ml', a",
n'\ r"t as q is formed from m, o, n, r.
3. Alfo, becaufe in the cafe of an objedl-glafs, r is in¬
finitely great, the laft term ^ in all the values of j.,
will vanifh, and we (hall alfo have F=P.
j r r'
_ . , , , , • n 1 r 1 m' 1 . m 1
Therefore m a double objedt-glals —= j 
I m"—1
m—1
= 1+1.
And in a triple objedl-glafs "p — —^ j-
=±. + 1+1.
n ’ p" ' p' ' p
Alfo, in a double objedl-glafs, the corredlion of fphe¬
rical aberration requires q-{-q'—v.
And a triple objedl-glafs requires q -\-q' -\-q"~v*
For the whole error is multiplied by F*, and by 4 »
and therefore the equation which corredls this error
may be divided by F1 \ e1.
This equation in the fourteenth Tine from the top
of the column, giving the value of y, q\ q'\ may be
much fimplified as follows: In the firft place, they may
be divided by m, m\ or rd', by applying them properly
to the terms within the parenthefis, and expunging them
from the denominator of the general fadtors^—~T">
- T I m
  —. This does not alter the values of q. qf, and ef.
m"
In the fecond place the whole equations may be after¬
wards divided by ni—1. This will give the values of
•1
, which will ftill be equal to
/w'-— I' m'— 1' rrf. — I
nothing if y+y/+^" be equal to nothing.
This divifion reduces the general fadlor -
nv
of q't®
i
trf'
And in the equation for q we obtain, in place of
■1. , - _ 1
—, the fadlor ,
m!—1
This
zc.
the general fadlor -
will alfo he the fadlor of the value of q" when the third
lens is of the fame fubftance with the firll, as is general-
I i 2 ly
TEL
Telefcope. Jy the cafe. And, in the third place, lince the rays in-
,J”“r V- cident on the firft lens are parallel, all the terms vanilh
from the value of q in which — is found, and there re-
1 r
main only the three firft, viz
Performing thefe operations, we have
q _ (m* 1m -pi
an* md2 n ) 1
X .
r
tri* iitf-\-m m-\-2
n3 at? a*n
nJ
fm*
=:cb
q' fm'1 3^+1 4(;72,-f'i)
— i V«3, a'n'Z tn!a'*nl~^m r'n'* tti'a'r'n'
.l 3'm+Z\f
m! rn n')
m!
q"   fm* 2wz-|-1 m-\-l 4(/rc-{_i)
'—i C\n"i a"n"* ' m!'a"*n"* r"n"* m"a"r"n"
a" nu
3m+2\e*
■T rf'rmnn ) 2 *
Let us now apply this inveftigation to the conftruc-
tion of an objedl-glafs j and we fhall begin with a
double lens.
Conjlru&ion of a Double Achromatic Objefl-glufs.
Here we have to determine four radii a, b, and b'.
Make«=:i. This greatly fimplifies the calculus, by
exterminating it from all the denominators. This gives
r i . dm d rn' , d m>
tor the equation — + —— zrp, the equation dm-\ j-
, dm' , I dm
=0, or dm — r, and ~ — u. Alfo
n n' dm'
we have 7'/, the focal diftance of the light incident on the
fecond lens, the fame with the principal focal diftance p
of the firft lens, (neglefting the interval, if any). Now
- = which in the prefent cafe is ~m—i. Alfo
1 • ✓ , x i 1
- is ——u{tti—i), and ~ ~m—i—u[mf—x)zzu'.
Make thefe fubftitutions in the values of —?—
m—i
4
and
n, and ive obtain the following equation :
c m* — <2m+1^ , c(m + 2)
a m a*
>3 nJ*
-u* m
a*(2w2'-f-i)
u(m' + i) , , ^ , 4u(m -i-i)(m—
■ —f-«*(3^'+0   i
m a rti a
:o.
Arrange thefe terms in order, according as they are
factors of —, or independent quantities.
It puts on this form :
i t i u(m4-l^ t
   X-r—f (2t«+i) x X -r —
m a am a*
(“■C- + xl +cnf + ^
(3 «'-to
m
[ 252 I TEL
Let A be the coefficient of B that of C that ?elefco 1
a* a
of —y D that of and E the fum of the independent
quantity j that is, let Abe —-—-, Enrcfaw-f-i)
m ^ ist
C=^±?l, r>—a2 ( w-po) — 4f(rt±lXn-l)
m m
and ILzz cm* -{■ u* (3 /«' -p 1) (m—1) — _
u (3 ^+2) {m—1)*
tn
Our final equation becomes
A. B C D
a* a d* a‘ °*
The coefficients of this equation and the independent
quantity are all known, from our knowledge of m
ni dm, d ni; and we are to find the values of a and
d, and from them and k=i to find the values of b
and b'.
But it is evidently an indeterminate equation, be-
caufe there are two unknown quantities; fo that there
may be an infinity of folutions. It muft be rendered
determinate by means of fome other conditions to which
it may be fubje&ed. Thefe conditions muft depend
on fome other circumftances which may direft our
choice.
One circumftance occurs to us which we think of
very great confequence. In the paffage of light from
one fubftance to another, there is always a confiderable
portion refle6ted from the pofterior furface of the firft
and from the anterior furface of the laft ; and this re¬
flexion is more copious in proportion to the refraXion.
This lofs of light will therefore be diminifhed by mak¬
ing the internal furfaces of the lenfes to coincide ; that
is, by making b=d. This will be attended with ano¬
ther advantage. If we put between the glaffes a fub¬
ftance of nearly the fame refraXing power, we ftiall not
only completely prevent this lofs of light, but ive fhall
greatly diminifh the errors which arife from an imper-
feX polifh of the furfaces. We have tried this, and find
the effeX very furprifing. The lens being polifhed im¬
mediately after the figure has been given it, and while
it was aim oft impervious to light by reafon of its rough#*
nefs, which was ftill fenfible to the naked eye, perform¬
ed as ivell as when finiflied in the fineft manner.
N. B. This condition, by taking away one refrac¬
tion, obliges us to increafe thofe which remain, and
therefore increafes the fpherical aberrations. And fince
our formulae do not fully remove thofe (by reafon of the
fmall quantities negleXed in the procefs), it is uncertain
whether this condition be the moft eligible. We have,
however, no direX argument to the contrary.
Let us fee what determination this gives us.
In this cafe — zr 7, = - —j. For becaufe - = -
aba n a
— r and n=l, we have 14- 7 = -, and r = - —1.
0 baba
I I 2
Iherefore — rr — — —pi. Therefore, in our final
a'* a* a
• 12. II
equation, put ~ -pi in place of —, and 1 in
place-
.TEL
[ 25
Te! Ops
A—C B-f-D —2C
^ place of y, and it becomes
4-E-fD—c-°.
Tims have we arrived at a common affedfed quadratic
equation, where ~ is the unknown quantity. It has the
common form px'+fX+rrro, where ;; is =A—C
q is equal to 2 C—B—D, r is equal to E-f D—L, and
I
x is equal to —.
1 a
q r
Divide the equation by p, and we have +
—o Make j-= - and t— and we have ar* + j-x
" P P
t — o. This gives us finally —, or x — — ^sz±:
tjl P /. ^
This value of - is taken from a fcale of which the
a
unit is half the radius of the ifofceles kns which is equi¬
valent to the firit lens, or has the fame focal diftance
with it. We mult then find (on the fame fcale) the
value of b, viz.- — I, which is alfo the value of a',
a
Having obtained we muft find b' by means of the
equation ~ = -^7-, and therefore - =
But —— w. Therefore — ——\-u—1.
n' b' a a
Thus is our objedt-glafs conflrufted ; and we muft
determine its focal diftance, or its reciprocal ~. This
is —m—I—u {nt— 1).
All thefe radii and diftances are meafured on a fcale
of which n is the unit. But it is more convenient to
meafure every thing by the focal diftance of the com¬
pound objedt-glafs. This gives us the proportion which
all the diftances bear to it. Therefore, calling P unity,
in order to obtain — on this fcale, we have only to ftate
a
the analogy m—1^—u {ni—1) : irr— : and A is
the radius of our firft furface meafured on a fcale of
which P is the unit.
If, in the formula which exprefTes the final equation
for -, the value of t fhould be pofitive, and greater than
a
£ P, the equation has imaginary roots ; and it is not
poflible with the glaffes employed, and the conditions
affumed, to correft both the chromatic and fpherical
aberrations.
If t is negative and equal to -J-T*, the radical part of
the value is =ro, and -= —4 J’« But if it be negative
a
or pofitive, but lefs than 4 A the equation has two real
roots, which will give two conftrudlions. That is to
be preferred which gives the fmalleft curvature of the
fbrfaces *, becaufe, fince in our formulae which deter¬
mine the fpherical aberration fome quantities are ne-
gledled, thefe quantities are always greater when a large
A,
3 ] TEL
arch (that is, an arch of many degrees) is employed. Telefcop*.
No radius ftiould be admitted which is much lefs than
\ of the focal diftance.
All this procefs will be made plain and eafy by an
example.
Very careful experiments have fhown, that in com¬
mon crovvn-glafs the fine of incidence is to the fine of:
refradlion as 1.526 is to 1, and that in the generality of
flint-glafs it is as 1.604 to 1. Alfo that = 0.6054
a m
— u. Therefore w — 1 r= 0.526; m'— 1 = 0.604 ;
//2—— I
c——t -, = 0.87086. By thefe numbers we can com-
m—x'
pute the coefficients of our final equation. We ftiaB
find them as follows :
A = 2.01 2
B =3.529
C =1.360
D=—0.526
H =1.8659
The general equation (p. 25 2. col. 2.1in. 8.), when lub-
jefted to the afiumed coincidence of the internal furfaces*
. A—C B4-D—2C , _ _ ^ . /-* *
cr a
=0.652; B-j-H—2 C is =0.283 ; and E + D—C is
=—0.020; and the equation with numerical coefficients
. 0.652 0.283 ... - ,
is -—-r 1 0.02000:0, which correlponds to
a a
the equation 7? a:-l-r=o. We muft now make
q 0.283 , r 0.02
j=-, = • =0.434, and /=-, =—7— , =0.0307.
/P 0.652 p 0.652 J '
This gives us the final quadratic equation —j —
—0.0307=0. To folve this, we have—§-^=0.217,
and 4 P—0.0471 • From this take t, which is =—0.0307
(that is, to 0.0471 add 0.0307), and we obtain 0.0778,
the fquare root, of which is =0.2789. Therefore,
finally, -=0.2170=^0.2789, which is either C.4959
or —0.0619. It is plain that the firft muft be preferred,
becaufe the fecond gives a negative radius, or makes the
firft furface of the crown-glals concave. Now as the
convergence of the rays is to be produced by the crown-
glafs, the other furface muft become very convex, xand
occafion great errors in the computed aberration. We
therefore retain 0.4959 for the value of and a is
= -—, =2.0166.
0.4959
I I #
To obtain b, ufe the equation ^•=———1, which gives
^-=—0.5041, and therefore a convex furface. b is
therefore =—-—=1.9837.
0.5041
a' is the fame with £, and —- — —0.5041.
To obtain ufe the equation -y = Now u~
T
O.5Q41. The fum of thefe is
0*1013;
0.6054, and “/ =
TEL
Telcfcope. 0.1013 j and fince it is pofitive, the furface is concave.
t 254 ]
tel
b'=
.1013
=9.872.
Laftly,-^-=«—1—u (w'—i) =0.1603, and P=
:> =0.2383.
0.1603’
Now to obtain all the meafures in terms of the focal
diftance P, we have only to divide the meafures already
found by 6.2383, and the quotients are the meafures
wanted.
Therefore a~
b=
2.0166
6.2383
1.9837
6.2383
=0.32325
=—0.31798
=—0.31798
,j82j
P=
6.2383
1.
If it be intended that the focal diftance of the objeft-
glafs (hall be any number n of inches or feet, we have
only to multiply each of the above radii by «, and we
have their lengths in inches or feet.
Thus we have completed the inveftigation of the con-
ftruftion of a double objeft.glafs. Although this was
intricate, the final refult is abundantly fimple for prac¬
tice, efpecially with the aftiftance of logarithms. The
only troublefome thing is the preparation of the nume¬
rical coefficients A, B, C, D, E of the final equation.
Strift attention muft alfo be paid to the pofitive and ne¬
gative figns of the quantities employed.
We might propofe other conditions. Thus it is na¬
tural to prefer for the firft or crown-glafs lens fuch a
form as {hall give it the fmalleft poffible aberration.
This will require a fmall aberration of the flint-glafs to
correct it. But a little refle&ion will convince us that
this form will not be good. The focal diftance of the
crown-glafs muft not exceed one-third of that of the
compound glafs; thefe two being nearly in the propor¬
tion of d ni—d m to d m'. Therefore if this form be
adopted, and a be made about ^th of it will not ex¬
ceed fth of P. Therefore, although we may produce
a moft accurate union of the central and marginal rays
by oppofite aberrations, there will be a confiderable
aberration of feme rays which are between the centre
and the margin.
It is abfolutely impoffible to colleft into one point
the whole rays (though the very remoteft rays are united
with the central rays), except in a very particular cafe,
which cannot obtain in an objea-glafs •, and the fmall
quantities which are negle&ed in the formula which we
have given for the fpherical aberration, produce errors
which do not follow any proportion of the aperture
which can be expreffed by an equation of a manageable
form. When the aperture is very large, it is better
not to correa the aberration for the whole aperture, but
for about -gths 0f When the rays correfponding to
this diftance are made to coincide with the central rays
by meam of appofite aberrations, the ravs which are be¬
yond this diftance will be united with fome of thofe
which are nearer to the centre, and the w:hole diffufion
will be confiderably diminiffied. Dr Smith has illuftrated
this in a very perfpicuous manner in his theory of his Telefc
Catoptric Microfcope, uJy,
But although we cannot adopt this form of an objeft-
glafs, there may be other confiderations which may
lead us to prefer fome particular form of the crown-glafs
or of the flint-glafs. We ffiall therefore adapt our ge~
C D
M+E = oto this
condition.
Therefore let h exprefs this fele&ed ratio of the two
radii of the crown-glafs, making a~ zzh (remembering
always that a is pofitive and b negative in the cafe of a
double convex, and ^ is a negative number).
. . A B
neral equation -— — _
a* a a
With this condition we have — = —.
b a
But when we
make n the unit of our formula of aberration, - = i 1,
b a
Therefore 1= - and - = - .
a a a 1—
Now fubftitute
this for i in the general equation, and change all the
figns (which ftill preferves it =0), and ive obtain
A * B
C D
+
I—h
= 0.
(I-/0*
By this equation we are to find -, or the radius of
a
the anterior furface of the flint-glafs. The equation is
of this form p #-$-r=o, and wTe muft again make
herefore j=
p C’
A
1
c x
(r“
-hy ~‘E)‘ Then> finall7»
T7 ——i
It may be worth while to take a particular cafe of
this condition. Suppofe the crown-glafs to be of equal
convexities on both fides. This has fome advantages:
We can tell with precifion whether the curvatures are
precifely equal, by meafuring the focal diftance of rays
reflected back from its pofterior furface. Thefe diflances
will be precifely equal. Now it is of the utmoft im¬
portance in the conftruftion of an objeft-glafs which is
to correfl the fpherical aberration, that the forms be
precifely fuch as are required by our formulae.
In this cafe of a lens equally convex on both fides
1 .
— is =
1
P
general equation
then
Subftitute
B
nd
this value for - in the
a
C D
a« a' +E-0’
A A B , B
-7 = — j becomes —. Now change all the
ar 4 a 2 6
, . C D A B ,
and we have - - 4- , —E  =0, by
a* a’ 4 2
which we are to find a'. This in numbers is —~r —
%
0.526
TEL
C 255 ]
TEL
:ope. O.526 ^0ig0^—;0. Then s=z = 0.3867,
—0.6044
Tpr ’ =“0-4444
1.360 ’
Then -—4 1=0.1933 j
* ,r*=0.0374 5 and =*=0.6941 j fo that
—0 I933::±::o.694I. This gives two real roots, viz.
0.8874, and —0.5008. If we take the firft, we (hall
have a convex anterior furface for the flint-glafs, and
confequently a very deep concave for the pofterior fur-
face. We therefore take the fecond or negative root
—0.CO08.
I II
We find-, as before, by the equation ^= a, +«,=
0.1046, which will give a large value of b1.
We had -=-
a 2
and 2
and is the fame as in the former cafe, viz. 0.1603.
Having all thefe reciprocals, we may find a, b, a\ V,
and P j and then dividing them by P, we obtain finally
a— 0.3206
b ——0.3206
a'——0.3201
b'— 1-533
P= I.
By comparing this objeft-glafs with the former, we
may remark, that diminifhing a a little increafcs b, an^
in this refpeft improves the lens. It indeed has dimi-
niihed b', but this being already confiderable, no incon¬
venience attends this diminution. But we learn, at the
fame time, that the advantage mujl be very Imall •, for
we cannot diminifti a much more, without making it as
fmall as the fmalleft radius of the objeft-glafs. This
proportion is therefore very near the maximum, or beft
poflible j and we know that in fuch cafes, even con¬
fiderable changes in the radii will make but fmall
changes in the refult: for thefe reafons we are difpofed
to give a ftrong preference to the firft conftruftion, on
account of the other advantages which we (bowed to at¬
tend it.
As another example, we may take a cafe which is
very nearly the general practice of the London artifts.
The radius of curvature for the anterior furface of the
convex crown-glafs is ^ths of the radius of the pofterior
furface, fo that h— £. This being introduced into the
determinate equation, gives
a ~ 0.2938 a' — — 0.3443
b ——0.3526 b — l.>474
As another condition, we may fuppofe that the fecond
or flint-glafs is of a determined form.
This cafe is folved much in the fame manner as the
former. Taking h to reprefent the ratio of a' and b', we
This value being fubftituted in the
B l Telefcope;.
the final equation A?-f/=o, s = and tzz
, . A B
general equation — 
CD.,,
 —  L E=o, gives us
a! 2 a
D
I—h
— 0.
This gives for
and -= —-
a 2
We might here take the particular cafe of the flint-
glafs being equally concave on both fides. Then be-
caufe ^ = —w, and in the cafe of equal concavities
n’
21
- = = —v, it is fufncient to put — « tor —.
a1 n1’ * *2 o'
A B Cu*
This being done, the equation becomes —f"
Da . B , 1
—j- -f- L = o. This gives s = —, and / = -^- X
^Da—2Ca*
/4Da-2Ca»+E^
We imagine that thefe cafes are fufficient for (bow¬
ing the management of the general equation j and the
example of the numerical folution of the firft cafe affords
inftances of the only niceties which occur in the procefs,
viz. the proper employment of the pofitire and negative
quantities.
We have oftener than once obferved, that the formu¬
la is not perfectly accurate, and that in very large aper¬
tures errors will remain. It is proper therefore, when
we have obtained the form of a compound obje£t-giafs,
to calculate trigonometrically the prugrefs of the light
through it j and if we find a confiderable aberration,
either chromatic or fpherical, remaining, we muft make
fuch changes in the curvatures as will correft them.
We have done this for the firft example ; and we find,
that if the focal diftance of the compound objedl glals
be 100 inches, there remains of the fpherical aberration
nearly of an inch, and the aberration of colour is
over correiled above -g-th of an inch. The firft aberra¬
tion has been diminiftied about 6 times, and the other
about 30 times. Both of the remaining errors will be
diminiftied by increafing the radius of the inner furfaces.
This will diminifti the aberration of the crown-glafs, and
will diminifti the difperfion of the flint more than that, of
the crown. But indeed the remaining error is hardly
worth our notice.
It is evident to any perfon converfant with optical
difeuflions,. that we ftiall improve the correction of tha
fpherical aberration by diminiftiing the refraCtions. If we
employ two lenfes for producing the convergency of the
rays to a real focus, we (hall reduce the aberration to
■Jth. Therefore a better achromatic glafs will be form¬
ed of three lenfes, two of which are convex and of crown-
glafs. The refraCtion being thus divided between them,
the aberrations are leffened. There is no occafion to
employ two concave lenfes of flint-glafs ; there is even
an advantage in ufing one. T he aberration being con¬
fiderable, lefs of it will ferve for correcting the aberra¬
tion of the crown-glafs, and therefore fuch a form may
be feleCted as has little aberration. Some light is in¬
deed loft by thefe two additional furfaces ; but this is
much more than compenfated by the greater apertures-
which we can venture to give whenthe curvature of the
furface is fo much diminiftied. We proceed therefore tw
T/ie Conjlru&ion of a Triple Achromatic ObjeB-g/afs.
It is plain that there are more conditions to be af-
fumecL’
TEL t 256
^ >.giefcope. fumed before we can render this a determinate problem,
" and that the inveftigation mull be more intricate. At
the fame time, it muft give us a much greater variety of
conflruftions, in confequence of our having more con¬
ditions necefi'ary for giving the equation this determi¬
nate form. Our limits will not allow us to give a full
account of all that may be done in this method. We
lhall therefore content ourfelves with giving one cafe,
which will fufficiently point out the method of proceed¬
ing. We (hall then give the refults in fome other eligi¬
ble cafes, as rules to artifts by which they may conftru6l
fuch glaffes.
Let the firft and fecond glafles be of equal curva¬
tures on both fides ; the firft being a double convex of
crown-glafs, and the fecond a double concave of ilint-
glafs.
Still making n the unit of our calculus, wre have in the
]
(tn—l') -\-c m* -}
TEL
c d' 7/ (3 m 2)
777,-}-2
4 m
(37/z-f 1).
m
2(777'-}-1) (77/-
m’
■1)
  T ^ (2 777-1-l)
(3 77/-f 2)(7;/—1'/
Telefr<
B
firft place a~—b,~—a\~b’. Therefore - — - — —
—c d v!
Our equation now becomes 4-Crro.
1 aiit ai/ 1
This reduced to numbers, by computing the values of
the coefficients, is ^ —o.22C7=ro.
a"1 a" J J ‘
This, divided by 1,312, gives rrr—0.92j and /rr —
0.2482; —4.7=0.46; 4^=0.2116; and -7
= r±= 0.6781.
And, finally, —■ =0.460100.6781.
This has two roots, viz. 0.2181 and — 1.1381.
The laft would give a fmall radius, and is therefore re-
jedled.
( „—t)» or “——I* 1 herefore the equation Now, proceeding w'ith this value ofand the—, we
\ Cl U * Tl Tl i.o //
dm'
dm"
-} — =0 becomes u-
. u 1
.l + 7,=o)or- =
Let us call this value ri.
1
 1.
u
We have — = m—1 ; — rr —
P P
. N t 1 I t
(tn—i); — — — -J_—, -ttt.
K—0; y,-=u'
— m' -f- u' (777—1).
And if we make m'—777=C,
-f- 77' (777 zr 1). Alfo —~ = i
r
(777'—1), = 777—777', = —C'.
we fhall have —- = — C,
I
y*
The equality of the two curvatures of each lens gives
and
I — JL Therefore -— I— I —4 — ■ .
„ ~ A ncrciore y,——1
1 n
1
1
a
I
b" a" rr a"
Subftituting thefe values in the equation (p. 252.
col. 2. par. I.), Ave obtain the three formulae.
c (7774- 2)
I.
C 777* ■
2.—77/24-4(2 77/4-1)
^ C ( 2 777 -}— I) 4-
77/4-2
4 777
4m, + (3W'+ 1) (”*-
2(777'4-1) (m—r) (3 777,4-2) (777—1)*
■0
3. C u' 3 77
(3 7774-1)4-
C un (2 7774-1)
77/
C Uf (777 4- 2)
/\cdid (7774- 1)
777 u"“
cd* u' (3 7774-2)
777
• c d id
Now arrange thefe quantities according as they are
Coefficients of -L and of or independent quantities.
Let the coefficient of —- be A, that of — be B, and
a a"
the independent quantity be C, rve have
A= 2^2+21; B—ca'* (2m+l)-4^
777 \ -T J m ,
and C=C 777»4- ^^4- 4 (2 77/4-1)-{-(3 ^'4-1)
get the other radius b", and then, by means of id, we get
the other radius which is common to the four furfaces.
Then, by -p-= - —d, we get the value of P.
The radii being all on the fcale of which u is the
unit, they muft be divided by P to obtain their value on
the fcale which has P for its unit. This will give us
a =—b, — —a', —b', =0.530
a"— 1*215
£"= —0.3046
P= I.
This is not a very good form, becaufe the laft furfaee
has too great curvature.
We thought it worth while to compute the curvatures
for a cafe where the internal furfaces of the lenfes coin¬
cide, in order to obtain the advantages mentioned on a
former occafion. The form is as follows:
The middle lens is a double concave of flint-glafs;
the laft lens is of crown-glafs, and has equal curvatures
on both fides. The following table contains the di-
menfions of the glaffes for a variety of focal diftances.
The firft column contains the focal diftances in inches;
the fecond contains the radii of the firft furface in inches;
the third contains the radii of the pofterior furface of
the firft lens and anterior furface of the fecond ; and
the fourth column has the radii of the three remaining
furfaces.
P
12
24
48
60
72
84
96
I08
120
a
9-2S
i8-33
27-33
36.42
45-42
54-5
63-5
72.6
81.7
90.7
b, a'
6.17
12.2C
18.25
24-33
3°-33
36.42
42-5
48-5
54-58
60.58
b',a",b"
I2-75
25-5
38>i7
50.92
63-58
76-33
89.
101.75
114.42
127.17
We have had an opportunity of trying glafles of this
conftrudlion, and found them equal to any of the fame
length, although executed by an artift by no means ex¬
cellent in his profeffion as a glafs-grinder. This very
circumftance
.TEL [25
► efcope circumftance gave us the opportunity of feeing the good
^ -v—--1 effects of interpodnga tranfparent fubftance between the
glaffes. We put fome clear turpentine varnifh between
them, which completely prevented all reflection from
the internal furfaces. Accordingly thefe telefcopes
were furprifingly bright ; and although the roughnefs
left by the firtt grinding was very perceptible by the
naked eye before the glaffes were put together, yet
when joined in this manner it entirely difappeafed, even
when the glaffes were viewed with a deep magnifier.
The aperture of an objeCTglafs of this conftru&ion
of 30 inches focal diftance was 3xth inches, which is
confiderably more than any of Mr Dollond’s that we
have feen.
If we thould think it of advantage to make all the
three lenfes ifofceles, that is, equally curved on both fur-
faces, the general equation will give the following radii:
® rr-j-0.639 a'= — 0.5285 a" = -f-0.64T3
b — — O.639 sc -{-0.5285 b:i — — 0.6413
This feems a good form, having large radii.
Should we choofe to have the two crown-glafs lenfes
ifofceles and equal, we muft make
tf=-f 0.6412 a' — — O.5227 a" =-}-0.6412
b — — 0.6412 b' zi 0.5367 b" rr — 0.6412
Th is form hardly differs from the laft.
Our readers will recoiled that all thefe forms proceed
on certain meafures of the refraClive and difperfive powers
of the fubftanees employed, which are espreffed by m, tn\
dm, and dm': and we may be affured that the formulae
are fufliciently exad, by the comparifon (which we have
made in one of the cafes) of the refult of the formula
and the trigonometrical calculation of the progrefs of
the rays. The error was but ^th of the whole, ten
times lefs than another error, which unavoidably re¬
mains, and will be confidered prefently. Thefe mea-
iiires of refradion and difperlion Were carefully taken ;
but there is great diverfity, particularly in the flint-
glafs. We are well informed that the manufadure of
this article has confiderably changed of late years, and
that it is in general lefs refradive and lefs difperfive
than formerly. This muft evidently make a change in
the forms of achromatic glaffes. The proportion of the
focal diftance of the crown-glaffes to that of the flint
muft be increafed, and this will occafion a change in the
curvatures, which thall corred the fpherical aberration.
We examined with great care a parcel of llint-glafs
which an artift of this city got lately for the purpofe of
making achromatic objed-glaffes, and alfo fome very
white crown-glafs made in Leith j and we obtained the
following meafures:
= I-J29
= 1.57s
dm
142
O.64841.
dm' 219
We computed fome forms for triple objed-glaffes
thade of thefe glafles, w'hich we ftiall fubjoin as a fpe-
eimen of the variations which this change of data will
*>ccafion.
If all the three lenfes are made ilbfceles, we have
a = -j- 0.796 a' — — 0.474
b~ — 0.796 tV — -f- O.474
Or
a rr
b —
0.504 a' =r — 0.475
O.504 b'■=: 0.475
Jf the middle lens be ifofceles,
Vol. XX. Part I.
a" =r -f- 0.502
b" zz — 0.502
a" = -f 0.793
b" = —0.793
the two crown-glafs
7 1 TEL
lenfes maybe made of the fame form and focal diftance, Teledop*.
and placed the fame way. This will give us V"~v
« =: -f. 0.705 a'zz—0.475 0"=+0.705
b~— O.547 & zz + 0.475 b" zz — O.547
N. B. This conftrudion allows a much better form*
if the meafures of refradion and difperfion are the fame
that we ufed formerly. For we (hall have
« =r-f-0.628 a'zz — O.579 g" zz 0.628
bzz — 0.749 b' zz + 0.579 b" = — 0.749
And this is pretty near the pradice of the London op¬
ticians.
We may here obferve, upon the whole, that an ama¬
teur has little chance of fucceeding in thefe attempts.
The diverfity of glaffes, and the uncertainty of the
workman’s producing the very curvatures which he in¬
tends, is fo great, that the objed-glafs turns out different
from our expedition. The artift who makes great
numbers acquires a pretty certain guefs at the remain¬
ing error; and having many lenfes, intended to be of
one form, but unavoidably differing a little from it, he
tries feveral of them with the other two, and finding
one better than the reft, he makes ufe of it to complete
the fet.
The great difficulty in the conftrudion is to find the
exad proportion of the difperfive powers of the crown
and flint-glafs. The crown is pretty conftant ; but
there are hardly two pots of flint-glafs which have the
fame difperfive power. Even if confiant, it is difficult
to meafure it accurately; and an error in this greatly*
affeds the inftrument, becaufe the focal diftances of the
lenfes muft be nearly as their difperfive powers. The
method of examining this circumftancc, which we found
moft accurate, was as follows :
The fun’s light, or that of a brilliant lamp, paffed
through a fmall hole in a board, and fell on another
board pierced alfo with a fmall hole. Behind this was
placed a fine prifm A (fig. 14.), which formed a fpec-p-,r r.
trum ROV on a fereen pierced with a fmall hole. Be- °
hind this was placed a prifm B of the fubftance undey
examination. The ray which was refraded by it fell on
the wall at D, and the diftance of its illumination from
that point to C, on which an unrefraded ray would
have fallen, was carefully meafured. This ftiowed the
refradion of that colour. Then, in order that we might
be certain that we always compared the refradion of the
fame preeife colour by the different prifms placed at B,
we marked the precife pofition of the prifm A when the
ray of a particular colour fell on the prifm B. This was
done by an index AG attached to A, and turning with
it, when we caufed the different colours of thefpedrum
formed by A to fall on B. Having examined one prifm
B with relped to all the colours in the fpedrum formed
by A, we put another B in its place. Then bringing A
to all its former pofitions fucceffively, by means of a gra¬
duated arch HGK, we were certain that when the in¬
dex was at the fame divifion of the arch it ftas the very
ray which had been made to pafs through the firff prifm
B in a former experiment. We did not folicitoufly en¬
deavour to find the very extreme red and violet ra;s;
beeaufe, although we did not learn the whole difprfions
of the two prifms, we learned their proportions, which is
the eircumftance wanted in theconftruflion of achroma¬
tic glaffes. It is in vain to attempt this by meafuring
the fpeftrums therafelves; for we cannot be certain of
K k felefting
T E L [ 25
Telefrope. fele^ixg the very Hime colours for the comparifon, be-
U” v- caupe tj.iey facceed in an infenfible gradation.
Tlie intelligent reader will readily obferve, that we
have hitherto proceeded on the fuppofition, that when,
by means of contrary refrailions, we have united the
extreme red and violet rays, we have alfo united all the.
others. But this is quite gratuitous. Sir Ifaac Newton
would, however, have made the fame fuppotition •, for
he imagined that the different colours divided the fpec-
trum formed by all fubftances in the proportions of a
rnufical canon. This is a miftake. When a fpeftrum
is formed by a prifm of crown glafs, and another of pre-
cifely the fame length is formed by the fide of it by a,
prifm of flint-glafs, the confine between the green and
blue will be found precifely in the middle of the firlt
" fpe6lrum, but in the fecond it will be confiderably
nearer to the red extremity. In fhort, different fub-
llances do not difperfe the colours in the fame propor¬
tion.
The effeft of this irrationality (fo to call it) of difper-
fion, will appear plainly, we hope, in the following man-
Fig. i:i., ner : Let A (fig. 12.) reprefent a fpot of white folar
light falling perpendicularly on a wall. Suppofe a prifm
of common glafs placed behind the hole through which
the light is admitted, with its refracting angle facing
the left hand. It will refraCt the beam of light to the
right, and will at the fame time difperfe this heteroge¬
neous light into its component rays, carrying the ex¬
treme red ray from A to R, the extreme orange from
A to O, the extreme yellow from A to Y, &e. and
will form the ufual prifmatic fpe&rum ROYGBPVC.
If the whole length RC be divided into 1000 parts, we
{hall have (when the whole rcfraClion AR is fmall)
RO very nearly 125, RY=200, RGr=333, RBrr^oo,
RP—667, RV=778, and RC=iOOOj this being the
proportion obferved in the differences of the fines of re-
fraClion by Sir Ifaac Newton.
Perhaps a refraCling medium may be found fuch, that
a prifm made of it would refraft {he white light from A',
in the upper line of this figure, in fuch a manner that a
fpeCIrum R'.Q'Y'G'B'P'V'C' thall be formed at the fame
diilance from A', and of the fame length, but divided
in a different proportion. We do not know that fuch a
medium has been found •, but we know that a prifm of
llint-glafs has its refraCtive and difperfive powers fo con-
flituted, that if A'H be taken about one-third of AR, a
fpot of white light, formed by rays falling perpendicu¬
larly at H', will be fo refraCled and difperfed that the
extreme red ray will be carried from H' to R', and the
extreme violet from H' to C', and the intermediate co¬
lours to intermediate points, forming a fpe&rum refemb-
ling the other, but having the colours more conftipated
towards IP, and more dilated towards C j fo that the
ray which the common glafs carried to the middle point
B of the fpeCIrum RC is now in a point B7 of the fpec-
trum R'C', confiderably nearer to R'.
Dr Blair has found, on the other hand, that certain
fluids, particularly fuch as contain the muriatic acid,
when formed into a prifm, will refraft the light from
H" (in the lower line) fo as to form a fpeCtrum R^C"
equal to RC, and as far removed from A" as RC is from
A, but having the colours more dilated toward R", and
more conftipated toward C, than is obferved in RC j fo
that the ray which was carried by the prifm of common
B ] TEL
glafs to the middle point B is carried to a point B", con- Tel.
liderably nearer to C".
Let us now fuppofe that, inftead of a white fpot at
A, we have a prifmatic fpeftrum AB (fig. 13.), and
that the prifm of common glafs is applied as before, im- b’
mediately behind the prifm which forms the fpedtrum
AB. We know that this will be refracted fidewife, and
will make a fpe&rum ROYGBPC, inclined to the plane
of refraction in an angle of 45® ; fo that drawing the
perpendicular RC', we have RC'—C'C.
We alfo know that the prifm of flint-glafs would re¬
fract the fpeCtrum formed by the firlt prifm on EHF, in
fuch a manner that the red x-ay will go to R, the violet
to C, and the intermediate rays to points 0, y,g, b, p, v,
fo fituated that O'0 is = R'O' of the other figure ; Y y
is = R'Y' of that figure, G^ rrR'G', &e. 'I'hefe points
mult therefore lie in a curve R 0 y g bp v C, which is
convex toward the axis IRC'.
In like manner we may be affured that Dr Blair’s
fluid will form a fpectrum 1R o'yf gf o'n1 v1 C. concave
toward R'C.
Let it be obferved by the way, that this is a very
good method for difeovering whether a medium difperfes
the light in the fame proportion with the prifm which is
employed for forming the firft fpeClrum AB or EF. It
difperfes in the fame or in a different proportion, accord¬
ing as the oblique fpeClrum is ftraight or crooked; and
the exaCt proportion correfponding to each colour is
had by meafuring the ordinates of the curves R £ C or
R b1 C.
Having formed the oblique fpeClrum RBC by a prifm
of common glafs, we know that an equal prifm of the
fame glals, placed in a contrary pofition, will bring back
all the rays from the fpeClrum RBC to the fpeClrum AB,
laying each colour on its former place.
In like manner, having formed the oblique fpeClrum
R £ C by a prifm of flint-glafs, we know that another
prifm of flint-glafs, placed in the oppofite direction, will
bring all the rays back to the fpeClrum EHF.
But having formed the oblique fpeClrum RBC by a
prifm of common glafs, if we place the flint-glafs prifm
in the contrary pofition, it will bring the colour R back
to E, and the colour C to F $ but it will not bring the
colour B to FI, but to a point //, fuch that B /i is equal
to b H, and B to /; PL In like manner, the other co¬
lours will not be brought back to the ftraight line
EHF, but to a curve E /$ F, forming a crooked fpec¬
trum.
In like manner, the fluids difeovered by Dr Blair,
when employed to bring back the oblique fpeClrum RBC
formed by common glafs, will bring its extremities back
to E and F, and form the crooked fpeClrum E // F ly¬
ing beyond EHF.
This experiment evidently gives us another method
for examining the proportionality of the difperfion of dif¬
ferent fubftances.
Having, by common glafs, brought back the oblique
fpeClrum formed by common glafs to its natural place
AB, fuppofe the original fpeClrum at AB to contraCl
gradually (as Newton has made it to do by means of a
lens), it is plain that the oblique fpeClrum will alfo con¬
traCl, and fo will the fecond fpeClrum at AB and it
will at laft coalefce into a white fpot. The effeCl will
be equivalent td a gradual compreflion of the whole
figure,
: TEL [ 25
, efcope. figure, by which the parallel lines AR and BC gradual-
L V—' ly approach, and at laft unite.
In like manner, when the oblique fpe&rum formed
bv flint-glafs is brought back to EHF by a flint-glafs
prifm, and the figure compreffed in the fame gradual
manner, all the colours will coalefce into a white fpot.
But when flint-glafs is employed to bring back the
oblique fpeftrum formed by common glafs, it forms the
crooked fpeftrum E h F. Now let the figure be com-
preffed. The curve E ^ F will be doubled down on the
line H //, and there will be formed a compound fpec-
trum H h, quite unlike the common fpe&rum, being
purple or claret-coloured at H by the mixture of the ex¬
treme red and violet, and green edged with blue at h by
the mixture of the green and blue. The fluid prifms
would in like manner form a fpe&rum of the fame kind
on the other fide of H.
This is precifely what is obferved in achromatic ob-
jeft-glaffes made of crown-glafs and flint: for the re-
fra&ion from A to R correfponds to the refra£Hon of
the convex crown-glafs ; and the contrary refra&ion
from R to E correfponds to the contrary refraftion of
the concave flint-glafs, which ftill leaves a part of the
firfl: refra&ion, producing a convergence to the axis of
the telefcope. It is found to give a purple or wine-co¬
loured focus, and within this a green one, and between
thefe an imperfedl white. Dr Blair found, that when
the eye-glafs was drawn out beyond its proper diftance,
a fiar was furrounded by a green fringe, by the green
end of the fpe&rum, which crofled each other within
the focus; and when the eye-glafs was too near the ob-
jeft-glafs, theftar had a wine-coloured fringe. The green
rays were ultimately molt refrafted. i\T. B. We ftiould
expeft the fringe to be of a blue colour rather than a
green. But this is eafily explained : The extreme vio¬
let rays are very faint, fo as hardly to be fenfible; there¬
fore when a compound glafs is made as achromatic as
poflible to our fenfes, in all probability (nay certainly)
thefe almoft infenfible violet rays are left out, and per¬
haps the extreme colours which are united are the red
and the middle violet rays. This makes the green to be
the mean ray, and therefore the moft outftanding when
the difperfions are not proportional.
Dr Blair very properly calls thefe fpedlrums, H //and
\ih\fccondary fpeElrums, and feems to think that he is
the firfl: who has taken notice of them. But Mr Clai-
rault was too accurate a mathematician, and too careful
an obferver, not to be aware of a circumftance which
was of primary confequence to the whole inquiry. He
could not but obferve that the fuccefs refted on this very
particular, and that the proportionality of difperfion was
indifpenfably neceflary.
This fubjedt was therefore touched on by Clairault;
and fully difcufled by Bofcovich, firrt in his Diflertations
publifhed at Vienna in 1759; then in the Comment. Bon-
onlenfs; and, laftly, m\\\s Opufcula, publiftied in 1785*
Dr Blair, in his ingenious Differtation on Achromatic
Glaffes, read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1793*
feems not to have known of the labours of thefe writers;
Ipeaks of it as a new difcovery; and exhibits fome of
the confequences of this principle in a Angular point of
view, as fomething very paradoxical and inconfiftent
"with the ufually received notions on thefe fubjedls. But
they are by no means fo. We are, however, much in¬
debted to his ingenious refearches, and his fuccefsful en-
9 ] TEL
deavours to find fome remedy for this imperfedlion of
achromatic glafles. Some of his contrivances are ex¬
ceedingly ingenious ; but had the Dodtor conlulted
thefe writers, he would have faved himfelf a good deal
of trouble.
Bofcovich (hows how to unite the two extremes with
the moft: outftanding colour of the fecondary fpedtrum,
by means of a third fubftance. When we have done
this, the aberration occafioned by the fecondary {pec-
trums muft be prodigioufly diminilhed; for it is evi¬
dently equivalent to the union of the points H and h of
our figure. Whatever caufe produces this muft diminifti
the curvature of the arches E h and h F: but even it
thefe curvatures were not diminiihed, their greateft ordi¬
nates casinot exceed one-fourth otH//; and we may fay,
without hefitation, that by uniting the mean or moft
outftanding ray with the two extremes, the remaining
difperfion will be as much lefs than the uncorredted co¬
lour of Dollond’s achromatic glafs, as this is lefs than
four times the difperfion of a common objedt-glals. It
muft therefore be altogether infenfible.
Bofcovich afferts, that it is not poflible to unite more
than two colours by the oppofite refradtion of two lub-
ftances, which do not difperfe the light in the fame pro¬
portions. Dr Blair makes light of this aflfertion, as he
finds it made in general terms in the vague and paltry
extradf made by Prieftley from Bofcovich in his Eflay
on the Hiftory of Optics; but had he read this author
in his own diflertations, he would have feen that he was
perfedlly right. Dr Blair, however, has hit on a very
ingenious and effedlual method of producing this union
of three colours. In the fame way as we corredt the dif¬
perfion of a concave lens of crown-glafs by the oppofite
difperfion of a concave lens of flint-glafs, we may cor-
redl the fecondary difperfion of an achromatic convex
lens by the oppofite fecondary difperfion of an achroma¬
tic concave lens. But the intelligent reader will ob¬
ferve, that this union does not contradidf theaflertion of
Bofcovich, becaufe it is necejfarily produced by means of
three refradling fubftances.
The moft effential fervice which the public has re¬
ceived at the hands of Dr Blair is the difcovery of fluid
mediums of a proper difperfive power. By compofing
the lenfes of fuch fubftances, wre are at once freed from
the irregularities in the refradlion and difperfion of flint-
glafs, which the chemifts have not been able to free it
from. In whatever way this glafs is made, it confifts of
parts which differ both inrefradlive and difperfive power;
and when taken up from the pot, thefe parts mix in
threads, which may be diffeminated through the mafs in
any degree of finenefs. But they ftill retain their pro¬
perties; and when a piece of flint-glafs has been formed
into a lens, the eye, placed in its locus, fees the whole
furface occupied by gliftening threads or broader veins
running acrofs it. Great rewards have been offered for
removing this defedl, but hitherto to no purpofe. We
beg leave to propofe the following method: Let the glafs
be reduced to powder, and then melted with a great
proportion of alkaline fait, fo as to make a liquor fili-
cum. When precipitated from this by an acid, it muft
be in a ftate of very uniform compofition. If again
melted into glafs, w’e fhould hope that it would be free
from this defedl; if not, the cafe feems to be defperate.
But by ufing a fluid medium, Dr Blair was freed
from all this embarraffment; and he acquired another
K k 2 immenfe
TEL [2
i elefcopc. Immenfe advantage, that of adjuding at pleaftire both
the refractive and difperfive powers of his lenfes. In
folid lenfes, we do not know whether we have taken
the curvatures fuited to the i;efraCHons till our glafs is
finiflicd 5 and if we have miftaken the proportions, all
our labour is loft. But when fluids are ufed, it is e-
noogh that we know nearly the refraCtions. We fuit
our focal diftances to thefe, and then feleft our curva¬
ture, fo as to remove the aberration of figure, prtferv-
ing the focal diftances. Thus, by properly tempering
the fluid mediums, we bring the lens to agree precifely
with the theory, perfectly achromatic, and the aberra¬
tion of figure as much correCIed as is poflible.
Dr Blair examined the refraCted and difperfive powers
of a great variety of fubftances, and found great varieties
in their actions on the different colours. This is indeed
what every well informed naturalift would expeCl. There
is no doubt now among naturalifts about the mechanical
connection of the phenomena of nature j and all are a-
greed that the chemical aClions of the particles of mat¬
ter are perfeCHy like, in kind to the aftion of gravita¬
ting bodies j that all thefe phenomena are the effefts of
forces like thofe which wre call attractions and repul¬
sions, and which we obferve in magnets and eleClrified
bodies ; that light is refraCted by forces of the fame
kind, but differing chiefly in the fmall extent of their
Sphere of aCHvity. One who views things in this way
will expeCt, that as the aftions of the fame acid for the
different alkalies are different in degree, and as the dif¬
ferent acids have alfo different aCtions on the fame al¬
kali, in like manner different fubflances differ in their
general refraftive powers, and alfo in the proportion of
their aClion on the different colours. Nothing is more
unlikely therefore than the proportional difperfion of the
different colours by different fubftances 5 and it is furprif-
ing that this inquiry has been fo long delayed. It is
hoped that Dr Blair will oblige the public wuth an ac¬
count of the experiments which he has made. This will
enable others to co-operate in the improvement of achro¬
matic glaffes. We cannot derive much knowledge
from what he has already publilhed, becaufe it was
chiefly with the intention of giving a popular, though
not an accurate, view of the fubjeft. The conftruftions
which are there mentioned are not thofe which he found
moft effe&ual, but thofe which would be moft eafily un-
derftood, or demonftrated by the flight theory which is
contained in the differtation ; befides, the manner of ex¬
prefling the difference ofrefrangibility, perhaps chofen
for its paradoxical appearance, does not give us a clear
notion of the charafteriftic differences of the fubflances
examined. Thofe rays w'hich are ultimately moft de-
fle&ed from their direflion, are faid to have become the
moft refrangible by the combination of different fub¬
ftances, although, in all the particular refra&ions by
which this effedft is produced, they are lefs refra&ed
than the violet light. We can juft gather this much,
that common glafs difperfes the. rays in fuch a manner,
that the ray which is in the confine of the green and
blue occupies the middle of the prifmatic fpe&rum •, but
in glaffes, and many other fubftances, which are more
difperfive, this ray is nearer to the ruddy extremity of
the fpe&rum. While therefore the ftraight line RC'
13« (fig. 13.) terminates the ordinates O o', YY', Gg', Sec.
which reprefent the difperfion of common glafs, the or¬
dinates which exprefs the difperfions of thefe fubftances
5
60 ] TEL
are terminated by a curve pafling through R and C', but Ttlef
lying below the line RC'. When therefore parallel he- v,
terogeneous light is made to converge to the axis of a
convex lens of common glafs, as happens at F in fig. 6. Fb, <-
C, the light is difperfed, and the violet rays have a fhor-
ter focal diftance. If we now apply a concave lens of
greater difperflve power, the red and violet rays are
brought to one focus F; but the green rays, not being
fo much refradted away from F, are left behind at <p
and have now a fhorter focal diftance. But Dr Blair
afterwards found that this was not the cafe with the mu¬
riatic acid, and feme folutions in it. He found that the
ray which common glafs caufed to occupy the middle of
the fpedirum was much nearer to the blue extremity when
refradted by thefe fluids. Therefore a concave lens form¬
ed of fuch fluids which united the red and violet rays in
F', refradted the green rays toy7.
Having obferved this, it was an obvious conjedture,
that a mixture of feme of thefe fluids might produce a
medium, whofe adlion on the intermediate rays ihuuld
have the fame proportion that is obferved on common
glafs 5 or that two of them might be found which form¬
ed fpedtra fimilarly divided, and yet differing fufficientlv
in difperfive power to enable us to defiroy the difperfion
by contrary refradtions, without deftroying the whole
refradlion. Dr Blair accordingly found a mixture of fo¬
lutions of ammoniacal and mercurial falls, and alfu feme
other fubftances, which produced difperfions proportional
to that of glafs, with refpedl to the different colours.
And thus has the refult of this intricate and laborious
inveftigation correfponded to his utmoft wifties. He has
produced achromatic telefcopes'which feem as perfedl as
the thing will admit of; for he has been able to give
them fuch apertures, that the incorrigible aberration
arifing from the fpherical furfaces becomes a fenfible
quantity, and precludes farther amplification by the
eye-glafles. We have examined one of his telefcopes :
The focal diftance of the objedl-glafs did not exceed 17
inches, and the aperture was fully 3I- inches. We view¬
ed fome fingle and double ftars and fome common ob-
je£ts with this telefcope •, and found, that in magnifying
power, brightnefs, and diftimftnefs, it was manifeftly fu-
perior to one of Mr Dollond’s of 42 inches focal length.
It alfo gave us an opportunity of admiring the dexterity
of the London artifts, who could work the glaffes with
fuch accuracy. We had moft diftintt vifion of a ftar
when ufing an erefting eye-piece, which made this tele¬
fcope magnify more than a hundred times j and we found
the field of vilion as uniformly diftintt as with Dollond’s
42 inch telefcope magnifying 46 times. The intelligent
reader muft admire the nice figuring and centering of
the very deep eye-glaffes which are necefiary for this
amplification.
It is to be hoped that Dr Blair will extend his views
lo glqffes of different compofitions, and thus give us ob-
jeft-glaffes which are folid $ for thofe compofed of fluids
have inconveniences which will hinder them from com¬
ing into general ufe, and will confine them to the mu-
feums of philofophers. We imagine that antimonial
glaffes bid fair to anfwer this purpofe, if they could be
made free of colour, fo as to tranfmit enough of light.
We recommend this differtation to the careful perufal of
our readers. Thofe who have not made themfelves
much acquainted with the delicate and abftrufe theory
of aberrations, will find it exhibited in fuch a popular
form
TEL
[cfcope. form as will enable them to underftand its general aim j
-V—J and the well-informed reader will find many curious in¬
dications of inquiries and difeoveries yet to be made.
We now proceed to confider the eye-glafies or glafles
of telefcopes. The proper conftruftion of an eye-piece
is not lefs eflential than that of the objedt-glafs. But our
limits will not allow us to treat this fubjed in the fame
detail. We have already extended this article to a great
length, becaufe we do not know of any performance in
the EnglHh language which will enable our readers to
underftand the conftruftion of achromatic telefcopes', an
invention which refle&s honour on our country, and has
completed the difeoveries of our illuftrious Newton.
Our readers will find abundant information in Dr
Smith’s Optics concerning the eye-glaffes, chiefly de¬
duced from Huyghen’s fine theory of aberration (a).
At the fame time, we muft again pay Mr Dollond the
merited compliment of faying, that he was the firil who
made any fcientific application of this theory to the com¬
pound eye-piece for ere&ing the objeft. His eye-pieces
of five and fix glafles are very ingenious reduplications
of Huyghen’s eye-pieces of two glaffes, and would pro¬
bably have fuperfeded all others, had not his difeovery
of achromatic objedl-glafles caufed opticians to confider
the chromatic difperfion with more attention, and point¬
ed out methods of corre&ing it in the eye-piece without
any compound eye-glafles. They have found that this
may be more conveniently done with four eye-glafles,
without fenfibly diminifhing the advantages which
Huyghens (howed to refult from employing many fmall
refra&ions inftead of a kfler number of great ones. As
this is a very curious fubjeft, w'e fhall give enough for
making our readers fully acquainted with it, and con¬
tent ourfelves with merely mentioning the principles of
« the other rules for conftru&ing an eye-piece.
Such readers as are lefs familiarly acquainted with op¬
tical difeuflions will do wTell to keep in mind the follow¬
ing confequences of the general'focal theorem,
g. 15. If AB (fig. 15.) be a lens, R'a radiant point or focus
of incident rays, and a the focus of parallel rays coming
from the oppofite fide ; then,
1. Draw the perpendicular a a' \o the axis, meeting
the incident ray in and a' A to the centre of the lens.
The refrafted ray BF is parallel to a' A •, for R a't o> A
(= Ra : a A) =-RB : BF (=RA : AF), which is
the focal theorem.,
2. An oblique pencil BP ^ proceeding from any point
P which is not in the axis, is eolledted to the point./i
where the refrafted ray BF cuts the line PAy drawn
from P through the centre of the lens : for P o' : a' A =
PB : B/, which is alfo the focal theorem.
The Galilean telefcope is fufceptible of fo little im¬
provement that we need not employ any time in illuf-
trating its performance.
TEL
The fimple aftronomical telefcope is reprefented in Telefcope,^
fig. 16. The beam of parallel rays, inclined to p- l6
axis, is made to converge to a point G, where it forms
an image of the lowed point of a very diftant objedt.
Thtfe rays decuffating from G fall on the eye-glafs •,
the ray from the lowed point B of the objedl-glafs falls
on the eye-glafs at b; and the ray from A falls on a-;
and the ray from the centre O falls on 0. iheie rays
are rendered parallel, or nearly fo, by refradlion through
the eye-glafs, and take the diredtion b 1', 0 a 1. If
the eye be placed fo that this pencil of parallel rays may
enter it, they converge to a point of the retina, and
give didindf vifion to the lowed point of the objedt. It
appears inverted, becaufe the rays by which we fee its
lowed point come in the diredtion which in fimple vi¬
fion is connedled with the upper point of an objedl.
They come from above, and therefore are thought to
proceed from above. \Ve fee the point as if fituated in
the diredlion I 0. In like manner the eye placed at I,
fees the upper point of the objedt in the diredtion IB,
and its middle in the diredtion IE. I be proper place
for the eye is I ; if brought much nearer the glafs, or
removed much farther from it, fome, or the whole, of
this extreme pencil of rays will not enter the pupil. It
is therefore of importance to determine this point. Be¬
caufe the eye requires parallel rays for didindl vifion,
it is plain that F mud be the principal focus of the eye-
glafs. Therefore, by the common focal theorem, OF:
OE = OE : OI, or OF : FE = OE : El.
The magnifying power being meafured by the mag^
nitude of the vifual angle, compared with the magni¬
tude of the vifual angle with the naked eye, we have
or for the meafure of the^magnifying power
oOp 0 OF
, OE OF
Ihis is very nearly or ^ ..
As the line OE, joining the centres of the lenfes,
and perpendicular to their furfaces, is called the axis of
the telefcope, fo the ray OG is-called the axis of the
oblique pencil, being really the axis of the cone of light
which has the objedl glafs for its bafe. I his ray is
through its whole courfe the axis of the oblique pencil;
and when its oourfe. is determined, the amplification,
the field of vifion, the apertures of the glafles, are all
determined. For this purpofe we have only to confider
the centre of the objedt-glafs as a radical point, and
trace the procefs of a ray from this points through the
other glaffes : ; this will ,be the axis of fome oblique
pencil.*
It is. evident, therefore, that the field of vifion de¬
pends on the breadth of the eye-glafs. Should we in-
creafe this, the extreme pencil will pafs through I,
beeaufe O and I are dill the conjugate foci of the eye-
glafs.
[ 261 ]
(a) While we thus repeatedly fpeak of the theory of fpherical aberration as coming from Mr Hujghens, rve
mud not admit giving a due (hare of the honour of it to Dr Barrow and Mr James Gregory. I he fird of thele
authors,, in his Optical Leaures delivered at Cambridge, has given-every propofition ^whicb is employed by Huy¬
ghens, and has even profetuted the matter much further. In particular, his theory of oblique Lender pencils is of
itnmenfe confequence to the perfeaion of telefcopes, by diovving the methods for making the image of an extended
furface as flat as poflible. Gregory, too, lias given all the -fundamental propofitions inRis Opuca Promote. But
Huyghens, by taking the fubjea together, and treating it in a fydem, has greatly Amplified it '• and his manner of
viewing the principal par ts of it is incomparably more perfpicuous than the.performances Barrow and Gregory,
]
T E L [ 262
T E L
Telefcope.
glafs. On tlie other hand, the angle refolved on for
1 the extent or field of vifion gives the breadth of the
eye-glafs.
We may here obferve, by the way, that for all opti¬
cal inftruments there muft be two optical figures confi-
dered. The firft {hows the progrefs of a pencil of rays
coming from one point of the objeft. The various fo-
cufes of this pencil fhow the places of the different
images, real or virtual. Such a figure is formed by
the three rays AG a i, OG 0 I, BG z’.
The fecond fhows the progrefs of the axes of^the
different pencils proceeding through the centre of the
objeft-glafs. The focufes of this pencil of axes fhow
the places where an image of the object glafs is formed;
and this pencil determines the field of vifion, the aper¬
tures of the lenfes, and the amplification or magnifying
power. The three rays OG 0 I, OFEI, OHPI, form
this figure.
See alfo fig. 24. where the progrefs of both fets of
pencils is more diverfified.
The perfe&ion of a telefcope is to reprefent an obje£f:
in its proper fhape, diftinftly magnified, with a great
field of vifion, ahd fufficiently bright. But there are
limits to all thefe qualities 5 and an in,creafe of one of
them, for the moft part, diminilhes the reft. The
brightnefs depends on the aperture of the objeft-glafs,
and will increafe in the fame proportion (becaufe ii'
will always be to AB in the proportion of EF to FO),
till the diameter of the emergent pencil is equal to that
of the pupil of the eye. Increafing the obje£t-glafs
any more, can fend no more light into the eye. But
Ave cannot make the emergent pencil nearly fo large
as this when the telefcope magnifies much ; for the great
aperture of the objeft-glafs produces an indiftinft image
at GF, and its indiftindluefs is magnified by the eye-
glafs.
A great field of vifion is incompatible with the true
fliape of the objeft ; for it is not ftridly true that all
rays flowing from O are refra<fted to I. Thofe rays
which go to the margin of the eye-glafs crofs the axis
between E and I; and therefore they crofs it at a
greater angle than if they palled through I. Now had
they really palled through I, the objeft would have been
reprefented in its due proportions. Therefore fince the
angles of the marginal parts are enlarged by the aberra¬
tion of the eye-glafs, the marginal parts themfelves will
appear enlarged, or the objeft appear diftorted. Thus
a chefs-board viewed through a reading glafs appears
drawn out at the corners, and the ftraight lines are all
changed into'curves, as is reprefented in fig. 18,
The circumftance which moft peremptorily limits
the extent of field is the neceffary diftinftnefs. If the
vifion be indiftimft, it is ufelefs, and no other quality
can compenfate this defeft. The diftortion is very in-
confiderable in much larger angles of vifion thah we can
admit, and is unworthy of the attention paid to it by
optical writers. They have been induced to take notice
of it, becaufe the means of corredling it in a confider-
able degree are attainable, and afford an opportunity of
exhibiting their knowledge ; whereas the indiftinftnefs
which accompanies a large field is a fubjeft of moft
difficult difeuffion, and has hitherto baffled all their
eftorts to exprefs by any intelligible or manageable for-
ijaulae. ' ,
^ticeque traBata nitefeere pojjc v ekfco]|
Defperat rehnquit.
This fubjeft muft, however be confidered. The
image at GF of a very remote objedt is not a plain fur-
face perpendicular to the axis of the telefcope, but is
nearly fpherical, having O for its centre. If a number
of pencils of parallel rays crofting each other in I fall
on the eye-glafs, they will form a pidture on the oppo-
fite fide, in the focus F. But this pidlure Avill by no
means be flat, nor nearly fo, but very concave^ towards
E. Its exadl form is of moft difficult inveftigation.
The elements of it are given by Dr Barrow 5 and Ave
have given the chief of them in the article Optics,
when confidering the foci of infinitely llender pencils
of oblique rays. Therefore it is impoffible that the
pidlure formed by the objedl-glafscan be feen diftindlly
in all its parts by the eye-glafs. Even if it were flat,
the points G and H (fig. 16.) are too far from the eye-pjg
glafs Avhen the middle F is at the proper diftance for
diftindt vifion. When, therefore, the telefcope is fo
adjufted that we have diftindt vifion of the middle of
the field, in order to fee the margin diftindlly Ave muft
pufh in the eye-glafs: and having fo done, the middle
of the field becomes indiftindl. When the field of vifion
exce' ds 12 or 15 degrees, it is not poffible by any con- .
trivance to make it tolerably diftindl all over ; and avc
muft turn the telefcope fucceffively to the different parts
of the field that avc may fee them agreeably.
The caufe of this indiftindtnefs is, as we have already
faid, the fhortnefs of the lateral foci of lateral and ob¬
lique pencils refnidled by the eye-glafs. The oblique
pencil b G a, by which an eye placed at I fees the
point G of the image, is a cone of light, having a cir¬
cular bafe on the eye-glafs ; of which circle a is one
of the diameters. There is a diameter perpendicular
to this, which, in this figure, is reprefented by the point
0. Fig. 17. reprefents the bafe of the cone as feen by p,g ^
an eye placed in the axis of the telefcope, Avith the ob-
jedl-glafs as appearing behind it. The point b is form¬
ed by a ray which comes from the loweft point B of the
objedt-glals, and the point a is illuminated by a ray
from A. The point c at the right hand of the circular
bafe of this cone of light came from the point C on the
left fide of the objedt-glafs; and the light comes to d
from D. Now the laAArs of optics demonftrate, that the
rays Avhich come through the points c and d are more
convergent after refraftion than the rays which come
through a and b. The analogies, therefore, Avhich af-
certain the foci of rays lying in planes palling through
the axis do not determine the foci of the others. Of
this we may be fenfible by looking through a lens to
a figure on which are draAvn concentric circles croffed
by radii. When the telefcope is fo adjufted that avb
fee diftinflly the extremity of one of the radii, Ave ftiall
not fee diftinftly the circumference Avhich croffes the
extremity Avith equal diftimftnefs, and vice verfa. This
difference, hoAvever, betAveen the foci of the rays
which come through a and £, and thofe which come
through c and d, is not confiderable in the fields of vi¬
fion, Avhich are otherwife admiflible. But the fame dif¬
ference of foci obtains alfo with refpeft to the difperfion
of light, and is more remarkable. Both d’Alembert
and Euler have attempted to introduce it into their for¬
mulae j
I
TEL [ 263 ] T E L
mulce : but they have made them ufelefs for any prac¬
tical purpofe by their inextricable complication.
This muft ferve as a general indication of the diffi¬
culties which occur in the conftru&ion of telefcopes,
even although the objetf-glafs were perfeft, forming an
image without the fmalleft confufion or diftortion.
There is yet another difficulty or imperfection. The
rays of the pencil aG b, when refrafted through the
eye-glafs, are alfo feparated into their component co¬
lours^ The edge of the lens muft evidently perform the
office of a prifm, and the white ray G b will be fo dif-
perfed that if b i be the path of its red ray, the violet
ray, which makes another part of it, will take fuch a
courfe bn that the angle 1' bn will be nearly -g-bj-th °f
G'bi'. The ray G a paffing through a part of the lens
•whofe furfaces are lefs inclined to each other, will be
lefs refra&ed, and will be lefs difperfed in the fame pro¬
portion very nearly. Therefore the two violet rays will
be very nearly parallel when the two red rays are ren¬
dered parallel.
Hence it muft happen, that the objeft will appear
bordered with coloured fringes. A black line feen near
the margin on a white ground, will have a ruddy and
orange border on the outfide and a blue border within:
and this confufion is altogether independent on the ob-
jefl-glafs, and is fo much the greater as the vifual angle
ME is greater.
Such are the difficulties: They would be unfurmount-
able were it not that fome of them are fo conne&ed
that, to a certain extent, the diminution of one is ac¬
companied bv a diminution of the other. What are cal¬
led the cauJHc curves are the geometrical loci of the
foci of infinitely {lender pencils. Confequently the
point G is very nearly in the cauftic formed by a beam
of light confifting of rays parallel to I 0, and occupying
the whole furface of the eye-glafs, becaufe the pencil of
rays which are collefted at G is very fmall. Any thing
therefore that diminiffies the mutual inclination of the
adjoining rays, puts their concourfe farther off. Now
this is precifely what w-e want: for the point G of the
image formed by the objtft-glafs is already beyond the
focus of the oblique {lender pencil of parallel rays 1 a
and i'b; and therefore, if wTe could make this focus go
a little farther from a and Z>, we {hall bring it nearer to
G, and obtain more diftinct vifion of this point of the
objedl. Now let it be recolle&ed, that in moderate re-
fraflions through prifms, two rays which are inclined to
each other in a fmall angle are, after refraction, inclin¬
ed to each other in the fame angle. J herefore, if we
can diminifh the aberration of the ray a z, or ol, or
bi', we diminifti their mutual inclination •, and confe¬
quently the mutual inclination of the rays G«, G 0, G//,
and therefore lengthen the focus, and get more dif-
tincl vifion of the point G. Therefore we at once cor-
re£t the diftortion and the indiftindftnefs : and this is the
aim of Mr Huyghens’s great principle of dividing the
refractions.
The general method is as follows: Let 0 be the ob-
ject-glafs (fig. 19.) and E the eye-glafs of a telefcope,
and F their common focus, and FG the image formed
by the objeft-glafs. The proportion of their focal dif-
tances is fuppofed to be fuch as gives as great a magni¬
fying power as the perfection of the objeft-glafs will
admit. Let BI be the axis of the emergent pencil. It
is knorvn by7 the focal theorem that GE is parallel to ^
BI : therefore BGE is the whole refra&ion or deflec¬
tion of the ray OPIB from its former direction. Let
it be propofed to diminifti the aberrations by dividing
this into two parts by means of two glaffes D and e, lo
as to make the ultimate angle of vifion bic equal to
BIE, and thus retain the fame magnifying power and
vifible field. Let it be propofed to divide it into the
parts BGC and CGE.
From G draw any line GD to the axis towards O ;
and draw the perpendicular DH, cutting OG in H j
draw He parallel to GC, cutting GD in^; draw £■/
perpendicular to the axis, and ^ e parallel toGE; draw
eb perpendicular to the axis; draw parallel to GC,
and z/? perpendicular to the axis.
Then if there be placed at D a lens whofe focal dif-
tance is Dd, and another at e whofe focal diftance is
ef, the thing is done. The ray OH will be refradled
into HZ', and this into bi, parallel to BI.
The demonftration of this Conftruttion is fo evident
by means of the common focal theorem, that we need
not repeat it, nor the reafons for its advantages.
We have the fame magnifying power, and the fame
field of vifion ; we have lefs aberration, and therefore
lefs diftortion and indiftindlnefs ; and this is brought
about by a lens HD of a faialler aperture and a great¬
er focal diftance than BE. Confequently, if we are
contented with the diftinftnefs of the margin of the
field with a Angle eye-glafs, we may greatly increafe
the field of vifion ; for if we increafe DH to the fize
of EB we {hall have a greater field, and much greater
diftinctnefs in the margin ; becaufe HD is of a longer
focal diftance, and will bear a greater aperture, pre-
ferving the fame diftimftnefs at the edge. On this
account the glafs HD is commonly called the Fie/d-
g/cifs.
It muft be obferved here, however, that although
the diftortion of the objeift is leffened, there is a real
diftortion produced in the imagey'tg. But thF, when
magnified by the glaL e, is fmaller than the diftortion
produced by the glafs E, of greater aperture and ftior-
ter focus, on the undiftorted image GF. But becaufe
there is a diftortion in the fecond image fg, this con-
ftruction cannot be ufed for the telefcopes of aftronomi-
cal quadrants, and other graduated inftruments ; be¬
caufe then equal divifions of the micrometer would not
correfpond to equal angles.
But the fame conftruiftion will anfwer in this cafe, by
taking the point D on that fide of F which is remote
from O (fig. 20.) This is the form now employed in fig.
the telefcopes of all graduated inftruments.
The exaft proportion in which the diftortion and the
indiftinftnefs at the edges of the field are diminiftied by
this conftruftion, depends on the proportion in which
the angle BGE is divided by GC ; and is of pretty dif¬
ficult inveftigation. But it never deviates far (never
£th in optical inftruments) from the proportion of the
fquares of the angles. We may, without, any fenfible
error, fuppofe it in this proportion. This gives us a
pra&ical rule of eafy recolle&ion, and of moft exten-
five ufe. When we would diminifti an aberration by
dividing the whole refraftion into two parts, we {ball do
it moft effectually by making them equal. In like man¬
ner, if we divide it into three parts by means of two ad¬
ditional i
tel [ 264 j T. e l
Talefcope. dltional glafles, we muft make each rr yd of the whole j
and fo on for a greater number.
This ufeful problem, even when limited, as we have
done, to equal refractions, is as yet indeterminate ; that
is, fufceptible of an infinity of folutions : for the point
D, where the f;eld-glafs is placed, was taken at plea-
fure : yet there mult be fituations more proper than
others. The aberrations which produce diltortion, and
thofe which produce indiftindtnefs, do not follow the
fame proportions. To correct the indiltinftnefs, w’e
fhould not feledt fuch pofittons of the lens HD as will
give a fmall focal diftance to h e i that is, we Humid
tiot remove it very far from F. Huyghens recommends
the proportion of 3 to t for that of the focal diltances
of the lens HD and e b, and fays that the diftance D e
fhould be — 2 F e. This will make ez'~ e F, and
■will divide the whole refraction into two equal parts,
as any one will readily fee by conftruCting the com¬
mon optical figure. Mr Short, the celebrated impro¬
ver of reflecting telefcopes, generally employed this
proportion ; and we (hall prefently fee that it is a Very
good one.
It has been already obferved that the great refrac¬
tions which take place on the eye-glafles occafion very
confiderable difperfions, and difturb the vifion by frin¬
ging every thing with colours. To remedy this, achro¬
matic eye-glafles may be employed, conftruCted by the
rules already delivered. This conftruCtion, however, is
incomparably more intricate than that of objeCt-glafles :
for the equations muft involve the diftance of the radiant
point, and be more complicated: and this complication
is immenfely increafed on account of the great obliquity
of the pencils.
Moft fortunately the Huyghenian conftruCUon of an
eye-piece enables us to correCt this difperfion to a great
degree of exactnefs. A heterogenous ray is difperfed at
H, and the red ray belonging to it falls on the lens b e
at a greater diftance from the centre than the violet ray
coming from H. It will therefore be lefs refraded {cce-
teris paribus) by the lens be; and it is poflible tha^ the
difference may be fuch that the red and violet rays dif¬
perfed at H may be rendered parallel at b, or even a
little divergent, fo as to unite accurately with the red
ray at the bottom of the eye. How this may be effect¬
ed, by a proper feleCtion of the places and figures of the
lenfes, will appear by the following propofition, which
we imagine is new, and not inelegant.
lg. 2:. Let the compound ray OP ffig. 21.) be difperfed by
the lens PC ; and let PV, PR be its violet and red rays,
cutting the axis In G and g. It is required to place an¬
other lens RD in their way, fo that the emergent rays
R r, V (hall be parallel.
Produce the incident ray OP te Z. The angles ZPR,
ZPV, are given, (and RPV is neatly =r and
the interfeClions G and g with the axis. Let F be the
focus of parallel red light coming through the lens RD
in the oppofite direCIion. Then (by the common opti¬
cal theorem), the perpendicular F $ will cut PR in fuch
a point £, that 5 F will be parallel terthe emergent ray
R r, and to V v. Therefore if £ D cut PV in .v, and
uf be drawn perpendicular to the axis, we ftiall have
{alfo by the common thedrem) the point f for the fo¬
cus of violet rays, and DF : D/— D s : D z/ =: 28 : 2* TeKo
nearly, or in a given ratio,
The problem is therefore reduced to this, “ To draw
from a point D in the line CG a line D #, which ftiall
be cut by the lines PR and PV in the given ratio.”
The following conftruCtion naturally offers itfelf*
Make GM : £• M in the given ratio, and draw MK pa¬
rallel to 't hrough any point D of CG draw the
ftraight line PDK, cutting MK in K, Join GK, and
draw D § parallel to KG. This will folve the problem;
and, drawing $ F perpendicular to the axis, w'e {halt
have F for the focus of the lens Ri> for parallel red
rays.
The demonftration is evident: for MK being parallel
to P^, Ave have GM MsrGK : HK, = ^ D : « D
SzrFDy'D, in the ratio required.
This problem admits of an infinity of folutions j be-
caufe the point D may be taken anywhere in the line
CG. It may therefore be fubjefted to fuch conditions
as may produce other advantages.
1. It may be reftriCted by the magnifying power, of
by the divifion which we choofe to make of the whole
fefraftion which produces this magnifying power. Thus,
if we have refolved to diminHh the aberrations by mak¬
ing the two refraClions equal, -we have determined the
angle R r D. Therefore draAv GK, making the angle
MGK equal to that Avhich the emergent pencil muft
make Avith the axis, in order to produce this magnify¬
ing poAver. Then draw MK parallel to Pmeeting
GK in K. Then draw PK, cutting the axis in D, and
Dg parallel to GK, and 5F perpendicular to the axis. D
is the place, and DF the focal diftance of the eye-glafs.
2. Particular Circumftances may caufe us to fix on a
particular place D, ahd Ave only Avant the focal diftance.
In this cafe the firft eonftruCiion fuftices.
3* We may have determined on a certain focal di¬
ftance DF, and the place muft be determined. In this
cafe let
GF : F { = 1 : tan. G
F ^ : y« ~ 1 : w, m being =:
fu-.fg^z tan. g : 1
then GF : f g — tan. ^ : m tan. G
then GF—f g : GF ~ tan. g‘—m tan. G : tan.£-
or G g-{-l'f: GF rr tan. g—rn tan. G : tan.^;
and GF=Gj+F/- ^ p-, and!,
»tan. g—m tan. G
therefore given, and the place of F is determined; and
lince FD is given by fuppofition, D is determined.
The application of this problem to our purpofe is dif¬
ficult, if avc take it in the moft general terms; but the
nature of the thing makes fuch limitations that it be¬
comes very eafy. In the cafe of the difperfion of light,
the angle GP^ is fo fmall that MK may be drawn pa¬
rallel to PG Avithout any fenfible error. If the ray OP
Avere parallel to CG, then G Avould be the focus of the
lens PC, and the point M Avould fall on C j becaule the
focal diftance of red rays is to that of violet rays in the
fame proportion for every lens, and therefore CG : C g
“DF : D/ Noav, in a telefcope Avhich magnifies con-
fiderably, the angle at the objedf-glafs is very fmall,
and CG hardly exceeds the focal diftanee •, and CG is
t° C^ very nearly in the fame proportion of 28 to 27.
We may therefore draAV through C (fig. 22.) a line CK ' ig. 22.
parallel
TEL
[
•j ;fcope. parallel to PG j then draw GK' perpendicular to the
i. v--'' axis of the lenfes, and join PK'j draw K'BE parallel
to CG, cutting PK in B ; draw BHI parallel to GK,
cutting GK/ in H : Join HD and PK. It is evident
that CG is bifefted in F', and that K'B“2F'D : alfo
K'H : HGrrK'B : BE, =CD : DG. Therefore DH
is parallel to CK', or to PG. But becaufe PF'zrF'K',
PD is = DB; and IHrrHB. Therefore e D = HB,
andFD=:K'B, naF'D; and FD is bife£ted in F'.
Therefore CD—
CG-fFD
That is, in order that the eye-glafs RD may correft
the difperfion of the field-glafs PC, the dijlance between
them mujl be equal to the halffum of their focal di/Iances
very nearly, More exactly, the di/lance between them
mujl be equal to the half fum of the focal difance of the
et/e-glafs, and the dif ance at which the feld-glafs would
form an image of the objedl-glafs. For the point G is
the focus to which a ray coming from the centre of the
objeft-glafs is refra&ed by the field-glafs.
This is a very fimple folution of this important pro¬
blem. Huyghens’s eye-piece correfponds with it ex¬
actly. If indeed the difperfion at P is not entirely pro¬
duced by the refra£lion, but perhaps combined with
F 21. fome previous difperfion, the point M (fig. 21.) will not
F 22. coincide with C (fig. 22.), and we {hall have GC
to GM, as the natural difperfion at P to the difperfion
which really obtains there. This may deftroy the equa-
. CG-fFD
tion CD™ .
2
Thus, in a manner rather unexpe&ed, have we freed
the eye-glafles from the greateft part of the effeft of dif¬
perfion. We may do it entirely by pufliing the eye-
glafs a little nearer to the field-glafs. This will render
the violet rays a little divergent from the red, fo as to
produce a perfeft pidlure at the bottom of the eye. But
by doing fo we have hurt the diftindfnefs of the whole
pidlure, becaufe F is not in the focus of RD. We re¬
medy this by drawing both glaffes out a little, and the
telefcope is made perfeft.
This improvement cannot be applied to the con-
i 20. ftru&ion of quadrant telefcopes, fuch as fig. 20. Mr
Ramfden has attempted it, however, in a very ingenious
way, which merits a place here, and is alfo inftru&ive
in another way. The field-glafs HD is a plano¬
convex, with its plane fide next the image GF. It
is placed very near this image. The confequence of
this difpofition is, that the image GF produces a verti¬
cal image which is much lefs convex towards the
glafs. He then places a lens on the point C, where
the red ray would crofs the axis. The violet ray will
pafs on the other fide of it. If the focal diftance of
this glafs be f c, the vifion will be diftinft and free
from colour. It has, however, the inconveniency of
obliging the eye to be clofe to the glafs, which is very
troublefome.
This would be a good conftru&ion for a magic-lan-
thorn, or for the objeft-glafs of a folar microfcope, or
indeed of any compound microfcope.
We may prefume that the reader is now pretty fami¬
liar with the different circumftances which muff be con-
fidered in the conftru£lion of an eye-piece, and proceed
Vol. XX. Part I.
65 1 TEL
to confider thofe which muff be employed to ere6V the Telefcope,
objeft. vr—
This may be done by placing the lens which receives
the light from the objedt-glafs in fuch a manner, that a
fecond image (inverted with refpedt tothefirft) maybe pjate
formed beyond it, and this may be viewed by an eye- DXXX,
glafs. Such a conftruftion is reprefented in fig. 23. fig’ 23°
But, befides many other defe&s, it tinges the objeft pro-
digioufly with colour. The ray 0 d is difperfed at d
into the red ray d r, and the violet dit),v being farther
from the centre than r, the refrafted ray vv' croffes rr1
both by reafon of fpherical aberration and its greater re-
frangibility.
But the common day telefcope, invented by F. Rheita,
has, in this refpeft, greatly the advantage of the one
now defcribed. The rays of compound light are dif¬
perfed at two points. The violet ray in its courfe falls
without the red ray, but is accurately collefled with
it at a common focus, as we ftiall demonftrate by and
by. Since they crofs each other in the focus, the violet
ray muff fall within the red ray, and be lefs refradled
than if it had fallen on the fame point with the red
ray. Had it fallen there it would have feparated from
it j but by a proper diminution of its refradlion, it is
kept parallel to it, or nearly fo. And this is one ex¬
cellence of this telefcope : when conftrufled with three
eye-glaffes perfedtly equal, the colour is fenfibly dimi-
nithed, and by ufing an eye-glafs fomewhat fmaller, it
may be removed entirely.^—We fay no more of it at
prefent, becaufe rve {hall find its conftrudtion included
in another, which is ftill more perfedt.
It is evident at firft fight that this telefcope may
be improved, by fubftituting for the eye-glafs the
Huyghenian double eye-glafs, or field-glafs and eye-glafs
reprefented in fig. 19. and 20. j and that the firft
of thefe may be improved and rendered achromatic.
This will require the two glaffes ef and g h to be in-
creafed from their prefent dimenfions to the fize of a
field-glafs, fuited to the magnifying power of the tele¬
fcope, fuppofing it an aftronomical telefcope. Thus we
{hall have a telefcope of four eye-glaffes. The three
firft will be of a confiderable focal diftance, and two of
them will have a common focus at b. But this is confi-
derably different from the eye-piece of four glaffes which
are now ufed, and are far better. We are indebted for
them to Mr Dollond, who was a mathematician as well
as an artift, and in the courfe of his refearch difcovered
refources which had not been thought of. He; had not
then difcovered the achromatic objeft-glafs, and was
bufy in improving the eye-glaffes by diminilhing their
fpherical aberration. His firft thought was to make the
Huyghenian addition at both the images of the day te¬
lefcope. This fuggefted to him the following eye-piece
of five glaffes.
Fig. 24. reprefents this eye-piece, but there is not Fig. 24*
room for the objedl-glafs at its proper diftance. A pen¬
cil of rays coming from the upper point of the objedt is
made to converge (by the objedt-glafs) to G, where it
would form a pidture of that part of the objedt. But it
is intercepted by the lens A a, and its axis is bent to¬
wards the axis of the telefcope in the diredlion a b. At
the fame time, the rays wrhich converged to G converge
to g, and there is formed an inverted pidlure of the ob¬
jedt zt gf The axis of the pencil is again refradted at
LI b%
Telcfcopfe.
TEL
crofies the axis of the telefcope in H, is refra&ed
again at c, at d, and at e, and at laft croffes the axis in
I. The rays of this pencil, diverging from g, are made
lefs diverging, and proceed as if they came from g', in
the line B gg'. The lens c C caufes them to converge
to g', in the line G" Cg'. The lens dT) makes them
converge Hill more to G", and there they form an erefr
pifture G" W; diverging from G", they are rendered
parallel by the refraftion at e.
At H the rays are nearly parallel. Had the glafs
B b been a little farther from A, they would have been
accurately fo, and the objeft-glafs, with the. glafles A
and B, would have formed an allronomical telefcope
with the Huyghenian eye-piece. The glaffes C, 1),
and E, are intended merely for bending the rays back
again till they again crofs the axis in I. The glafs C
tends chiefly to diminiflr the great angle BH £ ; and
then the two glafies D and E are another Huyghenian
eye-piece.
The art in this conftrudlion lies in the proper adjuft-
ment of the glafles, fo as to divide the whole bending of
the pencil pretty equally among them, and to form the
laft image in the focus of the eye-glafs, and at a proper
diftance from the other glafs. Bringing B nearer to A
would bend the pencil more to the axis. Placing C
farther from B would do the fame tiling \ but this would
be accompanied with more aberration, becaufe the rays
would fall at a greater diftance from the centres of the
fenfes. The greateft bending is made at the fieid-glafs
D ; and we imagine that the telefcope -would be inr-
proved, and made more diftinft at th<? edges of the field,
by employing another glafs of great focal diftance be¬
tween C and D.
There is an image formed at H of the objedt-glafles,
and the whole light pafles through a fmall circle in this
place. It is ufual to put a plate here pierced with a
hole which has the diameter of this image. A fecond
image of the objedt-glafs is formed at I, and indeed
wherever the pencils crofs the axis. A lens placed at
H makes no change in any of the angles, nor in the
magnifying power, and affedts only the place where the
images are formed. And, on the other hand, a lens
placed atyj or F", where a real image is formed, makes
no change in the places of the images, but affefts the
mutual inclination of the pencils. This affords a re-
fource to the artift, by which he may combine properties
which feem incompatible.
The aperture of A determines the vifible field and all
the other apertures.
We muft avoid forming a real image, fuch as f g, or
F" G", on or very near any glafs. For we cannot fee
this image without feeing along with it every particle of
duft and every fcratch on the glafs. We fee them as
making part of the obje£l when the image is exa£lly
on the glafs, and we fee them confufedly, and fo as
to confufe the object, when the image is near it.
For when the image is on or very near any glafs, the
pencil of light occupies a very fmall part of its furfaee,
and a particle of duft intercepts a great proportion
of it.
It is plain that this conftru&ion v ill not do for the
telefeope of graduated inftruments, becaufe the micro¬
meter cannot be applied to the fecond image fg, on ac¬
count of its being a little diftorted, as has been obfer-
ye;d of the Huyghenian eye-piece..
T E L
Alfo the xnterpofition of the glafs C makes it difficult Telefa
to correft the difperfion. '“T -
By proper reafoning from the corredlion in the
Huyghenian eye-piece, we are led to the beft conftruc-
tion of one with three glafles *, which we {hall now con-
fider, taking it in a particular form, which (hall make
the difeuflion eafy, and make us fully mailers ef the
principles which lead to a better form. Therefore let
PA (fig. 25.) be the glafs which firft receives the light Fig. r
proceeding from the image formed by the objedl-glafs,
and let OP be the axis of the extreme pencil. This is
refradfted into PR, which is again refradled into R r by
the next lens B r. Let b be the focus of parallel rays of
the fecond lens. Draw PB r. We know that A b :
Z'BzzPB : B r, and that rays of one kind diverging
from P will be colle&ed at r. But if PR, PV be a red
and a violet ray, the violet ray will be more refra&ed
at V, and -will crofs the red ray in fome intermediate
point g of the line R r. If therefore the firft image had
been formed precifely on the lens PA, we ftiould have a
fecond image at fg free from all coloured fringes.
If the refraftions at P and R are equal (as in the
common day telefcope), the difperfion at V muft be
equal to that at P, or the angle v V rrrVPR. But we
have ultimately RPV : R r VzrBC : AB, (rrB b \ Ab
by the focal theorem). Therefore gV r : gr\y (or
g r : gVy or Cf: /B)=B b Aby and AB ; A bzz
R r : R^.
This fliows by the way the advantage of the common
day telefcope. In this AB = 2 A b, and thereforey'is
the place of the laft image which is free from coloured
fringes. But this image will not be feen free from colour¬
ed fringes through the eye-glafs C r, if ^ be its focus : ^
For had g r, g v been both red rays, they would have
been parallel after refraction ; but g v being a violet
ray, will be more refrafted. It will not indeed be fo
much defleCled from parallelifm as the violet ray, which
naturally accompanies the red ray to becaufe it falls
nearer the centre. By computation its difperfion is di-
miniffied about ^th.
In order that g v may be made parallel to ^ r after
refraCtion, the refraCtion at r muft be fuch that the dif¬
perfion correfponding to it may be ef a proper magni¬
tude. How to determine this is the queftion. Let the
difperfion at g be to the difperfion produced by the re¬
fraCtion at r (which is required for producing the in¬
tended magnifying power) as 1 to 9. Make 9:1 =
ff : f C, — fC : CD, and draw the perpendicular
D r7 meeting the refraCted ray rr'in d. Then we know
by the common focal theorem, that iff be the focus of
the lens C r, red rays diverging from g will be united
in d. But the violet ray g v will be refraCted into v d
parallel to r d. For the angle v d r : vg r — (ulti¬
mately) fC : CD, =9:1. Therefore the angle vd r
is equal to the difperfion produced at r, and therefore
equal to d v d, and v d is parallel to r d.
But by this we have deftroyed the diftinCt vifion of
the image formed at f g, becaufe it is no longer at the
focus of the eye-glafs. But diftinCt vifion will be re-
ftored by pufhing the glafles nearer to the objeCl-glafs.
This makes the rays of each particular pencil more di¬
vergent after refraction through A, but fcarcely makes
any change in the directions of the pencils themfelves.
Thus the image comes to the focus f'y and makes no
fenfible change in the difperfions.
[ 266 ]
.TEL [2
" efcope. In tlie common day telefcope, the firft image is form-
t -y—•'ed in the anterior focus of the firfl: eye-glafs, and the fe-
cond image is at the anterior focus of the laft eye-glafs.
If we change this laft for one of half the focal diftince,
and pnfh in the eve-piece till the image formed by the
objed-glafs is half way between the firft eye-glafs and
its focus, the laft image will be formed at the focus of
the new eye-glafs, and the eye-piece will be achroma¬
tic. This is eafily feen by making the ufual computa¬
tions by the focal theorem. But the vifible field is di-
minilhed, becaufe we cannot give the fame aperture as
before to the new eye-glafs •, but we can fubftitute for
it two eye-glaffes like the former, placed clofe toge¬
ther. This will have the fame focal diftance with the
new one, and will allow the fame aperture that we had
before.
On thefe principles may be demonftrated the correc¬
tion of colour in eye-pieces with three glafies of the fol¬
lowing conftruiHon.
Let the glaffes A and B be placed fo that the pofte-
rior focus of the hrft nearly coincides with the anterior
focus of the feeond, or rather fo that the anterior focus
of B may be at the place where the image of the ob-
jeft-glafs is formed, by which fituation the aperture ne-
ceOfary for tranfraitting the whole light will be the
final left poffible. Place the third C at a diftance from
the fecond, which exceeds the film of their focal di-
ftances by a fpaee which is a third proportional to the
diftance of the firft and fecond, and the focal diftance
of the fecond. The diftance of the firft eye-glafs from
the obiecl-glafs muft be equal to the produft of the
focal diftance of the firft and fecond divided by their
fum.
Let O o, A a, B £, Cc, the focal diftances of the
glaftes, be O, a, b, c. Then make AB a-{-b nearly 5
BC-b-\-c + -b~-, OA=J^~. The amplificaiiort
b-\-c
0 b
or magnifying power will be ~ —\ the equivalent eye-
glafs rr and the field of vifion = 3438' X
Aperture of A N
foe. dilt. ob. gl.
Thefe eye-pieces will admit the ufe of a micrometer
at the place of the firft image, beeaufe it has no diftor-
tion.
Mr Dollond was anxious to combine this achromatifm
r»f the eye-pieces with the advantages which he had
found in the eye-pieces with five glaftes. This eye-piece
of three glaffes peceflarily has a very great refraction at
the glafs B, where the pencil which has come from the
other fide of the axis muft be rendered again conver¬
gent, or at leaft parallel to it. This occafions confider-
able aberrations. This may be avoided by giving part
of this refraCtion to a glafs put between the firft and fe¬
cond, in the fame way as he has done by the glafs B
put between A and C in his five glafs eye-piece. But
this deranges the whole procefs. H;s ingenuity, how¬
ever, furmounted this difficulty, and he made eye-pieces
of four glaftes, which feem as perfeCt as can be defired.
He has not publiffied his ingenious inveftigation ; and
we obferve the London artills work very much at ran¬
dom, probably copying the proportions of fome of his
67 ] TEL
belt glafles, without underftanding the principle, and Telefccpe,
therefore frequently miftaking. We fee many eye-
pieces which are far from being achromatic. We ima¬
gine therefore that it will be an acceptable thing to
the artifts to have precife inftruClions how to proceed,
nothing of this kind having appeared in'our language,
and the inveftigations of Euler, d’Alembert, and even
Bofcovich, being fo abftrufe as to be inacceffible to all
but experienced analyfts. We hope to render it ex¬
tremely fimple.
It is evident, that if we make the rays of different
colours unite on the furface of the laft eye-glafs but one,
commonly called the jield-g/afs, the thing will be done,
becaufe the difperfion from this point of union will then
unite with the difperfion produced by this glafs alone y
and this increafed difperfion may be corrected by the
laft eye-glafs in the way already ffiown.
Therefore let A, B (fig. 26.) be the ftations which Fig.
we have fixed on for the firft and fecond eye-glaffes, in
order to give a proper portion of the whole refraCtion
to the fecond glafs. Let b be the anterior focus ofB.
Draw PBr through the centre of B. Make A£ :
= AB : BK. Draw the perpendicular K r, meeting
the refraCted ray in r. We know by the focal theo¬
rem, that red rays diverging from P will converge to
r; but the violet ray PV, being more refraCted, will
crofs Fir in fome pointy. Drawing the perpendicular
f g, we get jCfor the proper place of the field-glafs. Let
the refraCted ray Hr, produced backward, meet the ray
OP coming from the centre of the objeCt-glafs in O.
Let the angle of difperfion RPV be called /?, and the
angle of difperfion at V, that is, r V v, be v, and the
angle V r R be r.
It is evident that OR : OP ~p : v, becaufe the dif-
perfions are proportional to the fines of the refraCtions,
which, in this cafe, are very nearly as the refraCtions
tbemfelves.
Let or °~ or be made = m. Then v "
OR\ juB bhj
mp ; alfo/? : r rr BK : AB, — £ B : Ab, and r — p.
Ab , . Ab
ni’or ”akmg m=
 B Ab _ , p
£ B * B ’
r—n p; therefore v : rz
Ab.
The angle By V V r V ~p . m -J- n ; and
R y V : R r u — R r : R y, or m-\-n : R r : R y, and
R g rr:R r-
AB
-. But R r is ultimately — BK =r AR
m n
bl.= C5. Therefore % = C5 x : »
Ab n n m ft- n
and B/rr—-.
m-\-n
This value of B C is evidently rrr^Bx -t, . .
J J p AA o
Now b B being a conftant quantity while the glafs B is
AB
the fame, the place of union varies with ^
we remove B a little farther from A, we increafe AB,
and pB, and A Z>, each by the fame quantity. This evi¬
dently diroinifhes B f. On the other hand, bringing
B nearer to A increafes B f. If we keep the diftanee
between the glaffes the fame, but increafe the focal di¬
ftance b B, we augment Bj^ becaufe this change aug-
L 1 2 roeftts
TEL [ 268 ] TEL
Teleffope. merits the numerator and diminilhes the denominator of
&B x AB
the fraction
pB+AZ*'
In this manner we can unite the colours at what di¬
fiance we pleafe, and confequently can unite them in
the place of the intended field-glafs, from which they
will diverge with an increafed difperfion, viz. with the
difperfion competent to the refradtion produced there,
and the difperfion X conjoined.
It only remains to determine the proper focal di-
ftances of the field-glafs and eye-glafs, and the place of
the eye-glafs, fo that this difperfion may be finally cor-
refted.
This is an indeterminate problem, admiting of an in¬
finity of folutions. We fhall limit it by an equal divi-
fion of the two remaining refradtions, which are necef-
farv in order to produce the intended magnifying power.
This conflrudlion has the advantage of diminilhing the
aberration. Thus we know the two refradfions, and
the difperfion competent to each ; it being nearly ^th
of the refradtion. Call this q. The whole difperfion
at the field-glafs confifts of y, and of the angle K f V of
fig. 19. which we alfo know to be =r p yjn^~n. Call
their fum j-.
Fig. 27. Let fig. 27. reprefent this addition to the eye-piece.
C^ is the field-glafs coming in the place off g of fig. 26.
and R g to is the red ray coming from the glafs BR.
Draw^ j- parallel to the intended emergent pencil from
the eye-glafs j that is, making the angle C j with the
axis correfpond to the intended magnifying power. Bi-
fedt this angle by the line K. Make sg : g q—s : 7,
and draw yK, cutting C^ in L Draw /2D, cutting
^ £ in 5, and the axis in D. Draw § d and D r perpen¬
dicular to the axis. Then a lens placed in D, having
the focal diftance D </, will deftroy the difperfion at the
lens g c, which refradts the ray g w into g r.
Let gvhe the violet ray, making the angle vg rzzs.
It is plain, by the common optical theorem, that gr
will be refradied into rr* parallel to SD. Draw gTir1
meeting r rf, and join v r1. By the focal theorem two red
rays gr g v, will be united in r'. But the violet ray g v
will be more refradied, and will take the path vv', ma¬
king the angle of difperfion r vv=:q, very nearly, be-
caufe the difperfion at v does not fenfibly differ from
that at r. Now, in the fmall angles of refradtion which
obtain in optical inflruments, the angles r r v, r g v are
very nearly as and rr', or asj-D and Dr7, or as
CD and DT; which, by the focal theorem, are as Cr/
and r/D; that is, Dr/ : dczzrgv : rr'v. But ~D d : dC
=B ^ : 'St, g : g q, ~s : q. But rgv = s; there¬
fore rr' v — q, =r' v 2/, and v v' is parallel to r r1, and
the whole difperfion at g is correSed by the lens D r.
The focal diflance C ^ of C^ is had by drawing C *
parallel to Kg, meeting R^ in *, and drawing * c per¬
pendicular to the axis.
It is eafy to fee that this (not inelegant) conftrudlion is
not limited to the equality of the refradtions wgr, Krr\
In whatever proportion the whole refradlion wgs is di¬
vided, we always can tell the proportion of the difper-
fions which the two refradfions occafion at^ and r, and
can therefore find the values of s and q. Indeed this
folution includes the problem in p, 266. col. 2. par. ult. j
but it had not occurred to us till the prefent occafion.
3
Our readers will not be difpleafed with this variety of Telefc,
refource. -y.
The intelligent reader will fee, that in this folution
fome quantities and ratios are affumed as equal which
are hot Itridtly fo, in the fame manner as in all the ele¬
mentary optical theorems. The parallelifm, however,
of vv' and rr' may be made accurate, by pufliing the
lens D r nearer to Cg, or retiring it from it. We may
alfo, by pulhing it Hill nearer, induce a fmall diver¬
gency of the violet ray, fo as to produce accurate vifion
in the eye, and may thus make the vifion through a
telefcepe more perfedl than with the naked eye, where
difperfion is by no means avoided. It rvould therefore
be an improvement to have the eye-glafs in a Hiding
tube for adjuftment. Bring the telefcope to diftinft
vifion ; and if any colour be vifible about the edges of
the field, fhift the eye-glafs till this colour is removed.
The vifion may now become indiftinff : but this is cor-
reffed by fhifting the place of the whole eye-piece.
We have examined trigonometrically the progrefs of
a red and a violet ray through many eye-pieces of Dol-
lond’s and Ramfden’s bell telefcopes j and we have
found in all of them that the colours are united on or
very near the field-glafs j fo that we prefume that a
theory fomewhat analogous to ours has direfled the in¬
genious inventors. We meet with many made by
other artifts, and even fome of theirs, where a confi-
derable degree of colour remains, fometimes in the na¬
tural order and often in the contrary order. This mull
happen in the hands of mere imitators, ignorant of prin¬
ciple. We prefume that we have now made this prin¬
ciple fufficiently plain.
Fig. 28. reprefents the eye-piece of a very fine fpy-pig. 2|
glafs by Mr Ramfden ; the focal length of its objedl-
glafs is 8i inches, with Ito^1 aperture, 2° 05' of vi¬
fible field, and 15.4 magnifying power. The diftances
and focal lengths are of their proper dimenfions, but the
apertures are i larger, that the progrefs of a lateral pen¬
cil might be more diftinftly drawn. The dimenfions
are as follow7 :
Foc.lengthsAcr:0.775 1.025 Ccrol.oi Dt/roo.79.
Diftances AB—1.18 BC=:i.83 CDrzi.105.
It is perfeftly achromatic, and the colours are united,
not precifely at the lens Cjf, but about -/^-th of an inch
nearer the eye-glafs.
It is obvious that this combination of glafles may be
ufed as a microfcope ; for if, inftead of the image formed
by the objeft-glafs at FG, we fubftitute a fmall objedl,
illuminated from behind, as in compound microfcopes ^
and if we draw the eye-piece a very fmall way from this
objeft, the pencils of parallel rays emergent from the
eye-glafs D will become convergent to very diftant
points, and will there form an inverted and enlarged
picture of the objefl, which may be viewed by a Huy-
ghenian eye-piece •, and we may thus get high magnify¬
ing powers without ufing very deep glaffes. We tried
the eye-piece of which we have given the dimenfions in
this way, and found that it might be made to magnify
180 times with very great diftinftnefs. When ufed as
the magnifier of a folar microfcope, it infinitely furpafles
every thing wre have ever feen. The pifture formed by
a folar microfcope is generally fo indiftinft, that it is fit
only for amufing ladies j but with this magnifier it feem-
ed
E L [
T 'cope, ed perfectly Oiarp. We therefore recommend this to
1 the artifts as a valuable article of their trade.
The only thing which remains to be confidered in the
theory of refra&ing telefcopes is the forms of the differ¬
ent lenfes. Hitherto we have had no occafion to con-
fider any thing but their focal diftances ; but their aber¬
rations depend greatly on the adjuftment of their forms
to their fituations. When the conjugate focufes of a
lens are determined by the fervices which it is to per¬
form there is a certain form or proportion between
the curvatures of their anterior and pofterior furfaces,
which will make their aberrations the fmalleft poffible.
It is evident that this proportion is to be obtained by
making the fluxion of the quantity within the paren-
thefis in the formula at the top of col. 2. p. 248. equal to
nothing. When this is done, we obtain this formula for a,
the radius of curvature for the anterior furface of a lens.
1 _2m 4 where m is the ratio of the
a 2W+4 2(w-l-4)r <
fine of incidence to the fine of refraction, and r is the
diftance of the focus of incident rays, pofitive or nega¬
tive, according as they converge or diverge, all meafured
on a fcale of which the unit is /?, = half of the radius
of the equivalent ifofceles lens.
It will be fufficiently exaCt for our purpofe to fuppofe
In this cafe — =z-
a 7
~ . . 31
vi—-, though it is more nearly .
7r
42r-}-70
" 49r ’
Therefore 0:
49 r
"42r4-70
And \
b
1—a
a ’ u
As an example, let it be required to give the radii of
curvature in inches for the eye glafs 6*? of page 262.
col. 1. par. 4. which we (hall fuppofe of 14 inches focal
diftance, and that ec (=r) is 31th inches.
The radius of curvature for the equivalent ifofceles
-1
lens is 1.5, and its half is 0.75. Therefore r— T
= 5i
and our formula is a—
49X5
o-75
 _245^ _
42X5+.70’ 280’
, 1 \—a 0.125 , , l °-875 _
0.87j ana y=—, =-^ and i__, _7.
Thefe values are parts of a fcale, of which the unit is
0.75 inches. Therefore
a, in inches, =0.875x0.75, =0.65525
£, in inches, =7 X 0.75, =5*25*
And here we muft obferve that the pofterior furface is
concave: for £ is a pofitive quantity, becaufe 1—a is a
pofitive quantity as well as a; therefore the centre of
fphericity of both furfaces lies beyond the lens.
And this determination is not very different from the
ufual praflice, which commonly makes this lens a plane
convex with its flat fide next the eye : and there will
not be much difference in the performance of thefe two
lenfes •, for in all cafes of maxima and minima, even a
pretty confiderable change of the beft dimenfions does
not make a fenfible change in the refult.
The fame confideration leads to a rule which is very
269 ] TEL
fimple, and fufficiently exaft for ordinary fituations. Telefcope.^
This is to make the curvatures fuch, that the incident ^
and emergent pencils may be nearly equally inclined
to the furfaces of the lens. Thus in the eye-piece with
five glaffes, A and B fhould be moft convex on their
anterior fides j C ihould be moft convex on the pofterior
fide } D Ihould be nearly ifofceles } and E nearly plano¬
convex.
But this is not fo eafy a matter as appears at firft fight.
The lenfes of an eye-piece have not only to bend the
feveral pencils of light to and from the axis of the tele-
fcope $ they have alfo to form images on the axes of
thefe pencils. Thefe offices frequently require oppofite
forms, as mentioned in par. 3. col. 2. p. 261. Thus
the glafs A, fig. 28. ftiould be moft convex on the fide Fig. aS,
next the objeft, that it may produce little diftortion of
the pencils. But it fhould be moft convex next the
eye, that it may produce diftinft vifion of the image
EG, which is very near it. This image fhould have its
concavity turned towards A, whereas it is towards the
objeft-glafs. We muft therefore endeavour to make the
vertical image fg flatter, or even convex. This requires
a glafs very flat before and convex behind. For fimilar
reafons the obje£t-glafs of a microfcope and the fimple
eye-glafs of an aftronomical telefcope fhould be formed
the fame way.
This is a fubjeft of moft difficult difeuflion, and re¬
quires a theory which few of our readers would relifh $
nor does our limits afford room for it. The artifts are
obliged to grope their way. The proper method of ex¬
periment would be, to make eye-pieces of large dimen¬
fions, with extravagant apertures to increafe the aberra¬
tions, and to provide for each ftation A, B, C, and D,.
a number of lenfes of the fame focal diftance, but of dif¬
ferent forms ; and we would advife making the trial
in the way of a folar microfcope, and to have two eye¬
pieces on trial at once. Their pictures can be formed
on the fame fereen, and accurately compared j whereas
it is difficult to keep in remembrance the performance
of one eye-piece, and compare it with another.
We have now treated the theory of refradling tele¬
fcopes with confiderable minutenefs, and have perhaps
exceeded the limits which fome readers may think rea-
fonable. But we have long regretted that there is not
any theory on this fubjefl from which a curious perfon
can learn the improvements which have been made fince
the time of Dr Smith, or an artift learn how to proceed
with intelligence in his profeffion. If we have accom-
pliftied either of thefe ends, we truftthat the public will
receive our labours with fatisfaftion.
We cannot add any thing to what Dr Smith has de¬
livered on the theory of refle&ing telefcopes. There ap¬
pears to be the fame poffibility of corretting the aber¬
ration of the great fpeculum by the contrary aberration
of a convex fmall fpeculum, that we have pra&ifed. in
the compound objeft-glafs of an achromatic refraaing
telefcope. But this cannot be, unlefs we make the ra¬
dius of the convex fpeculum exceedingly large, which
deftroys the magnifying power and the brightnefs.
This therefore muft be given up. Indeed their per¬
formance, when well executed, does already furpafs all
imagination. Dr Herfchel has found great advantages
in what he calls the front view, not ufing a plane mir¬
ror to throw the pencils to one fide. But this cannot
be
tel t 27° ] tel
lelefcopc. jjg pra&ifed In any but telefcopes To large, that the lofs
^ of light, occaiioned by the interpofition of the obferver’s
head, may be difregarded.
Nothing remains but to defcribe the mechanifm of
fonie of the molt convenient forms.
To defcribe all the varieties of (hape and accommo¬
dation which may be given to a telefcope, would be a
talk as trifling as prolix. The artifts of London and of
Paris have racked their inventions to pleafe every fancy,
and to fuit every purpofe. We fliall content ourfelves
with a few general maxims, deduced from the fcientific
eonflderation of a telefcope, as an inftrument by which
the vifual angle fubtended by a diftant objeft is greatly
magnified*
The chief confideration is to have a fteady view of
the diftant objedft. This is unattainable, unlefs the axis
of the inftrument be kept conftantly direfted to the
fame point of it: for when the telefcope is gently Ihifted
from its pofition, the object feemx to move in the fame
or in the oppofite direflion, according as the telefcope
Inverts the objeft or (hows it eredft. This is owing to
the magnifying power, becaufe the apparent angular
motion is greater than what we naturally connedl with
the motion of the telefcope. This does not happen
■when we look through a tube without glafies.
All fhaking of the inftrument therefore makes the
objeft dance before the eye; and this is difagreeable,
and hinders us from feeing it diftin&ly. But a tremu¬
lous motion, however fmall, is infinitely more prejudicial
to the performance of a telefcope, by making the object
quiver before us. A perfon walking in the room pre¬
vents us from feeing diftin6ily ; nay, the very pulfation
in the body of the obferver, agitates the floor enough to
produce this effeft, when the telefcope has a great mag¬
nifying power: Tor the vifible motion of the objeft is
then an imperceptible tremor, like that of an harpfi-
chord wire, which produces an effetft precifely fimilar
to optical indiftinftnefs •, and every point of the object
is diffufed over the whole fpace of the angular tremor,
and appears coexiftent in every part of this fpace, juft as
a harpfichord wire does while it is founding. The more
rapid this motion i|, the indiftimftnefs is the more com¬
plete. Therefore the more firm and elaftic and wrell
bound together the frame-work and apertures of our
telefcope is, the more hurtful will this cotifequence be.
A mounting of lead, were it practicable, would be pre¬
ferable to wood, iron, or brafs. This is one great caufe
of the indiftinCtnefs of the very fineft reflecting telefcopes
of the ufual conftruCtions, and can never be totally re¬
moved. In the Gregorian form, it is hardly poflible to
damp the elaftic tremor of the fmall fpeculum, carried
by an arm fupported at one end only, even though the
tube were motionlefs. We were witnefles of a great
improvement made on a four-feet reflecting telefcope,
by fupporting the fmall fpeculum by a ftrong plate of
lead placed acrofs the tube, and led by an adjufting
ferew at each end. But even the great mirror may vi¬
brate enough to produce indiftinCtnefs. RefraCting te¬
lefcopes are free from this inconveniency, becaufe a fmall
angular motion of the objeCt-glafs round one of its own
diameters has no fenfible effeCt on the image in its fo-
,cus. They are affeCted only by an angular motion of
.the axis of the telefcope or of the eye-glafles.
This Angle confideration gives us great help towards
judging of the merits of any particular apparatus. We Tele-
Ihould lludy it in this particular, and fee whether its1'—'w
form makes the tube readily fufceptible of fuch tremu¬
lous motions. If it does, the firmer it is and the more
elaflic it is, the worfe. All forms therefore where the
tube is fupported only near the middle, or where the
whole immediately or remotely depend on one narrow
joint, are defective.
Reafoning in this way, we fay with confidence, that
of all the forms of a telefcope apparatus, the old falhion-
ed fimple Hand reprefented in fig. 29. is by far the belt,Fig. 5
and that others are fuperior according as the difpofition
of the points of fupport of the tube approaches to this.
Let the pivots A, B, be fixed in the lintel and foie of a
window. Let the four braces terminate very near to
thefe pivots. Let the telefcope lie on the pin F/I reft-
ing on the fhoulder round the eye-piece, while the far
end of it refts on one of the pins t, 2, 3, &c. ; and let
the diftance of thefe pins from F very little exceed the
length of the telefcope. The trembling of the axis, even
when confiderable, cannot afteCt the poQion of the
tube, becaufe the braces terminate almoft at the pivots.
The tremor of the brace CD does as little harm, becaufe
it is nearly perpendicular to the tube. And if the ob-
jeCl-glafs were clofe at the upper fupporting pin, and
the focus at the lower pin F, even the bending and
trembling of the tube will have no effeCt on its optical
axis. The inftmment is only fubjeCl to horizontal tre¬
mors. Thefe may be almoft annihilated by having a
flender rod coming from a hook’s joint in the fide of
the window, and palling through fuch another joint
clofe by the pin F. We have (een an inftrument of this
form, having AB parallel to the earth’s axis. The
whole apparatus did not coft 50 (hillings, and we find
it not in the leaft fenfible manner affeCled by a ftorm of
wind. It was by obfervations with this inftrument that
the tables of the motions of the Georgium Sidus, pub-
lilhed in the Edinburgh TranfaClions, were conftruCted,
and they are as accurate as any that have yet appear¬
ed. Th is is an excellent equatorial.
But this apparatus is not portable, and it is fadly de¬
ficient in elegance. The following is the bell method
we have feen of combining thefe circumftances with the
indifpenfable requifites of a good telefcope.
The pillar VX (fig. 30.) rifes from a firm ftand, and Fig. 31
has a horizontal motion round a cone which completely
fills it. I his motion is regulated by a rack-work in
the box at V. The ferew of this rack-work is turned
by means of the handle P, of a convenient length, and
the ferew may be difengaged by the click or detent V,
when we would turn the inftrument a great wav at once.
The telefcope has a vertical motion round the joint £)
placed near the middle of the tube. The lower end of
the tube is fupported by the ftay OT. This confifts of
a Lube R 1, faftened to the pillar by a joint T, which
allows the ftay to move in a vertical plane. Within
this tube Aides another, with a ftiff motion. This tube
is conne&ed with the telefcope by another joint O, alfo
admitting motion in a vertical plane. The fide M of
this inner tube is firmed into a rack, in which works a
pinion fixed to the top of the tube RT, and turned by
the flat finger-piece R. The reader wrill readily fee the
advantages and the remaining defefts of this apparatus.
It is very portable, becaufe the telefcope is eafily difen¬
gaged from it, and the legs and ftay fold up. If the
joint
• TEL [27
r rcope, joint £) were immediately under A, it would be much
^ £reer from all tremor in the vertical plane. But no-
thinT can hinder other tremors arifing from the long
pillar and the three fpringy legs. Thefe communicate
all external agitations with great vigour. The inllru-
ment lliould be fet on a done pedeftal, or, what is bet¬
ter, a calk filled with wet fand. This pedeftal, which
neceftity perhaps fuggefted to our fcientific navigators,
is the belt that can be imagined.
pi 51. Fig. 31. is the Hand ufually given to reftedling tele-
fcopes. The vertical tube FBG is faftened to the tube
by finger fcrews, which pafs through the flits at F and
G. This arch turns round a joint in the head of the
divided pillar, and has its edge cut into an oblique rack,
which is adted on by the horizontal fcrew, furnilhed
with the finger-piece A. This fcrew turns in a hori¬
zontal fquare frame. This frame turns round a horizon¬
tal joint in the oflF-fide, which cannot be feen in this
view. In the fide of this frame next the eye there is a
finger-fcrew a, which pafies through the frame, and
preffes on the round horizontal plate D. By fere wing
down this finger-fcrew, the frame is brought up, and
prefles the horizontal ferew to the rack. Thus the ele¬
vation of the telefcope is fixed, and may be nicely
changed by the finger applied to A and turning this
fcrew. The horizontal round plate D moves itiffly
round on another plate of nearly equal diameter. This
under plate has a deep conical hollow focket, which is
nicely fitted by grinding to a folid cone formed on the
top of the great upright pillar, and they may be firmly
fixed in any pofition by the finger-fcrew E. To the
under plate is faftened a box c, containing a horizontal
fcrew C, which always works in a rack cut in the edge
of the upper plate, and cannot be difengaged from it.
When a great vertical or horizontal motion is wanted,
the fcrews a and E are flacked, and by tightening them
the telefcope may be fixed in any pofition, and then any
fmall movements may be given it by the finger plates A
and C.
This ftand is very fubjeft to brilk tremor, either from
external agitation of the pedeftal, or from the immedi¬
ate action of the wind j and we have feldom feen dif-
tinftly through telefcopes mounted in this manner, till
one end of the tube w'as preifed againft: fomething that
was very fteady and unelaftic. It is quite aftonilhing
what a change this produces. We took a very fine te¬
lefcope made by James Short, and laid the tube on a
great lump of foft clay, prefling it firmly down into it.
Several perfons, ignorant of our purpofe, looked through
it, and read a table of logarithms at the diftance of 310
yards. We then put the telefcope on its ftand, and
pointed it at the fame objeft 5 none of the company
could read at a greater diftance than 235 yards, al¬
though they could perceive no tremor. They thought-:
the vifion as fharp as before •, but the incontrovertible
proof of the contrary was, that they could not read at
iiich a diftance.
If the round plates were of much greater dimenfions ;
and if the lower one, inftead of being fixed to the pillar,
were fupported on four ftout pillars ftanding on another
plate •, and if the vertical arch had a horizontal axis
turning on two upright frames firmly fixed to the upper
plate—the inftrument would be much freer from tre-
aaor. Such (lands were made formerly 5 but being much
4-.
i ] TEL
more bulky and inconvenient For package, they have Telefcope.
gone into difuffc. v—v—#
The high magnifying powers of Dr Herfchel’s tele¬
fcopes made all the ufual apparatus for their fupport ex¬
tremely imperfect. But his judgment, and his inge¬
nuity and fertility in refource, are as eminent as his phi-
lofophical ardour. He has contrived for his reflecting
telefcopes ftands which have every property that can be
defired. The tubes are all fupported at the two ends.
The motions, both vertical and horizontal, are emit.:.ed
with the utmofl: fimplicity and firmnefs. We cannot
more properly conclude this article than with a deferip-
tion of his 40 feet telefcope, the nobleft monument of
philofophical zeal and of princely munificence that the
W'orld can boaft: of.
Fig. 32. reprefents a view of this inftrument in a rne- Plate
ridional fituation, as it appears when feen from a con- DXXXf*
venient diflanee by a perfon placed to the fouth-weft of 32-
it. The foundation in the ground confifts of two con¬
centric circular brick walls, the outermoft of which is
42 feet in diameter, and the infide one 21 feet. They
are two feet fix inches deep under ground j two feet
three inches broad at the bottom, and one foot two
inches at the top ; and are capped with paving ftones
about three inches thick, and twelve and three quarters
broad. The bottom frame of the whole apparatus refts
upon thefe two walls by twenty concentric rollers III,
and is moveable upon a pivot, which gives a horizontal
motion to the whole apparatus, as well as to the tele¬
fcope.
The tube of the telefcope, A, though very fimple in
its form, which is cylindrical, was attended with great
difficulties in the conftruftion. This is not to be won¬
dered at; when its fize, and the materials of which it is
made, are confidered. Its length is 39 feet four inches j
it meafures four feet ten inches in diameter ; and every
part of it is of iron. Upon a moderate computation,
the weight of a wooden tube muft have exceeded an
iron one at leafi: 3000 pounds 5 and its durability would
have been far inferior to that of iron. It is made of
rolled or (beet iron, which has been joined together
without rivets, by a kind of feaming well known to
thofe who make iron funnels for ftoves.
Very great mechanical fkill is ufed in the contrivance
of the apparatus by which the telefcope is fupported and
direfted. . In order to command every altitude, the
point of fupport is moveable $ and its motion is tffe&ed
by meehanifm, fo that the telefcope may be moved
from its moil backward point of fupport to the moft for¬
ward, and, by means of the pulleys GG fufpended from
the great beam H, be fet to any altitude, up to the
very zenith. The tube is alfo made to reft with the
point of fupport in a pivot, which permits it to be turn¬
ed fidewife.
The concave face of the great mirror is 48 inches of
polifhed furface in diameter. The thicknefs, which is
equal in every part of it, remains now about three
inches and a half; and its weight, when it came from
the caft was 2118 pounds, of which it muft have loft a
fmall quantity in poliffiing. To put this fpeculum into
the tube, it is fufpended vertically by a crane in the
laboratory, and placed on a fmall narrow carriage,
which1 is drawn out, rolling upon planks, till it
comes near the back of the tube $ here it is again .
fufpended i
TEL [ 272 ] T E M
i elefcope fufpended and placed in the tube by a peculiar appa-
Teller ratUS- . . r .
■ — The method of obferving by this telefcope is by what
Dr Herfchel calls the front view; the obferver being
placed in a feat C, fufpended at the end of it, with his
back towards the object he views. There is no fmall
fpeculum, but the magnifiers are applied immediately to
the firfi: focal image.
From the opening of the telefcope, near the place of
the eye-glafs, a fpeaking pipe runs down to the bottom
of the tube, where it goes into a turning joint $ and af¬
ter feveral other infiedtions, it at length divides into two
branches, one going into the obfervatory D, and the o-
ther into the work-room E. By means of the fpeaking
pipe the communications of the obferver are conveyed
to the affiflant in the obfervatory, and the workman is
diredled to perform the required motions.
In the obfervatory is placed a valuable fidereal time¬
piece, made by Mr Shelton. Clofe to it, and of the
fame height, is a polar diftance-piece, which has a dial-
plate of the fame dimenfions with the time-piece : this
piece may be made to {how polar diftance, zenith di-
llance, declination, or altitude, by felting it differently.
The time and polar diftance pieces are placed fo that
the afiiftants fit before them at a table, with the fpeak¬
ing pipe rifing between them } and in this manner ob-
fervations may be written down very conveniently.
This noble inftrument, with proper eye-glaffes, mag¬
nifies above 6000 times, and is the largeft that has ever
been made. Such of our readers as wifti for a fuller ac¬
count of the machinery attached to it, viz. the ftairs,
ladders, and platform B, may have recourfe to the fe-
cond part of the Tranfaftions of the Royal Society for
1795; in which, by means of 18 plates and 63 pages of
letter-prefs, an ample detail is given of every circum-
ftance relating to joiner’s work, carpenter’s Avork, and
fmith’s work, which attended the formation and eredlion
of this telefcope. It Avas completed on Auguft the 28th
1789, and on the fame day was the fixth fatellite of Sa¬
turn difcovered.
TELL, William, an illuftrious Swifs patriot, chief
inftrument of the revolution Avhich delivered the Sivifs
cantons from the German yoke in 1307. Grifler, the
governor of thefe provinces for the emperor Albert, ha¬
ving ordered him, under pain of death, to {hoot at an
apple placed on the head of one of his children *, he had
the dexterity, though the diftance Avas very confiderable,
to ftrike it off Avithout hitting the child. The tyrant,
perceiving he had another arroAV concealed under his
cloak, afked him for Avhat purpofe ? To which he bold¬
ly replied, “ To have {hot you through the heart, if I
had had the misfortune to kill my fon.” The enraged
governor now ordered him to be hanged j but his fel¬
low-citizens, animated by his fortitude and patriotifm,
flerv to arms j attacked and vanquished Grifler, who was
{hot to death by Tell; and the affociation for the inde¬
pendency took place that inftant.
TELL-Tale, a name fometimes given to the Perpe-
tual-LOG. See that article.
TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient
records called tallier. There are four of thefe officers,
whofe duty is to receive all fums due to the king, and
to give the clerk of the pells a bill to charge him there¬
with. They likew ife pay all money due from the king,
by warrant from the auditor of the receipt j and make
Aveekly and yearly books both of their receipts and pay- Tel!|
ments, which they deliver to the lord treafurer. ||
TELLINA, a genus of ftiell-fifti. See Concho- ,
LOGY Index. Y *
TEMISSA, a large town in Africa, about 120
miles north-eaft of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan.
Here the caravan of pilgrims from Bornou and Nigri-
tia, Avhich takes its departure from Mourzouk, and
travels by the A\7ay of Cairo to Mecca, ufually provides
the ftores of corn and dates, and dried meat, that are
requifite for its dreary paffage.
TEMPE, in Ancient Geography, a moft pleafant
place or valley of Theffaly. That it Avas there, appears
from the epithets Thejfalica (Livy), TheJJa/a (Ovid) j
but in Avhat particular diftridl is the queftion. From
the Phthiotica of Catullus, it Ihould feem to be of
Phthiotis : but the Peneus, Avhich ran through Tempo,
was at too great a diftance, being feparated from it by
Mount Othrys and others. Firft, hoAvever, Ave ftiall
define Tempe, previous to the determining the particu¬
lar diftxift in Avhich it lay. The Peneus, according to
Pliny, running doAvn between Offa to the fouth and
Olympus to the north for 500 ftadia, is for half that
fpace navigable : in the direction of this courfe lies Avhat
is called Tempe, extending in length for fiATe miles, in
breadth for about an acre and a half, Avith gentle con¬
vexities rifing on the right and left hand. Within
glides the pure ftream of the Peneus, charming in
the grafs on its banks, and harmonioufty Arocal Avith
the mufic of birds. In this defeription Strabo and
TElian agree j the laft adding, that it has an agree¬
able variety of places of retreat j and that it is n®t
the Avork of man’s hand, but the fpontaneous pro¬
duction of nature j and Strabo fays, that formerly
the Peneus formed a lake in this fpot, being check¬
ed in its courfe by the higher grounds about the
fea; but that an opening being made by an earth¬
quake, and Mount Offa torn from Olympus, the Pe-
neus gained a free courfe betAveen them. But Lrvy,
AA'ho calls Tempe a grove, remarks a degree of horror
rather than amenity, with Avhich the Roman army Avas
ftruek on marching over the narroAV pafs; for, befides
the defile, difficult to go over, Avhich runs on for five
miles, there are fteep rocks on each hand, down Avhich
the profpe£t is apt to caufe a dizzinefs, heightened by
the noife and depth of the interfluent Peneus. Hence
it appears that Tempe Avas in the Pelafgiotis, Avhofe ex¬
tremity Avas formerly the Peneus, but afterwards, as is
probable, allotted to Magnefia 5 and thus Pliny places
the mouth of the Peneus not in Theffaly itfelf, but in
the Magnefia of Theffaly.
TEMPER, in a mechanical fenfe. See Temper¬
ing.
Temper, in a moral fenfe, the difpofition of mind,
whether natural or acquired. The Avoid is feldom ufed
by good writers without an epithet, as a good or bad
temper j though one of the moft beautiful poems in the
language is entitled The Triumphs of Temper.
It is Avell obferved by an elegant Effayift, that more
conftant uneafinefs arifes from ill temper than from ill
fortune $ as a bad temper embitters every fweet, and
converts a paradife into a place of torment. For fub-
duing the heart to foftnefs, and preferving a due balance
of the paflions, a proper culture of the underftanding
and of the tafte is the beft method. He Avho employs
bis
ml6—
■do.
PLATE DXXI.
no nn i,- 4
■
i
■T.
iikusciii'M.s cka.xd Ti:i.i;s<oi'i;
I*LA TK DXXXJ.
Fuj. 32.
W^cA e.Jl J'cizZp ^
• T E M [ 273 ] T E M
>mper, Ills time in the ftndies of elegant literature, or the fine
npera- arts, has almoll always a good temper ; whilft the man
ient* wl10 is abforbed in the purfuits of profound fcience is apt
“‘v*—"' t0 acquire a feverity of difpofitioi), little lefs difagree-
ab!e, though generally much lefs pernicious, than the
capricioufnefs of the idler. Mufic, painting, and poetry,
teach the mind to feleft the agreeable parts of thofe ob¬
jects which furround us, and by habituating it to a pure
and permanent delight, gradually fuperinduce an habi¬
tual good humour. It is of infinite importance to hap-
pinefs to accuftom the mind, from infancy, to turn from
deformed and painful feenes, and to contemplate what¬
ever can be found of moral and natural beauty.
So much of the happinefs of private life depends on
the government of the temper, that the temper ought
to be a principal objeft of regard in a well-condufted
education. The fuffering of children to tyrannize with¬
out controul over fervants and inferiors, is' the ruin of
many an amiable difpofition. The virtues of humanity,
benevolence, humility, cannot be too early enforced ;
at the fame time, care fliould be taken that an infant
of two or three years old ihould never be beaten or
fpoken to harfhly for any offence which it can poflibly
commit.
TEMPERAMENT, among phyficians, the fame
with conftitution, or a certain difpofition of the folids
and fluids of the human body, by which it i^ay be pro¬
perly denominated ftrong, weak, lax, &c.
In every perfon there are appearances of a tempera¬
ment peculiar to himfelf, though the ancients only took
notice of four, and fome have imagined thefe were de¬
duced from the theories of the four humours or four
cardinal qualities ; but it is more probable that they
were firft founded on obfervation, and afterwards adapt¬
ed to thofe theories, fince we find that they have a real
exiftence, and are capable of receiving an explanation.
The two that are moft diftinddly marked are the fangui-
neous and melancholic, viz. the temperaments of youth
and age.
1. Sanguineous. Here there is laxity of folids, dif-
coverable by the foftnefs of hair and fucculency ; large
fyflem of arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid com¬
plexion ; fenfibility of the nervous power, efpecially to
pleafing objefls ; irritability from the plethora ; mobi¬
lity and levity from lax folids. Thefe chara&ers are dif-
tinflly marked, and are proved by the difeafes inci¬
dent to this age, as haemorrhagies, fevers, &c. but
thefe, as they proceed from a lax fyflem, are more eafily
cured.
2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of fo¬
lids occurs, difcoverable by the hardnefs and crifpature
of the hair ; fmall proportion of the fluids, hence dry-
nefs and leannefs *, fmall arteries, hence pale colour 5
venous plethora, hence turgefcency of thefe, and livi-
dity *, fenfibility, frequently exquifite j moderate irrita¬
bility, with remarkable tenacity of impreflions ; fteadi-
nefs in aftion and flownefs of motion, with great
ftrength ; for excefs of this conftitution in maniacs gives
the moft extraordinary inftance of human ftrength we
know. This temperament is moft diftinftly marked in
Vol. XX. Part I.
old age, and in males. The fanguineous temperament Tempera,
of youth makes us not diftinguifh the melancholic till ment.
the decline of life, when it is very evident, from dif- ' * "
eafes of the veins, haemorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, ob-
ftrudlions of the viicera, particularly of the liver, drop-
fies, affedtions of the alimentary canal, chiefly from
weaker influence of the nervous power. So much for
the fanguineous and melancholic temperaments ; the
other two are not fo eafily explained. The choleric
temperament takes place between youth and manhood.
In the
3. Choleric, the diftribution of the fluids is more ex-
aftly balanced ; there is lefs fenfibility, and lefs obefity,
with more irritability, proceeding from greater tenuon,
lefs mobility and levity, and more fteadinefs in the
ftrength of the nervous power. As to the
4. Phlegmatic. This temperament cannot be diflin-
guifhed by any charaders of age or f'ex. It agreett
with the fanguineous in laxity and fucculency. It dif¬
fers from that temperament, and the melancholic, by
the more exad diftribution of the fluids. Again, it
differs from the fanguineous, by having lefs fenfibility,
irritability, mobility, and perhaps ftrength, though
fometimes indeed this laft is found to be great.
Thefe are the ancient temperaments. The tempera-
ments, indeed, are much more various j and very far
from being eafily marked and reduced to their genera
and fpeeies, from the great variety which is obfervable
in the conftitutions of different men.
TEMPERAMENT of the Mu ft cal Scale, is that modi- Definition,
fieation of the founds of a mufical inftrument, by which
thefe founds may be made to ferve for different degrees
of different feales. See Music, Chap. VII.
I emperament, though intimately connected with mu-
fic, is not, properly fpeaking, a part of that fcience.
The obje&s of mufic, as a fcience, are, to afeertain the
laws of mufical found, as depending on the powers of
the human voice. The purpofe of temperament is, to
regulate, in a way leaft adverfe to thefe laws, a certain
departure from them, rendered neceffary by the imper-
fedions of inftruments.
Although the temperament of the fcale of inftruments
be praflically familiar, the true principles on which it
depends have been much difputed. Various opinions
have been hazarded, and fyftems propofed. We offer
an abridged view of that which appears to us to merit
a preference (a).
Before confideration of the tempered fcale, a ftiort Nature of
review of the nature of the true fcale is neceffary. the true
From the conformation of the vocal organs, all na- ^cal®*
tions, in finging, make ufe of the fame inflexions of^J a_d
voice. Thefe inflexions, called notes, are laid to be thdr pitcb,
grave or acute, in proportion to the degree of hoarfenefs
or fhrillnefs with which they are fung. The ftate of
voice with refpeX to gravity or acutenefs with which
any one note is fung, is termed \\.$ pitch.
Two notes having the fame pitch are termed tinifons,^^ ard
or are faid to be in unifon to one another. The differ-interval*-
ence of pitch between any note and another is denomi¬
nated an interval.
Mm In
(a) Amongft the very numerous authors on the fubjeX of temperament, we have feleXed, for our chief guides,
the late Dr Robert Smith of Cambridge, and Profeffor John Robifon of Edinburgh.
Tempera¬
ment.
Key note
or funda¬
mental.
6
Natural
fcale and
its degrees.
7
.Difference
of pitch of
the male
and female
voice.
8
O&ave,
what ?
*3
Different
voices re¬
quire dif¬
ferent
fcales.
T E M [ 274 ] T E M
In all attempts to fing, tire ear, either unconfcioully,
or from the direftion of recently hearing it, feledls a
particular note, from the previous impreffion @f which
the voice naturally forms other notes, at certain though
unequal intervals. The note, thus feledled, is termed
the key note or fundamental. When chofen, it inllantly
affumes a particular and predominant charadter. The
ear involuntarily refers to it the intonation of all other
notes, readily recurs to it during performance, and is
difiatisfied unlefs the voice clofe upon it.
Where the linger has affumed a key note, and, after
finging that note, lings the note nearelt in acutenefs to
it without forcing the voice, and fo on, the feries of
notes, thus naturally formed, conftitutes what is called
the natural fcale. The notes of it are termed its de¬
grees ; thus the key note is the firf degree of the
fcale ; the natural note next in acutenefs to it, is
named the fecond degree, or fecond of the fcale, and fo
on.
Two untaught men, attempting to ling the fame fcale
together, always ling in unifon. But a man and a wo¬
man, making the fame attempt, ling naturally in fuch a
difference of pitch, although they proceed by the fame
intervals, that the eighth note only of the male voice
afcending, is in unifon with the key note of the female
voice. Were the male voice to afcend to a ninth note,
it would be in unifon with the fecond of the female
voice; the tenth note of the former would be in unifon
with the third of the latter, and fo on.
We have thus two fcales in fucceflion, perfeftly fimi-
lar in the relation of the degrees of each to their refpec-
tive key notes ; but differing in pitch by the interval
between thefe key notes.
This interval, comprehending feven fmaller intervals
and eight degrees, is, from this laft circumftance, called
an oBave: and this term is alfo applied, fomewhat in¬
accurately, to the feries of the eight degrees. Thus we
fay, that the ociave formed by the female voice is an
oBave acuter than that which is produced by the male
voice 5 meaning, that the eight degrees fung by the
woman are aculer by the interval of an odave, than Tempe
thofe fung by the man. mew
Not only are the natural oflaves of the male and fe- ^
male voice exa&ly fnnilar 5 but the fame fimilarity is Au ^
found in the extremes of the human voice, and, beyond ate fimi
them, as far as mufical founds can be produced. Many
men can fing the fecond oflave below, and moft women
the fecond odlave above,, a given key note common to
both voices. Yet the graveft odlave of fuch a male
voice, and the acuteil ocftave of fuch a female voice, are
equally fitnilar in their relations (although they differ in,
pitch by an interval ol two odlaves), as the two central
oftaves are. I0
All the different natural inflefHons of the h*jmanAllmu
voice are thus contained in one odlave, fince all other conta‘n
oftaves are only repetitions of the fame inflections in a
graver or acuter pitch-- natural
The oflave, then, confifts of eight degrees and feven kale,
intervals. Two of thefe intervals, thofe between the 11
third and fourth, and the feventh and eighth degrees,
are fenfibly lefs different in pitch than the others. And eight d
although we have no direct meafures of the pitch ofgreesa
founds, we term thefe fmaller intervals femitonic, andleven‘i
the others tonic intervals, prefuming the latter to beva^'
equal to each other, and a femitonic interval to be equal
to, the half of a tonic one. ^
The degrees of the natural fcale are, by Britifh mufi- Repreft
clans, diflinguifhed by the firft feven letters of the al*tationc|
phabet. The letter C, for fome reafon kfs importanttlie ^
than difficult to explain, has been appropriated to the^ etts
note moft eafily affumed as a key note by both the
male and female voice ; the fecond of the fcale is term¬
ed D, the third E, and fo on. As the human voice,
and confequently moft mufical compofitions, compre¬
hend four oftaves, we reprefent the ordinary o&ave of
the male voice by Roman capitals, and that of the fe¬
male voice by Roman minufcular letters. The graveft
male oftave is diftinguiffied by Italic capitals, and the
aeuteft female odtave by roinufcular Italics. The whola
natural fcale may therefore be exhibited thus :
i
Graveft; Ordinary Ordinary Acuteft
Male Odtave. Male Oftave. Female Odtave. Female Odiave.
C*D* EF*G* A*BC* D* E'F*G * A *B'c*d*e f#g*a* b c* e f*g*a* be.
1. 2. 34. 5. 6. 71. 2. 34. 5. 6. 7 1. 2. 34. 5. 6. 71. 2. 34. 5. 6. 78.
In this exhibition, the juxtapofition of the thirds and
fourths, and of the fevenths and eighths or replicates of
the firft degree, indicates the femitonic intervals; and
the afterifks reprefent the tonic intervals of the natural
fcale, or the artificial intercalary founds, which, as we
fhall prefently fee, it becomes neceflary to fubftitute in
thofe intervals.
Were all voices of the fame compals, and were mufi¬
cal feelings fatisfied with the natural fcale, we might
reft here. Being furniftied with a key note adapted to
all voices, and with inftruments accurately tuned to that
key note, it would be unneceffary to examine whether
any other note of the natural fcale could be affumed as
the key note of a different feale, and if it could, whe¬
ther any-agreeable effeft refulted from the difeovery.
But the ufe of different fcales, the key notes of which
are derived from the different degrees of the natural
icales, has been found not only to be one of the chief
fources of the pleafure imparted by mufical perform¬
ances, but to be indifpenfably neceffary, from the phy-
fical inequality of voices.
The central ‘c’ of the fcale, called in mufic the tenor
C, can be produced by every fpecies of voice. The
graveft; male voices, termed bafs, can form this note,
but very few notes above it. The treble, or acuter
female voice alfo produces it, but feldom defeends
farther. The acuter male voices, called tenor, have
this ‘c’ fcarcely above the middle of their compafs, and
it is not much below the middle of that of the counter¬
tenor or graveft female voices. Now it is obvious that
an air in the natural fcale, which ffiould rife above ‘c’,
and fall below it in the fame proportions, might be fung
by the tenor or counter-tenor voice, but would be too
acute for the bafs voice, and too grave for the treble.
Either of thefe voices, in order to execute the fame air,
muft affume a different key note from ‘o’ $ and as all
2
:ercaliry
iiids ne-
Tary.
IS
athema-
:al ratios
mufical
tervals.
16
atios of
le octave
th and
urth.
T E M [ 275
the degrees of the fcale are regulated by the key note,
the air muft of eourfe be executed in a fcale different
from that of ‘c’.
Again, fuppofe a finger who can fing a given air on¬
ly i n't he fcale of B, to be accompanied by an inftru-
ment tuned in the fcale of ‘c\ Should the lyriff be¬
gin on his own key note, he is a femitone above the
key note of the finger •, and (hould he begin on the
note which is in uniion with the finger’s key note, the
next degree is wrong, being but a fe mitonic interval by
the inftrument, and a tonic interval by the voice. In
fhort, all the degrees but one will be found wrong.
This is an evident confequence of the inequality of the
femitonic to the tonic intervals ; and if the tonic inter¬
vals, which we prefume to be equal, be not exaftly fo,
the difcordance will be (fill greater.
The remedy for this is apparently obvious. If the
femitonic intervals are each equal to half of any of the
tonic intervals, we need only to interpofe other founds
between each two of the degrees which form the tonic
intervals; and then, in place of eight degrees and fieven
unequal intervals, we (hall have twelve degrees and
twelve equal intervals, each of them equal to a iemitone.
An inftrument thus furniflied, appears to be adapted to
any voice, and to refemble the modern harpfichord or
organ, which have twelve feemingly equal intervals in
the o&ave. Such were the pradlical refources of the
Greek muficians, famffioned by the approbation of Ari-
ftoxenus, and of all thofe who were fatisfied with the
decifion of the ear alone.
But philofophers and mathematicians afcertained the
exiftence of a certain connexion between mufical inter¬
vals and mathematical proportions, and gradually open¬
ed the way to the difcovery that the relations of the
mufical fcale, as naturally formed by the human voice,
depend on principles equally plain and certain with the
fimpleft geometrical propofitions.
Pythagoras is faid to have difcovered, that if two
mufical chords be in equal tenfion, and if one of them
be half the length of the other, the (hort one will found
an oftave above the long one if one-third fhorter, it
will produce the fifth : if one-fourth fhorter, it will give
the fourth. Thus the relation of the key to its o&ave
was difcovered to correfpond to the ratio of 2 : I j that
of the key to its fifth to be in the ratio of 3 : 2 $ and
that of the key to its fourth to be in the ratio of 4 : 3.
For inftance, if a chord of a given fize and tenfion, and
12 inches long, produce ‘c’, another of the fame fize
and tenfion, but only fix inches long, will give the oc¬
tave c; one eight inches long will found the fifth ‘g’ j
and one nine inches long will produce the fourth ‘f’.
Now as the firing of eight inches giving the fifth, and
that, of fix inches producing the oftave, are in the ratio
of 4 : 3, which is that of the fourth y it follows, that
the interval between the fifth and oftave is a fourth :
and as the chord of nine inches producirtg the fourth,
and the o£lave of fix inches, are in the ratio of 3 : 2, the
interval between the fourth and o£tave muff be a fifth.
Thus the oftave ‘c’ c, is divided itito a fifth ‘c g’, and a
fourth ‘g’c, or into a fourth ‘c f’, and a fifth ‘fV, both
] T E M
in fucceflion. The two fourths !c f’, and ‘gV, leave an Tempera-
interval ‘fg’, correfponding, as we have feen, to the ratio ment. ^
of 9 : 8. _ ['l
We have thus the ratios of the oflave, of the fifth, andRatj0 0f
of the fourth j and it does not appear that the ancient the major
theorifts proceeded farther. They feem to have pre-tllir(b f™-
ferred the harmony of fourths and fifths to that of thirds '
and fixths, fo effential in modern harmony. By pur-tone<i
fuing the fyftem of the mathematical ratios, we find
that 5 : 4 gives the major third ‘ce’. And the fifth ‘g’
being already determined by the ratio 3 : 2, we afcer-
tain the ratio of the minor third ‘eg’ to be 6 : 5, which
is the difference between 3 : 2 and 5:4. In the fame
way, the ratio of the third ‘e’ being 5 : 4, and that of '
the fourth ‘f’ being 4 : 3, we afcertain the ratio oi the
femitone ‘ef’ to be 16 : 15, or 4 : 3—3 : 4. jg
A note in the ratio of 5 : 4, or that of a major third Ratio of
to‘f’, gives‘a’, the major iixth ot the neutral fcale j‘he maj°r
and a note in the fame ratio oi 5:4 to ‘g’ produces ‘b’, r fo
the major feventh oi that icale. The latio of ‘ga’ willveuth.
thus be 10 '9, and that of '-ab’ 9 : 8, the fame with that
of ‘fg’ j and that of ‘bV will thus be 16 : 15 like ‘e f’- 19
We have in this way the mathematical ratios of all Ratio of
the degrees of the natural fcale except that of the ie-lhe n ajar
cond ‘d’. Coniidering, however, the fecond to be a per-lelxnc*‘
fed; fourth gfaver than the fifth, and having afcertain¬
ed the fifth ‘g’ to be a perfed fourth below cf as 2 : I
is to 3 : 2; fo 3 : 2 gi’tes 9:8, which we take for the
tatio of the fecond. 2e
Thus have been formed two diftind fyftems of into-Ariftoxe-
nation of the natural fcale j that of mean tones and fe-nean an<i
mitones, founded on the rules of Ariftoxenus, and the ^
pradice of ancient artifts, and that of the ratios dedu- ftems>
ced from the difcoveries of Pythagoras, and the calcula¬
tions of mathematicians. 21
The difference between the Ariffoxenean fyftem of Circular r®*
mean tones and femitones, and the Pythagorean fyflem
of mathematical ratios, will beft appear from the fol-fcaie.
lowing conftrudion. Let the circumference of a circle
(fig. I.) be divided by dotted lines (according to the dxxXII,
principles of Ariftoxenus) into five larger and equal in- fig. 1.
tervals, and two fmaller intervals alfo equal. Let it al-
fo be divided by full lines into portions determined by
means of the mufical ratios. Thus let the arches CD,
FG, and AB be proportional to the logarithm of 9 : 8,
GA and DE to thofe of 10:9, and EF and BC to
thofe of 16 : 15 (b). Let us divide another circle in
the fame manner 5 but inftead of having its points of
divifion marked C,D, &c. let them be marked ‘key’
2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th. This circle, which may be
defcribed on a piece of card, is to be placed on the other,
and is to move round their common centre. 22
In whatever point of the outer circle the point ‘key’Infufficien.
of the inner one be placed, it is obvious that the other the
points of the outer circle will ihew what degrees of it,
by correfponding with the other points 2d, 3d, &c. ofcotnp0fition
the inner circle, will ferve for degrees of the fcale de-in different
termined by the point ‘key’. By this we fee clearlyfcales*
the infufficiency of the degrees of the natural fcale, for
the performance of compofitions in different fcales, and
Mm2 the
(b) We may make CDn:6i0, 72 ; CEjj50,9; CE=T49°,42; CG=2lo%j8i CA= 265°, 3 ; and CB
.326° 48.
Temiera-
riient.
23
G;ililt*u’s
dilcoveiy
«f aerial
undulation
24
Pitch o£
found de¬
termined
by aerial
unduia-
T E M [ 2
the incfficacy of the Arifioxenean remedy of mean
tone..-'.
But although the errors of t!ie Arlftoxeneans were de-
monikated by the certainty of the ratios, and although
the dependence of mufical intervals on the latter befaid
to have been known finee the days of Pythagoras, the
'nature of that relation remained unknown for ages.
Galileo difcovered that the ratios exprefs the frequency
of the aerial undulation, by which the feveral founds
are generated. He demonfkated that the vibrations of
two chords, of the fame matter and thicknefs, and of
equal tenfion, will be in the ratio of their len . hs, and
that the number of oicillations made in a given time
will be inverfely as their lengths. The frequency of
the fonorous undulations of the air is therefore inverfely
as the length of the Iking. Thus 2 : I being the ratio
of the oftave, the undulations which produce the acuter
found are twice as frequent as thofe which generate the
graver. The ratio of the fifth, 3 : 2, indicates that in
the fame time that the ear receives three undulations
from the upper found, it receives only two from the
lower. This is not peculiar to founds produced by the
vibration of firings : thofe produced from the vibration
of bells, and from the undulation of the air in pipes, are
regulated by the fame law.
Thus, it is demonftrated that the pitch of mufical
found is determined by the undulations of the air ; and
that a certain frequency of undulations produces a cer¬
tain and unalterable mufical note. It has been found
ticos.
* 3.
Cfeerds,
tontonant
and duTo-
Bttnt.
26
Beats,.,
what ?
that any noife whatever, if repeated 240 times in a fe-
cond, at equal intervals, produces the tenor ‘c’ ; if 560
times, the ‘g1, or fifth abwve. It had been imagined that
mufical found was only to be produced by thofe regular
undulations, which are occafioned by the vibrations of
elaftit bodies. We are aflured that the fame effeft will
be produced by any noife, if repeated not lefs than 30
©r 40 times in a fecond ; and that the experiment has
been tried with a quill flapping againft the teeth of a
wheel.
By Galileo’s difeovery, the principles on which tho
jufi intonation of the natural fcale depends, are fhown
to be certain and plain. To proceed in our fearch of
an exadfi meafure of temperament of this perfeft intona¬
tion, we muff confider the nature and effects of con-
fonant and diffonant chords.
A chord is a combination of two or more fimultane-
«us mufical founds. If the coalefcence be fo complete
that the compound founds cannot be diftinguifhed, the
chord is faid to be confonant; if the feparate founds are
diftin&ly heard, the chord is termed diflonant.
All confonances are pleafing, although feme are more
fe than others. All diflbnances are unfatisfaftory, and
feme are very'harftn
In confenances, no inequality of found is perceptible.
In diflenanees, the ear is fenfibleof an alternate increafe
and diminution of the ftrength of the found, without
variation of pitch. This is occafioned by the alternate
coincidence and bifeftion of the vibrations of the com¬
ponent founds. For example, feppofe two perfedl uni-
fens produced from two pipes each 24 inches long.
Each found has 240 vibrations in a fecond, either exact¬
ly coincident, or exactly alternate. In either cafe, the
vibrations are fe frequent and uniform as not to be di-
ffinguilhable, and the whole appears one found. But
1
76 ] T E M
let one of the pipes be only 23 inches and feven-te nths TV,I W
long, it will give 243 vibrations in a fecond. There- mnJ
fore the ill, the 80th, the 160th, and the 240th vibra-
tion of the longer pipe, will coincide with the ill, the
81ft, the 162d, and the 243d of the Ihorter. In the
inftant of coincidence, the aerial agitation produced by
the one vibration is reinforced by that produced bv tim
other. The deviations from coincidence gradually in¬
creafe till the 40th vibration of the longer pipe, which
will commence in the middle of the 41ft vibration of the
fir or ter one. The vibrations here bife<f!ing each other
the aerial agitations of both will be weakened. The
compounded found will confequenlly be ftronger at the
coincidences and weaker at the bifedlions of the vibra¬
tions. The increafe of firength, which is termed the
/W, will recur thrice in every fecond. Thus the vk
brations are in the ratio of 80 : 81, or of a comma ; and
the compounded found now fuppofed is an unifen imper-
fcB by a comma.
If a third pipe, tuned a perfeft fifth to the longer of
the two former, be founded at the fame time with the
fhorter, the diffonance will beat nine times in a fecond ;
and is thus fliown to be a fifth imperfedl by a comma.'
I he perfection or imperfedlion of any confonance
may thus be afeertained with equal facility and preci-
fion : and by this method, any perfeCl confenar.ee may
be altered to any acquired date of temperament.
I he theory of beats is therefore valuable, as giving3eats2^
us the management of a phenomenon intimately con-ford an'
ne&ecl with perfeCl harmony, as affording us precife and fA mea
practicable meafures of all deviations from it, and asiureoft
thus forming the bafis of the moft accurate fyftcm 0fl!eiamei
temperament!
For the preparatory procefs of determining the exaft
degrees of the feale, let us attend to the following in¬
genious and amufing experiment. ° ?
Let two harpfichord wires be exaftly tuned in unifon Fundair
at the pitch of the tenor ‘c,’ to be acted on fimultane-tal expe
oufly by a wheel rubbed with rofin, like that of a vielle.tnerit'
Let a Icale of 240 equal parts be defcribed under one of
the firings, equal in length to the founding part of it,
and numbered from the end at which the wheel is
applied: Let a moveable bridge be placed under this
firing, but fo as not to alter the tenfion of it in the
lead. .
The two open firings being in perfe<ff unifen, with¬
out any beating whatever, let the moveable bridge be
advanced fiowly from the nut, while the wheel is ap¬
plied to both firings. All kinds of chords, confenant
and diffonant, will of courfe be fucceflively heard. Be¬
tween the confenances there will be a beating, which
%vill increafe as we approach the confonance, ceafe on
our reaching it, appear again as we leave it, diminifh as
we recede from it, and again increafe as we approach t&
the fucceeding confenance.
After this general view, let us more particularly ex¬
amine the feveral degrees of the feale. ^
On placing the moveable bridge at 120, we fiialbDetermirj
hear a perfeA o&ave, without any beating. If the di-tionofth
vifiem be not quite exafl, there will be a little beating joitave'
but by fhifting the bridge very gently to either fide, the
increafe or diminution of the beating will guide us to 3®
the true place, where it will entirely ceafe. Determw
On placing the bridge at 160, the perfefl concord of^rfeV
tfceiifth.
T E M [ 277 ] T E M
npm- the key and fifth will be heard. Any alteration of
lent, the bridge to either fide will produce a dilagreeable
'• " beating. ,
31 • A rapid flutter in the vicinity of 180 will ceafe at
l Tthe that point, and give place to the confonance of the key
p e& and fourth.
fi th. Qn approaching 192, an angry wafpilh beating is fuc-
3Z • roeded at that point by the animating concord of the
1 ermina-cecucn . i* 1
t ot the key and major third.
r jrthird. As we leave 192', the beating ailumes a melancholy
33 charafler, and ceafes at 200, the place of the plaintive
1 er™hnea’confonance of the key and minor third.
‘ Between that point and the nut, we have only a fuc-
34 eeflion of difcords. As we were at a lols to afcertain
) erraini- t|w mathematical ratio of the fecond of the fcale (art. 19),
’ 0.fthe ib we have fome ditficulty in determining its juft place
* 11 ’ bv the theory of beats, and the experiment under con-
fideratiori. We are uncertain whether we ftiall fix it at
a minor tone, or at a major tone above the key. Both
form a harfh diffonance with the key. The major tone,
however, is thought left difagreeable : it admits of five
more concords in the o&ave than the minor ; and the
ratio of it 9 : 8, is that fuggefted by the fimilarity of
its interval with the fifth, to the interval of the fifth and
oftave (art. 19-). “On thefe accounts we prefer it 3 and
its place in the divifion under our precife confideration
35 is 2t3f.
; ermina- Let the bridge now be placed near, and frowly mo-
dj of the ve(j t0 130 : the beating fubfide into a conlonance,
1 orlixth-fljghtly pleafing, that of the key and minor fixth.
ermina- A1 Md* we have the agreeable concord of the key
| of the and major fixth. From 144 to 120 we hear nothing
1 orfixth. but difcord.
. 37 >. ^ this interval, however, we have to find the place
, ~0ftbe ftnfible note or major feventh. The ear informs
I nth. us, that the interval between the major feventh and the
o&ave, mu ft be fimilar to that between the major third
and the fourth. Applying to the former interval the
ratio of the latter, that of 16 ^ 15, we place the move-
able bridge at 1283 for as 15 is to 16, fo 120 gives
128. We alfo feel, that the interval between the fifth
and major feventh is exa&ly fimilar to that between the
key and major third, of which the ratio is 5 : 4. Now,
applying the fame ratio to 160, the place of the fifth,
we find 5:4:: 160 : 128. We thus determine 128 Tempera-
to be the place of the major feventh of the icale. a
The interval or difference between the minor tone
10 : 9, and the major tone 9 : 8, is 81 : 80, termed j>atios 0f
comma. This interval is not employed in pradical mu- ample in-
fie, but mult be diftindtly underltood by theorifts, and temls.
particularly in treating of temperament. 4
There are therefore four deferiptions of fimple inter¬
vals \ that is, intervals which do not include more than
a major tone. Thefe are, comma, of which the ratio
is 81 : 80 3 hemitone, or 16 : 153 minor tone 01*
10 : 9 3 and major tone, or 9 : 8 (c). ,.r)
We have now to confider how far the perfedt intona- Tempera-
tion of the natural fcale muft be departed from inkeyed mentnecef-
inftruments, fuch as the organ and harpfichord3 fo that[ary 7.
the fame found may ferve for different degrees of differ- ^umeats.
ent feales.
Thefe inftruments have twelve founds in every oc¬
tave 3 that is, they have the eight,natural degrees and
four intercalaiy founds, viz. between C and 13, D and
E, F and G, G and A, and A and 13.
The purpofe of thefe intercalary founds is, that art
air may be performed in any pitch 3 that is, that any
found may be taken for a key note, and that other
founds may be found to form the fcale of that key note-,
at intervals correfponding to thofe of the natural
fcale.
Thus, if inftead of C, the key note of the natural
feale, we take B for the key note required 3 A, which
is the feventh to B, will by no means anfwer for the
feventh of the affumed fcale 3 for the interval between
A and B is a major tone, of which the ratio is 9 : 8,
whereas the interval between the feventh of the fcale
and the oftave, can only be a hemitone, the ratio of
which is 16 : JJ. We muft therefore employ the in¬
tercalary found between A and B, which in this em¬
ployment we call A$, or A (harp. But we {ball pre-
fently fee that we cannot tune even this found in the ra¬
tio of 16 : 15 with B. For, let us take F for the key¬
note of another fcale, we find that B will not ferve for
the fourth of that fcale, being a major tone above A
the third 3 whereas the fourth of the fcale is only a he¬
mitone above the third. We muft therefore have re-
courfe to our intercalary found between A and B,
which
(c) The logarithmic meafures of thefe intervals, and of the compound
have deferibed, are
Comma, -
Hemitone, -
Minor tone, _ - _
Major tone, - - -
Minor third, -
Major third, - - -
Fourth,
Fifth,
Minor fixth, - - -
Major fixth, - -
Seventh, -
Odtave, -
intervals determined in the way which we
280
458
512
792
969
1249
1761
2041
2219
2730
3010
The oftave being thus divided into 3010 equal parts,_ a circle of which the circumference is divided into 301
degrees, and a concentric moveable circle having a nonius fubdividing each into ten parts, will form a convenient
inftrument for examining all temperaments of the fcale.
T E M [ 278 1 T E M
Tempera- wliich we muft here call B|?, or B flat, and which
m(?nt- ought in this ftate to be tuned a hemitone above A, or
v^.tjie ^.atjo Df !6 : J with that note. Now, this in¬
tercalary found cannot be both in the ratio of 16 : 15
with A, and in the fame ratio of 16 : 15 with B. This
would extend the whole interval between A and B, to
the ratio of about 8:7', whereas it fhould only be in
that of 9 : 8. We mult therefore tune the intercalary
found in fuch a diminifhed relation to A and to B, that
it may ferve either for A $ or B fc>.
But, even independent of tbefe intercalary notes,
fome temperament of the natural fcale is neceffary.
Let the four-fifths, ‘c g’, ‘g’ </, ld u\ and la P, be
tuned all perfect. Then tune the two perfect oftaves
from ‘e’ downwards, ‘e e\ ‘e : e\ The major third
‘c e’ refulting from this procefs,'will be too fharp by a
comma, or 81 : 80, and will beat 15 times in a fecortd.
The minor third ‘eg’ and the major fixth ‘c a1 will be
{till more difcordant.
It is therefore impoflible to have perfeft fifths, and
at the fame time perfedt thirds and fixths. Now, al¬
though a perfeft fifth, occafionally employed, be plea-
ling, yet the ear does not relifh a fuCeeffion of perfedt
fifths; fuch a fucceffion not only renders the harmony
languid, but creates a doubt as to the key, which isun-
fatisfadtory. On the other hand, an alternate fucceffion
of major and minor thirds and fixths conllitutes the
chief and moft brilliant part of our harmonics. We
therefore find it neceffary to facrifice fomewhat of the
perfedl harmony of the fifths to that of the third and
fixths.
It is this accommodation which is properly called
Temperament •, and to this fyftem of it, by which the
fifths are diminiffied, and the thirds and fixths preferved
perfedt, we give the preference.
We have juft feen that four confecutive perfedt fifths
compofe an interval, greater, by a comma, than two
odtaves and a major third. But in the tuning of our
inftruments requiring temperament, thefe intervals muft
be rendered equal. Becaufe, as we have feven hemi-
tonic intervals in the fifth, twelve in the odlave, and
four in the major third; fo the interval of four-fifths Teak
contains twenty eight hemitonic intervals, and that of rn'
two odtaves and major third contain alfo twenty-eight,w
being twenty-four for the two odtaves, and four for the
major third. The real difference being, however, a
comma, it is plain, that if we keep the major thirds
perfedt, we mult diminith or flatten each of the four-
fifths one-fourth of a comma.
It is not eafy to afcertain with perfedt exadtnefs the
quarter comma by which the firft fifth ‘c g’ is to be di-
minifhed. We fhall, however, be fufficiently accurate
for pradtica! purpofes if we flatten ‘g’ till a beating of 9
beats in four feconds is produced (d).
Having in this manner tuned ‘g’, we diminifh the
next fifth ‘g’</, one-fourth of a comma, by flattening d
till ‘g’d beat half as faft again as ‘c g’, or 13^- beats in
four leconds (e).
The next fifth, da, muft be diminiffied in the fame
proportion by flattening a till ‘d o' beat 15 times in fix
leconds.
Inftead of tuning upward the fifth a e, tune down¬
ward (f) the odtave a ‘a’, and then tune upward the
fifth ‘a’ e, and flatten it till it beat ij times in eight
feconds.
If we take 15 feconds for the common period of all
thefe beats, wre fhall find
The beats of ‘eg’ — 34
25
‘da’ = 374
‘a e’ == 28
On tuning downwards the odtave e ‘e’ we have the
major third ‘c e1 perfedt without any beating; and we
proceed, tuning upwards a fifth flattened by one-fourth
of a comma, and when the beating becomes too quick,
tuning downward an odtave. We may do this till wre
reach ‘b’ $, which fhould be the fame with c, a perfedl
odtave above ‘c’.
It will be better, however, to flop at ‘g’ and then
to tune fifths downward from ‘c’ and oiftaves upwards,
when we get too low. 'Thus we have ‘c’ F, F ‘f’, t£,
‘B
, (d) If any concord, whofe perfedt ratio is — (/n being the gfeateft term of the fmalleft integers expreffing
that ratio), be tempered fliarp by the fradtion - of a comtiia, and if M and N be the pulfes made by the acute and
grave notes of the concord during any number of feconds, the number 6 of beats made in the fame time by this
concord will be
2 y N
16l J3 <7’
Harm. 2d edit. p. 82, &c.).
2<7«M .... , , ri . 7 20mN 2 0 n M
or   :—; and it it be tempered flat, then u~ —:—, or ■
161 p+q
161774-7’ 16177—q
(Smith’s
_ 2X3Xa4°=^4g=2^beats
NoW, let — be rr-l, the ratio of the fifth ; q—i-, P~4 j therefore, “ == one-fourth
Tl q
2 ^7 TH N
of a comma, and N=:‘c’or 240 pulfes in a fecondi Therefore, — ■ 1 " —     ,
i6iX^+7 i6iX44-5 645
in four feconds very nearly.
(e) Becaufe fifths, being in the ratio to each other of 3 i 2, N in this fifth = 360.
(f) The grave odlaves of the upper terms of each of thefe tempered fifths may be determined with perfedl ac¬
curacy, by making the grave odlave beat with the lotver term of the tempered fifth as often as the upper terra
does with it; for inftanee, by making G ‘c’ beat as often as ‘c g’, &c. For, it has been demonftrated by Df
Smith, that the upper term of a minor concord beats equally with the lower ternij and with the aciiter odlave of
that term; but that the upper term of a major ctmcord beats twice as faft with the acuter odlave of the lower
term, as it does with the lower term itfelf. Therefore, as ‘g’ beats twice as faft with c as with ‘c’, and is with
its gfave odlave G in the ratio of 2 : 1, G *c’ beats precifely as often as ‘c g’.
■] ipera-
ent.
T E M [2
‘B b ‘b b’> ‘b {? e b’» and thIs meth°d is preferable, be-
caufe the notes marked $ or are, when tuned in this
in the beft relation to thofe with which they are
9 ] T E M
moft frequently employed as major thirds, and the ma¬
jor third is the harmonic interval moft in ufe (g).
Another fyftem of temperament is that which divides
the
Tempera¬
ment.
fcl The procefs of temperament thus recommended, will be greatly facilitated by employing a pendulum made
f a ball of about two ounces weight, Aiding on a light deal rod, having at one end a fmall ring. Let this pendu-
1 3 be hung by the ring on a peg, and the ball adjufted fo as to make 20 vibrations in 15 feconds. This done,
mark the rod at the upper edge of the ball, and adjuft it in the fame manner for 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, and 48
vibrations. Then having calculated the beats of the different fifths, let the ball at the correfponding mark, and
temper the found till the beats keep pace exaftly with the pendulum. # r ,
In order to difcover, ftiould it be neceffary, the number of pulfes made in a fecond by the tuning fork, by which
we tune the tenor ‘c’ of our inftrument, let a wire be ftretched by a weight till it be unifon or odave below the
fork • let L-th then be added to the weight. Being thus tempered by a comma, the contemporaneous founding
of the fork and wire will produce a beating ; and on multiplying the beats by 80, the produd gives the number
of pulfes of the fork, and confequently of the ‘c’ of the inftrument tuned from it. But the common ‘c’ tuning forks
are fo nearly confonant to 240 pulfes, that this procefs is fcarcely necefiary.
On the fyftem of temperament now propofed, Dr Smith makes the following ufeful obfervation and dedudion.
The odave confifting of five mean tones and two limmas, it is obvious that by enlarging the tones we diminiftv
the limmas, and that the increment of the tone is two-fifths of the contemporaneous diminution of the limma. Let
v reprefent any minute variation of this temperament: the increment of a mean tone is 2 v, and the contempora¬
neous diminution of the limma —3 v. Again, jf the tone be diminilhed by—2 v, the limma will increafe by —5 v.
Let us obferve the variations of the intervals in the latter cafe. . .
The perfed fifth confifting of three tones and a limma, its variation will be—6v-j-^v, or —v. That is, the
fifth is flattened by the quantity v. Confequently the fourth is lharpened by that quantity. _ .
The fecond, being a tone above the key note, and being therefore flattened by — 2 t>, the minor feventh is in-
crccifed by 2 v*
The minor third confifting of a tone and a limma, its variation is —2 v or 3 v. Accordingly, that of the
^The^major thnd%r two tones, is therefore diminiftied by —4 v. Confequently the minor fixth is increafed by
4 v.
The major feventh, being the inverfion of the limma, is therefore varied by —$;v.
The tritone being diminifhed —6 v, the falfe fifth is accordingly 6 v. . , .
On this obfervation, Dr Smith has founded the following geometrical conftrudion : Divide the ftraight line CE
(fig. 2.) into fix equal parts Cg, g d, da, a E, E b, b t, and interfed the points of divifion with the fix parallel
lines g G, r/ D, &c. reprefenting the intervals arranged according to the fyftem of mean tones and limmas.
Let any length g G, on the firft line to the right of the line CE, reprefent a quarter of a comma, G will thus
mark the place of the perfed fifth, and g that of the tempered fifth, flattened by a comma.
Take d D, double of g G, on the fecond parallel alfo on the right hand ; D will mark the place of the perfed
fecond, and d that of the tempered fecond, flattened by the half comma d'D.
By fetting off « A on the third parallel to the left, equal to g G, we have A' the perfed major fixth, and a the
transferred major fixthj (harpened by the quarter comma A a. ^
The major third being in the fyftem of mean tones kept perfed, the place of that degree will be e.
By taking £ B on the fifth line, on the right, equal to g G, we find B to be the place of the perfed major
feventh, and b to be that of the tempered major feventh flattened by the quarter comma b B.
And by making tT on the fixth line, to the right, equal to </D, we have the contemporaneous temperament
of the tritone flattened by the half comma /T, and of the falfe fifth, ftiarpened by that quantity.
Any other ftraight line Ct' drawn from C, acrcfi, thefe parallels, will reprefent, by the intervals g1 G, r/'D, &c.
the temneraments of another fyftem of mean tones and limmas. Since it is plain that the fimuitaneous variation^
gg', dd, &c. from the former temperament, are in the juft proportions to each other. The ftraight line thus em¬
ployed, ’(C e', or C e"), has therefore been termed the temperer.
As the arrangement of the founds of keyed inftruments having only twelve keys for an odave, and meant to be
ufed in different feales, muft approach nearly to a fyftem of mean tones, or rather mean limmas, this oonftrudion of
Dr Smith’s is very ufeful. The temperer points out, not only all the temperaments of the notes with the key note,
but alfo the temperaments of the harmonic concords. Thus it will be feen, that the temperament of the minor
third forming the interval between the major third and fifth, is in all cafes the fame 'with that of the major fixth
and odave, and that the temperament of the major third forming the interval between the fourth and major fixth,
is equal to that of the key and major third of the fcale.
It has been propofed, in order to render Dr Smith’s conftrudion ftill more uteful, that it ftlould be drawn of fuch
a fize as to admit of the following fupplementary feales. .
1. A fcale of g G divided into thirteen part* and a half, exprefling the logarithmic meafures of the tempera¬
ments mentioned in the note (c), a comma being = 54-
2. A fcale of ^ G divided into 36 parts, giving the beats made in j6 feconds by the notes when temper¬
ed by any quantity G pA
T E M
t 280 ]
T E, M
Tempera- the alterations between the fifths and major thirds, flat-
ment, tening the fifths and fharpening the major thirds j and
making both beat equally fail: along with the key : and
finee enlarging the fifth increafes the tone, and confe-
quently diminifhes the limma, the intercalary founds be¬
come thus better failed for their double fervice of the
iharp of the note below, and the flat of the note above.
Much, however, is loft in the brilliancy of the major
thirds, which are the moft effeftive concords. The
'fifths are not much improved, and the fixths are evident¬
ly hurt by this temperament (H).
Thefe methods of tuning by beats are incomparably
more exafl than by the ear. We cannot miftake above
one beat, that is, in the fifth T^gth, and in the major
third T-go-th of a comma.
We have offered a (hort view of what appears to us
to be the preferable fyftem of temperament. It has
been deduced from the obfervations of the moft able the-
orifts, and will greatly aflift a tuner 5 but to him there
are farther neceffary, as to a mufical performer, a correft
ear, patient attention, and long practice.
TEMPERANCE, that virtue which a man is faid
to puftefs who moderates.and reftrains his fenfual appe¬
tites. It is often, however, ufed in a much more gene¬
ral fenfe, as fynonymous with moderation, and is then
applied indiferiminately to all the paftions.
Temperance (fays Mr Nelfon) is the virtue that
bridles our irregular defires } it is nearly allied to pru-
^tience, and has a clofe connexion with juftiee •, it calms
revenge, and quenches the fire of unjuft refentment; it
checks the epicure, and flops the riotous hand of the
Bacchanalian •, it extinguifhes or abates the flames of
lull, and banifhes every lawlefs a&ion j it filences the
flippant detra£ling tongue, and gives in its ftead a plea. xt,
fing moderation of fpeech ; it fhuts the door ap-ainft ar
avarice, and proves experimentally, that happinefs does'—""
not confift in the eager purfuit or acquifition of Cches
but in a contented mind ; it curbs the ftrongeft of ail
other paflions, gaming, and diftinguifhes juftly the ab-
furdity and folly of making that a dangerous trade
which was only defigned as a relaxation and an amufe-
ment : temperance, in a word, is the parent of many
virtues 5 the parent of peace, profperity, health, and joy.
Nothing can be more ftrange to all obfervation than
the pradlice of forfaking temperance ; fince every dav’s
experience proves to us, that intemperance produces the
oppofite to what w,e feek. Suppofe, when a child is
born, we afk the parents what it is they with in that
child ; they will anfwer, life. But as life alone, that is,
mere exiftence, may, by infirmity or other accidents, be,
very wretched, they will naturally with for health and
happinefs. Well then, life, health, and happinefs, are
the general wifhes of parents for their children. Now
let us fee how their withes are likely to fucceed. Their
firft ftep is ufually a fhameful negleft of the food of na¬
ture, the breaft y the next, a blind gratification of their
willy the third, an almoft total negledl of their man¬
ners ; and a fourth, the cherifhing them in every irre¬
gular sffedlion. Where then is the wonder that parents
are difappointed ? Life and health depend on proper
food and other judicious management on one part ; and
if fiek, an obedience to remedies on the other part : and
happinefs effentially depends in the firft place on health ;
in the next, on the due government of our fenfes, affec¬
tions, and paflions. See here how much mankind de¬
viate from themfelves j how far they depart from their
3. A fcale of ^ G divided into 60 parts, for the beats of the major third C e.
4. A fcale of ^ G divided into 72 parts, for the beats of the minor third Q e b,
5. A fcale of G divided into 48 parts, for the beats of the fourth cf.
6. A fcale of^ G divided into 89 parts, for the beats of the minor third
7. And, g G divided into 80 parts, for the beats of the major third f a.
Thus provided, and having determined by Dr Smith’s conftruftion, the temperament of ‘g’ ‘d’, ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘b’, and
•4f’, the accurate tuning of the whole oftave as a fyftem of mean tones with perfect major thirds may be completed
as follows.
Let ‘f be tuned a perfeft major third above £d’ $ ‘g }&’ a perfe& major third above ‘e’, and a perfeft ma¬
jor third above ‘a’.
Let ‘b t?’ be tuned a perfeft major third below *d’ and *e {?’ a perfect major third below ‘g’.
(h) To adjuft the temperer to this mode, let EG (fig. 2.) be divided in p, fo that E/? may be to p G, as 3 to
5. Then draw C p, cutting ^ C in g', and C t' (hall be the temperer required. It will be found that Ec' and
Gg' are each of them 32 of their refpeftive feales.
Let therefore ‘c g’ beat 32 times in 16 feconds
G ‘c’
G‘d’
G ‘b’
M’ a
‘d’ ‘f*’
‘a’ e
‘a’c^
eb
eg%
F ‘c’
FA
Bt) ‘f’
‘e b b I?’
<C’c
32 5
24;
24, and tune ‘b’ b ;
36, and tune a ‘a’
36",
27;
27 •,
40^-, proving ‘b’ b ;
4°4- i
2iy, and tune F ‘f’ j
2iy, proving A ‘a’ 5
28^, and tune B i? ‘b
3^ar 5
perfect.
TEMPERAMENT of MUSIC.
PLATE DXXXU
T E M [ 281 ] T E M
empe- own principles. But what is the remedy ? Nothing
ranee more obvious. Let parents exercife their reafon in all
I! the Heps they take for their children’s welfare ; let them
millal!;', examine right and wrong ; let them not only avoid
paflion, but labour to correft their own errors of judge¬
ment, that they may be the better enabled to prevent
them in their children j but, particularly, let them
fix in them the knowledge, love, and habit, of tem¬
perance.
TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the preparing
of Heel and iron, fo as to render them more compadf,
hard, and firm ; or even more foft and pliant, according
to their refpedlive occafions.
TEMPLARS, Temflers, or Knights of the Tem¬
p/e, a religious order inftituted at Jerufalem in the be¬
ginning of the I 2th century, for the defence of the holy
fepulcbre and the protedlion of Chriflian pilgrims. They
were fir it called The poor of the Holy City, and after¬
wards alTumed the appellation of Templars, becaufe
their houfe was near the temple. The order was found¬
ed by Baldwin II. then king of Jerufalem, with the
concurrence of the pope ; and the principal articles of
their rule were : That they (hould hear the holy office
throughout every day ; or that, when their military du¬
ties {hould prevent this, they {hould fupply it by a cer¬
tain number of pater nollers : that they fhould abftain
from flelh four days in the week, and on Fridays from
eggs and milk-meats : that each knight might have
three horfes, and one efquire : and that they {hould nei¬
ther hunt nor fowl. A fter the ruin of the kingdom of
Jernfalem about 1186, they fpread therofelves through
Germany and other countries of Europe, to which they
were invited by the liberality of the Chriftians. In the
year 1228, this order acquired {lability, by being con¬
firmed in the council of Troyes, and fubjefted to a rule
of difeipline drawn up by St Bernard. In every nation
they had a particular governor, called tnafer of the
Temple, or of the militia of the Temple. Their grand-
mafter had his refidence at Paris.
The order of Templars flouriffied for fome time, and
acquired, by the valour of its knights, immenfe riches
and an eminent degree of military renown: but as their
profperity increafed, their vices were multiplied, and
their arrogance, luxury, and cruelty rofe at lad to fuch
a monftrous height, that their privileges were revoked,
and their order fuppreffed with the moll terrible circum-
llances of infamy and feverity. Their accufers Avere tevo
of their own body, and their chief profecutor Philip the
lair of France, Avho addrefied his complaints to Cle¬
ment V. The pope, though at firft unwilling to pro¬
ceed againft them, Avas under a neceffity of complying
with the king’s defire ; fo that, in the year 1307, upon
an appointed day, and for fome time afterAvards, all the
knights, Avho Avere difperfed throughout Europe, Avere
feized and imprifoned, and many of them, after trials
for capital crimes, Avere convidted and put to death. In
1312 the Avhole order Avas fupprefled by the council of
Vienne. A part of the rich revenues they poffefled Avas
befioAved upon other orders, efpecially on the knights of
St John, now of Malta, and the reft confifcated to the
refpedlive treafuries of the fovereign princes in Avhofe
dominions their poffeffions lay.—The knights Templars,
in order to juftify the feverity Avith Avhich they Avere
treated, Avere charged with apoftafy to the Saracens,
and holding correfpondence with them, with infulting
Vol. XX. Part I.
the majefty of God, turning into derifion the gofpel of Templars,
Chrift, and trampling upon the obligation of all Lavs temple.
human and divine. Candidates, it is faid, upon ad- ¥ ”
miffion to this order, Avere commanded to fpit, in token
of contempt, upon an image of Chrift, and after ad-
miffion to Avorihip either a cat or a Avooden head crown¬
ed Avith gold. It is farther affirmed, that, among them,
the odious and unnatural aft of fodomy Avas a matter of
obligation } and they are charged with other crimes too
horrible to be mentioned, or even imagined. HoAvever,
though there be reafon to believe, that in this order, as
Avell as others of the fame period, there Avere {hocking
examples of impiety and profligacy ; yet that the Avhole
order Avas thus enormoufly corrupt, there is no reafon to
believe. The pope indeed, though he afted with feve¬
rity, afted Avith juftice. He fent Iavo cardinals to Paris,
who, publiffiing his bull againft the order, condemned
thofe Templars Avho had made the voluntary eonfeffion
to be burnt by a flow fire. The criminals recanted their
former confeffions, but acknowledged themfelves worthy
of death, becaufe they had unjuftly accufeclthe order of
crimes of Avhich they Avere innocent. Several authors
of thofe times Avrote in defence of the order j and Boc-
cace alleges, that its extirpation Avas OAving to the ava¬
rice of the king of France, Avho coveted the rich pof¬
feffions the Templars then enjoyed in France.
The king of Arragon Avas much prefled to treat the
Templars in his kingdom as they had been treated in
France •, but his conllant anfwer Avas, “ We muft be
firft convinced of their guilt, and it Avill be then time
enough to talk of their puniftitnent.” The people, hoAv-
eA'er, were in general fo provoked againft them, that
they Avere compelled to flmt themfelves up in the for-
trefles belonging to their order, to prevent their being
torn in pieces ; which precaution was reprefented to the
king of Arragon as an aft of rebellion. He marched,
therefore, with a corps of troops againft one of thefe
fortreffes. The knight Avho commanded furrendered
immediately, and told the king the truth, affuring him
that they defired nothing but a fair trial ; with Avhieh
declaration the king Avas extremely moved, took the
whole order into his proteftion, and forbade any to
abufe or infult them under the heavieft penalties. At
the fame time he declared he Avas ready to receive any
informations againft them that Avere fupported by proofs j
but if the informers failed therein, he would puniffi them
as they deferved.
Thefe fafts plead ftrongly for the innocence of the
Templars, or at leaft they prove that their guilt muft
have been exaggerated ; and if Ave add, that many of
the accufations advanced againft them flatly contradift
each other, and that many members of this unfortunate
order folemnly avowed their innocence Avhile languifti-
ing under the fevereft tortures, and even with their dying
breath—it Avould feem probable, that King Philip fet
on foot this bloody tragedy, Avith a vieAv to gratify his
avarice, and glut his refentment againft the Templars,
and efpeciallv againft their grand-mafter, Avho had high¬
ly offended him. The principal caufe of his invincible
hatred againft them was, that in his quarrel with Boni¬
face VIII. the knights efpoufed the caufe of the pope,
and furniftied him Avith money to carry on the Avar.
They originally Avore a Avhite habit, Avith red croffea
feAved upon their cloaks as a mark of diftinftion.
TEMPLE, Sir William, Avas born in London in
N n the
T E M [ 282 ] T E M
the year 1628. The family from which he fprung was
ancient, and is faid to have atTumed the furname of Tem¬
ple from the manor of Temple, in the hundred of Spar-
kcn-Hall, in Leicefterfhire. He was firft fent to fehool
at Penfehurft, in Kent, under the care of his uncle, the
celebrated Dr Hammond, then miniiter of that paritli j
but at the age of ten he was removed thence to a lehool
at BHliop-S tort ford, in Hertfordfhire. When he had
acquired a fufficient knowledge of the Greek and La-
tin, he returned home at the age of fifteen , and, two
years after, he went to Cambridge, where he was placed
under the tuition of the learned Dr Cudworth, then fel¬
low of Emanuel college. His father, Sir John Temple,
being a ftatefman, feems to have defigned him for the
fame way of life ; and on this account, after refidingat
Cambridge two years, which were principally fpentin
acquiring a competency of French and Spanifh, both
languages exceedingly ufeful for his intended purfuits,
he was fent abroad to finilh his education.
Mr Temple began his travels by vifiting France in
J648. As he chofe to pafs through the Ifle of Wight,
where his majefty was detained a prifoner, he there ac¬
cidentally met with the fecond daughter of Sir Peter
Ofborn of Chickfand, in Bedfordfhire, ihen governor
of Guernfey for the king j and his lady being on a
journey with her brother to St Maloes, where their fa¬
ther then was, our young traveller joined their party.
Tills gave rife to an honourable attachment, which, at the
end of feven years, concluded in a happy marriage. Ha¬
ving refided two years in France, and learned the
French 'language perfectly, Mr Temple made a tour
through Holland, Flanders, and Germany, during which
he became completely mailer of the Spanilh. In 1654
he returned from the continent, and, marrying Mifs
Ofborn, palled his time in retirement with his father, his
two brothers, and a lifter, then in Ireland, happy in that
perft*6l harmony which has been fo often remarked in
their family.
As he rejefled all offers made him of employment
under Cromwell, the five years which he lived in Ire¬
land were fpent chiefly in improving himfelf in hiftory
and philofophy •, but at the Reftoration, in 1660, being
chofen a member of the convention there, while others
were trying to make their court to the king, Mr Tem¬
ple oppofed the poll-bill with fo much fpirit, that his
conduft foon attracted the attention of the public, and
brought him into notice. In the fucceeding parliament,
in 1661, he was defied with his father for the county
of Carlow j and in the year following, he was chofen
one of the commiflioners fo be fent from that parliament
to the king, which gave him an opportunity of waiting
on the duke of Ormond, the new lord lieutenant, then
at London. Soon after he went back to Ireland, but
with a refolution of quitting that kingdom, and of re¬
moving with his family to England.
On his return he met with a very favourable recep¬
tion from the duke of Ormond 5 and foon acquired fuch
a confiderable fhare in his efteem, that the duke com¬
plained of him as the only man in Ireland that bad ne¬
ver afked any thing from him. When he mentioned
his defign of carrying his family to England, his grace
faid,- that he hoped he would at leaft give him leave to
write in his favour to the two great minifters, Clarendon
then lord chancellor, and the earl of Arlington, who
was fecretary of ftate. This the duke did in fuck ftrong
terms, as procured him the friendftfip of thefe two noble- Term,!
men, as well as the good opinion of the king. Mr
1 emple, however, made no other ufe ot this advanta°e
than to tell Lord Arlington, that if his majeftv had
any employment abroad, which he was fit for, he ihould
be happy to undertake it $ but, at the fame time, he re-
quefied that he might not be fent into any of the north-
ern climates, to which he had a very gre-at averfion
Lord Arlington replied, he was very lorry he had made
fuch an objection, as there was no other employment
then undilpofed of except that of going envoy to Swe¬
den. However, in 1665, ab°ut the beginning of the
firrt Dutch war, Lord Arlington fent a meffenger to ac¬
quaint him that he muft immediately come to hishoufe •
\\ Inch he did, and found that his lordihip,s bufinefs was
to tell him, that the king had occafion to fend fome
perfon abroad upon an affair of the utmoft importance,
and that he had refolved to make him the firft offer;
but that lie muft know, without delay, and without tell¬
ing him what it was, whether he would accept of it, and
that he muft be ready to fet out in two or three days,
without mentioning it to any of his friends. After a
little confideration, Mr Temple told his lordfhip, that,
as he took him to be his friend, and as he had advifed
him not to refule, as it would be an entrance into his
majefty’s fervice, he ftiould confult no farther. This
bufinefs was to carry a fecret commiffion to the bilhop
of Munfter j which he fet out with on the fecond ot
Auguft, and executed it fo much to the fatisfa&ion of
Charles II, that, on his return to Bruffels, his majefty
appointed him refident there, and created him a ba¬
ronet. As Bruffels was a place which he had long
willied to refide at, in April 1606 he fent for his family j
but, before their arrival, he had been again obliged to
depart upon bufmels to the prelate’s court : for The bi-
ftiop having liftened to terms of accommodation with
France, Sir William wrote two letters to diffuade
him from that alliance ^ and thele not having the de-
fired effect, he wTent in diiguile to JVIunfler, where,
though he arrived too late to fecure the prince in his
firft engagement, yet he prevailed on him to permit five
or fix thoufand of his bell troops to enter into the Spa-
nidi fervice. In this journey lie paffed for a Spanilh
envoy, having twenty Spanilh guards to attend him.
In this manner he firft went to Duffeldorp, where the
duke of Newburgh, though in the French intereft, gave
him a guard to Dortmund ; but when he reached that
place, finding the gates Ibut, he was forced to proceed
to a village, at thediftanceof a league, which being full
of Brandenburgh troops, he was under the neceflity of
lodging in a barn, upon a draw bed, with his page fora
pillow. Next day he was entertained at a caftle be-
longing to the bilhop of Munfter, by one Gorges a
Scotch lieutenant-general in that prelate’s fervice, with
what he calls a very epifcopal way of drinking. The.
general coming to the large hall, in which Hood a great
many flaggons ready charged, he called for wine to
drink the king’s health. A filver bell, that might hold
about two quarts, was upon this brought him ; and, as
foon as he received it, he pulled out the clapper, and
giving it to Sir William, to whom he intended to drink,
ordered the bell to be filled. When he was done, he
drank off the contents to his majefty’s health 5 and alked
Sir William for the clapper, put it on, and turning
down the bell, rang it, to Ihew that he had drank fair,
and
*
T EM [283] T E M
1 ipk- and left nothing in it. He then took out the clapper,
- r"—1 tie fired Sir William to give it to whomfoever he plea-
fed ; and, ordering the bell to be filled again, prefented
it to Sir William : but as the latter feldoni ufed to
drink, he had generally fume gentleman with him to
fupply his place in this refpeft whenever it might be
necefiary. Having finifiied his bufinefs at Muntter, he
returned to Brufllls, where he paffed a year with great
pleafure and fatisfadion.
Two months after the conclufion of the peace with
the Dutch at Breda, Sir William’s lifter, who refided
with him at Bruftels, being very defirous of feeing Hol¬
land, he went thither incognito to gratify her defire j
but while he was at the Hague, he paid a private vifit
to Mr De Witt, in which he laid the foundation of
that dole intimacy which afterwards fubfiited between
them.
In the fpring of 1667, a new war breaking out be¬
tween France and Spain, which expofed Bruflels to the
danger of falling into the hands of the former, Sir Wil¬
liam fent his lady and family to England ; but he him-
felf remained there with his After till the Chriftmas fol¬
lowing, when he was ordered by the king to come over
privately to London. Taking the Hague in his way,
he paid another vifit to De Witt, and, purfuant to his
inftrudions, propofed thofe overtures to him which pro¬
duced the triple alliance. Soon after his arrival at the
Britilh court, he returned, on the 16th of January 1668,
with the chara&er of envoy extraordinary and plenipo¬
tentiary to Holland ; where a conference being opened,
he brought that treaty to a perfeft conclufion in the
(hort fpace of five days. The ratifications of this alli¬
ance being exchanged on the 15th of February, he repair¬
ed to Bruffelsand a treaty being fet on foot between
France and Spain at Aix-la-Chapelle, he fet out for that
place on the 24th of April in quality of his majefty’s am-
baffador extraordinary and mediator. Here he arrived
on the 27th : and it was chiefly owing to his afliftance
that the Spaniards were brought to fign the articles of
that peace on the fecond of May. This fervice being
completed, he returned to Bruffels, with a view of re¬
maining there in his former ftation of refident ; but lie
received letters from the earl of Arlington, with the
king’s order to continue as ambaffador, and to ferve
his country in that quality in Holland, as on account
of the late alliances, his majefty w’as refolved to renew a
charafler which the crown of England had difeontinued
there fince the time of King James. Sir William being
now left at liberty to return to England, embraced the
opportunity ; and, upon his arrival at London, he was
received with every poflible demonftration of favour both
by the king and the court.
Setting out again for Holland, with his new charac¬
ter of the king’s ambaffador, he arrived at the Hague
in the end of Auguft 1668. Here he enjoyed the con¬
fidence of that great minifter De Witt, and lived in
great intimacy with the prince of Orange, who was
then only eighteen years of age ; but, in September
1669, he was hurried back to England by Lord Arling¬
ton, who ordered him to put his foot in the ftirrup as
foon as he ftiould receive his letter. When Sir Wil¬
liam waited on the earl, he found that he had not one
word to fay to him ; for, after making him attend a long
time, he only afked a few indifferent queftions refpe&ing
his journey. Next day he was received as coolly by the
king ; but the fecret foon came out, and he preffed
to return to the Hague, and pave the way for a war
with Holland. This, however, he excufed himfelf ifont
having any hand in ; which fo much provoked the lord
treafurer Clifford, that he refufed to him an arrear of
two thoufand pounds due from his embaffv. D.ifgufted
with Arlington’s behaviour, which was fo unlike the
friendfhip he had formerly profeffed, Sir William now
retired to his houfe at Sheen near Richmond, in Surry ^
and in his retreat, when free from the hurry of bufinefs,
he wrote hia Obfervations on the United Provinces, and
one part of his Mifcellanies, in the time of the fecond
Dutch war. About the end of fummer, however, 1673,
the king wiftiing to put an end to the war, fent for Sir
William, and defired him to go to Holland to neg -ciate
a peace ; but powers having been fent trom thence at
this time to the Marquis de Frefno, the Spaniflr am¬
baffador at London, Sir William was ordered to confer
with him ; and a treaty was accordingly concluded in
three days, and the point carried refpedling the fupe-
riority of the Britifh flag, which had been fo long con-
terted. In June 1674 he was again fent ambaffador to
Holland to offer the king’s mediation between France
and the confederates, then at war, which was accepted
not long after *, Lord Berkeley, Sir William Temple,
and Sir Leoline Jenkins, being declared ambaffadors
and mediators ; and Nimeguen, which Sir William had
propofed, was at length agreed upon by all parties to be
the place of treaty. During his flay at the Hague, the
prince of Orange, who was fond of the Englifh lan¬
guage, and of the plain Englifti way of eating, con-
ftantly dined and flipped once or twice a week at his
houfe ; and by this familiarity he fo much gained the
prince’s confidence and efteem, that he had a confi-
derable hand in his marriage with the Princefs Mary,
daughter of James II.
In July 1676 he removed his family to Nimeguen,
where he fpent the remainder of that year without ma¬
king any progrefs in the treaty ) and the year following
his fon was fent over with letters from the lord treafu¬
rer, ordering him to return, and fucceed Mr Coventry
as fecretary of ftate. In confequence of this order, Sir
William came over to England in the fpring of 1677 •,
and though the affair of the fecretary’s place W'as drop¬
ped at his defire, he did not return to Nimeguen that
year. About this time, the prince having the king’s
leave to come over, he foon after married the Princefs
Mary j and this gave occafion for a new coolnefs be¬
tween Lord Arlington and Sir William, as he and the
lord-treafurer Oibom, who was related to Sir William’s
lady, were only privy to that affair. After the prince
and princefs were gone to Holland, as the court always
feemed inclined to favour France, the king wiihed to
engage Sir William in fome negotiations with that
crown : but he was fo ill fatisfied with this propofal,
that he offered to give up all pretenfions to the office of
fecretary, and d< firing the lord-treafurer to acquaint
his majefty with his intentions, retired to Sheen, in
hopes of being taken at his word. Upon a difeovery,
however, of the French defigns not to evacuate the
Spanifli towns agreed by the treaty to be delivered up,
the king commanded him to go upon a third embafly
to the ftates ; with whom he concluded a treaty : by
which England engaged, in cafe France refufed to eva¬
cuate the towns in forty days, to declare war immedi-
N n 2 ately
T E M
Tempi* ately againft that nation; but before half that time was
'r_ ’ eiapfed, one Du Crofs was fent from the Englifli court
to Holland tipon a bufinefs which damped all the good
humour excited by the treaty there, and which produ¬
ced fuch fudden and aftonifhing changes in this coun¬
try, as gave Sir William a diltalte for all public em¬
ployments.
In 1679 he went back to Nimeguen, where the
French delayed to fign the treaty till the laft hour;
but having concluded it, he returned to the Hague,
whence he was foon after fent for to enter upon the fe-
cretary’s office, which Mr Coventry at length refolved
to refign. He accordingly came over, and went to
court, as all hi,s friends hoped, with a full intention of
affuming his office; but he darted fome difficulty, be-
caufe he had not a feat in the houfe of commons, think¬
ing that, by his not being a member, the public bufi¬
nefs would fuffer at fuch a critical time, when the con-
tefts between the two parties ran fo high that the king
thought fit to fend the duke of York into Flanders, and
the parliament to put the lord treafurer Danby into the
Tower. After this his majelty Hill preffed Sir William
to be fecretary of date; ufing as an argument for his
compliance, that he had nobody to confult with at a
time when he had the greated need of the bed advice.
Notwithdanding all this, Sir William declined the
king’s offer, advifing him to choofe a council in whom
he could confide, and upon whofe abilities he could de¬
pend. This advice the king followed; and the choice
of the perfons being concerted between his majedy and
Sir William, the old council was diffolved four days af¬
ter, and the new one edabliihed, of which the latter was
a member.
In 1680 the councils began again to be changed, on
the king’s illnefs, at the end of dimmer, and the duke
of York’s return privately to court. In this juncture
Sir William, endeavouring to bring to the king’s favour
and bufinefs fome perfons to whom his majedy had ta¬
ken a didike, if not an averfion, he met with fuch treat¬
ment from them as gave him afredi didade to the court,
at which he feldom made his appearance; fo that he re¬
dded principally at Sheen, Soon after this the king
fent for him again; and having propofed that he ffiould
go as ambaffador into Spain, Sir William confented:
but when his equipage was aimed ready, and part of
the money paid down for it, the king changed his mind,
and told him that he would have him defer his journey
till the end of the feffion of parliament, in which he was
chofen a member for the univerfity of Cambridge. In
this feffion the fpirit of party ran fo high that it was im-
poffible to bring the houfe to any kind of temper. The
duke was fent into Scotland; but this would not fatisfy
them, nor any thing but a bill of exclufion; which Sir
William drenuoudy oppofed, faying, that “ His endea¬
vour ever ffiould be to unite the royal family, and that
he would never enter into any councils to divide them.”
Not long after this period, the parliament being diffolv¬
ed by his majefty, without the advice of his privy coun¬
cil, and contrary to what he had promifed, Sir William
made a bold fpeech againff it; for which he was very
ill u(ed by fome of thofe friends who had been molt
earneft in promoting the laft change in the miniftry.
Upon this he grew quite tired of public bufinefs, declin¬
ed the offer he had of again ferving for the univerfity in
the next parliament, that was foon after called, and met
T E M
at Oxford; and feeing his majefty refolved to govern Temp!
without his parliament, and tofupply his treafury through
another channel, he retired to Sheen a few days after,
whence he lent word by his fon, that “ he would pal's
the reft of his days like a good fubjedf, but would never
more meddle with public affairs.” From that time Sir
William lived at this place till the end of that reion
and for fome time in the next; when having purehafed
a fmall feat, called A'loor Park, near Farnham in Surry,
which he conceived a great fondnefs for, on account of
its folitude and retirement, and its healthy and pleafant
fituation, and being much afflidted with the gout, and
broken with age and infirmities, he refolved to fpend
the remainder of his life in this agreeable retreat. In
his way thither, therefore, he waited on King James,
who was then at Windfor, and begged his favour and
protection to one “ that would always live as a good
fubjedt, but, whatever might happen, never again enter
upwn any public employment;” defiring his majefty to
give no credit to any thing he might hear to the con¬
trary. The king, who ufed to fay that Sir William
Temple’s charadter was always to be believed, promifed
him whatever he defired, gently reproached him for not
entering into his fervice, which, he faid, was his own
fault; and kept his word as faithfully to Sir William as
Sir \\ illiam did to his majefty, during the furprifing
turn of affairs that foon after followed by the arrival of
the prince of Orange. At the time of this happy re¬
volution, in 1688, Moor Park becoming unfafe, as it
lay in the way of both armies, he went back to the
houfe at Sheen, which he had given up to his fon; to
whom he refufed leave, though importunately begged,
to go and meet the prince of Orange at his landing:
but after King James s abdication, when the prince
reached Windier, he went thither to wait upon his high-
nefs,^ and carried his fon along with him. The prince
preffed him to enter into his lervice, and to be fecretary
of ft ate; but his age and infirmities confirming him in
the refolution he had made not to meddle any more with
public affairs, he was fatisfied that his fon alone ffiould
enjoy his majefty’s favour. Mr John Temple was up¬
on this appointed fecretary at war; but he had hardly
been a week in that office, when he refolved to put an
end to his own exiftence ; which he did on the 14th of
April 1689, by throwing himfelf out of a boat, hired
for that purpole, in (hooting London-bridge; having
firft put ft ones into his pocket to make him fink
fpeedily.
In 1694 Sir William had the misfortune to lofe his
lady, who was a very extraordinary woman, as well as
an affectionate wife. He was then confiderably turned"
of fixty; at which age he pradifed what he had fo often
declared to be his opinion, that “ an old man ought
then to confider himfelf of no farther ufe in the world
except to himfelf and his friends.” After this he lived
four years very much afflicted with the gout; and his
ftrength and fpirits being worn out by the infirmities of
age, he expired in the month of January 1698. He
died at Moor-Park, where his heart was buried in a fil-
ver box under the fun dial in his garden, oppofite to a
window from which he ufed to contemplate and admire
the works of nature, with his fitter, the ingenious Lady
Gifford. I his was according to his will; in purfuance
of which his body was privately interred in Weftminfter
Abbey, and a marble monument ereCled in 1722, after
the
[ 284 ]
T E M [ 285 ]
e. the death of Lady Gifford, who refembled him in ge-
n;us as Well as in perfon, and left behind her the cha-
radef of one of the bell and molt conftant friends in the
world. . .
Sir William Temple’s principal works are, 1. Me¬
moirs from 1672 to 1692: They are very ufeful for
thofe who with to be acquainted with the affairs of that
period. 2. Remarks upon the State of the United Pro¬
vinces. 3. An Introdusffion to the Hiltory of England :
This is a Sketch of a General Hillory. 4. Letters writ¬
ten during his lalt embaffies. And, 5. Mifcellanies,
which contain a great many curious pieces that difplay
confiderable depth of thought. He was an accomplilh-
ed gentleman, a found politician, a patriot, and a great
fcholar. And if this great idea ftiould perchance be
(haded by fome touches of vanity and fpleen, the reader
will be fo candid as to confider, that the greateft, wifeft,
and the bed of men, have dill fome failings and imper-
fedlions which are infeparable from human nature.
Temple, Templum, a public building, erected in ho¬
nour of fome deity, either true or falfe ; and wherein
the people meet to pay religious worftiip to the fame.
The word is formed from the Latin templum, which
fome derive from the Greek npivof, fignifying the fame
thing ; and others from rtuvco, abfeindo, “ 1 cut off, I
feparate,” in regard a temple is a place feparated from
common ufes *, others with more probability derive it
from the old Latin word templare, “ to contemplate.”
It is certain the ancient augurs gave the name templa to
thofe parts of the heavens which were marked out for
the obfervation of the flight of birds. Their formula
was this : Templa tefqua /unto. Temples were origi¬
nally all open, and hence received their name. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 471. fe£l. 5. where we have an account of
an ancient temple in Ireland of the fame fort as our fa¬
mous Stonehenge. The word templum, in its primary
fenfe among the old Romans, fignified nothing more
than a place fet apart and confecrated by the augurs,
whether inclofed or open, in the city or in the fields.
Clemens Alexandrinus and Eufebius refer the origin
of temples to the fepulchres built for the dead. This
notion has been lately illuftrated and confirmed by a
variety of teftimonies by Mr Farmer in his Treatife on
the Worlhip of Human Spirits, p. 373, &c. Herodo¬
tus and Strabo will have the Egyptians to have been
the firft who built temples to the gods. The firfi: erec¬
ted in Greece is aferibed to Deucalion, by Apollonius,
Argonaut, lib. iii. In antiquity we meet with many
people who would not build any temples to their gods
for fear of confining them to too narrow bounds. T hey
performed their lacrifices in all places indifferently, from
a perfuafion that the whole world is the temple of God,
and that he required no other. This was the dodtrine
of the magi, followed by the Perfians, the Scythians,
the Numidians, and many other nations mentioned by
Herodotus, lib. i. Strabo, lib. xv. and Cicero in his fe-
cond oration again ft Verres.
The Perfians, who worfldpped the fun, believed it
would wrong his power to inclofe him in the walls of a
temple, who had the whole world for his habitation j
and hence, when Xerxes ravaged Greece, the magi ex¬
horted him to deftroy all the temples he met with.
The Sicyonians would build no temple to their god-
defs Coronis 3 nor the Athenians, for the like reafon.
T E M
eredl any ftatue to Clemency, who, they faid, was to ^ "I emple. ^
live in the hearts of men, not within (tone walls.
The Bitbynians had no temples but the mountains to
worftiip on 3 nor had the ancient Germans any other
but the woods.
Even fome philofophers have blamed the ufe and
building of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and
his followers the Stoics. But it may be faid, that if
God hath no need of temples, men have need of places
to meet in for the public offices of religion : according¬
ly temples may be traced back even into the remoteft
antiquity. See Hofpinian de Qrigine Templorum.
The Romans had feveral kinds of temples 3 whereof
thofe built by the kings, &c. confecrated by the au¬
gurs, and wherein the exercife of religion was regularly
performed, were called, by way of eminence, templa,
“ temples.” Thofe that were not confecrated, were
called cedes. The little temples, that were covered or
roofed, they called cediculce. Thofe open,/f/cc/Zm Some
other edifices, confecrated to particular myfteries of re¬
ligion, they called fana and delubra.
All thefe kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had
other particular denominations, according to the form
and manner of their conftru&ion, as will be hereafter
fpecified.
Indeed the Romans outdid all nations with regard to
temples : they not only built temples to their gods, to
their virtues, to their difeafes, &c. but alfo to their em¬
perors, and that in their life time 3 inftances whereof we
meet with in medals, inferiptions, and other monuments.
Horace compliments Auguftus hereupon, and fets him
above Hercules and all the heroes of fable 3 becaufe
thofe were admitted into temples only after their death,
whereas Auguftus had his temples and altars while li¬
ving.
Prcefenti tibi matures largimur honores ;
Jurandafque luum per nomen ponimus aras.
Epilt. ad Aug.
Suetonius, on this occafion, gives an inftance of the mo-
defty of that emperor, who would allow of no temples
being eroded to him in the city 3 and even in the pro¬
vinces, where he knew it was ufual to raife temples to
the very proconfuls, refufed any but thofe eroded in the
name of Rome as well as his own.
The moft celebrated temples among the Romans were
the Capitol and Pantheon. They had alfo the temple
of Saturn, which ferved for the public treafury 3 and
the temple of Janus.
The temple at Jerufalem was fimilar in its plan to
the Tabernacle. The firft temple was begun by So¬
lomon about the year of the world 2992, and before
Chrift xoi2 according to fome chronologers, and finifti-
ed in eight years. Great miftakes have been commit¬
ted refpeding the dimenfions of this temple, by con¬
founding the emblematical defeription of Ezekiel with
the plain account of it in the books of Kings and Chro¬
nicles. It confifted of the holy of holies, the fanduary,
and a portico. The holy of holies was a fquare room
of 20 cubits 3 the fanduary, or holy place, was 40 cu¬
bits long and 20 broad, confequently the length of both
thefe together was 60 cubits. The portico, which flood
before the fanduary, was 20 cubits long and 10 cubits
broad. Whether the portico was feparated by a wall
from
T E M [ 286 ] T E M
Temple, from tlie reft of the temple or not, is not mentioned in
' pcrjpture> jf jt waSj tlie whole length of the temple,
computing the cubit at 22 inches, did not exceed no
feet in length and 36 feet 8 inches in breadth. In the
portico flood the two brazen pillars called Juchin and
Boaz, which, upon comparing and reconciling the feem-
ingly different accounts in different places, appear to
-have been 40 cubits high and about 4, cubits diameter.
The court probably at firft extended all round the temple.
Now we are told, that the court about the tabernacle
was 100 cubits long and 50 broad ; and as Solomon
made every part of the temple about twice as large as
the correfponding part in the tabernacle, we have rea-
fon to conclude, that the court around the temple u^as
200 cubits long and 100 broad. According to this
defcription, which is taken from the fcripture hiftory,
the temple of Solomon was by no means fo large as it
is commonly reprefented. Still, however, it was very
magnificent in fize and fplendid in ornament. It was
plundered of its treafures in the reign of Rehoboam, and
repaired by Joafli j it was again fpoiled in the time of
Ahaz and of Hezekiah ; and after being reftored by
. Jofiah, was demolilhed by Nebuchadnezzar in the year
of the world 3416, after it had flood 476 years accord-
.ing to Jofephus, and according to Uftier 428 years.
The fecond temple was built by the Jews, after their
return from the Babylonifli captivity, under the direc¬
tion and influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of
Jolhua the high-prieft, with the leave and encouragement
of Cyrus the Perfian emperor, to whom Judea was now
become a tributary kingdom. According to the Jews,
this temple was deftitute of five remarkable appendages,
which were the chief glory of the firft temple ; viz. the
ark and mercy-feat, the Shechinah, the holy fire on the
altar, which had been firft kindled from heaven, the
urim and thummim, and the fpirit of prophecy. This
temple was plundered and profaned by Antiochus Epi-
phanes, who alfo caufed the public worfliip in it to ceafe ;
and afterwards purified by Judas Maecabaeus, who re¬
ftored the divine worihip 5 and after having flood 500
years, rebuilt by Herod, w'ith a magnificence approach¬
ing to that of Solomon’s.' Tacitus calls it immenfce opu-
!entice templum ; and Jofephus fays, it was the moft afto-
niftiing ftruclure he had ever feen, as well on account of
its architecture as its magnitude, and likewife the rich-
nefs and magnificence of its various parts and the re¬
putation of its facred appurtenances. This temple,
which Herod began to build aoout 16 years before the
birth of Chnft, and fo far completed in nine vears and
a half as to be fit for divine fervice, w as at length de-
ftroyed by the Romans on the fame month and day of
the month on which Solomon’s temple was deftroyed by
the Babylonians.
Maurice's The Indian temples, or pagodas, are fometimes of a
Indian An- prodigious fize. They are commonly ereCted near the
^an^s t^e Ganges, Kiftna, or other facred rivers, for
P°3S2- t^ie ablution in the purifying ftream. Where
no river flows near the foot of the pagoda, there is in¬
variably in the front of it a large tank or refervoir of
water. Thefe are, for the moft part, of a quadrangular
form, are lined with freeftone or marble, have fteps re-
CraufonVs &ularly dercending from the margin to the bottom, and
Sketches, Craufrrtl obferved many between three and four
vol. i. ’ hundred feet in breadth. At the entrance of all the
p. 106, more confiderable pagodas there is a portico, fupported
5
by row's of lofty columns, and afeended by a handfomc Tem>
flight of ft one fteps; fometimes, as in the inftance ofu--v- It
Tripetti *, to the number of more than a hundred. CJn- * y0
dor this portico, and in the courts that generally inclofe^2 |
the whole building, an innumerable multitude afftmbletomdiL :
at the rifing of the fun; and, having bathed in the ftreani
below, and, in conformity to an immemorial cuftom over
all the Eaft, having left their fandals on the border of
the tank, impatiently await the unfolding of the gates
by the miniftering brahmin. The gate of the pagoda
univerfally fronts the eaft, to admit the ray of the tolar
orb ; and, opening, prefents to the view an edifice par¬
titioned out, according to Mr Thevenot in his account
of Chitanagar, in the manner of the ancient cave-temples
of Elora, having a central nave or body ; a gallery ran- |
ging on each fide ; and, at the farther end, a fantfuary,
or chapel of the deity adored, furroundtd by a ftone bal-
luftrade to keep oft the populace. J hole who wilh to
perufea more particular account of the Indian temples
may confult Maurice’s Indian Antiquities. See alfo
Pagoda and Seringham.
1 EMPLE, in Architefhtre. The ancient temples were
dillinguiHied, with regard to their conftruaion, into va¬
rious kinds ; as. Temple in a nice, JEdes in antis. Thefe,
according to Vitruvius, were the moft fimple of aft
temples, having only angular pilailers, called antce or
parajlutce, at the corners, and two 1 ufcan columns on
each fide of the doors. Temple tetrajlyle, or fimple te-
trajlyle, was a temple that had four columns in front,
and as many behind. Such was the temple of Fortuna
Virilis at Rome. Temple prcjiyle, that which had on¬
ly columns in its front or forelide ; as that of Ceres at
Eleufis in Greece. Icmple ampluprq/lylc, or double
pt ojiyle, that which had columns both before and behind,
and which was alio tetraftyle. lemple periptere, that
which had four rows of infulated columns around’, and
was hexaftyle, i. e. had fix columns in front ; as the
temple of Honour at Rome. Temple dipt ere, that which
had two wings and two rows of columns around, and
wTas alfo ofloftyle, or had eight columns in front; as
that of Diana at Ephefus.
Temples, among us, denote two inns of court in Lon¬
don, thus called, becaufe anciently the dwelling-houfe
of the knight’s templars. At the fupprdTion of that
order, they were purchafed by the profeffors of the com¬
mon law, and converted into h of pit in or inns. They
are called the isiner and middle temple, in relation to
Effex-houfe ; which was alio a part ot the houfe of the
templars, and called the outer temple, becaufe fituated
without Temple-Bar. In the middle temple, during
the time of the templars, the king’s treafure was kept*
as was alfo that of the kings of France in the houfe of the
templars at Paris, ihe chief officer was the mailer of
the temple, who was fummoned to parliament in 47
Hen. III. and from him the chief minifler of the tem¬
ple-church is Trill called majler of the temple.
Temples, in Anatomy, a double part of the head,
reaching from the forehead and eyes to the two ears.
The temples are chiefly formed of two bones called ojfa
temporis. Thefe parts, according to phyficians, were
called temporu, from their fliowir.g the age or time of a
man by the colour of the hair, which turns w hite in this
part before any other ; which Homer feems to have
been aware of, by his calling men pohocrotaphi, q. d.
u grey-templed.” '
TEMPORAL,
[' Ten ir^.
Tei ora-
li >•
I Ma
"" Com lib
VX)i.
T E M
[ 287 ]
TEN
TEMPORAL, a term generally ufed for fecular, as
a diftinftion from eccleiiaftical. Thus we fay temporal
lords, and fpiritual or ecclefiaftical lords.
TEMPORALITIES of Bishops, are the reve¬
nues, lands, tenements, and lay-fees, belonging to bi-
{hops, as they are barons and lords of parliament.
The cuftody of the temporalities of biihops forms a
branch of the king’s ordinary revenues (fee Revenue).
Thefe, upon the vacancy of the bifhopric, are immedi¬
ately the right of the king, as a confequence of his pre¬
rogative in church matters 5 whereby he is confidered as
the founder of all archbilhoprics and bifhoprics, to
whom, during the vacancy, they revert. And for the
fame reafon, before the diffolution of abbeys, the king
had the cuftody of the temporalities of all luch abbeys
and priories as were of royal foundation (but not of
thofe founded by fubjefts), on the death of the abbot or
prior. Another reafon may alfo be given why the. po¬
licy of the law hath veiled this cuftody in the king ;
becaufe, as the fucceffor is not known, the lands and
poffeflions of the fee would be liable to fpoil and devaf-
tation if no one had a property therein. Therefore the
law has given the king, not the temporalities them-
felves, but the cuilody of the temporalities, till fuch
time as a fucceflbr is appointed ; with power of taking
to himfelf all the intermediate profits, without giving
any account to the fucceffor ; and with the right of
prefenting (which the crown very frequently exercifes)
to fuch benefices and other preferments as fall within
the time of vacation. This revenue is of fo high a na¬
ture, that it could not be granted out to a fubjeft, be¬
fore or even after it accrued : but now, by the ftatute
15 Edw. HI. ftat.4. cap. 4. and 5.. the king may, after
the vacancy, leafe the temporalities to the dean and
chapter •, faving to himfelf all advowfons, efcheats, and
the like. Our ancient kings, and particularly William
Rufus, were not only remarkable for keeping the.biihop-
rics a long time vacant, for the fake of enjoying the
temporalities, but alfo committed horrible waftes on the
woods and other parts of the eftate ; and to crown all,
would never, when the fee was filled up, reftore to the
biftiop his temporalities again, unlefs he purchafed them
at an exorbitant price. To remedy which, King Hen. I.
granted a charter at the beginning of his reign, pro-
mifing neither to fell, nor let to farm, or take any
thing from, the domains of the church, till the fucceffor
was inftalled. And it was made one of the articles of
the greatxharter, that no wafte ftiould be committed in
the temporalities of bifhoprics, neither fhould the cuf¬
tody of them be fold. The fame is ordained by the fta¬
tute of Weftminfter the firft ; and the ftatute 14 Ed¬
ward III. ftat. 4. cap. 4. (which permits a leafe to the
dean and chapter) is ftill more explicit in prohibiting
the other exaftions. It was alfo a frequent abufe, that
the king would, for trifling or no caufes, feize the tem¬
poralities of biftiops, even during their lives, into his
own hands: but this is guarded againft by ftatute
2 Edw. III. ftat. 2. cap. 2,
This revenue of the king, which was. formerly very
confiderable, is now by a cuftomary indulgence alrfloft
reduced to nothing: for, at prefent, as foon as the new^
biftiop is confecrated and confirmed, he .ufually receives ■
the reftitution of his temporalities quite entire and un¬
touched from the king 3 and then, and not fooner, he has
a fee-fimplc in his biftiopric, and may maintain an ac- Tempera,
tion for the profits. UiieS
TENACITY, in Natural Philofophij, that quality of ren”dos<
bodies by which they fuftain a confiderable preffure or ■■ —v t
force of any kind without breaking. It is the quality
oppofite to fragility or brittlenefs. See StFlENGTII of
Materials.
TENACULUM, in Surgery, an inftrument ufed in
amputation, for pulling out bleeding veffels that are to
be tied by ligatures. See Surgery.
TENAILLES and 1 See Fortification, Se&. I.
TENAILLIONS. 5 § 3. and 5.
TENANT, one that holds lands or tenements of
fome lord or landlord, by rent, fealty, &c. See Te¬
nure.
t Ena wit. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
TENCH. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index*■
TENDER, a fmall fhip in the fervice of men of war,
for carrying men, provifions, or any thing elfe that is -
neceffary.
TENDONS, in Anatomy, are white, firm, and tena¬
cious parts, contiguous to the mufcles, and ufually form¬
ing their extremities. See Anatomy, N° 85.
TENEBRIO, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of infefts
belonging to the order of coleoptera. See Entomolo¬
gy Index.
TENEDOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland on the
coaft of Troas-, at the diftance of 40 ftadia from the
continent, and 8o in compafs 3 with a cognominal iEo-
lian town, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus. Its ori¬
gin is derived from lennes or lenes, who being ex-
pofed in a coffer or bog by his father Cygnus theThra-
cian, at the inftigation of the mothtr-in-law, was by
fate carried to this ifland, made king of it, and at length
w or (hipped as a god on account of his virtues, ’i he
Eland was. famous for its earthen ware, for which pur-
pofe it had an excellent red clay 3 and hence Bochart
would derive the appellation from tinedorn, a “ red clay.”
Tenediafecuris, is a proverbial faying to denote feverity 3
from a law there paffed, that perfons found in the aft of
adultery fhould be put to death 3 a feverity‘executed or
the king’s fun 3 and therefore,, in the coins of Tenedd
on one fide are two heads, in memorial of the king and
his fon, and on the reverfe an axe, (Ariftotle). 1 his
ifland ftill retains its ancient name; and is one of the
fmalleft iflands of the Archipelago, fituated near the
coaft of Leffer Afia, weft of the ruins of Troy.. It is
chiefly rocky, but fertile, being remarkable fo'r produ¬
cing the beft Mufcadine wine in the Levant; and its po-
fition, thus near the mouth of the Hellefpont, has given it
importance in all ages; veffels bound towards Conftanti-
nople finding [belter in its port, or fafe anchorage m the
road, during the Etefian or contrary winds, and in foul
weather. The emperor Juftinian erefted a magazine to
receive, the cargoes of the corn [hips from Alexandria,
when detained there. This was a lofty biiilding, 280
. feet long, and 90 broad. The voyage from Egypt was
rendered lefs precarious, and the grain preferved until it
could be tranipbrted to the capital. Afterwards, during
the troubles of the Greek empire, (T^edos experienced
a variety of fortune. The’pirates, who infefted thefe
feas, made it for many years their place of rendezvous 3
and Othman feized it in 1302, procured veffels, and
thence fubdued the other iflands of the Archipelago.
In .
Tenedop,
TenerifF.
Gins’s HU
TEN [2
It has continued in the poffeflion of the Turks ever
fince : and on the eaftern fide is a pretty large town,
feated at the foot of a mountain, with a fine harbour
commanded by a caftle. E. Long. 27. o. N. Lat. 29.
3°; , ,
TENERIFF, an ifland of Africa, and one of the
Canaries, being the moft confiderable for riches, trade,
and extent. It lies to the fouth of the itland of Salva¬
ges, to the weft of the Grand Canary, to the north of
the ifiand of Gomera, and to the. eaft of that of Palma.
It is of a triangular form, being about 4 1; miles in
length and 20 in breadth ; and in'the centre is the fa¬
mous peak, called by the natives El Pico dc Teyde,
which in clear weather may be feen at the diftance of
120 miles, like a thin blue vapour very little darker
than the fky.
1 he moft frequented harbour Is called Santa Crux,
which is on the fouth fide of the illand, and where ftiips
with good anchors and cables may be fafe in all wea¬
thers. . At this port is the principal commercial town
in the ifiand, called alfo Santa Crux, in the middle of
which is a mole, built at a vaft expence for the conve¬
nience of landing ; between the mole and the towm is a
fort called St Philip's, and near it is a fteep rocky den
or valley, beginning at the fea fliore, and running far
in land, which would render the attack of an enemy
very difficult •, there are alfo other forts for its defence,
all joined together by a thick ftone wall, and mounted
with cannon.
Santa Cruz is a large town, containingfeveral churches
sZiTl/lr and conyents’ an h°fpital, and the belt conftruaed pri
Catiary ^ va.te buildings of any in the Canary iflands. It
con-
JJlands.
tains about yooo inhabitants ^ it is not fortified on the
land fide, and all the country near it is dry, ftony, and
barren.
About four leagues to the fouth of Santa Cruz, clofe
to the fea, there is a cave, with a church called the
chapel of our Lady of Candelaria, in which is an image
of the Virgin Mary, that is held in as much reverence
here as that of F)iana was at Ephefus. This chapel is
endow-ed with fo many ornaments that it is the richeft
place in all the feven ifiands. At a certain feafon of the
year almoft all the inhabitants go thither on pilgrimage,
and innumerable and incredible ftories are related and’
Univerfally believed concerning this image.
. About four miles in land from Santa Cruz Hands the
city of St Chryftobal de la Laguna, which is the me¬
tropolis of the ifland, and contains two parifh churches
and five convents, but has no trade, being inhabited
principally by the gentry of the ifland ; the inhabitants
are numerous, yet nobody is feen in the ftreets, which
are folitary and defolate, fo that grafs grows in thofe
that are moft; frequented. There are many other towns
in the ifland which contain a great number of people,
but none are more than three leagues from the fea.
All the fertile ground within a league of the fea is
covered with vines j that of the next league isfown with
corn, the third is adorned with woods, and above the
woods are the clouds, for the ifland gradually afeends
from the fea, rifing on all fides till it terminates in the
peak, which is the centre.
. tbe fouth-eaft of the ifland inland from Candela-
r/o is a town called Guimar, where there are fome fa¬
milies which know themfelves to be the genuine unmix-
«?d offspring of the original natives; but they know no-
88 ] TEN
thing of the manners of their anceftors, nor have they T,*,;.
preferved any remains of their language. They are U-'V'
fairer than the Spaniards of Andalufia.
Teneriff contains about 96,000 perfons, fuppofed to
be equal to the number of inhabitants of all the reft of
the feven iflands put together. The peafants in rmne-
ral are wretchedly clothed ; when they do appear bet¬
ter, they are habited in the Spanifli falhion. The men"w- -
in a genteeler ftne, drefs very gayly, and are feldomtw'
leen without long fwords. It is remarked, that few 0fAW5l
them walk with dignity and eafe ; which may be attri-?
buted to the . long cloaks they ufually wear. The wo-lS'
men wear veils; thofe worn by the lower ranks are of
black fluff, thofe of the higher of black filk ; and fuch
among the latter as have any claim to beauty are far from
being over careful in concealing their faces by them.
The young ladies wear their fine long black hair plait¬
ed, and fattened with a comb or a ribband on the top of
the head. r
. Tlie common people, and in this they refemble the
inhabitants of moft of the iflands in the Pacific ocean
lately difeovered, have in them a ftrong tendency to
thieving 5 they are befides lazy, and the moft importu-
nate beggars in the world. “ I obferved likewife (Lys
Mr White) that the itch was fo common among them,
and had attained fuch a degree of virulence, that one
would almoft be led to believe it was epidemic there.
Some of the women are fo abandoned and thamelef?"
that it would be doing an injuftice to the proflitutes
met with in the ftreets of London to fay they are like
them. The females of every degree are faid to be of
an amorous conftitution, and addided to intrigue ; for
which no houfes could be better adapted than thofe in
Teneriff,
T he manufactures carried on here are very few
and the produd of them little more than fufficient for
their own confumption. They confift of taffeties,
gauze, coarfe linens, blankets, a little filk, and curious’
garters. The principal dependence of the inhabitants
is on their wine (their ftaple commodity), oil, corn,
and every kind of flock for (hipping. With thefe the
ifland abounds : and, in their feafon, produces not only
the tropical fruits, but the vegetable produdions of the
European gardens, in the greatert plenty. Teneriff en¬
joys an agreeable and healthful mediocrity of climate.
Indeed none feems better adapted for the reftoration of
a valetudinarian ; as, by going into the mountains, he
may graduate the air, and choofe that ftate of it which
beft fuits his complaint. But although the inhabitants
are thus healthy, and have fo little occafion for medical
aid, they loudly complain of the want of knowledge in
the profeflional gentlemen of the ifland.”
1 he height of the peak of l eneriff has been fo va-
noufly eftimated and calculated by different travellers
and geographers, that we can only take the mean be¬
tween the two extremes of their decifions. Dr Halley Rye's Ex- '■
alloivs but two miles and a quarter from the level of the cwjion to 1
fea to the fummit of the fugar-loaf, wbilft the Spanifhtbe
account of the Canary iflands, tranflated by Mr Glas;
in 1763, makes it no lefs than five miles; and others
have afligned a height different from both thefe. That
it is an extinguiftied volcano is univerfally known.
“ The crater of the peak of Teneriff (fays Mongez)
is a true fulphur-pit, fimilar to thofe of Italy. It is a-
bout yo fathoms long and 40 broad, rifing abruptly
from
:: ?
TEN
C 289 ]
T E N
riff from eaft to weft. At the edges of the crater, parti-
cularly on the under fide, are many fpiracles, or natural
Teiiivl*
UUUU*/    / * *
T( ;rSl chimneys, from which there exhale aqueous vapours and
Jou
Ph}j
, fulphureous acids, which are fo hot as to make the ther-
' ^ mometer rife from 90 to 340 of Reaumur. The infide t)f
the crater is covered with yellow, red, or white, argil¬
laceous earth, and blocks of lava partly decompofed.
Under thefe blocks are found fuperb cryftals of ful-
phur; thefe are eight-fided rhomhoidal cryftals, fome-
times an inch in length, and, I fuppofe, they are the
fineft cryftals of volcanic fulphur that have ever been
found. The water that exhales from the fpiracles is
perfc&ly pure, and not in the lead acid, as I was con¬
vinced by feveral experiments. The elevation of the
peak above the level of the fea is near 1900 toifes.”
W. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat. 28. 29.
TENESMUS, in Medicine, is a continual defire of
going to ftool, .but without any ftool being ready to be
voided. See Medicine, N° hi.
Tennis.
TENIERS, David, the Elder, a Flemilh painter,
born at Antwerp in 1582. He received the firft rudi¬
ments of his art from the famous Rubens, who highly
efteemed him for his promifing genius, and with great
fatisfa&ion examined and commended his defigns. Irom
the fchool of that celebrated painter Teniers went to
finilh his ftudies at Rome. He attached himfelf to A-
dam Elftieimer for fix years ; and from the inftru^lions
cf two fuch incomparable matters, he formed to himfelf
a peculiar ftyle, which his fon cultivated fo happily af¬
terward as to bring it to the utmoft perfection. His
pictures were fmall} and his fubjeCts ufually {hops, ela-
boratories, humorous converfations, and rural feftivi-
ties. The demand for his pieces was univerfal j and
even his matter Rubens thought them an ornament to
his cabinet. He died at Antwerp in 1640.
TENIERS, David, the Younger, alfo an admirable
painter, was the fon of the former, and was born at
Antwerp in 1610. He obtained the name at Ape of
Painting, from his imitating the manner of different
painters with fuch exaCtnefs as to deceive even the
niceft judges. He improved greatly under his father,
and obtained fuch reputation as introduced him to the
favour of the great. The archduke Leopold William
made him gentleman of his bedchamber *, and all the
pidures of his gallery were copied by Teniers, and en¬
graved by his direCtion. The king of Spain and Don
Juan of Auftria fet fo high a value on his pictures,
that they built a gallery on purpofe for them. Wil¬
liam prince of Orange honoured him with his friend-
ftiip ; and Rubens not only efteemed his works, but af-
fifted him with his advice. His principal talent lay in
landfcapes, adorned with fmall figures. He alfo painted
men drinking and fmoking, chemifts elaboratories, coun¬
try fairs, and the like. His fmall figures are fuperior
to his large ones. He died in 1694.
The works of the father and fon are thus diftinguifh-
ed : The latter difeover a finer touch and freftier pen¬
cil, greater variety of attitudes, and a better difpofition
of the figures. The father retained fomething of the
tone of Italy in his colouring, which was ftronger than
the fon’s', befides, the fon ufed to put at the bottom of
his pidures, David Teniers, junior.
Abraham, another fon of David the Elder, was e-
qual, if not fuperior, to his father and brother in the
exprelfion of his characters, and his underftanding the
Vol. XX. Part I.
claro obfeuro ; though he was inferior in the fprighth-
nefs of his touch, and the lightnefs of his pencil.
TENISON, Dr Thomas, archbifhop of Canter-, v  
bury, was born at Cottenham in Cambridgefhhe in
1636 ; and ftudied at Corpus Chrifti college in Cam¬
bridge. In his youth, while the fanatical government
lafted, he applied himfelf to phyfic ; but afterward went
into orders, and was fome time minifter of St Andrew’s
church, Cambridge ; where he attended the fick during
the plague in i665» which his parifhioners acknowled¬
ged by the prefent of a piece of plate. He fhowed him¬
felf verv aClive againft the growth of Popery, by his
writings both in King Charles and in King James s
reigns : in 1680 he was prefented to the vicarage oi St
Martin’s in the Fields, London, to which parilh he made
feveral donations j and among others, endowed a free
fchool, and built a handfome library, which he furnifti-
ed with ufeful books. King William and Queen Mary,
in 1689, prefented him to the archdeaconry of Lon¬
don *, in 1691, he was nominated to the fee of Lincoln,
and in 1694 he fucceeded Dr Tillotfon as archbiftiop of
Canterbury. He performed all the duties of a good
primate for 20 years, and died in 1715.
TENNIS, a play at which a ball is driven by a racket.
As many perfons would become players at tennis, pro- Hoyle's
vided they could eafily underftand the rudiments of the
game, fo as to form fome judgment of the players, or ^ ^eavj-or^
leaft to know who wins and who lofes, we have here at¬
tempted to give fo plain a defeription of it, that ho one
can be at a lofs, if ever he fhould belt or play. As to
the executive part, it requires great praflice to make a
good player, fo that nothing can be done without it j
all we prefume to do is to give an infight into the game,
whereby a perfon may not feem a total ftranger to it
when he happens to be in a tennis court.
The game of tennis is played in moft capital cities in
Europe, particularly in France, from whence we may
venture to derive its origin. It is efteemed with many
to be one of the moft ancient games in Chriftendom, and
long before King Charles I.’s time it was played in Eng¬
land.
This game is as intricate as any game whatever ; a
perfon who is totally ignorant of it may look on for a
month together, without being able to make, out how
the game is decided. Therefore we {hall begin by de-
feribing the court in which it is played.
The fize of a tennis court is generally about 96 or
97 feet by 33 or 34, there being no exa£I dimenfion
aferibed to its proportion, a foot more or lefs in length
or width being of no confequence. A line or net hangs
exaftly acrofs the middle, over which the ball muft be
{truck, either with a racket or board to make the ftroke
good. Upon the entrance of a tennis-court, there is a
long gallery which goes to the dedans, that is, a kind of
front gallery, where fpe&atnrs ufually ftand, into which,
whenever a ball is {truck, it tells for a certain ftroke.
This long gallery is divided into different compartiments
or galleries, each of which has its particular name, as
follows ; from the line towards the dedans are thefrjl
gallery, door, fecondgallery, and the laf gallery, which
is called the fervice fide. From the dedans to the laft:
gallery are the figures I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, at a yard.diftance
each, by which the chaces are marked, and is one of
the moft effential parts of the game, as will appear in
the following defeription.
Co On
T E N [ 290 ] TEN
Tennis. (3n t]ie other fide of the line are alfo the JirJigallery,
'' door,fecondgallery, and lajlgallery ; which is called the
hci%ard-Jide. Every ball ftruck into the lad gallery on
this fide reckons for a certain ftroke the fame as the de¬
dans. Between the fecond and this lalt gallery are the
figures r, 2, to mark the chaces on the hazard-fide.
Over this long gallery, or thefe compartiments, is a
covering, called the pent-houfe, on which they play the
ball from the fervice-fide, in order to begin a let of ten¬
nis, from which it is called a fcrvice. When they mifs
putting the ball (fo as to rebound from the pent-houfe)
over a certain line on the fervice-fide, it is deemed a
fault, two of which are reckoned for a ftroke. If the
ball rolls round the pent-houfe, on the oppofite fide of
the court, fo as to fall beyond a certain line defcribed
for that purpofe, it is called pajfe, reckons for nothing
on either fide, and the player muft ferve again.
On the right-hand fide of the court from the dedans
is what they call the tambour, a part of the wall which
projects, and is fo contrived in order to make a variety
in the ftroke, and render it more difficult to be returned
by the adverfary ; for when a ball ftrikes the tambour,
it varies its diredlion, and requires fome extraordinary
judgment to return it over the line. The lail thing on
the right hand fide is called the grill, wherein if the
ball is ftruck, it is alfo 15, or a certain ftroke.
The game of tennis is played by what they call Jets;
a fet of tennis confifts of fix games : but if they play
what is called an advantage-fet, two above five games
muft be won on one fide or the other fucceffively, in or¬
der to decide ; or, if it comes to fix games all, two
games muft ftill be won on one fide to conclude the fet
fo that an advantage-fet may laft a confiderable time j
for which kind of fots the court is paid more than for
any other.
We muft now defcribe the ufe of the chaces, and by
what means thefe chaces decide or interfere fo much in
the game Wrhen the player gives his fervice at the be¬
ginning of a fet, his adverfary is fuppofed to return the
ball; and wherever it falls after the firft rebound un¬
touched, the chace is called accordingly ; for example,
if the ball falls at the figure 1, the chace is called at a
yard, that is to fay, at a yard from the dedans: this
ehace remains till a fecond fervice is given $ and if the
• player on the fervice fide lets the ball go after his ad¬
verfary returns it, and if the ball falls on or between any
of thefe figures or chaces, they muft change fides, there
being two chaces ; and he who then will be on the
hazard fide, muft play to win the firft chace j which if
he wins by ftriking the ball fo as to fall, after its firft
rebound, nearer to the dedans than the figure 1, with¬
out his adverfary’s being able to return it from its firft
hop, he wins a ftroke, and then proceeds in like manner
to win the fecond chace, wherever it ffiould happen to
be. If a ball falls on the line with the firft; gallery
door, fecond gallery, or laft gallery, the chace is like-
wife called at fuch or fuch a place, naming the gallery,
door, &c. When it is juft put over the line, it is called
a chace at. the line. If the player on the fervice-fide re¬
turns a ball with fuch force as to ftrike the wall on the
hazard-fide fo as to rebound, after the firft hop over the
line, it is alfo called a chace at the line.
The chaces on the hazard-fide proceed from the ball
being returned either too hard or not quite hard enough ;
£0 that the ball after its firft rebound falls on this fide of
the blue line, or line which defcribes the hazard-fide Temi<-
chaces j in which cafe it is a chace at 1, 2, &c. provid-
ed there is no chace depending. When they change
fides, the player, in order to win this chace, mutt put
the ball over the line anywhere, fo that his adverfary
does not return it. When there is no chace on the
hazard-fide, all balls put over the line from the fervice-
fide, without being returned, reckon for a ftroke.
As the game depends chiefly upon the marking, it
will be neceflary to explain it, and to recommend thofe
who play at tennis to have a good and unbiaffed marker
for on him the whole fet may depend : he can mark in
favour of the one and againft the other in fuch a manner,
as will render it two to one at ftarting, though even
players. Inftead of which the marker ftiould be very
attentive to the chaces, and not be anyway partial to
either of the players..
This game is marked in a very Angular manner,
which makes it at firft fomewhat difficult to underftand.
The firft ftroke is called 15, the fecond 30, the third
40, and the fourth game, unlefs the players get four
ftrokes each ; in that cafe, inftead of calling it 40 all,
is is called deuce; after which, as foon as any ftroke U
got, it is called advantage ; and in cafe the ftrokes be¬
come equal again, deuce, again, till one or the other gets
two ftrokes following, which win the game ; and as the
games are won, fo they are marked and called ; as one
game love, two games to one, &c. towards the fet, of
which fo many of thefe games it confifts.
Although but one ball at a time is played with, a
number of balls are made ufe of at this game to avoid
trouble, and are handed to the players in bafkets for
that purpofe ; by which means they can play as long as
they pleafe, without ever having occafion to ftoop for a
ball.
As to the odds- at tennis, they are by. no means fixed,
but are generally laid as follow :
Upoti the firft ftroke being won between even players,
that is, fifteen love, the odds are of the
Single game - - 7 to 4
Thirty love - - 4 1
Forty love - - - 8 I
Thirty fifteen - - 2 1
Forty fifteen - _ ^ j
Forty thirty - - 31
The odds of a four game fet when the
firft game is wen, are - 7 4
When two games love - 4 1
Three games love - - 81
When two games to one - 2 L
Three games to one - 5 I
The odds of a fix game fet when the
firft game is won, are - 32
When two games love - 2 1
Three games love - - 4 1
Four games love - - 10 I
Five games love - 21 I
When two games to one - 8
Three games to one - 52,
Four games to one - -51
Five games to one - - 15 I
When three games to two - 74
Four games to two - 4 r.
Five games to two - - jo I
When four games to three » 2 I
Five-
J T
'u~
• T E K
Five games to three " " 5
The odds of an advantage fet when the
firft game is won, are - 5
When two games love - 7
Three games love - 3
Four games ItfVe _ - 5
Five games love - - 15
When two games to one - 4
Three games to one - - 2
Four games to one ""7
Five games to one - - 10
When three games to two 3
Four games to two - - 3
Five games to two - - 8
When four games to three - 8
Five games to three ■ ” 3
When five games to four - 2
When fix games to five - - 5
The foregoing odds, as beforefaid, are generally laid,
but the chaces interfering makes the odds very precari¬
ous *, for example, when there is a chace at hall a yard,
and a fet is five games all, and in every other refpeft
equal, the odds are a good five to four ; and if it were
fix games to five, and forty thirty with the fame chace,
the odds then would be a guinea to a {lulling *, fo that
it is plain that the odds at this game differ from thofe of
any other : for one ftroke will reduce a fet, fuppofing
the players to be five games all, from an even w'ager to
three to two, and fo on in proportion to the ftage of
the fet.
There are various methods of giving odds at tennis,
in order to make a match equal ; and that they may be
underftood, we {hall give the following lift of them, with
their meanings, fo that any perfon may form a judge¬
ment of the advantage received or given.
The loweft odds that can be given, excepting the
choice of the fides, is what they call a bifque, that is, a
ftroke to be taken or fcored whenever the player, who
receives the advantage, thinks proper : for inftance, fup-
pofe a critical game of the fet to be forty thirty, by tak¬
ing the bifque, he who is forty becomes game, and fo in
refpeft of two bifques, &c.
The next greater odds are fifteen, that is, a certain
ftroke given at the beginning of each game.
After thefe, half thirty, that is, fifteen one game, and
thirty the next. Then follow the whole thirty, forty,
&c.
There are alfo the following kind of odds which arc
given, viz.
Round fervices ; thofe are fervices given round the
pent-houfe, fo as to render it eafy for the firiker-out
(the player who is on the hazard fide) to return the
ball.
Half-court, that is, being obliged or confined to play
into the adverfary’s half-court; fometimes it is played
ftraightwife, and at other times acrofs; both which are
great advantages given by him fo confined, but the ftrait
half-court is the greateft.
Touch no-wall, that is, being obliged to play within
the compafs of the walls, or fides of the court. This is
a confiderable advantage to him who receives it-, as all
the balls muft be played gently, and confequently they
nre much eafier to take than thofe which are played hard,
according to the ufual method of play.
291 ] TEN
Barring the hazards, that is, barring the dedans, tam¬
bour, grill, or the lart gallery on the hazard-fide, or any
particular one or more of them. t.
Thefe are the common kind of odds or advantages
given but there are many others, which are according
to what is agreed by the players : iuch as playing with
board againft racket, cricket-bat againft racket, &.c.
The game of tennis is alfo played by four perfons,
two partners on each fide. In this cafe, they are gene¬
rally confined to their particular quarters, and one of
each fide appointed to ferve and ftrike out j in every
other refpeft, the game is played in the fame manner as
when two only play.
Any thing more to be faid upon this fubjeft would
be needlefs, as nothing can be recommended after read¬
ing this {hurt account of tennis, but praftice and atten¬
tion, without which no one can become a proficient at
the game.
TENOR, or Tenour, the purport or content of a
writing or inftrument in law, &c.
Tenor, in Mufic, the firft mean, or middle part, or
that which is the ordinary pitch of the voice, when nei¬
ther raifed to a treble nor lowered to a bafs.
TENSE, in Grammar, an inflexion of verbs, where¬
by they are made to figniiy or diftinguifti the circum-
ftance of time in what they affirm. Sec Grammar.
TENT, in IVar, a pavilion or portable houfe. Tents
are made of canvas, for officers and foldiers to lie under
when in the field. The fize of the officers tents is not
fixed fome regiments have them of one fize and fome
of another *, a captain’s tent and marquee is generally
ioi feet broad, 14 deep, and 8 high : the fubalterns are
a foot lefs $ the major’s and lieutenant-colonel’s a foot
larger 5 and the colonel’s two feet larger. The fubal¬
terns of foot lie two in a tent, and thofe of horfe but
one. The tents of private men are 6^- feet fquare, and
5 feet high, and hold five foldiers each. The tents for
horfe are 7 feet broad and 9 feet deep: they hold like-
wife five men and their horfe accoutrements.——The w'ord
is formed from the Latin tentorium, of tendo, “ I ftretch,”
becaufe tents are ufually made of canvas ftretched out,
and fuftained by poles, with cords and pegs.
Tent, in Surgery, a roll of lint made into the ffiape of
a nail with a broad flat head, chiefly ufed in deep wounds
and ulcers. They are of fervice, not only in conveying
medicines to the moft intimate recefles and finufes of the
wound, but to prevent the lips of the wound from unit¬
ing before it is healed from the bottom ; and by their
affiftance grumous blood, fordes, &c. are readily evacu¬
ated.
TENTER, Trier, or Proven, a machine ufed in
the cloth manufa&ory, to ftretch out the pieces of cloth,
fluff, &c. or only to make them even and fet them
fquare.
It is ufually about 44 feet high, and for length ex¬
ceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. It confifts of
feveral long fquare pieces of wood, placed like thofe
which form the barriers of a manege ; fo, however, as
that the lower crofs pieces of wood may be raifed or
lowered as is found requifite, to be fixed at any height
by means of pins. Along the crofs pieces, both the up¬
per and the under one, are hooked nails, called tenter*
hooks, driven in from fpace to fpace.
To put a piece of cloth on the TENTER. While the
piece is yet quite wet, one end is faftened to one of the
O c 2 ends
Tennis
Tenter.
TEN [ 2|
I enter enc{s uf j]ie tenter 5 then it is pulled by force of arms to-
Tenths Avarcis th® other end, to bring it to the length required:
Ub—yL-L. that other end being fattened, the upper lift is hooked
on to the upper crofs-piece, and the loweft lift to the
lowe.ft crofs-piece, which is afterwards lowered by force
till the piece have its defired breadth. Being thus well
ftretched, both as to length and breadth, they brulh it
with a ftiff hair brufti, and thus let it dry. Then they
take it off; and, till they wet it again, it will retain
the length and breadth the tenter gave it.
1EN I'HREDO, the Saw-fly ; a genus of infe£ls
belonging to the order of hymenoptera. See Entomo-
XOGY Index.
I EN IHS, and FIRST FRUITS of Spiritual Prefer¬
ments, a branch of the king’s revenue. See Revenue.
Thefe were originally a part of the Papal ufurpations
over the clergy of this kingdom ; firft introduced by
Pandulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of King
John and Henry III. in the fee of Norwich ; and after¬
wards attempted to be made univerfal by the popes Cle¬
ment V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the
14th century. I he firft fruits, primitice or annates,
were the firft year’s whole profits of the fpiritual prefer¬
ment, according to a rate or valor made under the di¬
rection of Pope Innocent IV. by Walter bilhop of Nor-
wich in 38 Hen. III. and afterwards advanced in value
by commiflion from Pope Nicholas III. A. D. 1202, 20
Edw. I.; which valuation of Pope Nicholas is ftill pre-
ferved in the exchequer. The tenths, or decimee, were
Black/i. the tenth part of the annual profit of each living by the
vcLLent‘ fame valuation 5 which was alfo claimed by the holy fee,
under no better pretence than a ftrange mifapplieation
of that precept of the Levitical law, which directs, that
the Levites “ Ihould offer the tenth part of their tithes
» as a heave offering to the Lord, and give it to Aaron
the highprieft.” But this claim of the pope met with
vigorous refiftance from the Englilh parliament; and a
variety of a£ts were paffed to prevent and reftrain it,
particularly the ftatute 6 Hen. IV. c. 1. which calls it
a horrible mifchief and damnable cujlom. But the Popith
clergy, blindly devoted to the will of a foreign mafter,
ftill kept it on foot; fometimes more fecretly, fometimes
more openly and avowedly: fo that in the reign of Henry
VIII. it was computed, that in the compafs of 50 years
800,000 ciucats had been fent to Rome for firft fruits
only. And as the clergy expreffed this willingnefs to
contribute fo much of their income to the head of the
church, it was thought proper (when in the fame reign
the papal power was abolilhed, and the king was decla¬
red the head of the church of England) to annex this
revenue to the crown ; which was done by ftatute 26
Hen. VIII. c. 3. (confirmed by ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 4.) ;
and a new valor benefciorum was then made, by which
the clergy are at prefent rated.
By thefe laft-mentioned ilatutes all vicarages under
ten pounds a year, and all re&ories under ten marks,
are difcharged from the payment of firft fruits: and if,
in fuck livings as continue chargeable with this payment,
the incumbent lives but half a year, he fhall pay only
one quarter of his firft fruits; if but one whole year,
then half of them ; if a year and a half, three quarters;
and if two years, then the whole, and not otherwife.
Likewife by the ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 8. no tenths
are to be paid for the firft year,, for then the firft fruits
are due ; and by other ftatutes of Queen Anne, in the
3
>2 ] TEN
fifth and fixth years of her reign, if a benefice be under Tentl
50I. per annum clear yearly value, it {hall be difcharged T«nur i
of the payment of firft fruits and tenths. ',”T
Thus the richer clergy being, by the criminal bigo¬
try of their Popifh predeceffors, fubjedled at firft to a
foreign exaftion, were afterwards, when that yoke was
fhaken off, liable to a like mifapplication of their reve¬
nues through the rapacious difpofition of the then reign¬
ing monarch ; till at length the piety of Queen Anne
reftored to the church what had been thus indiredlly
taken from it. This ftie did, not by remitting the tenths
and firft fruits entirely; but, in a fpirit of the trueft
equity, by applying thefe fuperfluities of the larger be¬
nefices to make up the deficiencies of the fmaller. And
to this end flie granted her royal charter, which was con¬
firmed by the ftatute 2 Ann. c. 11. whereby all the reve¬
nue of firft fruits and tenths is veiled in trufteesfor ever,
to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor li¬
vings. I his is ufually called -^ueen Anne's bounty; which
has been ftill farther regulated by fubfequent flatutes
TENURE, in Law, fignifies the manner whereby
lands or tenements are held, or the fervice that the te-*
nant owes to his lord.
Of this kingdom almoft all the real property is by the
policy of our laws fuppofed to be granted by, dependent
upon, and holden of, fome fuperior lord, by and in confi-
deration of certain fervices to be rendered to the lord by
the tenant or poffeflor of this property. The thing holden
is therefore ftyled a tenement, the poffeffors thereof te¬
nants, and the manner of their poffeflion a tenure. Thus
all the lands in the kingdom are fuppofed to be holden,
mediately or immediately, of the king; who is ftyled the
lord paramount, or above all. Such tenants as held un- Rlacirt,
der the king immediately, when they granted out por- CbmJm
tions of the lands to inferior perfons, became alfo lords vol. ii. |
with refpefl to thofe inferior perfons, as they were ftill
tenants with refpedl to the king; and thus partaking of
a middle nature, were called mefne or middle lords. S@
that if the king granted a manor to A, and he granted a
portion of the land to B, now B was faid to hold of A,
and A of the king ; or, in other words, B held his lands
immediately of A, but mediately of the king. The king
therefore was ftyled lord paramount: A wras both tenant
and lord, or was a mefne lord ; and B was called tenant
par avail or the lowejl tenant, being he who was fuppofed
to make avail or profit of the land. In this manner are
all the lands of the kingdom holden which are in the
hands of fubje&s: for, according to Sir Edward Coke,
in the law of England we have not properly allodium,
which is the name by which the feudifts abroad diftin-
guilh fuch eftates of the fubjeft as are not holden of any
fuperior. So that at the firft glance we may obferve,
that our lands are either plainly feuds, or partake very
ftrongly of the feodal nature.
All tenures being thus derived, or fuppofed to be)
derived, from the king, thofe that held immediately
under him, in right of his crown and dignity, were
called his tenants in capite, or in chief; which was the
moft honourable fpecies of tenure, but at the fame time
fubje£led the tenants to greater and more burdenfome
fervices than inferior tenures did. And this diftinflioa
ran through all the different forts of tenure.
There feem to have fubfifted among our anceftors four
principal fpecies of lay-tenures, to which all other may be
reduced; the grand criteria of which were the natures of
the-
ten [ 203 ] TEN
,re the feveral fervices or renders that were due to the lords
!L_, £rom their tenants. The fervices, in refpea of their qua-
lity, were either free or fervices : in refpeft of their
quantity and the time of exa&ing them, were either certain
or uncertain. Free fervices were fuch as were not unbe¬
coming the charafter of a foldier or a freeman to perform *,
as to ferve under his lord in the wars, to pay a fum of
iponey, and the like. Bafe fervices were fuch as were
£t only for peafants or perfons of a fervile rank j as to
plough the lord’s land, to make his hedges, to carry out
his dung, or other mean employments. The certain fer¬
vices, whether free or bafe, were fuch as were Hinted in
quantity, and could not be exceeded on any pretence ;
as, to pay a Hated annual-rent, or to plough fuch a field
for three days. The uncertain depended upon unknown
contingencies *, as, to do military fervice in perfon, or
pay an alfelfment in lieu of it when called upon ; or to
wind a horn upon the appearance of invaders : which are
free fervices ; or to do whatever the lord fliould com¬
mand ; which is a bafe or villein fervice.
From the various combinations of thefe fervices have
arifen the four kinds of lay-tenure which fubfifled in
England till the middle of the laH century *, and three
of which fubfifi to this day. Of thefe Bra&on (who
wrote under Henry III.) feems to give the cleareH and
mofi compendious account of any author ancient or mo¬
dern \ of which the following is the outline or abfiraft :
“ Tenements are of two kinfe, frank-tenement, and vil-
lenage. And of frank-tenements, fome are held freely
in confideration of homage and knight-fervice j others in
free-focage, with the fervice of fealty only. And again,
of villenages, fome are pure, and others privileged. He
that holds in pure villenage fhall do whatfover is com¬
manded him, and always be bound to an uncertain fer¬
vice. The other kind of villenage is called villein-foc-
age; and thefe villein-focmen do villein fervices, but
fuch as are certain and determined.” Of which the
fenfe feems to be as follows •, firfl, where the fervice
was free, but uncertain, as military fervice with homage,
that tenure was called the tenure in chivalry, per fervi-
tium militare, or by knight-fervice. Secondly, where
the fervice was not only free, but alfo certain, as by
fealty only, by rent and fealty, &c. that tenure was
called liberum foe agium, or free foenge. Thefe were the
only free holdings or tenements ; the others were ville-
nous or fervile: as, thirdly, where the fervice was bafe
in its nature, and uncertain as to time and quantity, the
tenure was purum villenagium, abfolute or pure villen¬
age. Lafily, where the fervice was bafe in its nature,
but reduced to a certainty, this was Hill villenage, but
diftinguifhed from the other by the name of privileged
villenage, villenagium pnvilegiatum ; or it might be Hill
called focage (from the certainty of its fervices), but de¬
graded by their bafenefs into the inferior title of villa-
num focagium, villein-focage.
1. The military tenure, or that by knight-fervice,
wa$ done away by flat. 12 Car. II. For an account
of this fpecies of tenure fee FEODAL System, and
KNIGHT-Service; and for its incidents, fee H'EI.IEF,
Primer-seisin, Wardship, Marriage, Fines, and
Escheat.
2. The fecond fpecies of tenure or free-focage, not
only fubfifls to this day, but has in a manner abforbed
md (wallowed up (fince the Hatute of Charles the Se¬
cond) almofl every other fpecies of tenure. See So- Tenure.
CAGE.
The other grand divifion of tenure, mentioned by
Brafton, is that of villenage, as contradiflinguilhed
from liberum tenementum, or frank-tenure. And this
(we may remember) he. fubdivides into two clafles, pure
and privileged villenage : from whence have arifen two
other fpecies of our modern tenures.
3. From the tenure of pure villenage have fprung our
prefent copyhold-tenures, or tenure by copy of court-
roll at the will of the lord j in order to obtain a clear
idea of which, it will be previoufly neceflary to confult
the articles Manor and Villenage.
As a farther confequence of what has been there ex¬
plained, we maycolledt thefe two main principles, which
are held to be the fupporters of a copyhold-tenure, and
without which it cannot exifl : 1. That the lands be.
parcel of and fituate within that manor under which it
is held. 2. That they have been demifed, or demifable,
by copy of court-roll immemorially. For immemorial
cuflom is the life of all tenures by copy ; fo that no
new copyhold can, flridlly fpeaking, be granted at this
day.
In fome manors, where the cuflom hath been to per¬
mit the heir to fucceed the anceflor in his tenure, the
eflates are flyled copyholds of inheritance; in others,
where the lords have been more vigilant to maintain
their rights, they remain copyholds for life only j for
the cuflom of the manor has in both cafes fo far fuper-
feded the will of the lord, that, provided the fervices be
performed or flipulated for by fealty, he cannot in the
firfl inftance refufe to admit the heir of his tenant upon
his death ; nor, in the (econd, can he remove hLs prefent
tenant fo long as he lives, though he holds nominally by
the precarious tenure of his lord’s will.
The fruits and appendages of a copyhold-tenure, that
it hath in common with free tenures, are fealty, fervices
(as well in rents as otherwife), reliefs, and efeheats.
The two latter belong only to copyholds of inheritance j
the former to thofe for life alfo. But, befides thefe,
copyholds have alfo heriots, wardfhip, and fines. He-
riots, which are agreed to be a Danifti cuftom, are a
render of the beft beaft or other good (as the cuft.om
may be) to the lord on the death of the tenant. This
is plainly a relic of villein tenure j there being original¬
ly lefs hardfliip in it, when all the goods and chattels
belonged to the lord, and he might have feized them
even in the villein’s lifetime. Thefe are incident to
both fpecies of copyhold $ but wardlhip and fines to
thofe of inheritance only. Wardfiiip, in copyholdr
eftates, partakes both of that in chivalry and that in fo¬
cage. Like that in chivalry, the lord is the legal guar¬
dian, who ufually afligns fome relation of the infant-
tenant to aft in his Head : and he, like guardian in fo¬
cage, is accountable to his ward for the profits. Of
fines, fome are in the nature of primer-feifins, due or>
the death of each tenant, others are mere fines for ali¬
enations of the lands *, in fome manors, only one of thofe
forts can be demanded, in fome both, and in others
neither. They are fometimes arbitrary and at the will
of the lord, fometimes fixed by cuftom ; but, even when
arbitrary, the courts of law, in favour of the liberty of
copvholders, have tied them down to be reafonable in
theif extent j othervvife they might amount to dilherifon
T E N
^Tenure. ^ 0f eftate. No fine therefore is allowed to be taken
upon defcents and alienations (unlefs in particular cir-
cumftances) of more than two years improved values of
the eftate. From this inftance we may judge of the
favourable difpofition that the law of England (which
is a law of liberty) hath always fliown to this fpecies
of tenants, by removing, as far as poflible, every real
badge of flavery from them, however fome nominal ones
may continue. It fuffered cuftom very early to get the
' better of the exprefs terms upon which they held their
lands; by declaring that the will of the lord was to be
interpreted by the cuftom of the manor; and, where
' no cuftom has been fuffered to grow up to the prejudice
* of'the lord, as in this cafe of arbitrary fines, the law it-
felf interpofes in an equitable method, and will not fuf-
fer the lord to extend his power Jo far as to difinherit
the tenant.
4. 1 here is yet a fourth fpecies of tenure, defcribed
by Brafton, under the name fometimes of ’privileged vil-
■ ten age, and fometimes of villein foe age. See ‘Privileged
Villen age.
Having in the prefent article, and thofe referred to,
taken a compendious view of the principal and funda¬
mental points of the dodtrine of tenures, both ancient
and modern, we cannot but remark the mutual connec¬
tion and dependence that all of them have upon each
other. And upon the whole it appears, that, whatever
changes and alterations thefe tenures have in procefs of
time undergone, from the Saxon era to the 12 Car. II.
all lay-tenures are now in effexft reduced to two fpecies ;
free tenure in common focage, and bafe tenure by copy
of court-roll. But there is ftill behind one other fpecies
of tenure, referved by the ftatute of Charles II. which is
of a fpiritual nature, and called the tenure in FRANK-
Almoign ; fee that article.
A particular account of the ancient tenures would to
many perfons be highly amufing. We can only feleft a
few of the moft fingular, referring the curious reader for
more information to Anderfon’s Origin of Commerce,
Henry's Hiftory of Britain, and Blount’s Fragmenta
Antiquitates.
In the 19th of Henry III. Walter Gately held the
manor of Weftcourt, in Bedington in Surry, yielding
yearly to the king one crofs-bow, balifam, value twelve
pence.
Anno, tertio Edw. I. Ofbert de Lonchamp, knight,
^ lands of Ovenhelle in Kent, for perfonally
r 294 i
TEN
held
guarding the king forty days into Wales at his own
expence, with one horfe of five (hillings value, one fack
worth fixpence, and one broch for that fack. N. B.
All perfonal fervices, or attendances on our kings in
thofe times, were limited to forty days, at their own ex¬
pence.
The like the fame year 6f Laurence de Broke, Who
ror his hamlet of Renham in Middlefex, found the
king one foldier, a horfe worth five (hillings, a fack
worth fivepence, and a broch v/orth twopence (this
broch was a kind of cup, jug, pot, or bafon), for forty
days, at his own expence, wherever his army fhall be
within the four feas. This was fettled (fays Mr Blount)
at the Stone Crofs. which (food near the May-pole in
the Strand, London, where the judges-itinerant ufed in
-old times to fit.
Robert Maunfel’s tenure of lands in Peverel paid
the fame fervice, and the horfe, fack, and broch of the
fame prices.
13wo Edw. I. Henry de Averning’s tenor of the
manor of Morton in Eflex, was to find a man, a horfe
worth ten (hillings, four horfe-lhoes, a leather lack, and
an iron bnoch.
The year following three perfons held thirty acres of
land in Carleton in Norfolk, by the fervice of bringing
the king, whenever he (hall be in England, twenty-four
pafties of frefti herrings at their firlt coming in.
Another held his manor in Norfolk of that king, by
annually fupplving him at his exchequer with two vef-
fels, called mues, of wine made of pearmains. “ Here
(fays our author) it is worth obferving, that in King
Edward the Firft’s time pearmain cyder was called
’ivine." This therefore feems to account for the men¬
tion of vineyards in old times in Kent, Suffex, and 0-
fher parts of England, which has fo often puzzled ma¬
ny people to elucidate.
Another perfon, in the 21ft of the faid king, held
thirty acres of land, valued at ten (hillings yearly in
the exchequer, or four-pence per acre, in Cambridge-
fnire, for furniftiing a trufs of hay for the king’s ne-
ceffary-houfe or privy, whenever he (hall come into that
county.
Another, in the 34th of*that king, held a manor in
Kent for providing a man to lead three greyhounds
■when the king (hall go into Gafcony, fo long as a pair
of (hoes of fourpence fhould laft.
And that we may not again recur to thefe old te¬
nures, we (hall further add, from the fame author, that
in the firft year of King Edward II. Peter Spileman
made fine to the king for his lands by ferjeanty, to find
one to ferve as a foldier for forty days in England, with
a coat of mail; alfo to find firaw for the king’s bed,
and hay for his horfe.
This article of draw for the king’s bed we did not
fo much wonder at, when we found it in an article in
William the Conqueror’s time ; but it is fomewhat more
remarkable fo late as the days of King Edward II.
Several others, we find, held their lands of the crown
in thofe times by very different tenures. One, by pay¬
ing two white capons annually ; another, by carrying
the king’s ftandard whenever he happens to be in the
county of Suffex j another, by carrying a rod or batoon
before the king on certain occafions ; another, by fer-
ving the office of chamberlain of the exchequer, a very
good place at prefent •, another, by building and up¬
holding a bridge; another, by being marechal (mere-
tricum), i. e. as Mr Blount tranflates it, of the laun-
dreffes in the king’s army ; another, by adling as a fer-
jeant at arms for the king’s army whilft in England j
one fupplies a fervant for the king’s larder} another,
for his wardrobe $ others, to find fervants for this or
that foreft 5 another, a hawk ; one prefents the king a
pair of fcarlet hofe annually *, others are bound to fup-
ply foldiers with armour for certain days, for the keep¬
ing this or that caftle ; one, viz. for the manor of El-
fton in Nottinghamfhire, pays yearly rent of one pound
• Weight of cummin feed, two*pair of gloves, and a fteel
needle j another, is to repair the iron-work of the king’s
ploughs*, Ela counted of Warwick, in the 13th year
of King Edward I. held the manor of Hokenorton in
Oxfordfhire, in the barony bf-D’Oyly, by the ferjeanty
of
.TER [ 295 ] TER
ure of carving at the king’s table on his birth-day, and ftie
I to have the knife the king then ufes at table,
m. TEOS, one of the twelve Ionian cities, was fituated
on the fouth fide of the Ionian peninfula, and diftinguifh-
ed by being the place where the poet Anacreon and the
hiftorian Hecataeus were born.
TERAPHIM, or Theraphim, a word in the He¬
brew language, which has exercifed much the ingenuity
of the critics. It occurs 13 or 14 times in the Old
Teftament, and is commonly interpreted idols. We
will not trouble our readers with the numerous conjec¬
tures which have been formed refpefting the meaning
of this word. The only way to determine it, if it be at
all poflible, would be to examine and compare all the
paflages in which it occurs, and to confult the ancient
tranllations. Conjeftures are ufelefs j every man may
make a new one, which will have juft as good a title to
belief as thofe which have been already propoled.
TERCERY, or Tercera, one of the largeft iflands
of the Azores, or Weftern iflands, lying in the Atlan¬
tic ocean. It is about 40 miles in circumference 5 and
furrounded with craggy rocks, which render it almoft
inacceflible. The foil is fertile, abounding in corn,
wine, and fruits ; and they have plenty of cattle to
fupply the (hips which call there. Their principal trade
is wood. The inhabitants are lively, addifted to gal¬
lantry, and are faid to be extremely revengeful. It is
fubjeft to Portugal ; and Angra is the capital town.
W. Long. 27. x. N. Lat. 28. 45.
TEREBELLA, the Piercer, a genus of infedls
belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of mollufca.
See Helminthology Index.
TEREBINTHUS. See Pjstagia, Botany In¬
dex.
TEREDO, a genus of vermes belonging to the or¬
der of teftacea. See Conchology Index.
TERENCE, or Publius Terentius Afer, a ce¬
lebrated comic poet of ancient Rome, was born at Car¬
thage in Africa. He was flave to Terentius Lucanus
the fenator j who gave him his liberty on account of
his wit, his good mien,, and great abilities. Terence,
on his becoming a freed man, applied himfelf to the
writing of comedies; in the execution of which he imi¬
tated Menander and the other celebrated comic poets
of Greece. Cicero gives him the moft pompous eulos
giums, both for the purity of his language and the per-
fpicuity and beauty of his compofitions, which he con-
fiders as the rule and ftandardof the Latin tongue and
obferves, that they were efteemed fo fine and elegant,
that they were thought to have been written by Scipio
and Lelius, who were then the greateft perfonages and
the moft eloquent of the Roman people. Terence died
while on a voyage into Greece, about the 15th year
before the Chriftian era. There are fix of his comedies
extant, of which the beft editions are the Elzevir one
1635, i2mo ; that cum integris notis Denali, et felcEUs
variorum, 1686, 8vo ; Wefterhovius’s, in two vols gto,
1726 ; and that of Bentley the fame year, 4to. Madame
Dacier has given a beautiful French verfion of this au¬
thor ; and a very good Englifh tranflation was publifil¬
ed in gto, 1768, by Mr Colman.
TERM, in Law, is generally taken for a limitation
of time or eftate ; a£, a leafe for term of life or years.
Term, however, is more particularly ufed for that time
Z.
wherein our courts of juftice are open : in oppofttion to
which, the reft of the year is called vacation.
Term, in Grammar, denotes fome wo|d or expreftion
in a language.
The word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically,
by the grammarians and philofophers, from the meafur-
ers or furveyors of lands : as a field is defined and di-
ftinguiftied by its termini, or limits, fo is a thing or mat¬
ter fpoken of by the word or term it is denoted by.
TERM in the Arts, or TERM of Art, is a word',
which, befides the literal and popular meaning which it
has or may have in common language, bears a further
and peculiar meaning in fome art or fcience.
Terms, the feveral times or feafons of the year,
wherein the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are open
to all who think fit to complain of wrong, or to feek
their rights by due courfe of law, or aftion ; and during
which the courts in Weftminfter-hall fit and give judge¬
ment. But the high court of parliament, the chancery,
and inferior courts, do not obferve the terms ; only
the courts of king’s-bench,. common-pleas, and exche¬
quer, which are the higheft courts at common law. In
contradiftindlion to thefe, the reft of the year is called
vacation.
Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during
which time matters of juftice are difpatched. Hilary-
term, which, at London, begins the 23d day of January,
or if that be Sunday, the next day after ; and ends the
12th of February following. Enjler-term, which be¬
gins the Wednefday fortnight after Eafter-day, and
ends the Monday next after Afcenfion-day. Trinity-
term, beginning the Friday next after Trinity-Sunday,
and ending the Wednefday fortnight after. Michael¬
mas-term, which begins the fixth day of November, and
ends the 28th of November following. Each of thefe
terms have alfo their returns. Thefe terms are fuppofed
by Mr Selden to have been inftituted by William the
Conqueror ; but Sir H. Spelman hath fhewn, that they
were gradually formed from the canonical conftitutions
of the church ; being no other than thofe leifure feafons
of the year which were not occupied by the great fefti-
vals or fafts, or which were not liable to the general avo¬
cations of rural bufinefs. Throughout all Chriftendom,
in very early times, the whole year was one continual
term for hearing and deciding caufes. For the Chriftian
magiftrates, in order to diftinguifti themfelves from the
heathens, who w7ere very fuperftitious in the obfervation
of their dies fajli and nefajli, adminiftered juftice upon
all days alike ; till at length the church interpofed, and
exempted certain holy feafons from being profaned by
the tumult of forenfic litigations ; as, particularly, the
time of Advent and Chriftmas, which gave rife to the
winter vacation ; the time of Lent and Eafter, which
created that in the fpring ; the time of Pentecoft;
which produced the third ; and the long vaeation, be¬
tween midfummer and Michaelmas, which was allowed
for the hay-time and harveft. All Sundays alfo, and.
fome peculiar feflivals, as the days of the purification^
afeenfion, &c. were included7 in the fame prohibition,
which was eftablifhed by a canon of the church, A. D,
517, and fortified by an imperial conftitution of the
younger Theodofius, comprifed in the Theodofian code.
Afterwards, when our own legal conftitution was efta>-
blifhed, the commencement and duration of our law-,
ter as-
TER [ 296 ] TER
terms were appointed, with a view to thefe canonical
prohibitions; and it was ordered by the laws of King
Edward the Confeffor, that from Advent to the oftave
of the Epiphany, from Septuagefima to the o&ave of
Earter, from the Afcenfion to the odtave of Pentecoft,
and from three in the afternoon of all Saturdays till
Monday morning, the peace of God and holy church
{hall be kept throughout the whole kingdom.
And fo extravagant was afterwards the regard paid
to thefe holy times, that though the author of the Mir¬
ror mentions only one vacation of con.fiderable length,
containing the months of Auguft and September, yet
Britton fays, that in the reign of King Edward I. no
fecular plea could be held, nor any man fworn on the
Evangelifts, in the time of Advent, Lent, Pentecoft,
barveft, and vintage, the days of the great litanies, and
all folemn feftivals. He adds, that the biftiops and pre¬
lates granted difpenfations for taking aflizes and juries
in fome of thefe holy feafons, upon reafonable occafions ;
and foon after a general difpenfation was eftablifhed in
parliament by flat. Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. cap. 51. that
aflizes of novel difleifin, nv/rt d^ancejlar, and darrein pre¬
sentment, ftrould be taken in Advent, Septuagefima,
and Lent, as well as inquefts ; at the fpecial requeft of
the king to the biftiops. The portions of time that
were not included within thefe prohibited feafons fell
naturally into a fourfold divifion •, and from fome fefti-
val, or faint’s day, that immediately preceded their
commencement, were denominated the terms of St Hi-
lanj, of Eafter, of the Holy Trinity, and of St Michael:
which terms have been fince regulated and abbreviated
by feveral a&s of parliament $ particularly Trinity-term
by flat. 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 2. and Michaelmas-term
by flat. 16 Car. I. cap. 6. and again by flat. 24 Geo. II.
cap. 48.
Terms, Oxford. Hilary or Lent-term begins Janu¬
ary 14th, and ends the Saturday before Palm-Sunday.
Eafter-term begins the tenth day after Eafter, and ends
the Thurfday before Whitfunday. Trinity-term be¬
gins the Wednefday after Trinity-Sunday, and ends
after the aft, or 6th of July, fooner or later, as the
vice chancellor and convocation pleafe. Michaelmas-
term begins Oftober the 10th, and ends December the
X7th.
Terms, Catnbridge. Lent term begins January the
14th, and ends Friday before Palm-Sunday. Eafter-
term begins the Wednefday after Eafter-week, and
ends the week before Whitfunday. Trinity-term be¬
gins the Wednefday after Trinity-Sunday, and ends the
Friday after the commencement, or 2d of July. Mi¬
chaelmas-term begins Oftober the ictb, and ends De¬
cember the 16th.
Terms, Scottifh. The court of feflion has two terms,
the winter and fummer. The winter begins on 12th
November, and ends 11th March, only there is a recefs
of three weeks at Chriftmas. The fummer term com¬
mences, 12th May, and ends nth July. The court of
exchequer has four terms : 1. Candlemas term begins
r5th January, and ends 3d February ; 2. Whitfuntide
term begins 12th May, and ends 2d June ; 3. Lammas
term begins 17th June, and ends 5th July ; 4. Martin¬
mas term begins 24th November, and ends 20th De¬
cember.
I erms, Irifh. In Ireland the terms are the fame as
*t London, except Michaelmas term, which begins
Oftober the 13th, and adjourns to November the 3d, Tei®
and thence to the 6th. ||
TERMES, a genus of infefts belonging to the order
of aptera. See ENTOMOLOGY Index. ’r
TERMINALI A, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by
the Romans in honour of the god Terminus.
Terminalia, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polygamia. See Botany Index.
TERMINI, in ArchiteSlure, denote a kind of ftatues
or columns, adorned on the top with the figure of a
man’s, woman’s, or fatyr’s head, as a capital ; and the
lower part ending in a kind of (heath or fcabbard.
TERMINUS, in Pagan worftiip, an ancient deity
among the Romans, who prefided over the ftones or land¬
marks, called termini, which were held fo facred, that
it was accounted facrilege to move them ; and as the
criminal became devoted to the gods, it was lawful for
any man to kill him. The worftiip of this deity was
inftituted by Numa Pompilius, who, to render land¬
marks, and eonfequently the property of the people,
facred, erefted a temple on the Tarpeian mount to Ter¬
minus.
TERN. See Sterna, Ornithology Index.
TERN ATE, the moft northerly of the Molucca or
Clove iflands in the Eaft Indies. It abounds in cocoa-
nuts, bananas, citrons, oranges, and other fruits peculiar
to the torrid zone j but cloves are the moft valuable
produce. It is in the poffeffion of the Dutch. Malaya
is the capital town. E. Long. 129. o. N. Lat. 1. o.
TERNl, a town of Italy in the pope’s territories,
and in the duchy of Spoletto, with a biihop’s fee. It is
but a fmall place $ though there are very beautiful ruins
of antiquity, it having been a very confiderable Roman
colony. It is fituated on the top of a high mountain,
and to the weft of it are fields which are extremely fer¬
tile. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 42. 34.
TERNSTROMI A, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs polyandria. See Botany Index.
TERPANDER, a celebrated Greek poet and mufi-
cian. The Oxford marbles tell us that he was the fon
of Derdeneus of Lefbos, and that he flouriftied in the
381ft year of thefe records; which nearly anfwers to
the 27th Olympiad, and 671ft year B. C. The mar¬
bles inform us likewife, that he taught the names, or
airs, of the lyre and flute, which he performed himfelf
upon this laft inftrument, in concert with other players
on the flute. Several writers tell us that he added
three firings to the lyre, which before his time had but
four ; and in confirmation of this, Euclid and Strabo
quote two verfes, which they attribute to Ternander
himfelf.
The tetrachord’s reftraint wre now defpife,
The feven-ftring’d lyre a nobler (train fupplies.
Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is
faid to have done to mufic, none was of more importance
than the notation that is afcribed to him for afcertain-
ing and preferving melody, which before was traditional,
and wholly dependent on memory. The invention, in¬
deed, of mufical charafters has been attributed by Aly-
pius and Gaudentius, two Greek writers on mufic, and
upon their authority by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who
flouriftied full two centuries after Terpander. But
Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pontus, aflures us that
Terpander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara, in
hexameter
TEH [ 297 ] TER
m^er,hexameter ^erfe, fet them to mufic, as well as the verfes
rra. 0f Homer, in order to ling them at the public games :
  And Clemens Alexandrinus, in telling us that this mu
fician wrote the laws of Lycurgus in verfe, and fet them
to mufic, makes ule of the fame exprefllon as Plutarch ;
which feems clearly to imply a written melody.
Alter enumerating the airs which Terpander had
compofed and to which he had given names, Plutarch
continues to fpeak of his other compofitions ; among
which he defcribes the proems, or hymns for the citha-
ra, in heroic verfe. Thefe were ufed in after-times by
the rhapfodifts, as prologues or introductions to the
poems of Homer and other ancient w riters. But Ter¬
pander rendered his name illullriotis, no lefs by his per¬
formances upon the flute and cithara than by his com¬
pofitions. This appears by the marbles already men¬
tioned •, by a paffage in Athenaeus, from Hellanicus,
which informs us that he obtained the firfl: prize in the
mufical contefts at the Carnean games $ and by the
teftimeny of Plutarch, who fays, that “ no other proof
need be urged of the excellence of Terpander in the art
of playing upon the cithara, than the regitter of the
Pythic games, from which it appears that he gained tour
prizes fucceflively at thofe folemnities. Of the Works of
this poet only a few fragments now remain.
TERRA AUSTRALIS INCOGNITA, a name for a large
unknown continent, fuppofed to lie towards the fouth
pole, and which for a long time was fought alter by na¬
vigators. The voyages of Captain Cook have afcer-
tained this matter as much as it probably ever will be.
(See South Sea ; Cook's Difcoveries, N° 47, 48, 68,
69; and America, N° 4). On this fubjeH Captain
Cook exprefles himfelf as follows : “ I had now made
the circuit of the Southern ocean in a high latitude, and
traverfed it in fuch a manner as te leave not the leaf!
room for the poflibility of there being a continent, unlefs
near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. By
twice vifiting the tropical fea, I had not only fettled
the fituation of fome old difeoveries, but made there
many new ones, and left, I conceive, very little more
to be done even in that part. Thus I flatter myfelf,
that the intention of the voyage has in every refpeft
been fully anfwered j the fouthern hemifphere fufficient-
ly explored •, and a final end put to the fearching after
a fouthern continent, which has at times engrofled the
attention of fome of the maritime powers for near two
centuries paft, and been a favourite theory amongft the
geographers of all ages. That there may be a conti¬
nent, or large traft of land near the pole, I will not
deny : on the contrary, I am of opinion there is ; and
it is probable that we have feen a part of it. I he ex-
ceflive cold, the many iflands, and vaft floats of ice, all
tend to prove that there muft be land to the fouth ; and
for my perfuafion that this fouthern land muft lie or ex¬
tend fartheft to the north, oppofite to the fouthern At¬
lantic and Indian oceans, I have already afligned fome
reafons •, to which I may add, the greater degree of cold
experienced by us in thefe feas than in the Southern
Pacific ocean under the fame parallels of latitude.”
TERRA Firma, in Geography, is fometimes ufed for
a continent, in contradiftindlion to iflands.
TERRA Firma, otherwife called New Cajlile, or Ca~
Jiella del Oro, a country of America, bounded on the
north by the North fea and part of the Atlantic ocean,
by the fame fea and Guiana on the eaft, by the country
of the Arrazons and Peru on the fouth, and by the Pa-
Vol. XX. Part I.
cific ocean and Veragua on the weft. It lies between Terra.
62 and 83 degrees of weft longitude, and between the * "
equator and 12 degrees of north latitude; being up¬
ward* of 1200 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 800
in breadth from north to iouth. It had the name oi Cu-
Jlella del Oro from the quantity of gold tound in the di-
ftridls of Uraba and other parts ; and was firlt difcovered
by the celebrated Columbus in his third voyage.
The climate is neither plealant nor healthy ; the inha¬
bitants one part of the year being leorched by the moft
intenfe and burning heat, and the other almoft drowned
with perpetual floods of rain, pouring from the fky with
fuch violence as if a general deluge was to enfue.
In fo large a tra£l of country the foil muft neceflarily
vary. Accordingly, in fome parts it is a barren fand,
or drowned mangrove land, that will fcarce produce
any kind of grain ; in others it yields Indian corn,
balms, gums, and drugs, almoft all manner of fruits as
well of Old as of New Spain, fugar, tobacco, Brafil
wood, and feveral other kinds of dyeing woods ; a va¬
riety of precious ftones, particularly emerald* and fap-
phires ; venifon and other game. The plantations of
cacao, or chocolate nuts, in the diftrict ot theCaraceas,
are efteemed the belt in America. The mountains
abound with tygers, and, according to fomc, with lions,
and great numbers of other wild beafts. he rivers,
feas, and lakes, teem with filh, and allb with alligators ;
and the bowels of the earth were once furniftied will;
the richeft treafures, now almoft exhaufted. The fame
may be faid of the pearl filheries on the coaft, which
are far from being fo profitable now as formerly.
Terra Firma is a very mountainous country. Terra
Firma Proper, in particular, confifts of prodigious high
mountains, and deep valleys flooded more than half the
year. The mountains in the provinces oi Carthagena
and St Martha, according to Dampier, are the higheft
in the world : being feen at fea 200 miles off: from
thefe runs a chain of hills of almoft equal height, quite
through South America, as far as the itraits of Magel¬
lan, called the Cordilleras des Andes. The province of
Venezuela alfo, and diftridl of the Caraccas, the moft:
northerly parts of South America, are almoft a conti¬
nued chain of hills, feparated by fmall valleys, pointing
upon the coaft of the North fea. A chain of barren
mountains, almoft impaffable, runs through the province
of Popayan from north to fouth, fome whereof are volca¬
noes ; but towards the (hores of the Pacific ocean it is a
low country, flooded great part of the year.
The principal rivers of Terra Firma are, the Darien,
Chagtre, Santa Maria, Conception, Rio Grande or
Magdalena, Maricaibo, and Oroonoko.
Terra Firma contains the provinces of Terra Firma
Proper or Darien, of Carthagena, St Martha, Rio de
la Hacha, Venezuela, Comana, New Andalufia or Pa-
ria, New Granada, and Popayan.
Terra Firma Proper lies in the form of a crefcent,
about the fpacious bay of Panama, being the ifthmus
which joins South and North America ; and extending
in length between the two feas 300 miles, but in breadth,
where the ifthmus is narroweft, only 60. Here are found
gold mines, gold fands, and fine pearls ; and though the
land is generally rough, there are fome fruitful valleys,
watered by rivers, brooks, and fprings. The chief pla¬
ces are Panama and Porto Bello.
The inhabitants of Terra Firma have never been tho¬
roughly fubdued, and in all probability never will; as
P p they
%
1
TER [ 298 ] T E S
Terra they are a brave and warlike people, have retreats inac-
ceflible to Europeans, and bear an inveterate enmity to
Vertc. Spaniards. See Darien.
1——TERRA Japonica, or Catechu, a drug which was for¬
merly fuppofed to be an extract from the feeds of the
arena catechu, is obtained from the mimofa catechu. See
Materia Medica Index.
Terra Pu%%alana. See Puzzolana.
Terr EE Filius, So?i of the Earth, a Undent of the
univerfitv of Oxford, formerly appointed in public a£ls
to make fatirical and jtfting fpeeches againft the mem¬
bers thereof, to tax them with any growing corrup¬
tions, &c.
TERRACE, a walk or bank of earth, raifed in a
garden or court to a due elevation for a profpeft. The
name is alfo given to the roofs of houfes that are flat,
and whereon we may walk.
TERRAQUEOUS, in Geography, a name given to
our globe, becaufe confiding of land and water.
TERRAS, orTarras, in Mineralogy, a fpecies of ar-
Kimuan's gillaceous earth, differing little from puzzolana, but in
Mmeralo- being more compact and hard, porous and fpongy. It
is generally of a whit Eh yellow colour, and contains
more heterogeneous particles, as fpar, quartz, fhoerl,
&c. and fomething more calcareous earth ; it efft rvefees
wiih acids, is magnetic, and {uhb\e per fe. When pul¬
verized, it ferves as a cement, like puzzolana. It is
found in Germany and Sweden.
A fpecies of red earth has been found in the parifli of
S^c^et^for St Elizabeth in Jamaica, which turns out to be an ex-
Voj y ' cellent fubftitute for terras or puzzolana earth, and may
therefore be of great value to the inhabitants of the
Weft Indies.
One meafure of this earth, mixed with two of well
flaked lime, and one of fand, forms a cement that an-
fwers extremely well for buildings in water, for it foon
hardens and becomes like a ftone.
TERRASON, Abbe John, a French writer, born
at Lyons in 1669. He diftinguifhed himfelf in the dif-
pute concerning Homer, between LaMotteand Madame
JDacier, by writing a Differtation contre I'lliade. He
wrote a political and moral romance called Sethos, full
of learning and philofophy j and another capital work
of his is a French tranflation of Diodorus Siculus. He
died in 1750.
TERRE Verte, in the colour-trade, the name of a
green earth much ufed by painters, both fingly for a
good Handing green, and in mixture with other colours.
The name is French, and fignifies, “ green earth.”
It is an indurated clay, of a deep bluilh green colour,,
and is found in the earth, not in continued ftrata or beds,
as moft of the other earths are, but in large flat maffes of
different fizes, imbedded in other ftrata ; thefe break ir¬
regularly in the cutting, and the earth is generally
brought out of the pit in lumps of different fizes. It is of
a fine, regular, and even ftrudfture, and not very bard. It
is of an even and gloffy furface, very fmooth to the
touch, and in fome degree refembling the morochthus or
French chalk, but adhering firmly to the tongue. It
does not ftain the hand in touching it •, but being drawn
along a rough furface, it leaves an even white line, with
a greenifti caft.
It does not effervefee with acids, and burns to a dufky
brown colour. It is dug in the Eland of Cyprus, and in
many parts of France and Italy. That from the neigh-
5 •
bourhood of Verona has been efteemed the beft in the Ter
world ; but of late there has been fome dug in France Veil
that equals it. There is alfo an earth dug on Mendip , 111
Hills, in the finking for coal, which, though wholly ij^1'
unobferyed, is nearly, if not wholly, of equal value. ^
When feraped, and the finer parts feparated, it is ready
to be made up with oil for the ufe of the painters, and
makes the moft true and lafting green of any Ample
body they ufe.
1 ERRES1RIAL, fomething partaking of the na¬
ture of earth, or belonging to the globe of earth ; thus
we fay, the terreftrial globe, &c.
TERRIER, a fmall hound to hunt the fox or bad¬
ger ; fo called becaufe he creeps into the ground, as fer¬
rets do into the coney-burrows, after the fox, &c.
I ERRII ORY, in Geography, denotes an. extent or
compafs of land, within the bounds or belonging to the
jurifdi&ion of any ftate, city, or other fubdivifion of a
country.
TERROR. See Fear and Fright.
TERTIAN fever. See Medicine, N° 126.
TERTULLIAN, or Quintus Septimus Florens
Tertullianus, a celebrated prieft of Carthage, was
the Ion of a centurion in the militia, who ferved as pro-
conful of Africa. He was educated in the Pagan reli¬
gion ; but being convinced of its errors, embraced Chri-
ftianity, and became a zealous defender of the faith. He
married, it is thought, after his baptifm. Afterwards
he took orders, and went to Rome j where, during the
perfecution under the emperor Severus, he publiffed his
Apology for the Chriftians, which is, in its kind, a ma-
fterpiece of eloquence and learning 5 and at the begin¬
ning of the third century he embraced the fed of the
Montanifts. He lived to a very great age, and died
under the reign of Antoninus Caracalla, about the year
216. Many of his works are ftill extant, in all of
which he difeovers a great knowledge of the Holy
Scriptures, a lively imagination, a ftrong, elevated, and
impetuous ftyle, great eloquence and ftrength of reafon-
ing 5 but is fometimes obfeure. His Apology and Pre-
feriptions are moft efleemed. The belt editions of his
works are thofe of Rigault : efpecially that of Venice
in 1746, folio. Pamelius and Alix, Mr Thomas, and
the Sieur du Foffe, have written his life and Rigault,
M. de PAube Epine, Father Petau, and other learned
men, have publiffied notes on his works.
TERUNCIUS, in antiquity, a very fmall brafs coin
in ufe among the Romans.
The inconvenience of fuch very fmall pieces being
foon found, the teruncius became difufed, but its name
is ftill retained in reckoning, and thus it became a mo¬
ney of account. The teruncius at firft was a quarter of
the as, or libra j hence, as the as contained twelve oun¬
ces, the teruncius contained three, whence the name,
which is formed of the Latin tres unciee. Teruncius
was alfo ufed for the quarter of the denarius ; fo that
when the denarius was at ten afes, the teruncius was
worth two and a half j and when the denarius was rifen
to fixteen, the teruncius was worth four. See Denarius.
TESSELATED pavements, thofe of rich mofaic
work, marie of curious fquare marbles, bricks, or tiles,
called teffelce from their refembling dice.
TESSERA, in Roman antiquity, denoted in its pri¬
mary fenfe a cube or dye; fo called from the Greek
word rso-rag* or reircrrg*, fouri refpe<5t being had to its
number
T E S [ 299 ] T E S
era number of fides, diftina from the two horizontal planes
| above and below. And it was thus diftinguilhtd from
the talus, which being round at each end, contained
only four planes or faces on which it could Hand ; and
therefore when thrown had no more than two fide faces
jn vjew. Hence ludere tails ei ludere tejjeris, are fpoken
of by Roman writers as two different games. The fyl-
lable tes occurs often in Roman infcriptions. The
word teJJ'era was applied to many other things, not fo
much from a fimilitude in the figure, as from the rela¬
tion they bore to fome other thing of which they were
the fign or token ; as the points on the upper plane of
the dye denoted the good or ill fuccefs of the cart.
The tejjera hofpitalis was either public or private. As
to the former, we find among the infcriptions publiilied
by Gruter inftances of two municipal towns which put
themfelves under the patronage of the Roman governor j
and the reciprocal engagement between them, engraved
on two copperplates, in the form of an oblong fquare,
with a pediment at the top, is called in both tejfera hof¬
pitalis. The defign of it was to cultivate or maintain a
lading friendlhip between private perfons and their fa¬
milies; and gave a mutual claim to the contraffing par¬
ties and their descendants of a reception and kind treat¬
ment at each other’s houfes, as oceafion offered. For
which end thofe tefferae were fo contrived as belt to pre-
ferve the memory of that tranfaftion to pofterity. And
one method of doing this was by dividing one of them
lengthwife into two equal parts ; upon each of which
one of the parties wrote his name, and interchanged it
with the other. From this cuftom came the prevailing
expreffion tejferam hofpitalem confringere, applied to per¬
fons who had violated their engagements.
The teferce frumentarice were imall tallies given by
the emperors to the populace at Rome, entitling them
to the reception of a quantity of corn from the public at
dated feafons. The perfon who had the infpedtion of
thefe was called tejferarius. They were made of wood
and of done.
There was another kind of telfera which intitled per¬
fons to a fight of the public games and other diverfions,
ufually made in the form of an oblong fquare.
The tejfera militaris was a fignal given by the gene¬
ral or chief commander of an army, as a direftion to the
foldiers for executing any duty or fervice required of
them. This, upon urgent occafions, was only vocal ;
but, in ordinary cafes, it was written on a tablet, com¬
monly made of wood. Befide thefe civil and military
tefierae, there are others which relate to religious affairs,
and may be called facred.
TESSON, or Teston. See Tester.
TESSOQWA, a confiderable town in Africa, fitua-
ted ead of Mourzouk, the capital of the kingdom of
Fezzan. Near this town a deep and rapid dream is faid
to have exided, but was overwhelmed by the moving
fands fo frequent in Africa.
TEST, a vefiel ufed in metallurgy for abforbing the
fcoriae of metallic bodies when melted. See Cupel,
under Ores, ReduBion of
Test-AB, in Law, is the datute 25 Car. II. cap. 2.
which direfts all officers, civil and military, to take the
oaths, and make the declaration againd tranfubdantia-
tion, in the court of King’s Bench, or Chancery, the
next term, or at the next quarter-fedions, or (by fubfe-
quent datutes) within fix months after their admiffion 5
and alfo within the fame time to receive the facrament Ted.
of the Lord’s Supper, according to the ufage of the w vr~”
church of England, in fome public church, immediate¬
ly after divine ftrvice or fermon, and to deliver into
court a certificate thereof figned by the minider and
church warden, and alfo to prove the fame by two cre¬
dible witneffes, upon forfeiture of 500I. and difability to.
hold the faid office.
The avowed objedl of this adl was to exclude from,
places of trud all members of the church of Rome ; and
hence the diffenters of that age, if they did not fupporfc
the bill when paffing through the two houfes of parlia¬
ment, gave it no oppolition. For this part of their con-
du£f they have been often cenfured with feverity, as ha¬
ving betrayed their rights from refentment to their ene¬
mies. But is this a fair date of the cafe ^ Were any
rights in reality betrayed ? That the dread of a popidx
fueceffor and of popifh influence was the immediate and
urgent caufe of paffing the tef-aB, is indeed true ; but
that the legiflature, when guarding againd an impend¬
ing evil, had not likewife a retrofpedl to another from
which they had fo recently been delivered, is not fo evi¬
dent. If it be proper to fupport an edablifhed church
as a branch of the conditution, and if the ted-a£t be
calculated to afford that fupport to the churph of Eng¬
land, it is probable that the deliberations of parliament
were as much influenced by the dread of puritanic fury,
and a renewal of the covenant, as by apprehenfions of
a perfecution from a popifh king and popifh councils.
That the members of the church ellablilhed by law in
England had much reafon to dread the effefts of
power in the hands of Puritans as in the hands of Pa-
pids, no impartial man will controvert, who is not a
dranger to that period of our national hidory ; and that
it was the duty of the legiflature by every method in
their power to provide for the fecurity of the conditu¬
tion againd the machinations of both its enemies, will
be admitted by all but fueh as are in love with anarchy-
on the one hand, or with defpotifm on the other.
Many people, when they talk or write of the tef-aBy
feem to think that it was framed in oppofition to the
religious opinions of the church of Rome ; and finding
the Protedant diflenters, who abhor thefe opinions, de¬
prived by it of their civil rights, they fpeak with indig¬
nation of a law which confounds the innocent with the
guilty. But all this proceeds from a palpable miftake
of the purpofe of the ted. As the legiflature had no
authority to make laws againd any opinions whatever,
on account of their being falfe in theology ; fo r is not
to be fuppofed that, in their deliberations on the TEST-
ACT, the members of that augud body took into their
confideration the comparative orthodoxy of the dillin-
guifhing tenets of the Catholics and Puritans. As a re¬
ligious fedl they might effeem the latter much more than
the former ; but if they found that both had combined
with their theological doftrines opinions refpefting ci¬
vil and ecclefiadical government, inconfident with the
fundamental principles of the Englifli conditution, they
had an undoubted right to enadt a law, bv which none
fhould be admitted to offices, in the execution of which
they could injure the conditution, without previoufly
giving fecurity that their adminiltralion ihould fupport
it in all its branches. It had not then been doubted,
nor is there reafon to doubt yet, but that an efiablilhed
religion is necedary, in conjunftion with civil govern-
P p 2 ment,
T E S [ 300 j T E S
raent, to prefwve the peace of foe let y and therefore in
every well regulated ilate an eftabltflied religion mult
he fupported, not becaufe it is the duty of the civil ma-
giftrate to conduft his fubjedts to future happinefs, but
becaufe he cannot without fueh an eftablilhment preferve
among them prefent tranquillity. The eitabliflunent
which mullbeft anfwer this purpofe, is that which, teach¬
ing the great and unchangeable duties of morality, is
moil acceptable in its government and forms of worfhip
to the majority of the people*, and therefore in giving
a legal eftablilhment to one conftitution of the church
in preference to all others, it is only this circumftance,
and not the comparative purity of the rival churches,
viewed merely as eeclefiaftical corporations, to which it
is the bufinefs of the legiflature to pay attention. At
the time when the tejl att paffed the two houfes of par¬
liament, the eftabliftied church of England was certain¬
ly more acceptable to the great body of the people and
to all ranks in the ftate, than any one of the fe&s, whe¬
ther Catholic or Proteftant, which diflented from her j
and therefore it was the duty of the legiflature to pre¬
ferve to that church all her privileges and immunities,
and to prevent thofe hoftile feffariesfrom doing her in¬
jury in the difeharge of any civil office with which they
might be entrufted. It was with this view that the tejl-
a£i was formed; and it is with the fame view that the
fegillature has hitherto rejected every petition for its re¬
peal. In doing £>, it deprives no man of his rights, far
lefs of rights which cor/cience calls upon him to main¬
tain at every hazard; for the rights of individuals to
hold civil offices are not inherent, but derived from the
legiilature, which of courfe muft be the judge upon what
terms they are to be held. The legiflature of England
has excluded from many offices, civil and military, eve¬
ry man who will not give fecurity, that in the difeharge
of his public duty he will fupport the church eftabliftied
by law; and as the teft of his intention it requires him,
before he enters upon his office, to renounce the do£lrir.e
of tranfubftantiation, and receive the facrament of the
Lord’s Supper in fome public church, according to the
liturgy of the church of England. Whether this be
the moft proper teft that could have been enadfted, may
well be queftioned; but that in a country abounding
with feftaries of various denominations, who agree in
nothing but venomous hoftility to the religious eftablifh-
mer\\, fome teft is neceflary, feems incontrovertible, if it
be the bufinefs of the legiffature to preferve the public
peace.
To this it will be replied, That the public peace in
Scotland is preferved without a teft, and that therefore
a teft cannot be neceffary in England. This is plaufible,
but not conclufive. For 40 years after the Revolution,
there was in Scotland no denomination of Chriftians but
thofe of the Prefbyterian church, eftablifhed bylaw, the
Proteftant Epifcopalians, whole church had been efta-
biffied prior to that event, and the adherents to the
church of Rome. The Epifcopalians and Papifts were
elFe&ually excluded from every office in which they
could injure the ecclefiaftical eftablifliment, by the ft-
veral reftri&ions under which they were laid, on ac¬
count of their attachment, real or fuppofed, to the ab¬
dicated family of Stuart. The penal laws operated up.
on them more powerfully than a religious teft. It is to
be obferved too that in the church of Scotland, though
her clergy are better provided for than any other paro¬
chial clergy perhaps in Europe (a), there is nothing of
that fplendour and temporal power which in England
excite envy to clamour againft the eftabliftiment, under
the pretence of maintaining the caufe of religious liber¬
ty. Yet even in Scotland a religious teft is occafional-
ly exadted of civil officers. In the royal boroughs of
that part of the united kingdom, no man can hold the
office of a magiftrate without previoufly fwearing the
burgefs-oath (fee Seceder, N° 8.); and every inftruc-
tor of youth, whether in fchools or colleges, may be
called upon to qualify himfelf for his office, by fubferib-
ing the eftabliftied Confeffion of Faith. The burgefs-
oath is a more effedtual teft than that which is required
of magiftrates in England; for a man might with a fafe
confcience receive the facrament of the Lord’s Supper
occalionally in a church “ at which he would not Iwear
to abide and defend the fame to his /ife',s end.'1'1 This
teft appears to us to be neceflary in boroughs, where
fadtion is commonly blended with fanaticifm; and if
thofe kdlaries which, at their firft appearance in 1732,
were infignificant, if not contemptible, continue to
multiply, and to imbibe principles much more pernici¬
ous than thofe which were held by their fathers, it may
perhaps be found expedient to extend fome teft over the
whole country.
We do not, however, by any means, wiffi to fee the
facramental teft introduced into Scotland. A teft may
be neceflary to fecure to the church all her rights and
immunities; but to receive the facrament can give her
no fuch fecurity, whiltt it leads inevitably to the pro¬
fanation of a fagred ordinance. A much better tert
would be, to require every man, before he be admitted
to an executive office, to fwear that in the difeharge of
it he will be careful to maintain all the rights and pri¬
vileges of the church eftablifhed by law. Such an oath
no fenfible and peaceable diflenter could refufe; for it
would not bind him to communicate with the eftablifh¬
ed church; and he cannot be ignorant that it belongs
not to the executive government, but to the legiflature,
to determine what ffiall be the religion of the ftate. On
this account, we cannot help thinking that the members
(a) I here are indeed many livings in the church of England, and probably in other churches, to which nothing
in the church of Scotland can be compared in refpedt of emolument; but thefe ricli benefices bear no proportion to
the number of thofe which, in this age of unavoidable expence, cannot afford to the incumbents the means of decent
lubfiftence as gentlemen. In the church of Scotland many livings amount to 200I. each annually; and we have
reafon to hope, that when the prefent plan for augmenting the ftipends of the clergy has been extended over Scot¬
land, veiy few will be. below tool.; whilft in England the vicarages and fmall reftories, from which we have rea¬
fon to believe that the incumbents reap not 80I. a-year, greatly exceed in number all the livings in Scotland ? Nay
vve doubt if there be not upwards of a thoufand livings in England and Wales from which the reffor or vicar de»
rives not above jol. annually.
. T E S [ 3°' ] T E S
of the legiflative body ftiould be fubje&ed to no religious
j teft whatever, that they may be at freedom to reform
jt ment. corrUptions of the church, or to exchange one eifa-
' w 1 bliihment for another, Ihould they find fueh exchange
expedient. If this reafoning be juft, it will be difficult
to vindicate that claufe of 25 Car. II. and of 1 Geo. I.
in which it is enabled, that no member ftiall vote or fit
in either houfe of parliament, till he hath, in the pre¬
fence of the houfe, fubfcribed and repeated the declara¬
tion againft tranfubftantiation, the invocation of faints,
and the facrifice of the mafs. The church of Rome is
indeed a very corrupt fociety ; but if it be not for the
purity of her doftrines and government that any church
is eftablilhed in preference to all others, why ftiould that
particular church be precluded from the poffibility of
obtaining a legal eftablilhment in Great Britain, even
though fhe were to become moft acceptable to the ma¬
jority of all ranks in the kingdom ? The Englifti Ca¬
tholics have unqueft ion ably greater reafon to complain
of this teft, than either they or the diffenters have to
complain of the law which requires every civil and mi¬
litary officer to receive the Lord’s Supper in the efta¬
blilhed church.
Test for Acids and Alkalies. See CHEMISTRY.
Test Liquors for Wines. See Wine.
TESTACE A, in the Linnaean fyftem, comprehends
the third order of vermes, or ffiell-filh. See CoNCHO-
LOGY Index.
TESTACEOUS, in Natural Hijlory, an epithet
fynonymous with Testacea. See above.
TESTAMENT, or Last Will. Teftaments both
Juftinian and Sir Edward Coke agree to be fo called,
becaufe they are tefatio mentis: an etymon which feems
to favour too much of conceit *, it being plainly a fub-
ftantive derived from the verb tefan, in like manner as
• £ ktl. juramentum, incrementum, and others, from other verbs.
‘ C nent. The definition of the old Roman lawyers is much better
!: V1 '■ than their etymology j voluntatis nqflrce jnfla fententia
de eo, quod quis pojl mortem fuam fen veht: which may
be thus rendered into Englifti, “ the legal declaration
of a man’s intentions, which he wills to be performed
after his death.” It is called fententia, to denote the
circumfpeftion and prudence with which it is fuppofed
to be made: it is voluntatis naflra fententia, becaufe its
efficacy depends on its declaring the teftator’s intention,
whence in Englifh it is emphatically ftyled his vnll; it
is jufa fententia ; that is, drawn, attefted, and publiffi-
ed, with all due folemnities and forms of lawT : it is de
eo, quod quis pof mortem fuam fieri veht, becaufe a tefta-
ment is of no force till after the death of the teftator.
Thefe teftaments are divided into two forts} written,
and verbal or nuncupative ; of which the former is com¬
mitted to writing : the latter depends merely upon oral
evidence, being declared by the teftator in extremis, be¬
fore a fufficient number of witneffes, and afterwards re¬
duced to writing.
But as nuncupative wfills and CODICILS (which were
formerly more in ufe than at prefent when the art. of
writing is become more general) are liable to great im-
pofitions, and may occafion many perjuries, the ftatute
of frauds, 29 Car. II. c. 3. enafts, I. That no written
will ftiall be revoked or altered by a fubfequent nuncu¬
pative one, except the fame be in the lifetime of the
teftator reduced to writing, and read over to him, and
approved 5 and unlefs the fame be proved to have been
fo done by the oaths of three witneffes at the leaft, who, refhment.
by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. mull be fuch as are ad- v" "
miffible upon trials at common law. 2. That no nun¬
cupative will ftiall in anywife be good, where the eftate
bequeathed exceeds 30I. unlefs proved by three fuch
witneffes, prefent at the making thereof (the Roman
law requiring feven), and unlefs they or fome of them
were fpecially required to bear witnefs thereto by the
teftator himfelf $ and unlefs it was made in his laft fick-
nefs, in his own habitation or dwelling-houfe, or where
he had been previoully refident ten days at the leaft,
except he be furprifed with ficknefs on a journey, or
from home, and dies without returning to his dwelling.
3. That no nuncupative will ftiall be proved by the wit¬
neffes after fix months from the making, unlefs it were
put in writing within fix days. Nor ffiall it be proved
till fourteen days after the death of the teftator, nor til)
procefs hath firft iffued to call in the widow, or next of
kin, to conteft it if they think proper. Thus hath the
legiflature provided againft any fraud in fetting up nun¬
cupative wills, by fo numerous a train of requifites, that
the thing itfelf has fallen into difufe ; and hardly ever ,
heard of, but in the only inftance where favour ought to
be fhown to it, when the teftator is furprifed by fudden
and violent ficknefs. The teftamentary words mull be
fpoken with an intent to bequeath, not any loofe idle
difcourfe in his illnefs ; for he muft require the by-
ftanders to bear witnefs of fuch his intention ; the will
muft be made at home, or among his family or friends,
unlefs by unavoidable accident, to prevent impofitions
from ftrangers : it muft be in his laft ficknefs j for if he
recovers, he may alter his difpofitions, and have time to
make a written will: it muft not be proved at too long
a diftance from the teftator’s death, left the words ftiould
efcape the memory of the witneffes ; nor yet too haftily
and without notice, left the family of the teftator ftiould
be put to inconvenience or furprife.
As to written wills, they need not any witnefs of their
publication. We fpeak not here of devices of lands,
which are entirely another thing, a conveyance by fta¬
tute, unknown to the feodal or common law, and not
under the fame jurifdidlion as perfonal teftaments. But
a teftament of chattels, written in the teftator’s own
hand, though it has neither his name nor feal to it, nor
witneffes prefent at its publication, is good; provided fuf¬
ficient proof can be had that it is his hand-writing. And
though written in another man’s hand, and never fign-
ed by the teftator, yet if proved to be according to his
inftrudlions and approved by him, it hath been held a
good teftament of the- perfonal eftate. Yet it is the,
fafer and more prudent wray, and leaves lefs in the bread
of the ecclefiaftical judge, if it be figned or fealed by
the teftator, and publiftied in the prefence «f witneffes j
which laft was always required in the time of Bradlon \
or rather he in this refpeft has implicitly copied the rule
of the civil law.
No teftament is of any effeft till after the death of
the teftator : Nam omne tefiamentum morte confumma-
tum efi, et voluntas tefiatoris efi ambulatoria ufque ad
mortem. And therefore, if there be many teftaments,
the laft will overthrows all the former •, but the repub¬
lication of a former will revoke one of a later date, and
eftabliffies the firft again.
Regularly, every perfon hath full power and liberty
to make a will, that is not under fome fpecial prohibition
by-
T E S
,4'{taill0n{- by law or cuftom : which prohibitions are principally
upon three accounts ; for want of fufficient difcretion ;
for want of fufficient liberty and free-will } and on ac¬
count of criminal condudh
i. In the firft fpecies are to be reckoned infants, un¬
der the age of 14 if males, and 12 if females 5 which is
the rule of the civil law. For though fume of our com¬
mon lawyers have held that an infant of any age (even
four years old) might make a teftament, and others have
denied that under 18 he is capable j yet as the ecclefi-
aftical court is the judge of every tellator’s capacity,
this cafe mull be governed by the rules of the ecclefiallical
law. So that no objeftion can be admitted to the will
of an infant of 14, merely for want of age ; but if the
teflator was not of fufficient difcretion, whether at the
age of 14 or 24, that will overthrow his teftament.
Madmen, or otherwife non compotes, idiots or natural
fools, perfons grown childiffi by reafon of old age or di-
ftemper, fuch as have their fenfes befotted with drunken-
nefs,—all thefe are incapable, by reafon of mental dif-
ability, to make any will fo long as fuch difability lafts.
To this clafs alfo may be referred fuch perfons as are
born deaf, blind, and dumb \ who, as they have always
wanted the common inlets of underftanding, are incapa¬
ble of having anitTmm tejlandi, and their teftaments are
therefore void.
2. Such perfons as are inteft able-for w'ant of liberty
Ur freedom of will, by the civil law are of various kinds j
as prifoners, captives, and the like. But the law of Eng¬
land does not make fuch perfons abfolutely intertable ;
but only leaves it to the difcretion of that court to judge
upon the confideration of their particular circumftances
of durefs, whether or no fuch perfons could be fuppofed
to have liberum animum tejlandi. And with regard to
feme-coverts, oar laws differ ftill more materially from
the civil. Among the Romans there was no diftindlion;
a married woman was as capable of bequeathing as a
feme-fole. But with us a married woman is not only
utterly incapable of devifing lands, being excepted out
of the ftatute of wills, 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5. but
alfo (he is incapable of making a teftament of chattels,
without the licenfe of her huftband. For all her perfon-
al chattels are abfolutely his own ; and he may difpofe
of her chattels real, or {hall have them to himfelf if
he furvives her; it would be therefore extremely’in*
confident to give her a power of defeating that provifion
of the law, by bequeathing thofe chattels to another.
The queen-confort is an exception to this general rule
for flie may difpofe of her chattels by will, without the’
confent of her lord ; and any feme-covert may make
her will of goods which are in her poffeffion in auter
droit, as executrix or adminiftratrix ; for thefe can never
be the property of the huffiand : and if flie has any pin-
money or feparate maintenance, it is faid ffie may dif¬
pofe of her favings thereout by teftament, without the
controul of her huffiand. But if a female foie makes
her will, and afterwards marries, fuch fubfequent mar¬
riage is efteemed a revocation in law, and entirely va-
ocates the will.
3. Perfons incapable of making teftaments on account
of their criminal condutt, are in the firft place all trai¬
tors and felons, from the time of convidlion ; for then
their goods and chattels are no longer at their own dif-
po&l, but forfeited to the king. Neither can a felo de
T E S
^ make a will of goods and chattels, for they are for
felted by the a& and manner of his death 5 but he may
make a devife of his lands, for they are not fubjeft to
any forfeiture. Outlaws alfo, though it be but for debt
?lurnCarabl? °-f maklnS a vvili ^ long as the outlawry
xublitts, lor their goods and chattels are forfeited during
that time. As for perfons guilty of other crimes, ffiort
ot felony, who are by the civil law precluded from ma
king teftaments (as ufurners, libellers, and others of a
worfe ftamp), at the common law their teftaments may
be good. And in general the rule is, and has been L
at leaft ever fince Glanvil’s time, quod libera fit cujuf-
cunque ultima I'oluntas. J
leftaments may be avoided three ways : 1. If made
by a perfon labouring under any of the incapacities be¬
fore-mentioned 3 2. By making another teftament of a
later date 3 and, 3. By cancelling or revoking it. For
though I make a laft will and teftament irrevocable in
the ftrongeft words, yet I am at liberty to revoke it •
becaufe mine own a& or words cannot alter the difpo-
. ion of law, fo as to make that irrevocable which is in
!ts own nature revocable. For this, faith Lord Bacon,
would be for a man to deprive himfelf of that which,
of all other things^ is moft incident to human condition 1
and that is, alteration or repentance. It hath alfo been
held, that, without an exprefs revocation, if a man, who
hath made his will, afterwards marries and hath a child
this is a prefumptive or implied revocation of his former
wnl which he made in his ftate of celibacy. The Ro-
nians were alfo wont to lay afide teftaments as being f/z-
qjiciofa, deficient in natural duty, if they difinherited or
totaHy parted by (without afligning a true and fufficient
re. on) any of the children of the teftator. But if the
child had any legacy, though ever fo fmall, it was a
proof that the teftator had not loft his memory or his
reafon, which otherwife the law prefumed 3 but was then
(uppofed to have added thus for fome fubftantial caufe :
and in iuch cafe no querela mqfficioji tef amenti was al¬
lowed. Hence probably has arifen that groundlefs vul-
garerror of the heceffity of leaving the heir a (hilling,
m A™6,,01161’ fXprefs le£ac?’ in order to difmherit him
effeaually 5 whereas the law of England makes no fuch
wild fuppofition of forgetfulnefs or infanity 3 and there¬
fore, though the heir or next of kin be totally omitted,
•it admits no inqfficiofi to fet afide fuch a teftament.
I lsi ament, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxxxi.
2. &c. ’
Testament, Old and New. See Bible and Scrip¬
ture.
1ESFATOR, the perfon who makes his will and
teftament.
£ ES I ER, Teston, the name of a coin ftruck in
I ranee by Louis XII. in 1513, and in Scotland in the
time of Francis II. and Mary queen of Scotland, fo call¬
ed from the head of the king, which was engraved up-
pon it. The filver it contained was 11 deniers 18 grains,
its weight feyen deniers Il-f grains, and its value 10
iols. 1 he coinage of it was prohibited by Henry III.
™ lSlSi when the value of it was augmented to ^fols
fix deniers. The tefton or tefter among us was rated
at 12d. in the reign of Henry VIII. and afterwards
reduced to 6d.
1ESIES, m Anatomy, the tefticles. See the next
article.
TESTICLE
[ 302 1
T E T [ :
T kle TESTICLE (tejlis), a double part ln animals of the
I male kind, ferving for the office of generation. See
T ‘irch-, Anatomy, N° 107.
u TESTIMONY. See Logic, N° 29, and Meta¬
physics, N° 135—138.
Testimony, in Law. See Evidence.
TESTUDO, the Tortoise, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the clafs of amphibia, and order of reptilia.
See Erpetology Index.
TestuDO, in antiquity, was particularly ufed among
the poets, &c. for the ancient lyre ; becaufe it was ori¬
ginally made by its inventor Mercury, of the back or
hollow of the teftudo aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which he
accidentally found on the banks of the river Nile. See
Lyre.
Testudo, in the military art of the ancients, was a
kind of cover or fcreen which the foldiers, e. gr. a
. whole company, made themfelves of their bucklers, by
holding them up over their heads, and {landing clofe
to each other. This expedient ferved to ffielter them
from darts, ftones, &c. thrown upon them, efpecial-
ly thofe thrown from above, when they went to the
affault.
Testudo, was alfo a kind of large wooden tower
which moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with,
bullock-hides, ferving to ffielter the foldiers when they
approached the walls to mine them, or to batter them
with rams. It was called tejhido, from the {Length of
its roof, which covered the workmen as the ffiell does
the tortoife.
TETANUS, a dreadful fpafmodic diforder, in which
the whole body becomes rigid and inflexible. It. mofl:
commonly proves mortal. See Medicine, N° 279.
TETHYS, a genus of infers belonging to the clafs
of vermes, and order of mollufea. See Helmintho¬
logy Index.
TETRACERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polyandria j and in the natural fyftem ranging un¬
der the doubtful. See Botany Index.
TETR ADYNAMIA, (Tesrff-fltg's “ four,” and Swum;
“ power”), four powers ; the name of the 15th clafs in
Linnaeus’s Sexual Syftem. See Botaxy Index.
TETRAGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs icofandria ; and in the natural method ranging
under the 13th order, fuccu/entte. See Botany Index.
tetragrammaton, 'rir^cty^xf^fAX'Toy, a de¬
nomination given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name
of God Hp',Jehova” becaufe in the Hebrew it con-
fifts of four letters.
TE1 RAGYNIA, (ria-a-x^, “ four,” and ywy]', u a
woman”) •, the name of an order, or fecondary diviflon,
in the Sexual Syftem. See Botany Index.
TETRANDRIA, (ri'To-ttfic, “ four,” and tfcy/jg, u a
man or huffiand”) ; the name of the fourth clafs in the
Linnaean Syftem. See Botany Index.
TETR AO, a genus of birds belonging to the order
ofgallinae. See Ornithology//zr/tw.
IETRODON, a genus of fifties arranged by Lin-
nasus under the clafs of amphibia, and order of nantes ;
but placed by Gmelin under the clafs of pifces, and or¬
der of branchio/legi. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
TE1 RARCH, a prince who holds and governs a
Hurth part of a kingdom. Such originally was the im¬
port of the title tetrareh ; but it was afterwards applied
510 any petty king or fovereign j and became fyno-
03 ] , T E U
nymous with ethnarch, as appears from the following Tetrarfh
confiderations : 1. That Pliny makes mention of fix li .
tetrarchies within the city of Decapolis. 2. That He- ,*t'utonrc'
rod’s kingdom was only divided into three parts, which
yet were called tetrarchies, and the fovereigns thereof,
Luke iii. 1. tetrarchs. 3. Jofephus tells us, that, after
the battle of Phil ippi, Antony, going into Syria, con-
ftituted Herod tetrarch ; and on medals the fame He¬
rod is called ethnarch.
TETRASTYLE, in the ancient archltedfure, a
building, and particularly a temple, with four columns
in its front.
TETUAN, an ancient and pleafant town of Africa, Jofephm's
in the kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Habata. Antiq. b.
It is pretty well built, and the inhabitants are aboutX1V- c' 23*
15,000 in number, who call themfelves Andalufians,
and almoft all fpeak Spaniffi , but they are great pi¬
rates. Some fay there are 30,000 Moorifti inhabitants,
and 5000 Jews. W. Long. 5. 26. N. Lat. 35. 27.
TEUCRIUM, Germander, a genus of plants be^
longing to the clafs didynamia ; and in the natural fyf¬
tem ranging under the 42d order, Verticillatce. See
Botany Index.
TEUTHIS, a genus of fifties belonging to the order
of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
TEUTONES, or Teutoni, in Ancient Geography,
a people always by hiftorians joined with the Cimbri ;
both feated, according to Mela, beyond the Elbe, on
the Sinus Codanus, or Baltic ; and there it is fuppofed,
lay the country of the Teutones, now Ditmarjh; diver-
fity of dialedls producing the different terms Teut, Tut,
Dit, Tid, and Thod, which in the ancient German lan¬
guage fignified people. Of thefe Teutones, Virgil is to
be underftood in the epithet Teutonicus, an appellation
which more lately came to be applied to the Germans
in general, and later ftill the appellation Alemanni.
The Teutones, in conjunction with the Cimbri and
Ambrones, made war on the Romans, and marched to¬
wards Italy in the year 101 B. C. We are told, that
the Teutones alone were fo numerous, that they were
fix whole days without intermiffion in paffing by the
Roman camp. In Tranfalpine Gaul they engaged the
Roman conful Marius ; but were defeated with incredi¬
ble {laughter j 100,000 of them, according to the loweft
calculations-, being killed on the fpot. According to
others, the number of thofe killed and taken prifoners
amounted to 290,000. The inhabitants made fences for
vineyards of their bones. Their king Teutobochus, faid
to be a monftrous giant, was taken prifoner and carried
to Rome. See Giant.
TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the TeutoneSi
The Teutonic language is fuppofed to have been the
language of the ancient Germans, and hence is rec¬
koned amongft the mother-tongues. See Philology
N° 219.
TEUTONIC Order,-AT. order of military knights, efta-
bliftied -towards the clofe of the twelfth century, on the
following occafion.—-When the emperor Barbaroffa en¬
gaged in a crufade for the recovery of the Holy Land
out of the hands of Saladin, he was followed by great
numbers of German volunteers, who from various mo¬
tives enlifted under his banners. After the death of
Barbaroffa, the Germans, who had fignalized themfelves
before Acre or Ptolemais, refolved to choofe another
leader} and at laft fixed their choice upon Frederic
duko
TEX r 304 ] T H A
Teutonic duke of Suabia, fecond fon to the emperor, and Henry
T x 're Brabant. Under tliefe generals they behaved
" with fo nuich bravery, that Henry king of Jerufaleni,
the patriarch, and feveral other princes, determined to
reward their valour by inftituting an order of knight¬
hood in their favour. This was accordingly done*, and
our new knights had at fint the title of the knights of
St George ; afterwards it was thought proper to put them
under the tutelage of the Virgin Mary, to whom there
was already an hofpital dedicated on Mount Zion, for
the relief of German pilgrims. From this time they
were called Equites Mariani, or knights of St Mary.
Laws, regulations, and ftatutes, were drawn up for
them by the Chriftian kings in Syria and the patriarch ;
and among other obligations it was required, that every
perfon admitted to the privileges of the order (Irould be
of noble parentage ; that the order (hould defend the
Chriflian religion and the Holy Land ; that they Ihould
, exercife hofpitality towards the Chriftians in general,
but particularly thofe of their own country.; and that
they fliould with all their power endeavour to propa¬
gate and extend the Chriftian faith and the religion of
Jesus. In the year 1190, having become rich by dona¬
tions from the fuperftitious,they eledled their firftgrand-
mafter, Henry Walpot, a German, who had diftinguifti-
ed himfelf by his zeal and valour ; and their choice was
confirmed by the emperor. The following year, Pope
Celeftine III. confirmed their privileges already granted,
giving them the title of the Teutonic knights of the hof-
pital of St Mary the Virgin. By the conditions of this
bull, they vowed perpetual continence, obedience, and
poverty *, obligations which it may well be imagined
were not very ftri&ly kept. See Poland, N° 59, 61,
67—69, and Prussia, N°3, 4.
TEWIT. See Tringa, Ornithology Index.
TEWKESBURY, a town in Gloucefterfhire, for¬
merly noted for its monaftery, and now containing about
500 houfes, with a magnificent church. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers Severn and Avon, has a
, cotton manufactory, and fends two members to parlia¬
ment. W. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat. 52. o.
TEXEL, a town of the United Provinces, in North
Holland, feated at the mouth of the Zuyder-Zee, with
a good .harbour, and a ftrong fort. It is feated in a
fruitful ifland, known all over the world by the great
number of fhips that pafs this way every day from all
parts ; it is about fix miles long and five broad, lying a
little northward of the continent of Holland, between
Nvrent’s an^ ifland is one of the principal paflages out
Grand of the Zuydef-Zee into the ocean. It is defended from
Tour, the fea by fand hills and ftrong banks. Moft of the
vol. i. foil is applied to feed Iheep, of which they have great
flocks ; and the cheefe made of their milk is faid to vie
with the Parmefan. This ifland contains feveral fair
villages, and a town on the eaft fide, called Burch,
ftrongly fortified and garrifoned, and inhabited chiefly
by fifttermen. N. Lat. 53. 8. E. Long. 4. 51.
TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguifhed to glofs
or commentary, and fignifying an original difeourfe ex-
/clufive of any note-or interpretation. This word is par¬
ticularly ufed for a certain paffage of Scripture, chofen
by a preacher to be the fubjeCt of his fermon.
TEX PURE, properly denotes the arrangement and
cohefion of feveral {lender bodies or threads interwoven
or entangled among each other, as in the webs of fri- TrG
ders, or in the cloths, fluffs, &c. |j
Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or con- Tllalia
ftituent particles of a concrete body, whether by weav-
ing, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting, in¬
truding, comprefling, attracting, or any other way. In
which fenfe we fay, a clofe compact texture, a lax porous
texture, a regular or irregular texture, &c.
THABOR. See Tabor.
THALES, a celebrated Greek philofopher, and the
firft of the feven wife men of Greece, was born at Mi¬
letus about 640 B. C. In order to improve himfelf in
the knowledge of the fciences, he travelled into Egypt,
where he difeourfed with the priefts and other learned
men. Some fay that he married; but others obferve,
that he eluded the felicitations of his mother on this
head, by telling her, when he was young, that it was
too foon ; and afterwards, that it was too late. Thales
acquired great reputation by his wifdom and learning;
he was the firft among the Greeks who foretold eclipfes
ot the fun, and made extraordinary difeoveries in aftro^
nomy. Thales was the author of the Ionian fed of phi-
lofophers, who were thus called from his being born at
Miletus, a city of Ionia. He maintained that water
was the principle of which all the bodies in the univerfe
are compofed ; that the world was the work of God;
and that God fees the moft fecret thoughts in the heart
of man. He faid, “ That the moft difficult thing irt
the world is to know ourfelves ; the moft eafy to advife
others ; and the moft fweet to accompliffi our defires.
That, in order to live well, we ought to abftain from
what we find fault with in others. That the bodily fe¬
licity confifts in health, and that of the mind in know¬
ledge. That the moft ancient of beings is God, becaufe
he is uncreated : that nothing is more beautiful than the
world, becaufe it is the work of God ; nothing more
extenfive than fpace, quicker than fpirit, ftronger than
neceflity, wifer than time.” It was alfo one of his fen-
tences, “ That we ought never to fay that to any one
that may be turned to our prejudice ; and that we fhould
live with our friends as with perfons that may become
our enemies.” He thanked God for three things; that
he was born of the human, not of the brute fpecies ; a
man, and not a woman ; a Greek, and not a barbarian.
None of the ancient philofophers ever applied themfelves
more earneftly to the ftudy of aftronomy than Thales.
Diogenes Laertius reports, that leaving his lodging with
an old woman to contemplate the ftars, he fell into a
ditch ; on which the good woman cried, “ How canft
thou know what is doing in the heavens, when thou
canft; not perceive what is at thy feet ?” He went to fee
Croefus, who was marching with a powerful army into
Cappadocia, and enabled him to pafs the river Halys
without making a bridge. Thales died foon after, at
about 90 years of age. He compofed feveral treatifes
in verfe, on meteors, the equinoxes, &c. but they are
all loft.
THALIA, in Pagan mythology, one of the nine
mufes. She prefided over Comedy ; and is reprefented
crowned with a garland of ivy, holding a maik in her
hand, and wearing bufldns on her feet.
Thalia, a genus of plants belonging to the clafsmo-
nandria ; and in the natural fyftetn ranging under the
8th order, Scitaniinece. See Botany Index.
THALICTRUM,
alio
' tmes.
t., v 
B? •C't
Cjc. ttecr.
T H A [ 305 - ] T H A
THALTCTRUM, Meadow-Rue, a genus of plants
belonging to the elafs polyandria j and in the natural
fvfteni ranging under the 26th order, Multiji/iquce. See
Botany Index.
THA'MES, the fineft river in Great Britain, which
takes its rife from a copious fpring, called Thames Head,
two niiles fouth-vveft of Cirencefter in Gloucefterfhire.
It has been erroneoufly faid, that its name is Ifis till it
arrives at Dorchelter, 15 miles below Oxford, when,
bsing joined by the Thame or Tame, it affumes the
name of the Thames, which, it has been obferved, is
formed from a Combination of the words Thame and
Ifis. What was the origin of this vulgar error, cannot
now be traced. Poetical fidtion, however, has perpe¬
tuated this error, and inverted it with a kind of claflical
fartdlity. “ It plainly appears (fays Camden), that the
river was always called Thames or Terns, before it came
near the Thame ; and in feveral ancient charters granted
to the abbey of Malmfbury, as well as that of Enrtiam,
and in the old deeds relating to Cricklade, it is never
confidered under any other name than that of Thames.”
He likewife fays, that it occurs nowhere under the name
of Ifis. All the hillorians who mention the incurfions
of Ethelwold into Wiltfhire in the year 905, or of Ca¬
nute in 1016, concur likewife in the fame opinion, by
declaring, that they parted over the Thames at Crick¬
lade in Wiltfhire. It is not probable, moreover, that
Thames Head, an appellation by which the fource has
ufually been dirtinguifhed, fhould give rife to a river of
the name of His j which river, after having run half its
courfe, fhould reartfume the name of Thames, the appel¬
lation of its parent fpring. About a mile below the
fource of the river is the firft corn-mill, which is called
Kemble Mill. Here the river may properly be faid to
form a conftant current; which, though not more than
nine feet wide in the fummer, yet in the winter becomes
fuch a torrent as to overflow the meadows for many
miles around. But, in the fummer, the Thames Head
is fo dry, as to appear nothing but a large dell, inter-
fperfed with ftones and weeds. From Somerford the
flream winds to Cricklade, where it unites with many
other rivulets. Approaching Kemsford, it again enters
its native county, dividing it from Berkfhire at Ingle-
fliam. It widens coniiderably in its way to Lechlade j
and being there joined by the Lech and Coin, at the
diftance of 138 miles from London, it becomes navi¬
gable for veflels of 90 tons. At Enfham, in its courfe
north-eaft, to Oxford, is the firft bridge of ftone j a
handfome one, of three arches, built by the earl of
Abingdon. Parting by the ruins of Godftow nunnery,
where the celebrated Fair Rofamond was interred, the
river reaches Oxford, in whofe academic groves its poe¬
tical name of Ifis has been fo often invoked. Being
there joined by the Charwell, it proceeds fouth-eaft to
Abingdon, and thence to Dorchefter, where it receives
tlie Tame. Continuing its courfe fouth eaft by Wal¬
lingford to Reading, and forming a boundary to the
counties of Berks, Bucks, Surry, Middlefex, Effex, and
Kent, it wafhes the towns of Henley, Marlow, Maiden¬
head, Windfor, Eton, Egham, Staines, Laleham, Chert-
fey, Weybridge, Shepperton, Walton, Sunbury, Eaft:
and Weft Moulfey, Hampton, Thames Ditton, Kingf-
ton, Teddington, Twickenham, Richmond, Ifleworth,
Brentford, Kew, Mortlake, Barnes, Chifwick, Hammer-
fmith, Putney, Fulham, Wandfworth, Batterfea,Cbelfea,
Vol.XX. Part L
and Lambeth. Then, on the north bank of the river,
are Weftminfterand London, and, on the oppofite fide,
Southwark 5 forming together one continued city, ex¬
tending to Limehoufe and Deptford ; and hence the
river proceeds to Greenwich, Erith, Greenhithe, Gray’s
Thurrock, Gravtfend, and Leigh, into the ocean. It
receives in its courfe from Dorchefterthe rivers Kennet,
Loddon, Coin, Wey, Mole, Wandle, Lea, Roding, Da-
rent, and Medway. The jurifdidiion of the lord mayor
of London over the Thames extends from Coin ditch, a
little to the well of Staines, to Yendalor Yenleet to the
eaft, including part of the rivers Medway and Lea ,
and he has a deputy, named the water bailiff, who is to
fearch for and punifti all offenders againft the laws for
the prefervation of the river and its fifti. Eight times
a-year the lord mayor and aldermen hold courts of con-
fervance for the four counties of Surry, Middlefex,
Effex, and Kent. Though the Thames is faid to be
navigable 138 miles above the bridge, yet there are fo
many flats, that in fummer the navigation weftward
would be entirely flopped, when the fprings are low-,
were it not for a number of locks. But thefe are at¬
tended with confiderable expence $ for a barge from
Lechlade to London pays for palling through them
13I. 15s. 6d. and from Oxford to London 12I. 18s.
This charge, however, is in fummer only, when the wa¬
ter is low ; and there is no lock from London bridge to
Bolter’s lock j that is, for 51-J miles above the bridge.
The plan of new cuts has been adopted, in fome places,
to Ihorten and facilitate the navigation. 1 here is one
near Lechlade, which runs nearly parallel to the old
river, and contiguous to St John’s bridge ; and there is
another a mile from Abingdon, which has rendered the
old ftream toward Culham bridge ufelefs. But a much,
more important undertaking has lately been accom-
plifhed j namely, the jun&ion of this river with the Se¬
vern. A canal had been made, by virtue of an aft of
parliament in 1730, from the Severn to Wallbridge,
near Stroud. A new canal now afcends by Stroud,
through the vale of Chalford, to the height of 343 feet,
by means of 28 locks, and thence to the entrance of a
tunnel near Sapperton, a diftance of near eight miles.
The canal is 42 feet in width at top and 30 at the bot¬
tom. The tunnel (which is extended under Sapperton
hill, and under that part of Earl Bathurft’s grounds
called Hailey wood, making a diftance of two miles and
three furlongs) is near 15 feet in width, and can navi¬
gate barges of 70 tons. The canal defeending hence
134 feft, by 14 locks, joins the Thames at Lechlade, a
diftance of above 20 miles. In the courfe of this vail
undertaking, the canal, from the Severn at Froomlade
to Inglelhatn, where it joins the Thames, is a diftance
of more than 30 miles. The expence of it exceeded the
firm of 200,000l. of which 3000I. are faid to have been
expended in gunpowder alone, ufed for the blowing up
of the rock. This new canal was completed in 1789,
in lefs than feven years from its commencement. A
communication, not only with the 'Trent, but with the
Merfey, has likewife been effefted by a.canal from Ox¬
ford to Coventry ; and an aft of parliament has parted
to extend another canal from this, at Braunfton, to the
Thames at Brentford. This is to be called 1'he Grand
JunSion Canal. On the extenfive advantages re fulting
from thefe navigable communications from the metro¬
polis with the ports of Briftol, Liverpool, Hull, Sec.
Q q and
Thar*’
'T HA l 306 ] THE
Thane5’ and the PrlnciPal manufaduring towns in the inland their country : To attend the king with their followers Ti
Parts of tlie kingdom, it is needlefs to expatiate. The in military expeditions, to affift in building and defend- ?
tide flows up the Thames as high as Richmond, which, ing the royal eaflles, and in keeping the bridges and" TheUatr
following the winding of the river, is 70 miles from the highways in proper repair. To thefe obligations afl '—^
ocean ; a greater diftance than the tide is carried by proprietors of land (even the churchmen for a W
any other river in Europe. The water is efteemed ex- time not excepted) were fubjeded ; and thefe fervicet
tremely wholefome,and fit for ufe in very long voyages,, were confidered as due to their country, rather than
during which it will work ilfelf perfe&ly fine. to the perfons of their kings 5 and were agreed to by
, Thames is alfo the name of a river in the flate of all as being neeeflary to their own prefervation and com
Connecticut in America. See the article Conkecti- yenieney.
CUT.
THANE, or Thanus, a name given to the nobili¬
ty in Britain before the time of William the Conqueror.
It fignifies a minifter or honourable retainer, from the
verb thenian, “ to minifler.” There were feveral de¬
grees of nobility among the Anglo-Saxons j but thofe
molt commonly mentioned are the king’s thanes and the
alderman’s tiianes. The king’s thanes feem to have been
of three different degrees, according to their different
degrees of wealth or favour at court. The alderman’s
thanes feem to have been of the loweft degree of nobili¬
ty, and next to them thofe who were promoted to that
dignity from their advancement in the church, from
their valour, fuccefs in agriculture or commerce : for if
a ceorl or farmer applied to learning and attained to
priefts orders ; if he acquitted himfelf fo well as to ob¬
tain from a nobleman five hythes of land, or a gilt
fword, helmet, and breaft-plate, the reward of his va¬
lour j or if by his induftry he had acquired the property
of five hythes of land 5 or if he applied to trade, and
made three voyages beyond fea in a fhip of his own, and
a cargo belonging to himfelf, he was denominated a
thane.
I he thanes, who were the only nobility among the
Anglo-Saxons, were a very numerous body of men,
comprehending all the confiderable landholders in Eng¬
land, and filling up that fpace in fociety between the
eeorls or yeomanry on the one hand, and the royal fa¬
mily on the other; which is now occupied both by the
nobility and gentry. In times of war, they eonftituted
the flower of their armies, and in times of peace they
1 welled the trains of their kings, and added greatly to
the fplendour of their courts, efpecially at the three
great feflivals of Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide.
Erom this body all the chief officers, both civil and mi-
ftoey of btary, as aldermen, greeves, earls, heretogens, &c.
”fi. were taken 5 and to obta5n fome of ^efe offices was the
'great objed of their ambition. Before they obtained an
office, their lands were their only fupport-, and they liv¬
ed in greater or lefs affluence, according to the extent
ot their eftates. ^ hele they divided into two parts 5
one of which they called their inlands, and the other
their outlands. I heir inlands they kept in their own
immediate psffeffion, and cultivated them by the hands
of their Haves and villains, in order to raife provifions
for their families; their outlands they granted to ceorls
or farmers, either for one year, or for a term of years ;
for which they received a certain ftipulated proportion
of their produce annually. Thefe cuftoms had long
prevailed among their anceftors in Germany, and
were adhered to by their poflerity in England till the^
conqueft.
The thanes were under no obligations on account of
their lands, except the three following, which were in-
difpenfably necefiary to the defence and improvement of
2
I his title of thane was abolilhed in England at the
conquefl, upon the introdudion of the feudal fyftem
by William. 1 he titles of earl and baron were about
the fame period introduced into Scotland by Malcolm.
Canmore, when the title of thane fell into difufe.
JHANEi, an ifland of the county of Kent, fur-
rounded by the fea except on the north-eafl: fide, where
it is bounded by the branches of the river Stour, now
ineonfiderable to what they were formerly. It
tains feveral villages, and the fea port towns of Mar¬
gate and Ramfgate, and has the title of an earldom. It
is celebrated for being the fpot through which arts, fai¬
ences, and divine knowledge, came into this happy ifle.
The Britons called it Richborough, from its vicinity to
the city of that name, now only a venerable ruin; but
the Saxons called it Thanet, from fire, having fo many
beacons ere&ed on it. It is in the north-eafl part of the
county, lies open to the fea on the north and eaft, with
the river Wantfum on the weft and fouth, is about 10
miles long from the North Foreland to Sarre-Bridge,
and about 8 broad from Weftgate to Sandwich-Ferry.
The north part of it is chiefly arable; and the fouth and
weft parts confift of marfti or pafture-lands. The foil is
generally very fertile, efpecially in producing the belt
barley, of which it is computed above 20,000 quarters
are annually fent to London.
^riIAPSIA,the Deadly Carrot, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria, and in the'natural
fyftem ranging under the 45th order, Umbellate. See
Botany Index.
THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former
fluid Hate by the warmth of the air. Sec Congelation
and Frost.
THE A., See Tea.
^ I HE A LINES, a religious order in the Romifh
church, fo called from their principal founder John Pe¬
ter Caraffa, then bifliop of Theate, or Chieti, in the
kingdom of Naples, and afterwards pope, under the
name of Paul IV. Phe names of the other founders
were Gaetan, Boniface, and Configlieri. Thefe four
pious men defiring to reform the ecclefiaftical ftate, laid
the foundation of an order of regular clerks at Rome in
the. year 1524. Pope Clement VII. approved the infli-
tution, and permitted the brethren to make the three
religious vows, to eleft a fuperior every three years,
and to draw up ftatutes for the regulation of the order.
They were the firft who endeavoured, by their example,,
to revive among the clergy the poverty of the apollles
and firft difciples of our Saviour, and were alfo the firft
who aflumed the title of regular clerks..
1 PIE AI RE, a place in which Ihows or dramatic
reprefentations are exhibited.
For the origin of the dramatic art we always turn
our eyes, to Greece, the nurfery of the arts and fciences.
It may indeed have been known among more ancient
nations,
THE l 307 j T H E
eatre. nations, but no records remain fufficient to fupport this
u v--'opinion. The different dates of Greece afferted their
claim to the honour of having given it birth, but the
account of the Athenians is molt generally received. It
derived its origin from the hymns which were fung in
the feftivals of Bacchus in honour of that deity. While
thefe refounded in the ears of the multitude, chorufes
of Bacchants and Fauns, ranged round certain obfcene
images vvhich they carried in triumphal proeeffion, chant¬
ed lafcivious fongs, and fometimes facrilfced individuals
to public ridicule.
This was the practice in the cities; but a dill greater
licentioufnefs reigned in the worfhip paid to the fame
M* bar- divinity by the inhabitants of the country, and efpe-
Jis "ra- daily at the feafon when they gathered the fruits of his
va v°l-^ benefiCence. Vintagers, befmeared with wine lees, and
intoxicated with joy and the juice of the grape, rode
forth in their carts,, and attacked each other on the road
withgrofsfarcafms, revenging themfelves on their neigh¬
bours with ridicule, and on the rich by publifhing their
injudice.
Among the poets who flaurifhed at that time, fome
celebrated the great a&ions and adventures of gods and
heroes, and others attacked with afperity the vices and
abfurdities of individuals. The former took Homer for
their model, and fupported themfelves by his example,
of which they made an improper ufe. Homer, the
mod tragic of poets, the model of all who have fuc-
ceeded him, had in the Iliad and the Odyffey brought
to perfection the heroic poem, and in his Margites had
employed pleafantry. But as the charm of his wmrks
depends in a great meafure on the padions and motion
with which he knew to animate them, the poets who
came after him endeavoured to introduce into theirs an
aClion which might excite emotion or mirth in the fpec-
tators: fome even attempted to produce both, and ven¬
tured certain rude elfays, which have fince been dyled
indifferently either tragedies or comedies, becaufe they
unite the characters of thofe two dramas. The authors
of thefe Iketches have b^en didinguifhed by no dif-
covery, they only form in the hiftory of the art a
fucceflion of names which it would be ufelefs to recal to
light.
The neceffity and power of theatrical intereft was al¬
ready known. The hymns in honour of Bacchus, while
they defcribed his rapid progrefs and fplendid conquefts,
became imitative*, and in the contefts of the Pythian
games, the players on the flute who entered into com¬
petition were enjoined by an exprefs law to reprefent
fucceflivelv the circumftances that had preceded, ac¬
companied, and followed the victory of Apollo over
Python.
Some years after this regulation, Sufarion and Thef-
pis, both born in a fmall borough of Attica, named
Icaria, appeared each at the head of a company of ac¬
tors, the one on a kind of ftage, the other in a cart (a).
The former attacked the vices and abfurdities of his
time; and the latter treated more noble fubjeCts, which
he took from hiftory.
The comedies of Sufarion were in the fame tafte with
thofe indecent and fatirical farces which were afterwards Theatre,
performed in fome of the cities of Greece. They were ~ ^ “
long the favourite entertainment of the country people.
Athens did not adopt this fpecies of exhibition until af¬
ter it was brought to perfection in Sicily.
Thefpis had more than once feen in the feltivals, in
which as yet hymns only were fung, one of the fingers,
mounted on a table, form a kind of dialogue with the
chorus. From this hint he conceived the idea of intro¬
ducing into the tragedies an aCtor who, by fimple reci¬
tals introduced at intervals, fhould give relief to the
chorus, divide the aCtion, and render it more interefting.
This happy innovation, together with fome other liber¬
ties in which he had allowed himfelf, gave alarm to the
legiflator of Athens, who was more able than any other
perfon to difcern the value or danger of the novelty.
Solon condemned a ipeeies of compofition in which the
ancient traditions were difguifed by fictions. “ If we
applaud falfehood in our public exhibitions (faid he to
Thefpis), we fhall foon find that it will infinuate itfelf
into our molt facred engagements.”
The exceflive approbation and delight with which
both the city and country received the pieces of Thefpis •
and Sufarion, at once juftified and rendered ufelefs the
fufpieious forefight of Solon. The poets, who till then
had only exercifed their genius in dithyrambics and li¬
centious fatire, ftruck With the elegant forms which
thefe fpecies of compofition began to aflume, dedicated
their talents to tragedy and comedy. Soon after a great¬
er variety was introduced in the fubje&s of the former
of thefe poems. Thofe who judged of their pleafures on¬
ly from habit exclaimed, that thefe fubje£Is were fo¬
reign to the worfliip of Bacchus; but the greater num¬
ber thronged W’ith ftill more eag^rnefs after the new
pieces.
Phrynichus, the difciple of Thefpis, made choice of
that kind of verfe which is mofl: fuitable to the drama,
was the author of fome other changes, and left tragedy
in its infancy.
Hlfchylus received it from his hands enveloped in a
rude veftment, its vifage covered with falfe colours, ora
malk inexpreflive of chara&er, without either grace or
dignity in its motions, infpiring the defire of an intereft
Which it with difficulty excited, ftill attached to the
buffooneries which had amufed its infant years, and ex¬
prefling its conceptions fometimes with elegance and
dignity, but frequently in a feeble and low ftyle, pol¬
luted with grofs obfcenities.
In his firft tragedies he introduced a fecond a£lor;
and afterwards, copying the example of Sophocles, who
had juft entered on his theatrical career, he admitted a
third, and fometimes even a fourth. By this multipli¬
city of perfonages, one of his aftors became the hero of
the piece, and attracted to himfelf the principal intereft ;
and as the chorus now held only a fubaltern ftation,
iEfehylus took care to Ihorten its part, and perhaps even
carried this precaution too far.
Fie is cenfured for having admitted mute charadlers
into his drama. Achilles, after the death of his friend,
and Niobe, after the deftruftion of her children, appear
- Q. 2 on
(a) Sufarion reprefented his firfl: pieces towards the year 580 before Chnft. Some years after, Thefpis mad# ht?
ffrft attempts in tragedy, and a£led his Alceftis in 536-.
Theatre.
T H E
on the ftagf, and remain during feveral fcenes motion-
lefs, with their heads covered with a veil, and without
uttering a word ; but if their eyes had overflown with
tears, and they had poured forth the bittereft lamenta¬
tions, could they have produced an effeft fo terrible as
this veil, this file.nce. and this abandonment to orrief >
[ 308 ]
THE
this veil, this filence, and this abandonment to grief ?
It was not fufficient that the noble and elevated flyle
»f tragedy Ihould leave in the minds of the auditors a
ftrong impreflion of grandeur j to captivate the multi¬
tude, it was requifite that every part of the fpe&acle
fhould concur to produce the fame effedt. It was then
the general opinion that nature, by bellowing on the
ancient heroes a more lofty llature, had impreffed on
their perfons a majelly which procured them as much
refpedl from the people as the enfigns of dignity by
which they were attended. iEfchylus therefore raifed
bis adlors on high Hilts or bulkins. He covered their
features, which were frequently difagreeable, with a
malk that concealed their irregularity. He clothed them
in flowing and magnificent robes, the form of which was
fo decent, that the prielts of Ceres have not blulhed to
adopt it. The inferior atlors were alfo provided with
malks and drefles fuited to their parts.
Inftead of thofe wretched fcaffolds which were for¬
merly eredled in hafte, he obtained a theatre furnilhed
with machines, and embellilhed with decorations. Here
the found of the trumpet was reverberated, incenle was
feen to burn on the altars, the (hades of the dead to a-
rife from the tomb, and the furies to rulh from the
gulfs of 1 artarus. In one of his pieces thefe infernal
divinities appeared, for the firft time, with malks of a
horrid palenefs, torches in their hands, ferpents inter¬
twined in their hair, and followed by a numerous reti¬
nue of dreadful fpedlres. It is faid that, at the fight of
them, and the found of their terrific bowlings, terror
feized on the whole affembly, women mifcarried, and
children expired with fear ; and that the magillrates,
to prevent fimilar accidents in future, commanded that
the chorus Ihould confift only of fifteen aftors inltead of
fifty.
< The effe£l of fo many new obje&s could not but afto-
nifii the fpeftators •, nor were they lefs furprifed and de¬
lighted at the intelligence difplayed in the performance
of the a&ors, whom iEfchylus almoll always exercifed
himlelf. . He regulated their Heps, and taught them to
give additional force to the a£Hon by new and expreflive
geflures.
I he progrefs of the art was extremely rapid. JEf-
chylus was born 525 years before ChriH, 1 r years after
Thefpis had aaed his Alceflis. He had for competi¬
tors Choerilus Pratenas, and Phryniehus, whofe glory
he eclipfed, and Sophocles, who rivalled his own. So¬
phocles was born about the year 497 B. C. about 14
years before Euripides. The'fe carried tragedy to the
higheft perfedion to which it attained among the
Greeks. iEfchylus painted men greater than they can
be, Sophocles as they ought to be, and Euripides as they
are. J
Invented towards the 50th Olympiad (about 580
B. C.), and adapted to the rude manners of the ruflics,
comedy ventured not to approach the capital ; and if
by chance fome companies of adors, who were uncon-
neded with any others, found their way into the city,
and performed their indecent farces, they were lefs au-
thorifed than tolerated by the government. It was not
till after a long infancy that this fpecies of drama be¬
gan fuddenly to make a rapid improvement in Sicily,
Inltead of a fucceflion of fcenes without connedion or
tendency, the philofopher Epicharmus introduced an
adion, all the parts of which had a dependence on each
other j and conduded his fubjed, without wandering
from it, through a jufl extent to a determinate end.
His pieces, fubjeded to the fame laws of tragedy, were
known in Greece, where they were confidered as mo¬
dels j and comedy foon (hared with her rival the fuf-
frages of the public, and the homage due to genius.
The Athenians, efpecially, received her with the fame
tranfports as they would have teflified at the news of a
vidory : many of their poets exercifed their genius ia
this novel fpecies of compofition j and their names adorn
the numerous lifl of writers who have been diltinguiHied
in comedy from the time of Epicharmus. Such were,
* among the more ancient, Magnes, Cratinus, Crates,
Pherecrates, Eupolis, and Ariflophanes. They all flou-
rilhed in the age of Pericles.
If we perufe the comic pieces which have come down
to us, we lhall be convinced that the foie objed of the
authors was to pleafe the multitude. The gods and
heroes were traveHied, grofs and obfcene language was
often employed, and virulent invedives were often
thrown out againll individuals of the firH rank for ge¬
nius and virtue. I owards the end of the Peloponnelian-
war the licentioufnefs of comedy was reflrained. The
chorus was laid afide, becaufe the rich citizens were a-
larmed, and would no longer contribute money to fup-
port it, nor provide malks with portraits for expofing
individuals.
I he poets being thus reHrained from mentioning
names of living perfons on ihe flage, invented falls
names. 1 hey Hill expofed real and known charaders}
and thus gave a more exquifite gratification to the fpeo
tators, who were highly amufed wdth finding out the
perfons intended. The confequence of the law was
only to make that done with delicacy which was for¬
merly done in the mofl indecent and fcurrilous manner*
Arifiophanes, in fome of his latefl pieces, has given us
fome good examples of this kind of comtdy, which is
fometimes called the middle comedy.
Comedy was Hill liable to abufe, and therefore requi¬
red farther reformation. As the ufe of real names had
formerly been prohibited, real fubjeds were alfo forbid¬
den j and comedy from that time was no longer a fury
armed with torches, or a firebrand fcattering mifchief,
but a pleafing and inflrudive companion. This is cal¬
led the new comedy. The mofl eminent among the
Greeks in this improved fpecies was Menander. His
writings are now lofl ; but we may form a good efli-
mate of their merit from the comedies of Terence, which
are faid to have been borrowed from Menander, and to
have nearly refembled the original, though inferior in
that vis comica by which the elegant Grecian was diflin-
guilhed. The comedy of Menander is that which has
been cultivated in modern times.
To give fome idea of a Grecian theatre, we lhall de-
fcribe very Ihortly the theatre of Bacchus in Athens,
which was built by the famous archited Philos in the
time of Pericles. The part intended for the fpedators
was of a femicircular form, at the diameter of which
was ereded the Hage. The orcheflra occupied the
fpace where the pit in modern theatres is fituated, where;
the
THeati
\e-
r Ma¬
le for
*1 ■
X. ,
THE [
atre. the mufic, the chorus, and the mimi were placed,
r—' was four feet elevated above the ground. The fpefta-
tors were arranged in three galleries round all the fides
of the orcheftra except that next the ftage, each gallery
containing eight rows of feats. At the farther end of
the orcheftra, where the ftage is erefted in modern the¬
atres, flood the thymele or logeon, but projecting a lit¬
tle towards the audience. It was a little higher than
the orcheftra, and did not extend the whole breadth of
it. In fome theatres it was only fix feet fquare. Here
the principal part of the chorus made their recitations,
and in comical interludes the mimi performed. Behind
the thymele appeared the ftage or profcenion, confider-
ably elevated. No part of this theatre was covered ex¬
cept the ftage, and a high gallery called circys fet apart
for the women. The Athenians, being expofed to the
weather, came ufually with great cloaks, to fecure them
from the rain or the cold ; and for defence againft the
fun they had the fciadion, a kind of parafol, which the
Romans ufed alfo in the theatres by the name of um-
bel/te ; b\it when a fudden ftorm arofe, the play was in¬
terrupted, and the fpeCtators difperfed.
A fort of tent-work over the entire area of the edifice
might have been contrived as a fhelter from the rain
and a fhade from the fun. Such a covering would have
obviated the inconveniences of roofed theatres, which
obftruCt the free communication of the air, and of un¬
roofed theatres, which do not keep out the weather.
At Athens the plays were always reprefented in the
daytime, which made the unroofed theatres lefs incon¬
venient.
Plays were reprefented only during the three feftivals
folemnized in honour of Bacchus. The firft of thefe
was celebrated at the Piraeus, where fome of Euripides’s
pieces were firft performed. The fecond, which lafted
only one day, was kept at the end of January or begin¬
ning of February. The third, called the greater Dio-
nysia, was celebrated a month after. It continued fe-
veral days, and attracted a great multitude of fpe&ators.
In the feftivals which lafted only one day, five or fix
dramatic pieces, either tragedies or comedies, were per¬
formed. But in the greater Dionyfia, which continued
longer, 12 or 15, and fometimes more, were aifted.
I he performance began early in the morning, and fome¬
times lafted the whole day.
The chorus, according as the fubjeft demanded, was
compofed of men and women, old men or youths, citi¬
zens or Haves, priefts, foldiers, &c. to the number of
1 s m tragedy, and 24 in comedy. The chorus came
upon the ftage preceded by a flute-player, who regula¬
ted their fteps; fometimes one after the other, but in
tragedy more frequently three in front and five in depth,
or five in front and three in depth.
I he fame perfons performed both in tragedy and co¬
medy 5 but, as among ourfelves, it was rare to meet
with any who excelled in both. The pay of thofe who
had acquired great reputation was confiderable. Polus
gained a talent in two days (equal to 225I. fterling *).
Players of eminence w'ere folicited by different a6tors of
Greece to attend their feftivals. If, after making an
engagement, they failed, they were obliged to pay a
certain fum of money y and if they were abfent during
the feftivals of their own republic, they were condemn¬
ed to a heavy fine.
The a&ors had habits and fymbols fuited to their
3°9 1 T H E
It parts. Kings wore a diadem, leaned on a feeptre which Theatre,
lupported an eagle on its top, and were dreffed in long '~"—v J
robes of purple or other fplendid colours ornamented
with gold. Heroes, befides having their ftature fre¬
quently increafed to fix feet Englilh f, and their bulk t -Ari/i. in
in proportion, were frequently covered with the flein of^"”‘
a lion or a tyger, and armed with fwords, quivers, and 4^°^*
clubs. All who fuffered misfortunes wore a black, lib. v.
brown, or dirty white garment, which frequently hung cap. 7.
in tatters. There were various kinds of mafks for tra¬
gedy, comedy, and fatire. Thefe certainly took away
the pleafure arifing from the expreflion of the counte¬
nance ; but at any rate, little pleafure could be derived
from this circumftance in a Grecian theatre, from its
immenfe fize, and the great diftance of the audience
from the ftage.
Dramatic entertainments were introduced at Rome in
the year of the city 391. They were called ludifcenici,
becaufe they were firft a£ted in a fliade formed by the
branches and leaves of trees. They were borrowed im¬
mediately from Etruria, whence alfo they received their
firft players. Thefe Etrurians at firft only danced to a
flute, without either finging or adling. The Roman
youth foon imitated them at their folemn feftivals, add¬
ing raillery in rude verfes, and geftures adapted to the
fubjeft. Thefe verfes were called Fefcennini, from Fef-
cennia, a city of Etruria. Livius Andronicus was the
firft poet who wrote a regular play in Latin. This hap¬
pened in the year of Rome 512 or 514, about 160 years
after the death of Sophocles and Euripides, and 52 af¬
ter that of Menander. The Grecian model was after¬
wards introduced and cultivated much by fucceeding
dramatic writers. This was the model of Menander,
for the old and middle comedy was unknown at Rome.
As the Romans were only imitators of the Greeks in
the dramatic art, as well as in moft of the arts and fei-
ences, nothing more is neceffary to be faid in addition
t» the account which we have already given of the Gre¬
cian ftage.
The origin of the Englifti ftage is hid in obfeurity.
It was not, however, copied from the Grecian or Ro¬
man j for it was evidently different in form as rvell as in
matter, and may with more propriety be deduced fronr1'
a Gothic original. It appears that there were theatrical
entertainments in England almoft as early as the con-
queft ; for we are told by William Stephanides or Fitz- Qentie.
Stephen, a monk, who in the reign of Henry II. wrote man's Ma-
his Defcnptio NobiliJJirme Civilatis Londoniee, that ga%ine for
“ London, inftead of the common interludes of the the- I7<Sl*
atre, had plays of a more holy kind j reprefentations of
the miracles of confeffors, and the fufferings of martyrs.”
At this time there were alfo certain fets of idle people,
who travelled the countries and were called Mummers,
a kind of vagrant comedians, whofe excellence confifted
altogether in mimickry and humour.
It is probable that, foon after this time, the drhmatie
reprefentations called Myjieries were exhibited : Thefe
myfteries were taken from feripture-hiftory : fome repre¬
fented the creation of the world, with the fall of Adam
and Eve; fome the ftory of Jofeph ; and others even
the incarnation and fufferings of the Son of God. Thefe ,
pieces were exhibited in a manner fo ridiculous as to fa- Atohirv for
vour libertinifm and infidelity, as appears by a petition ij/Xj/f.'
of the chaunters of St Paul’s cathedral to Richard II.
in 1378, praying,, that “ fome unexpert people might
be-
T H E [ 3
, Ikeatre. proLibited from reprefenting the hiftory of the Old
" Teftament to the prejudice of the faid clergy, who had
been at great expence to reprefent it publicly at Chrift-
mas.”
In the year 1390, the parifli clerks of London are
faid to have played interludes at Skinner’s-well on three
fucceffive days in July ; and, in 1409, to have acted
for eight days fucceffively a play concerning the crea¬
tion of the world, at the fame place which thence ac¬
quired the name of Clerkenwe//.
Thefe Myfteries were fucceeded by Moralities, in
which there were fome rude traces of a fable and a mo¬
ral ; and fome alfo of poetry, the virtues, vices, and
other alretfiions of the mind being frequently perfonified.
After thefe Moralities came what were called Inter¬
ludes, which made fome approaches to wit and humour.
Many of thefe pieces were written by John Heywcod,
jetler to Henry VIII,
In the time of Henry VIII. one or two pieces had
been publilhed under the claffical names of Comedy and
1 ragedy, but they appear not to have been intended for
popular ufe. It was not till the religious ferments had
P<?rrv’.f that the public had leifure to attend to drama-
Ucs of An- tic poetry. In the reign of Elizabeth, tragedies and co-
medies began to appear in form, and could the poets have
Foetry- perfevered, the firft models were good. Gorbodtic, a regu¬
lar tragedy, was a£ted in 1561 ; and Gafcoigne, in 1566,
exhibited Jocajia, a tranflation from Euripides, as alfo
The Suppofes, a regular comedy, from Ariofto, near 30
years before any of Shakefpeare’s were printed.
The people, however, {till retained a relifli for their
old myfteries and moralities, and the popular dramatic
poets feem to have made them their models. The gra¬
ver fort of moralities appear to have given birth to our
modern tragedy ; as our comedy evidently took its rife
from the lighter interludes of that kind. And as moft
of thefe pieces contain an abfurd mixture of religion and
buffoonery, an eminent critic has well deduced from
thence the origin of our unnatural tragi-comedies. Even
after the people had been accuftomed to tragedies and co-
, medics, moralities ftill kept their ground. One of them,
intitled The New Cujlom, was printed fo late as 1573.
At length they affumed the name of tnafques, and, with
fome claftical improvements, became in the two follow¬
ing reigns the favourite entertainments of the court.
As for the old myfteries, which ceafed to be added
after the reformation, they feem to have given rife to a
third fpecies of ftage exhibition 5 which, though now
• confounded with tragedy or comedy, was by our firft
dramatic writers confidered as quite diftinft from them i
both : thefe were hiftorical plays, or hiftories; a fpecies
of dramatic writing which refembled the old myftertes
in reprefenting a feries of hiftorical events limply in the
order of time in which they happened, without any re¬
gard to the three great unities. Thefe pieces feem to
differ from tragedy juft as much as hiftorical poems do
from epic : as the Pharfalia does from the /Eneid.
What might contribute to make dramatic poetry take
this turn was, that foon after the myfteries ceafed to be
exhibited, there was publifhed a large collefHon of poe¬
tical narratives, called the Mirrorfor Magiflrates, where-
10 ] T H E
in a great number of the moft eminent chara&ers In
Englifh hiftory are drawn relating their own misfortunes.
This book was popular and of a dramatic caft ; and
therefore, as an elegant writer has well obferved, might
have its influence in producing hiftoric plays. Thefe
narratives probably furnifhed the fubjeds, and the an¬
cient myfteries fuggefted the plan.
That our old writers confidered hiftorical plays as
fomewhat diftind from tragedy and comedy, appears
from numberlels paffages of their works. “ Of late days
(fays Stow in his Survey of London),, inftead of thofe
ftage plays have been ufed comedies, tragedies, inter¬
ludes, and hiftories, both true and fained.” Beaumont
and Fletcher, in the prologue to the Captain^ fay,
“ This is nor comedy, nor tragedy,
“ Nor hifiory^
Polonius in Hamlet commends the adors as the beft in
the world, either for tragedie, comedie, hiftorie, pafto-
ral, &c. And Shakefpeare’s friends, Heminge and Con-
dell, in the firft folio edition of his plays, in 1623, have
not only intitled their book “ Mr William Shakefpeare’s
Comedies, Hiftories, and Tragedies,” but, in their table
of contents, have arranged them under thofe three feve-
ral heads-, placing in the clafs of hiftories, “King John,
Richard II. Henry IV. two parts, Henry V. Henry VL
three parts, Richard III. and Henry VIII.”
This diftindion deferves the attention of the critics:
for if it be the firft canon of found criticifm to examine
any work by thofe rules the author preferibed for his firft
obfervance ; then we ought to try Shakefpeare’s hifto-
ries by the general laws of tragedy and comedy. Whe¬
ther the rule itfelf be vicious or not, is another inquiry;
but certainly we ought to examine a work only by thofe
principles according to which it was compofed. This
would fave much impertinent criticifm.
Not fewer than 19 playhoufes had been opened be¬
fore the year 1633, when Prynne publiftied \d\% Hijlrio-
mnjlix. From this writer we learn that tobacco, wine,
and beer, were in thofe days the ufual accommodations
in the theatre, as now at Sadlers Wells. With regard
to the ancient prices of admiffion, the playhoufe called
the Hope had five different priced feats, from fixpence
to half-a-crown. Some houfes had penny benches. The
two-penny gallery is mentioned in the prologue to Beau¬
mont and Iletcher’s Woman-hater ; and feats of three¬
pence and a groat in the paffage of Prynne laft referred
to. But the general price of what is now called the
Titt feems to have been a {hilling. The time of exhibi¬
tion was early in the afternoon, their plays being gene¬
rally adled by day-light. All female parts were per¬
formed by men, no aftrefs being ever feen on the pub¬
lic ftage before the civil wars. And as for the play¬
houfe furniture and ornaments, they had no other feenes
nor decorations of the ftage, but only old tapeftry, and
the ftage ftrewed with rufties, with habits accordingly j
as we are affured in a ftiort Difcourfe on the Englifli
Stage, fubjoined to Flecknoe’s Love's-Kingdom, 1674,
12mo.
(b) For the ftate of the theatre during the time of
Shakefpeare, fee Playhouse j rvhere a full account of
it
^B) ^ave been anxious to give as full an account of the
ancient Englifti drama as we could : we muft not
omit
THE [3
T itre. it is given from the late valuable edition of our illuftri-
u- —«*'ous poet’s works by Mr Malone. During the whole
reign of James I. the theatre was in great profperity and
reputation : dramatic authors abounded, and every year
produced a number of new plays 5 it became a fafhion
for the nobility to celebrate their weddings, birthdays,
and other occafions of rejoicing, with mafques and in¬
terludes, which were exhibited with furprifing expence j
our great architeft, Inigo Jones, being frequently em¬
ployed to furnilh decorations, with all the luxuriance of
his invention and magnificence of his art. The king
and his lords, and the queen and her ladies, frequently
performed in thefe mafques at court, and the nobility at
their private houfes; nor was any public entertainment
thought complete without them. This tafte for thea¬
trical entertainments continued during great part of the
reign of King Charles I.; but, in the year 1633, it be¬
gan to be oppofed by the Puritans from the prefs j and
the troubles that foon after followed entirely fufpended
them till the reftoration of King Charles II. in 1660.
The king, at his reftoration, granted two patents,
one to Henry Killigrew, Efq. and the other to Sir Wil¬
liam Davenant, and their heirs and afligns, for forming
two diftinft companies of comedians. Killigrew’s were
called the King's Servants, and Davenant’s the Duke's
Company. About ten of the company called the King's
Servants were on the royal houfehold eftablilhment, ha¬
ving each ten yards of fcarlet cloth, with a proper
quantity of lace allowed them for liveries j and in their
warrants from the lord chamberlain they were ftyled
gentlemen of the great chamber.
Till this time no woman had been feen upon the
Englilh ftage, the charadlers of women having always
been performed by boys, or young men of an effeminate
afpeA, which probably induced Shakefpeare to make fo
few of his plays depend upon female characters, as they
muft have been performed to great difadvantage. The
principal charafters of his women are innocence and ftm-
plicity, fuch are Defdemona and Ophelia ; and his fpe-
cimen of fondnefs and virtue in Portia is very fliort.
But the power of real and beautiful women was now
added to the ftage ; and all the capital plays of Shake¬
fpeare, Fletcher, and Ben lonforj, were divided between
the two companies, by their own alternate choice, and
the approbation of the court.
The king’s fervants feem to have been allowed to be
the belt company 5 and when the variety of plays began
to be exhaufted, they drew the greater audiences. Da¬
venant, therefore, to make head again ft them, firft add¬
ed fpe&acle and mufie to action, and introduced a new
fpecies of plays, fince called dramatic operas ; among
thele were, The Tempejf, Pfychie, and Circe; which,
with many others, were fet off with the moll expenfive
decorations of feenesand habits, and with the bell voices
and dancers.
In 1684 the two houfes united, and continued toge¬
ther for ten years. In 1690 the play began at four
0 clock y and, we are told, the ladies of fafhion ufed to
take the evening air in Hyde-park after the reprefentar
ii } T H E
tion ; by which it appears that the exhibitions were in Theatre,
fummer too. I he principal a£fors wrere, Betterton, v 
Montfort, Kynafton, Sandford, Nokes, Underhill, and
Leigh, commonly called Tony Leigh; the aftreffes
were, Mrs Betterton, Barry, Leigh, Butler, Montfort,
and Bracegirdle 5 and to this company, in this year,
old Cibber was admitted as a performer in the lowed:
rank. It was a rule with the patentees, that no young
perfon, who offered himfelf as an after, Ihould be ad^
milled into pay till after at leaf! half a year’s probation j
and Cibber waited full three quarters of a year before
he was taken into a falary of res. a-week.
In 1695 a new theatre was opened with Mr Con¬
greve’s comedy of Love for Love, which had fuch ex¬
traordinary fuccefs (fays Cibber) that fcarce any other
play was afted there till the end of the feafon ; but
when the feafon ended, which appears to have begun ia
June, he does not tell us, and it is indeed difficult to
guefs for though the company afted in fummer, it
feems improbable that they fhould flint up the houfe in
winter, as it is difficult to conceive any reafon for lo do-
ing. Congreve was then in fuch high reputation, that
this company offered him a whole ffiare (but into how
many {hares the whole was divided Colley has not.
told us) upon condition he would give them a new play
every year. I his offer he accepted, and received the
advantage, though he never fulfilled the condition ; for
it was tliree years before he produced the Mourning
Bride, and three more before he gave them the Wan of
the World. J
It is not neceffary that we give in detail the remain¬
ing biftory of the Englifh ftage : thofe who are anxious
to be acquainted with it may eonfult Cibber’s hiftory of
the ftage, continued by Viftor, under the title of A
Hiftory of the Theatres of London and Dublin from the
year 1730. We (hall only mention a few fafts refpeft-
ing the falaries of the players about that period, and the
rife of the price of play tickets.
A difference having arifen in 1733 between the ma¬
nagers and aftors, moft of the aftors fet up for them-
felves at the little theatre in the Haymarket. Upon
this the managers publiftied the following account of
their ialaries, to ftiow the public how little room they
had to mutiny. To Mr Colley Cibber, from the time
of letting his ffiare till he left the flage, 1 2I. 12s. per
week. Mr 1 he. Cibber yl. and bis wile’s whole falary Gentle-
till her death, without doing the company any fervice man's Ma~
the greateft part of the winter 5 and his own alfo, &w-s(i%ine far
ing the time of his being ill, who performed but feldom 1733‘
tiH after Chriftmas. Mr Mills jun. 3I. under the .fame
circumftances with regard to his wife. Mr Mills fen.
il. per day for 200 days certain, and a benefit clear of
all charges. Mr Johnfton 5!. Mr Miller 5I. paid
him eight weeks before he afted, befides a prefent of 10
guineas. Mr Harper 4I. and a prefent of 10 guineas.
Mr Griftin 4I. and a prefent. Mr Shepard 3I. Mr
Hallam, for himfelf and father (though the latter is of
little or no fervice) 3I. Mrs Heron 5I. raifed from 40s,
laft winter, yet refufed to play feveral parts affigned
her.
omit, however, to inform our readers what Mr Malone fays of the old plays, viz. that not one play publiffied be-
ore 1392 will bear a fecond reading; and that exclufive of myfteries, moralities, and tranflations, there are but
34 pieces extant which were publiihed before that period.
THE r 3
Ihe. tre }ier} an(} a£ted but feldom this feafon. Mrs Butler 3I.
Thibes. Per vvee^• By thefe and other falaries, with the inci-
^ent charges (befides clothes and fcenes), the patentees
are at the daily charge of 49I. odd money, each acting-
day.
Till about the fame time, the prices at the theatre
•'were 4s. the boxes, 2s. 6d. the pit, is. 6d. the firft
gallery, and is. the fecond, except upon the firlt run
of a new play or pantomime, when the boxes were
5s. the pit 3s. the firft gallery 2s. and the fecond Is.
But Fleetwood thought fit to raife the prices fot an
old pantomime, which was revived without expence.
This produced a riot for feveral nights, -and at lad a
number deputed by the pit had an interview with the
manager in the green room, where it was agreed,
that the advanced prices fliould be conftantly paid at
the doors, and that fuch perfons as did not choofe to
flay the entertainment fhould have the advanced part
of their money returned. J his was a very advanta¬
geous agreement for the manager; becaufe, when the
audience had once paid their money, and were feat-
ed, very few went out at the end of the play, and
demanded their advanced money; the few that did
it at firft, foon grew tired, -and at laft it fettled in
the quiet payment of the advanced price, as at this
day.
It has been frequently a fubjeft of debate, whether
the ftage be favourable to morals, ^^e do not mean
to enter into the controverfy ; but we fhall make an
obfervation or two. It will be allowed by all, that
the intention of the players in a<5Iing, is to procure
money ; and the intention of the audience in attend-
ing the theatre, is to feck amulement. The players
then will only aft fuch plays as they believe will an-
fwer their intention. And what fort of plays are
thefe ? They are fuch as correfpond with the opinions,
manners, and tafte, of the audience. If the tafte of
the audience be grofs, therefore the plays will be grofs;
if delicate and refined, they will be the fame. And
if we go back to the time of Shakefpeare, we lhall
find that this has been uniformly the cafe. The con-
dufion, then, which we draw, is this, if the tafte of
the audience be pure, free from licentioufnefs, the plays
will be the fame, and the ftage will be favourable to
virtue.
-^f^BBAID,ia celebrated heroic poem of 'Statius,
the fubjeft of which is the civil war of Thebes, between
the two brothers Eteocles and Polyhices ; or Thebes
taken by Thefeus. ’
THEBES, the name of a celebrated city of ancient
, Greece. It is fiippofed to have been built by Cadmus,
Account of about the year of the world 2555. This Cadmus, ae-
fhe found- wording to the Greeks, was the fon of Agenor king of
er Qf oidon or or 1 yre ; but the Sidomans allow him to have
Thebes. bfen no higher quality than his cook, and tell us that
his wife was a mufician at court, with whom he ran
away into Greece. The Greek writers tell us, that
being commanded by his father to go in fearch of his
daughter Europa, whom Jupiter in the ftiape of a bull
had carried off, and forbid to return without her, he
built, or rebuilt, the city of Thebes, after having long
fought her in vain. He was at firft oppofed by the Hyl
antes and Aones ; the former of whom he defeated in
battle, and forced to retire into Locris ; the latter fub-
jsiitted, ana were incorporated among his fubjecls.
2 ] The
Thofe who endeavour to extraft fome truth from the tl,eL
multitude ot fables in which the early part of the Gre-
cian hiftory is obfcured, are of opinion that Cadmus was 2
one of the Canaanites expelled by Jofhua; and that ]ie SupiK,fed
was of the family of the Cadmonites' mentioned by Mofes thVM|0i;
and Joftiua. He is univerfalty allowed to have intro-Csnwmt
duced the Pheenieian'letters into Greece, letup the firft
fchools, and introduced brafs ; which, from him, had
the name of Cacfmean given to it. The government of
1 hebes continued lor a long time monarchical; and the
names of a number of its kings have been tranfmitted to
us, with fome account of their tranfaftions ; but very
much obfcured by fable.
Though the Thebans-had been famed in the earlyThfc3r!l
period of their hiftory for their martial achievements, bars a de
yet in procefs of time they feem to have degenerated. gererate
At the time of the invafion of Xerxes, they were thettu!lldpei
firft people in Greece who were gained over to the Per-1’16'
fian intereft. On account of this condud, they became
very obnoxious to the other ftates, efpecially to the A-
thenians, v, hofe powet and renown increafed every day,
and threatened at laft to fwallow them up altogether.
T he Thebans being in no condition to oppofe fuch a p . .1
formidable power, put themfelves under the protedionfeh“S
of the Spartans, who, out of jealoufy of the Athenians, der the pi
readily forgave them ; and fo grateful were the The-tea,ono1
bans for the kindnefs fhown them at this time, that du-theSpar‘
nng the whole of the Peleponnefian war Sparta had not^*
s more faithful ally. By thefe means they not only re¬
covered the government of Boeotia, of which they had
been formerly in poffeflion, till deprived of it on account
of their Tiding with the Perfians, but their city became
one of the firft in Greece. By this profperity the The-
bans were fo much elated, that, when the peace of An-
talcidas came to be figned, they refufed to agree to it,
as they were thus once more deprived of the govern-
ment of Bdeotia ; fo that it was not without the utmoft lie form
difficulty that they were overawed into it by the otherof govern
ftates. Not content with forcing them to give up this
point, however, the Spartans Undertook to change the £^1
form of the Theban government, which at this time washed by
a democracy, and accomplilhed through the treachery oftheipsr-
thofe who had the care of the citadel. tans.
The Thebans continued under the power of the Spar-T.
tans for four years; at the end of which term a confpi-bansreco.
racy being formed againft them by fome of the princi-ver their j
pal people in the city, among whom was a young no-'^.f1'
bleman named Pelopidas, the Spartans were maffacred 88
and driven out, and the citadel regained. During the
tumult Epaminondas, afterwards the celebrated gene¬
ral, with a number of the beft citizens, joined the party
°f Pelopidas ; and the latter having called a general
affembly of the Fhebans, proclaimed liberty to them,
and exhorted them in the ftrongeft manner to fight for
their country. I his fpeech was received with the great-
eft acclamations ; Pelopidas was unanimoufly proclaim¬
ed the preferver of Thebes, and was charged with the
management of the war which was then to be declared
againft Sparta.
1 hefe tranfafliotis fo much exafperated the Spartans, ^ar with
that they immediately fent their king CleombrotusSparta-
againft them, though it was then the depth of winter. •
The Athenians, in the mean time, who had hitherto af-
fifted the I hebans, declined any farther conneftion, left
they (liould draw upon themfelves the refentment of
. the
Ac<
Ep;:
'^as,
nt of
non-
THE [ 3
, tlie Spartans. But they were loon after determined to
^ aft again on the fame fide, by an attempt which the
Spartan general, Sphodnas, had raflily made on the Py-
raeus or harbour of Athens. Thus, by means of the
Athenians, a powerful diverfion was made in favour of
the Thebans, who gradually recovered all the towns of
Boeotia, and at length began to aft offenfively againft
their enemies, and made a powerful invafion in Phocis.
They had now many (harp encounters with them;
which, though they did not amount to decifive battles,
yet did not fail to raife their courage, and deprefs that
of the Spartans. In thefe encounters Pelopidas alwrays
t-fignalized himfelf; and in the battle of Tanagra, where
>-the Lacedaemonians wrere entirely defeated by the Athe¬
nians and their allies, Pelopidas had a principal fliare in
the viftory, and killed the Spartan general with his own
hand. Soon after this, with a body of only 300 The¬
bans, he entirely routed and difperfed near 1000 Spar¬
tans; which was the greateft difgrace the latter had
ever known ; for till that time, whether in war with the
Greeks or barbarians, they had never been overcome
by an equal, much lefs by fuch an inferior number of
troops.
Thefe fucceffes of the Thebans greatly alarmed the
Athenians, who continually fought to oppofe their
growing power. In this oppofition they were joined
by the Plataeans, who on this account became extreme¬
ly obnoxious to the Thebans, fo that they at laft came
to a refolution to furprife their city. This they accom-
pliihed, and entirely deftroyed it, together with Thef-
pia, another city extremely well affefted to Athens.
Soon after this, the Thebans, encouraged by their fiic-
cefs, began to think of enlarging their territories, and
of making encroachments on their neighbours, as they
faw other Hates had done before them. This fpirit of
conqueft is faid to have been raifed by their general
■Pelopidas; in which he was feconded by Epaminondas,
a perfon who, though like him endowed with- all the
necelfary qualities to make a complete captain or pa¬
triot, had till then preferred a private life, and lived in
a conftant courfe of virtue and the ftudy of philofophy.
He had as yet feldom appeared in public, except to get
himfelf exeufed from thofe ftate employments which
were fo eagerly courted by others. This, however, had
not hindered him from contrafting an intimate friend-
fiiip with Pelopidas, which had been daily improved by
the correfpondence of their tempers and principles, as
well as by that zeal which both difplayed for the good
of their country ; which laft had made them, even be¬
fore this time, appear together in aftion, and to fuch
advantage, that Epaminondas’s meirt could be no longer
concealed, nor indeed fuffer him to continue longer in
his beloved retirement: fo that he faw himfelf, at length,
defervedly placed at the head of the Theban troops ;
where he gave fuch early proofs of his future prowefs
and abilities, as juftly gave him the next rank to Pelo¬
pidas. Both came now to be confidered in the fame
light, as generals in the field, as governors at home,
and as complete ftatefmen in the council. When the
general treaty for reftoring peace to Greece came to be
propofed by the Athenians, and was upon the point of
being executed by the reft of the ftates, the Thebans
lefufed to agree to it, unlefs they were comprehended
in it under the name of Boeotians. This demand was as
• renuoufly oppofed by the other contrafting powers as
Vol. XX. Part I.
13 ] T H E
infifted cn by Epaminondas, who was there as ambaffa- Thebe?,
dor on the part of the Thebans. Agefilaus, in particu-
lar, told him in plain terms, that the Thebans ought toHjs
evacuate Boeotia, and leave the cities of it free and in-ence with
dependent. To which it was anfwered by him, that Agefdaus
the Lacedaemonians would do well to fet them the ex-.kinS of
ample, by reftoring Meflcmia to its ancient proprietors,Si5arLa’
and Laconia to its ancient freedom ; for that the pre-
tenfions of the city of Thebes to Boeotia were as well
founded, at leaft, as thofe of Sparta to thofe two coun¬
tries. After this he went on, and Ihowed how far
Sparta had aggrandized herfelf at the expence of her
neighbours : that peace might be indeed obtained, and
upon a folid and lading footing ; but that this could not
be otherwife than by bringing all to an equality. This
bold though juft remonftrance, in which not onlv
Thebes, but Greece in general was concerned, failed
not, however, to exafperate the haughty Spartan mo¬
narch ; and the Athenians, who had till now looked
upon the Thebans as dependents either on them or on
the Macedonians, were not a little offended to hear their
ambaffadors talk in fuch high terms. The refult of the
conference was, that Agefilaus ftruck the name of Thebes
out of the treaty, and declared war againft them, about
the year 371 B. C.
I he l hebans were in no fmall confirmation to fee The Spar-
themfelves engaged in a war with the powerful Spar-tanscleclare
tans, without any ally to aflift them ; and the reft of'v?r,againft
the Grecian ftates having made peace with the latter, 1 ie CS‘
began to look upon the ruin of the former as unavoid¬
able. However, they refolved to make the beft defence
they could ; and put their army under the command of
Epaminondas, affigning him, at his own requeft, fix
others to aft as counfdlors or aftiftants. The Theban
army confided at moft but of 6000 men, whereas that
of the enemy was at leaft thrice that number ; but Epa¬
minondas trufted moft tohishorfe, wherein he had much
the advantage both in quality and good management:
the reft he endeavoured to fupply by the difpofition of
his men, and the vigour of the attack. He even refufed
to fuffer any tp ferve under him in the engagement, but
fuch as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or die.
The two armies met at Leuftra, where the Spartans Are entire.
were defeated with great daughter, as related under that ty defeated
article. at Leuftra.
_ The viftorious general, defirous to improve this great
viftory, fent an herald, crowned with garlands, to com¬
municate it in form to the Athenians, in hopes that this
would be an effeftual means to reunite them to the The- I4
ban intereft. But it proved quite otherwife. Athens, The Athe-
which now looked upon them with a jealous eye, and n>ani jea-
had then in view the fovereignty of Greece, chofe ra- ^ous t^e
ther, if they could not wholly obtain it, to fliare it with lhebans'
Sparta, than to let the T hebans into the whole ; and
therefore even declined giving their herald audience.
However, the Thebans took care to ftrengthen them-
felves by alliances ; and, befides the Arcadians and E-
leans, had got the Phocians, Locrians, Acarnanians, Eu-
bceans, and other ftates, under their dependence : fo that r
they were now in a condition to aft offenfively againft The fhe-
the Spartans. Accordingly, under pretence of aflifting bans invade
the Arcadians, they entered Peloponnefus with a gallant beloponne-
army, with Epaminondas and Pelopidas at their head,
Here they were joined by the Arcadian and other con-anny buL
federate forces; fo that the whole amounted to 40,000, are repul-
R r fomeleck
Thebes.
16
THE [3
Tome fay 50,000 men, befides great numbers of thofe
who followed the camp, rather for plunder than fight¬
ing, and were computed about 20,000 more. 1 he
army was divided into four columns, and moved ftraight
towards Sellafia, the place of rendezvous, from which
they purfued their journey with fire and fword towards
Sparta. But here they were repulfed by Agefilaus,
who was then returned to that metropolis.
To repair, in fome meafure, this difgrace, and at
the fame time to leave fome lafting monument Avhioh
fhould redound as much to his glory as to the mortifi¬
cation of the Spartans, Epaminondas left not their ter¬
ritories till he had reftored the pofterity of the old
Meffenians to their ancient dominions, out of which they
had been bnnifhed near 300 years j rebuilt their capi-
The Meffe-tal, and left a ftr»ng garrifon for its defence. He
nians refto- was> however, nearly cut off in his return by Iphicrates,
andent'clo'11' w^om ^ie Athenians had fent with I 2,000 men to in-
ininions. " tercept him 5 but this laft loitered fo long at Corinth,
that the Thebans had paffed the defiles of Cenchrete,
the chief place where he could have obftrufted his re¬
treat had he taken poffeflion of it in proper time. Epa¬
minondas continued his march till he came in full view
of the city of Corinth. He found the roads choked
up with trees, rocks, Hones, and every thing that could
render them impaffable and the Corinthians well forti¬
fied, and refolute on a flout defence. But he came fo
furioufly upon them, notwithftanding all thefe difficul¬
ties, that they abandoned all their entrenchments and
outworks to the Thebans, and fled into the city. Thither
thefe purfued them fword in hand, and made an horrid
{laughter of them ; infomUch that Corinth muff have
unavoidably fallen into their hands, had their generals
thought fit to purfue thefe advantages 5 but whether
they were afraid of the Athenians falling upon them,
or apprehended fome dangerous ambufli in a country
with which they were but indifferently acquainted, or
whether the army was too much weakened through fo
many fatigues, or laftly, whether the coldnefs of the
feafon, it being then the depth of winter, would not
permit them to proceed farther, they immediately march-
Epaminon- ed towards Boeotia. This gave iuch an advantage to
das and Pe- their enemies, that they met with a very mortifying re-
in-acwl ft*" c'cPti°n their return to Thebes, where they were both
arrefted, and feized as flate-prifoners, for having pre¬
fumed to prolong their command four months longer
than the time limited by law, which time took in almoft
the whole of their expedition from their firft entrance
into Peloponnefus. However, at laft, the judges being
afhamed to proceed any farther, they were both honour¬
ably acquitted.
This profecution had been chiefly carried on and en¬
couraged by Meneclides a difcontented Theban, and a
bold and able fpeaker, who, by his artful calumnies at
the trial, had fo far prevailed with the judges as to get
Epavninondas deprived of the government of Boeotia for
a whole year, though he.could not gain the fame advan-
tage againfl: Pelopidas, who was a greater favourite of
the people, as being his fenior.
War re- t^"ls ^elay Spartans, with much difficulty, had
newed with recovered themfelves from their great defeat at Leudlra,
Sparta. and fettled their affairs in as good a pofture as they
could •, but though they had repulfed the Thebans in
Peloponnefus, yet from the exploits they had performed
there, efpecially in the difmembering the whole king-
.
The Corin
thians de¬
feated.
IS
graced at
Thebes.
14 ] THE
dom of Meffenia from them, they had ftill caufe to fear Thebes,
what their forces might do under two fuch generals 5 'T-
and had accordingly taken due care to ftrengthen them-
felves againfl; them, and to provide themfelves with a
great number of auxiliaries from other ftates, efpecially
from that of Athens, with whom they had renewed
their old treaty, and had agreed that each ftiould have
the command five days alternately. Soon after this
treaty the Arcadians renewed the war, and took Pal-
lene in Laconia by {form, put the garrifon to the fword,
and were prefently afiifted by the Argives and Eleans,
and efpecially by the Thebans, who fent to them 7000
foot and 500 horfe under the command of Epaminon¬
das. This fo alarmed the Athenians likewife, that they
immediately fent Gobrias with fome forces to oppofe his
paffage in good earnefi: ; and he fo behaved himfelf a-
gainfl: the Thebans, that they were forced to abandon
Peloponnefus a feeond time. This ill fuccefs gave frefti ^ ^
occafion to the enemies of Epaminondas to bl*.me his bans repu
conduct in the higheft terms, notwithftanding the fin-fed.
gular bravery with which he and his troops had forced
the pafs. Even his friends could not but fufpedf him
of partiality for the Spartans, in not purfuing his ad¬
vantage over them, and making a greater {laughter of
them when he had it in his power; whilft his enemies
made it amount to no lefs than treachery to his coun- 21
try : fo that their brave general was once more depriv-fPa®mof
* O ^ A r[nc (1PP72
ed of the government of Boeotia, and reduced to the(]e(|
condition of a private man. He did not continue long
under this difgrace, before an occafion offered to make
his fervices again of fuch neceflity to the ftate, as to
give him an opportunity to retrieve his fame, and
wipe off the ftain which his enemies had thrown upon
him.
The Theffalians, who had groaned fome time under
the tyranny of the ufurper Alexander, furnamed the n
Phercean, fent an embaffy to Thebes to implore their Pelopidas
aid and protedHon $ upon which Pelopidas was imme-teizedby
diately fent as ambaffador to expoftulate with him on^pber®
their behalf. He was then in Macedon, from whence
he took the young prince Philip, afterwards the celebra¬
ted monarch, in order to proteft and educate him ; and,
upon his return, marched diredfly to Pbarfalus in Thef-
faly, in order to punilh the treachery of fome mercena¬
ries, who had deferted the Thebans in that expedition ;
but when he came thither, he was furprifed to be met
by the tyrant at the head of a numerous army before
that city, whilft his own was but as an handful of men
in comparifon of it. Plowever, ■whether he fuppofed, or
would be thought to do fo, that Alexander came thither
to juftify himfelf, and anfwer to the complaints alleged
againft him, he went, with Ifmenias his colleague, to
him unarmed and unattended, not doubting but his cha-
ra£ler as ambaffador from fo powerful a republic, joined
to his own charafter and authority, would proteft them
from infult or violence : but he found himfelf miftaken ;
for Alexander had no fooner got them into his hands,
than he caufed them to be feized and fent prifoners to
Pheraea. • 25
The Thebans highly refenting the indignity offered Aj" ^
to their ambaffadors, fent immediately an army intotolefcue
Theffaly : but the generals were repulfed with great lofs^ de*
by the Pheraean ufurper $ and it was owing to Epann-featei
nondas, who was among them only as a private centinel,
that they were not totally cut off. For the Thebans,
finding
Ep
da;
ed.
Rei
‘i jopi
v 'Sue
Peli
: i at t
liar.
T H E [3
ibes. finding themfelves in fuch imminent danger, which they
r—^ attributed to the incapacity of their generals, had imme¬
diately recourfe to him, whofe valour and experience
had been fo often tried $ and, partly by perfuafions and
intreaties, and partly by threats, obliged him to take
fnon- the command. This foon gave a different turn to their
■ftor- affairs, and converted their flight into a fafe and regular
retreat; for he took the horfe and light-armed foot, and
placed himfelf at then* head in the rear, and charged the
enemy with fuch vigour and bravery, that he obliged
them to defift from their purfuit.
However, as the army had fulfered fuch lofs before
as not to be able to purfue them in their turn, he was
obliged to return with them to Thebes, with their pu-
fillanimous generals ; where the latter were fined 12,000
drachms each, and the former was reinftated in the com¬
mand, and fent with a new reinforcement to repair the
late difhonour, and profecute their revenge. The newrs
of his being in full march on this errand greatly alarm¬
ed the tyrant ; but Epaminondas, preferring the fafety
of his imprifoned colleague to all other confiderations,
forbore pufhing hoftilities to extremes, for fear of pro¬
voking the enemy to wreak all his fury on him : to pre¬
vent which, he contented himfelf for a while hovering
about with his army, and now and then with fuch flight
fkirmilhes as fhould intimidate the tyrant, and bring him
the fooner to make fome fatisfa&ory offers. Alexander
:sPc. being fully convinced of the fuperiority of the Theban
1. general, was glad to accept of a truce of 30 days, and
to reftore Pelopidas and Ifmenias to him ; upon which
he immediately withdrew his forces, and returned with
them to Thebes.
By this time Thebes wras raifed to a fufficient height
of reputation and glory to begin to aim in earneft at the
fovereignty of Greece. The main obftacle to it was,
that the other flates grew7 fo jealous of her prefent great-
nefs, as to enter into the ftrongeft alliances and confe¬
deracies to prevent its farther growth 5 fo that not being
able now to procure many allies at home, they made no
difficulty to feek for them abroad ; and the Lacedaemo¬
nians, by leading the van, gave them a plaufible pre¬
tence to follow their fteps, and procure an alliance with
Perfia, which at that time they found was ready to ac¬
cept of the offers on any terms ; the only queftion was,
which of the three ftates fhould. be preferred, Sparta,
Athens, or Thebes. At the fame time, the Thebans
propofed to their new confederates to fend likewife pro¬
per deputies to the Perfian court, in order to fupport
their refpedtive interefts ; which they readily agreed to.
were Arcadians, Eleans, and Argives; at the
per head of whofe deputation Pelopidas was fent on the be-
urti half of the Thebans •, which the Athenians being apprik
ed of, appointed two on their part. Thefe being all ar¬
rived at the Perfian court, began to purfue each their
refpedtive interefts •, but Pelopidas had by that time gain¬
ed fuch credit there, both for his lingular addrefs and
his extraordinary exploits, that he was diftinguifhed in a
particular manner from all the other deputies, and was
received by the king with manifeft marks of honour
and efteem, who freely owned himfelf convinced that
the Thebans were the people on whom he could moft
fafely depend ; and after having greatly applauded the
equity of his demands, ratified and confirmed them with
great readinefs, to the no fmall mortification of the other
ftates. The fubftance of them was, that the liberties
Thebes.
27
15 ] THE
formerly granted to the other towns of Greece fliould
be confirmed j that Meffenia, in particular, fhould con¬
tinue free and independent on the jurifdidtion of Sparta j
that the Athenians fhould lay up their fleet; and that
the Thebans fliould be looked upon as the ancient and
hereditary friends of Perfia.
The Thebans took advantage of the diflenfions which
prevailed among the Greeks as a pretence for increafing
their forces^ and Epaminondas thought it a proper op- the Ihe-
portunity for his countrymen to make a bold effort to'53"5 tiro''
obtain the dominion at fea, as they had obtained it in a
great meafure at land. He propofed it to them in a pub-£eet.
lie affembly, and encouraged their hopes from the expe¬
rience of the Lacedaemonians, who in Xerxes’s time had,
with ten fhips only at fea, gained the fuperiority over the
Athenians, who had no fewer than 200 ; and added,
that it would be a difgrace now to Thebes to fuffer two
fuch republics to engrofs the empire of fo extenfive an
element, without putting in at leaft for their ftiare of it.
The people readily came into his propofal, not-without
extraordinary applaufe, and immediately ordered 100
galleys to be equipped; and in the mean while fent him
to Rhodes, Chios, and Byzantium, to fecure thofe ftates
in their intereft, and get what afliftance he could from
them. His negotiations had all the fuccefs that could
be wifhed for, notwithftanding the ftrenuous oppofition
of the Athenians, and of their admiral Laches, who was
fent with a powerful fquadron againft him. But what
more effectually thwarted all his meafures, was the
work that they found for him at land, and the obliging
the Thebans to take part in the quarrels that then reign¬
ed among their neighbours : fo that -whatever projects
they had concerted, proved abortive for the prefent j
and the death of Epaminondas, which happened not
long after, put an effectual flop to them.
During the abfence of that general, and of his colleague
Pelopidas, the Orchomenians, being fpirited up by fome
Theban fugitives, had formed a defign to change the
Theban government into an ariftocracy j and 300 horfe-
men of the former had been actually fent to put it in exe¬
cution. Their project, however, was timely difeovered
by the vigilance of the magiftrates, who caufed them to a8
be feized, and put immediately to death. They next The city of
fent a fufficient force againft the city of Orchoinenos,
with orders to put all the men to death, and to fell the
women and children for flaves, which Was punctually
done •, after which they razed that noble city to the 29
ground. Pelopidas was then on his -way to Theffaly, at Pelopidas
the head of a powerful army, whither ho had been feni ma.njRe* a”
to aflift the Theffalians, who ftill groaned under the ty-Y^draliaa
ranny of Alexander the Pherman, and had made feveral tyrant,
brave efforts to recover their liberty, but had been ftilj
overpotvered by that uiurper. Being joined by the Thef¬
falians, he encamped in the face of the enemy, though
far fuperior in number, and confifting of above 20,000
men. A fierce engagement foon enfued, in which both
fides fought with uncommon bravery. The place where
the battle was fought was called Cynorepha/a, from fe¬
veral little hills on it, between which there ran a large
plain. Both fides endeavoured at firft to poll themfelves
on thefe eminences with their foot, whilft Pelopidas or¬
dered his cavalry to charge that of the enemy below $
which they did with fueh fuccefs, that they foon put
them to the rout, and purfued them over the plain. This
obliged the tyrant to gain the tops of the hills) where he
R r 2 greatly
Thebes.
3°
Is killed.
31
Alexander
defeated,
32
and at laft
murdered.
33
Ambition
ot the The¬
bans.
THE [3
greatly annoyed the Theffalians that endeavoured to
force thofe afcents ; fo that Pelopidas was obliged to
give over his purfuit to come to their relief. This im¬
mediately infpired the Thefl'alians with frelh courage,
who began again to charge the enemy at feveral onfets ;
and foon threw them into fueh diforder, that they were
forced to give way. Pelopidas no fooner perceived the
advantage, than he began to look about for Alexander,
with a defign of engaging him. Having found him out
as he was commanding his right wing, and endeavouring
to rally his men, he moved direclly to him ; and being
got near enough to be heard by him, challenged him to
decide the battle by iingle combat with him. Alexan¬
der, inftead of accepting the offer, turned about, and'
with all the fpeed he could ran to fcreen himfelf a-
mongft his guards. Upon this Pelopidas charged him
with fuch furious fpeed, that he obliged him to retire
farther, and (belter himfelf within the thickeft ranks j
the fight of which made him attack with frefh vigour,
and fight more defperately again!! him. He tried in
vain feveral times to break through their ranks to reacb
him, cutting down great numbers of thofe that came
forward to oppofe him : his eagernefs at length expofed
him fo far to the darts that were fliot at him at a di-
ftance, that fome of them went quite through his ar¬
mour, and gave him a defperate wound or two, while
the. ref! advanced and ftabbed him in the breaf! with
their fpears.
It is fcarcely poflible for words to exprefs the grief and
defpair which not only his brave Thebans, but likewife
the Tbeffalians and other allies, fhowed at the fight of
their flain general : fome of the latter, who had perceiv¬
ed the danger he was expofed to, came down the hill
with all poflible fpeed to his relief; but when they per¬
ceived that they Avere come too late to fave him, both
they and the ref! of the little army thought on nothing
now but to revenge his death. L hey rallied according¬
ly both horfe and foot, as quick as poflible, and began to
charge the enemy afrefh, and with fuch defperate fury,
that they at length gained a complete viftory over them|
and killed above 3000 of them in the purfuit, befides
a much greater number which they had flain on the field
of battlfe, though they flill looked upon all thefe advan¬
tages as vaflly too fmall to compenfate the lofs of their
brave general.
The news of his death had no fooner reached Thebes,
than the Avhole city Avas feen in as deep a mourning as
his army. HoAvever, they fent a reinforcement to it of
7000 foot and 700 horfe, as ivell to revenge the death
of that general, as to improve the viftory he had gained
over the enemy ; by the help of which they fell fo fu-
noufly on them, that they quickly broke and totally de¬
feated the (battered remains of Alexander’s army. Here¬
upon he Ayas forced to fue for peace, and to accept it on
fucb conditions as the conquerors thought fit to impofe.
He Avas at length difpatehed in his bed by his Avife
Thebe, afbfted by her brothers, about feven years after
his defeat. His body was aftenvards dragged alono-
the f!reels, trodden under foot, and left a prey to the
dogs.
All this while the Thebans Avere watching to improve
every commotion that happened, every fuceefs they met
with., to the forwarding of their then reigning and fa¬
vourite projeft, of increafing their poAver aboA'e all the
^ef!, and in their turn to give laws to Greece, Their
16 J T H E
late fuccels in Theflaly, and the rupture between the Tliebt;
Arcadians and Mantineans at the fame time, about fome WV"
confecrated money which the former had taken out of
the temple of Olympias to pay their troops employed a-
gainff the Eleans, and Avhich the latter called a doAvn-
right facrilege, befides other difeords that reigned in the
other Hates of Greece, gave frefh encouragement to
Thebes to fet up for arbitrefs in thofe difputes ; and fo
much the more, as thofe Avho had embezzled the facred
money, and wanted rather to embroil matters than to
have them brought to light, fent that republic Avord that
the Arcadians Avere juft upon the point of revolting to
the Spartans, and advifed them to come and put an im¬
mediate flop to it. At the fame time they difpatched
fome private direffions to a Theban officer at Tegea, to
apprehend feveral of their oAvn people as difturbers of
the peace. This Avas accordingly done, and feveral emi¬
nent perfons Avere confined as prifoners of ftate : they
were foon after difeharged, and loud complaints Avere
made again!! fuch arbitrary and unjuft proceedings. The
officer Avas accufed before the Theban fenate of having-
intermeddled in their affairs, and endeavoured to inter¬
rupt the good correfpondence between the Iavo ftates. It
was even infifted on by fome of the Tegeans, that he
fhould be indiffed and proceeded again!! by his princi¬
pals ; Avhilft the more moderate fort, Avho forefaAV the
confequences that Avere likely to attend fuch appeals,
and that it Avould infallibly bring the Thebans upon
them, loudly protefted again!! their marching into their
territories, and did all they could to prevent it. The
I hebans, hoAvever, were become too powerful and am¬
bitious to mifs fo fair an opportunity of getting once
more footing in Peloponnefus, as they had long ago pre¬
meditated ; and Epaminondas Avas fo far from making aE a^nQ.
fecret of their defign, that he told the Arcadian depu-das difpli
ties in juftification of it, that as it was on their accountfes the
that the Thebans engaged in the Avar, they had a6!ed ftat*s
treacheroufly with them in making peace Avith Athens^feece‘
Avithout their confent : hoAvever, that Avhen he had join¬
ed his army on his march into Peloponnefus to afiift
his friends, he Avould foon fee Avhat proofs the Arca¬
dians Avould give of their fidelity. This fpeech did not
fail to alarm them greatly ; efpecially as it Avas fpoken
in fuch a magifterial ftyle and threatening tone. Even
thofe Avho Avere beft affe£led to the Thebans could not
forbear exprefling their diflike of it ; and all that had
the welfare of Peloponnefus at heart readily agreed
Avith the Mantineans, that there Avas no time to be loft
to ufe all proper means to prevent the impending ftorm. ,,
Athens and Sparta were accordingly applied to, and^ccmM-
were eafily prevailed upon to affift the Mantineans, and nation
to come into a Hri6! confederacy again!! the Thebans
and to prevent all difputes about the command of the
army, it was agreed that each ftate fhould have it in its
OAvn territories ; Avhieh plainly flioAvs Iioav terrified they
all Avere at the apprehenfion of a frefli invafion of the
Thebans: for this was a point which neither the Spar¬
tans nor Athenians Avould have fo readily given up to
the Arcadians, though tbefe had formerly as ftrenuoufly
infifted upon it, even when they Avere almoft reduced to
the laft extremity, and had never been able to obtain it
till noAv, But Epaminondas was then in full march at
the head-of his Boeotian troops, Avitb fome Euboean auxi¬
liaries, and a body of flout Theffalian horfe ; and Avas
moreover to be joined by the Meffenians, Argives, and
feveral.
—
x >ee.
Epa non
das kes
an > nc-
cefs
leni on
Spi
II 1
■! *n^
1 Mai lea.
c' Eat! of
Mai ea.
1
ion-
4as ed.
THE [ 3*7 ] THE
feveral other nations, as icon as he had entered Pelo.
J ponnefus. The confederate array againft him had or¬
dered their rendezvous at Mantinea, the place which
they naturally concluded would be firft attacked, as be¬
ing the chief feat of thofe who had revolted from the
. Thebans. But whilft they were fecuring themfelves on
that fide, Epaminondas, who wifely confidered how far
this confederacy and expedition mull; have drained the
city of Sparta of its main ftrength, broke up privately
from Nemaea, where he had lain for fome time encamp¬
ed, and marched all that night with a defign to have
furprifed that important capital : but, his project being
timely difcovered, the vigilant king took care to difcon-
cert it; fo that, though the Theban general made feve-
ral vigorous aflaults on that city, he was fo ftoutly re-
pulfed, and the Spartans behaved with fuch intrepid va¬
lour, that he was forced to retire and turn his thoughts
againft Mantinea, which he judged by this time to have
been quite defencelefs. He judged rightly indeed ; for
the place was not only drained of its troops, but like-
wife of its inhabitants, who took that opportunity, whilft
the fcene of war was in Lacedaemon, to gather in their
harveft, and were fcattered all over the country ; fo that
he would not have met with any difficulty in gaining the
town, had not the Athenian auxiliaries come unexpect¬
edly to its relief, and given him a freffi repulfe.
Thefe two laft defeats greatly exafperated the Theban
general, who had never before experienced fuch difafters,
and could not but forefee that they would not only lef-
fen his reputation with his allies, but, if not timely re¬
trieved, would fully the glory of all his former exploits.
What added to his prefent difficulties was, that the time
allotted him for his expedition was almoft expired ; fo
that he had but a ffiort fpace left to undertake fome
brave atchievement, which might recover his and his
country’s honour, and keep up the fpirits of his auxili¬
aries, and thofe under his proteClion. He was moreover
got very far into his enemy’s country, and faw plain
enough how narrowly they watched all his motions, and
how well prepared they were to oppofe him whatever at¬
tempt he refolved upon, whether to attack them or to
retreat. Under all thefe difficulties, he rightly confider¬
ed, that he muft immediately refolve upon a decifive
battle •, in which, if his priftine fortune followed him,
he might at once retrieve his affairs, and make himfelf
mafter of Peloponnefus \ or, if that failed him, as it late¬
ly had done, fall honourably in the attempt. In this
engagement Epaminondas made the wifeft difpofition of
his troops, attacked and fought/ with the moft intrepid
courage and conduCI, and had opened himfelf a way
through the Spartan phalanxes, thrown them into the
utmoft confufion, and made a terrible daughter of them,
infomuch that the field of battle was covered with their
wounded and ftain, when, in the heat of the fight, ha¬
ving ventured himfelf too far in order to give them a
total overthrow, the enemy rallied again, pouring with
their whole fury three volleys of darts at him, fome of
which he drew out and returned to them, till at length,
being covered with wounds, and weakened with the lofs
of fo much blood, he received a mortal wound from a
javelin, and was with great difficulty refcued from the
enemy by his brave Thebans, and brought alive, though
fpeechlefs, into his tent. As foon as he had recovered
himfelf, he alked his friends that were about him what
was become of his fhield j and being told that it was
fafe, he beckoned to have it brought to him, and kiffed Thebes;
it. He next inquired which fide had gained the vie- v
tory 5 and being anfwered, The Thebans 5 he replied,
Then all is well : and upon obferving fome of his friends
bewail his untimely death, and leaving no children be¬
hind him, he is faid to have anfwered, Yes 5 I have left
two fair daughters, the vidtory of Leudlra, and this of
Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory. Soon after this,
upon drawing the point of the javelin out of his body,
he expired.
The eonfequenee of this great general’s fall, and of
this bloody fight in which neither party could boaft any
great advantage over the other, but a great lofs of men
on both fides, infomueh that Xenophon makes it a
drawn battle, was, that both parties agreed on a ceffation
of arms, and parted, as it were by confent, to take care
of their wounded and flain. The Thebans indeed thus
far gained the greater ftiare of glory, that they renewed
the fight, and after a moft defperate conteft, gained the
vidfory over thofe Spartans that oppoled them, and re¬
fcued the body of their dying general out of their hands.-
However, an effectual end was put to this bloody war,
and a general peace agreed on by all but Sparta j who
refufed it only becaufe the Meffenians were included in
it. But as to the Thebans, they had no great reafon to Peace eon-
boaft of this dear-bought vidtory, fince their power and eluded,
glory began to decline from that very time ; fo that it
may be truly faid, that it rofe and fet with their great
general. _ 4i
On the death of Epaminondas, the Thebans relapfed State of
into their former ftate of inactivity and indolence j and Thebes to
at laft having ventured to oppofe Alexander the Great, ^ Prefent
their city was taken, and the inhabitants flaughtered for
feveral hours, after which the buildings were deftroyed.
It was rebuilt by Caffander, but never afterwards made
any confiderabie figure among the ftates of Greece.
About the year 146 B. C. it fell under the power of
the Romans, under which it continued till the extindtion
of their empire by the Turks. It is now called Thive,
and is nothing to what it was formerly \ yet it is four
miles in circumference, but fo full of the ruins, that
there are not above 4000 Turks and Chriftians in it.
It is now famous for a fine fort of white clay, of which
they make bowls for pipes after the Turkiffi fafliion.
They are never burnt, but dry naturally, and become
as hard as a ftone. There are two mofques in Thebes,
and a great many Greek churches. It is feated be¬
tween two fmall rivers, in E. Long. 23. 40. N. Lat..
38' 17*
Thebes, in Egypt, one of the moft renowned cities
of the ancient world. It was alfo called Diofjolis, or
the city of Jupiter, and was built, according to fome,
by Ofiris, according to others by Bufiiis. Its lengthy Ancient
in Strabo’s time, was 80 furlongs, or ten miles } but this Univerfal
was nothing in companion of its ancient extent, before Hjlory,
it was ruined by Cambyfes, which,, we are told, was noV0^‘1’
lefs than 420 ftadia, or 52 miles and an half. The
wealth-of this city was fo great, that, after it had been
plundered by-the Perfians, what was found, on burning
the remains of the pillage, amounted to above 300 ta¬
lents of gold and 2300 of filver.
Mr Bruce vifited the ruins of this celebrated city $
but informs us that nothing now remains except four
temples, and thefe neither fo entire nor magnificent as
fome others at a place called Deruler a. Thebes has
been;
Thebes,
Theft.
Bruce's
Travels.
THE f 3
been celebrated by Homer for its hundred gates ; but
w Mr Bruce informs us, that no veftiges of thefe are now
remaining, neither can we difcover the foundation of
any wall it ever had ; “ and as for the horfemen and
chariots it isfaid to have fent out, all the Thebaid fown
with wheat would not have maintained one half of them.
Thebe!, at lead the ruins of the temples called Medinet
Tabu, are built in a long ftretch of about a mile broad,
mod parfimonioufly chofen at the fandy foot of the
mountains. Bhe Horti Penji/es, or hanging gardens,
were furely formed upon the fides of thefe hills, then
fupplied with water by mechanical devices. The utmod
is done to fpare the plain, and with great reafon j for all
the fpace of ground this ancient city has had to main¬
tain its myriads of horfes and men, is a plain of three
quarters of a mile broad between the town and the ri¬
ver, upon which plain the water rifes to the height of
four and five feet. All this pretended populoufnefs of
ancient Thebes I therefore believe to be fabulous.”
Mr Bruce, after examining the ground on which
Thebes is fuppofed to have dood, thinks that it had no
walls, and that confequently Homer’s dory of its having
an hundred gates is mifunderdood. The mountains of
the Thebaid dand clofe behind the town, not in a ridge,
but danding Angle, fo that you can go round each of
them. A hundred of thefe are faid to be hollowed out
for fepulchres and other purpofes. Thefe, he thinks,
were the hundred gates of Homer ; in proof of this they
are dill called by the natives Beeban el Meluhe, “ the
ports or gates of the kings.”
All that is faid of Thebes by poets or hidorians after
the days of Homer is meant of Diofpolis, which was
built by the Greeks long after Thebes waS dedroyed,
as its name tedifies •, though Diodorus fays it was built
by Bufiris. It was on the ead fide of the Nile, whereas
ancient Thebes was on the wed, though both are confi-
dered as one city ; and Strabo fays, that the river runs
through the middle of Thebes, by which he means be¬
tween Old Thebes and Diofpolis.
THEFT, or Simple Larceny, is “ the felonious
taking and carrying away of the perfonal goods of an¬
other.” This offence certainly commenced then, when¬
ever it was, that the bounds of property, or laws of tneum
and tuum, were edablilhed. How far fuch an offence
can exid in a date of nature, where all things are held
to be common, is a quedion that may be folved with
very little didiculty. I he didurbance of any individual
in the occupation of what he has feized to his prefent
ufe, feems to be the only offence of this kind incident to
fuch a date. But, unquedionably, in focial communi¬
ties, when property is edablidied, any violation of that
property is fubjeft to be punidied by the laws of fociety *,
though how far that punidiment fhould extend is matter
of confiderable doubt.
By the Jewiff law it was only punidied with a pe¬
cuniary fine, and fatisfa&ion to the party injured ;
and, in the civil law, till fome very late conditutions,
we never find the punidiment capital. The laws of
Draco at Athens punidied it with death : but his laws
■were faid to be written with blood ; and Solon after¬
wards changed the penalty to a pecuniary mulft. And
fo the Attic law in general continued y except that once,
in a time of dearth, it was made capital to break into a
garden and deal figs : but this law, and the informers
againd the offence, grew fo odious, that from them all
3
]
THE
malicious informers were dyled fycophunts; a name
which we have much perverted from its original mean¬
ing. From thefe examples, as well as the reafon of the
thing, many learned and fcrupulous men have quedion-
ed the propriety, if not lawfulnefs, of inflifting capital
punidiment for fimple theft. And certainly the natu-
ral punidiment for injuries to property feems to be the
lofs of the offender’s own property j which ought to be
univerfally the cafe, were all men’s fortunes equal. But
as thofe who have no property themfelves are generally
the mod ready to attack the property of others, it has
been found neceffary, indead of a pecuniary, to fubdi-
tute a corporal punidiment) yet how far this corporal
punidiment ought to extend, is what has occafioned the
doubt. Sir Thomas More and the Marquis Beccaria,
at the didance of more than two centuries, have very
fenfibly propofed that kind of corporal punidiment which
approaches the neared to a pecuniary fatisfadlion, viz.
a temporary imprifonment, with an obligation to labourr
fird for the party robbed, and afterwards for the public,
in works of the mod davifh kind $ in order to oblige the
offender to repair, by his indudry and diligence, the de¬
predations he had committed upon private property and
public order. But, notwithdanding all the remondran-
ces of fpeculative politicians and moralids, the punilh-
ment of theft dill continues throughout the greated part
of Europe to be capital : and Puffendorf, together with
Sir Matthew Hale, are of opinion that this mud always
be referred to the prudence of the legiflature j who are
to judge, fay they, when crimes are become fo enormous
as to require fuch fanguinary redridfions. Yet both
thefe writers agree, that fuch punidiment diould be
cautioufly inflidled, and never without the utmod ne«
cedity.
The Anglo-Saxon laws nominally punidied theft with
death, if above the value of twelvepence : but the cri¬
minal was permitted to redeem his life by a pecuniary
ranfom ; as, among their ancedors the Germans, by a
dated number of cattle. But in the 9th year of Hen¬
ry I. this power of redemption was taken away, and all
perfons guilty of larceny above the value of twelvepence
were diredted to be hanged; which law continues in force
to this day. For though the inferior fpecies of theft, or
petit larceny, is only punidied by whipping at common
law, or (by dat. 4 Geo. I. c. 11.) may be extended to
tranfportation for feven years, as is alfo exprefsly diredt*
ed in the cafe of the Plate-glafs Company1; yet the pu¬
nidiment of grand larceny, or the dealing above the va¬
lue of twelvepence (which fum was the dandard in the
time of King Atheldan, 800 years ago), is at common
law regularly death : which, confidering the great in¬
termediate alteration in the price or denomination of mo¬
ney, is undoubtedly a very rigorous conditution; and
made Sir Henry Spelman (above a century fince, when
money was at twice its prefent rate) complain, that
■while every thing elfe was rifen in its nominal va¬
lue, and become dearer, the life of man had continually
grown cheaper. It is true, that the mercy of juries will
often make them drain a point, and bring in larceny to
be under the value of twelvepence, when it is really of
much greater value : but this, though evidently judifi-
able and proper when it only reduces the prefent nomi¬
nal value of money to the ancient dandard, is otherwife
a kind of pious perjury, and does not at all excufe our
common larv in this refpe6t from the imputation of fe-
verity,
Tim I
THE
eft verity, but rather ftrongly confeffes the charge. It is
I likewife true, that by the merciful extenfions of the be-
1^ms' nefit of clergy by our modern flatute-law, a perfon who
' commits a fimple larceny to the value of thirteen pence
or thirteen hundred pounds, though guilty of a capital
offence, fhall be excufed the pains of death ; but this is
only for the firft offence. And in many cafes of fimple
larceny the benefit of clergy is taken away by ttatute :
as from horfe-ftealing in the principals and acceffories
both before and after the fa£t 5 theft by great and no¬
torious thieves in Northumberland and Cumberland j
taking woollen cloth from off the tenters, or linens,
fuftians, calicoes, or cotton goods, from the place of ma-
nufaffure (which extends, in the laft cafe, to aiders, aflif-
ters,procurers,buyers, and receivers); felonioufly driving
away, or otherwife ftealing one or more fheep or other
cattle fpecified in the afts, or killing them with intent to
Heal the whole or any part of the carcafe, or aiding or
affifting therein ; thefts on navigable rivers above the
value of forty fhillings, or being prefent, aiding and af¬
fifting thereat; plundering veffels, in diftrefs, or that
have fuffered (hipwreck; ftealing letters fent by the poll;
and alfo ftealing deer, hares, and conies, under the pe¬
culiar circumftances mentioned in the Waltham black
aft. Which additional feverity is owing to the great
malice and mifcbief of the theft in fome ofthefe inftances;
and others, to the difficulties men would otherwife lie
under to preferve thofe goods, which are fo eafily carried
off. Upon which laft principle the Roman law punifhed
mere feverely than other thieves the Abigei or ftealers of
cattle, and the Balnearii or fuch as ftole the clothes of
perfons who were waffling in the public baths ; both
which conftitutions feem to be borrowed from the laws
of Athens. And fo, too, the ancient Goths puniftied
with unrelenting feverity thefts of cattle, or of corn that
was reaped and left in the field : fuch kind of property
(which no human induftry can fufficiently guard) being
efteemed under the peculiar cuftody of heaven.
THEFT-Bote (from the Saxon theof i. e. fur, and
bate, compenfatio), is the receiving of a man’s goods
again from a thief, after ftolen, or other amends not to
profecute the felon, and to the intent the thief may
efcape; which is an offence punifhable with fine and im-
prifonment, &c.
THELIGONUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs moneecia, and order of polyandria ; and in the
natural fyftem ranging under the 53d order, Scabridce.
See Botany Index.
THEME, denotes the fubjeft: of an exercife for
young ftudents to write or compofe on.
THEMISON, a phyfician of Laodicea, a difciple of
Afclepiades. He founded the methodic feft, with a
view to the more eafily teaching and praftifing the art of
medicine. See Medicine, N° 37.). Themifon gave
the firft account of diacodium, which was prepared of
the juice and decoftion of poppy-heads and honey.
THEMISTIUS, an ancient Greek orator and pbi-
lofopher who flourilhed in the 4th century, was a na¬
tive of Paphlagonia. He had great intereft and favour
tvith the emperors in his time, and though a heathen,
was of a very tolerating fpirit. He taught for many years
at Conftantinople, of which city he was made praefeft:
by Julian and Theodofius ; and lived to a great age.
More than 33 °f his orations are ftill extant, befide com¬
mentaries on feveral parts of Ariftotle’s works. •
THE
THEMISTOCLES,the renowned Athenian admi¬
ral, general, and patriot, who gained the battle of Sa-
lamis againft the Perfians. Being banifhed his country .
by his ungrateful fellow-citizens, he fled to Artaxerxes
king of Perfia : but, in order to avoid taking up arms
againft his country, he flew himfelf, 464 B. G. See
Attica, N° 76, et feq.
THEOBALD, Lewis, the fon of an attorney at Sit-
tingbourn in Kent, was a well-known writer and critic
in the early part of the 18th century. He engaged in
a paper called the Cenfor, publithed in Mill’s Journal,
wherein, by delivering his opinions with too little referve
concerning fome eminent wits, he expofed himfelf to their
refentment. Upon the publication of Pope’s Homer, he
praifed it in terms of extravagant admiration, yet after¬
wards thought proper to abufe it as earneftly; for which
Pope at firft; made him the hero of his Dunciad, though
he afterwards laid him afide for another. Mr Theobald
not only expofed himfelf to the lathes of Pope, but iva-
ged war with Mr Dennis, who treated him more rough¬
ly, though with lefs fatire. He neverthelefs publithed
an edition of Shakefpeare, in which he correfted, with
great pains and ingenuity, many faults that had crept
into that poet’s writings. This edition is ftill in great
efteem ; being in general preferred to thofe publithed by
Pope, Warburton, and Hanmer. He alfo wrote fome
plays, and tranflated others from the ancients.
THEOBROMA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of polyadelphia, and order of pentandria ; and in
the natural fyftem ranging under the 37th order, Colum-
nifcrce. See Botany Index.
THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a ftate
governed by the immediate direftion of God alone :
fuch was the ancient government of the Jews before the
time of Saul.
THEOCRITUS, the father of paftoral poetry, was
born at Syracufe in Sicily. Two of his poems afcertain
his age ; one addreffed to Hiero king of Syracufe, w'ho
began his reign about 275 years before Chrift ; and the
other to Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt. Hiero,
though a prince diftinguifhed in arms and political wif-
dom, does not feem to have been a patron of learning.
This is fuppofed to have given birth to the 16th Idyl-
lium. From Syracufe Theocritus went to Alexandria,
where he f erns to have found a munificent patron in
Ptolemy Philadelphus, if we may judge from the pane¬
gyric which he compofed on that prince (the 17th Idyl-
lium). It has been faid that Theocritus was ftrangled
by Hiero, but we have not found evidence of this.
The compofitiohs of this poet are diftinguifhed, among
the ancients, by the name of Idylliums, in order to ex-
prefs the fmallnefs and variety of their natures : they
would now be called Mifcellanies, or Poems on feveral
Occajions. The firft nine and the eleventh are confeffed
to be true paftorals, and hence Theocritus has ufually
paffed for nothing more than a paftoral poet; yet he is
manifeftly robbed of a great part of his fame, if his
other-poems have not their proper laurels. For though
the greater part of his Idylliums cannot be called the
fongs of fhepherds, yet they have certainly their refpec-
tive merits. His paftorals ought to be confidered as the
foundation of his credit; upon this claim he will be ad¬
mitted for the finiftier as well as the inventor of his art,
and ivill be acknowledged to have excelled all his imi¬
tators as much as originals ufually do their copies.
- The;
[ 319 1
Theimito-
cles
T H E . F 3
.Theocritus Xhe works of this poet were firft publilhed in folio by
Theodore. ^ldus Manutius at Venice in 1495. A mone elegant
and corred edition was printed by Henry Stephens at
Paris in 1566. An edition was publiflied at Leipfic in
1765, with valuable notes by the learned Reilke. But
what will moft highly gratify the admirers of pafloral
poetry, is an edition publilhed in 1770, 2 vols 4to, by
Mr I homas Wharton. It is accompanied by the fcho-
lia -of the bell editors, and the different readings of 1 r
MSS.
1HEODOLITE, a mathematical inftrument for
meafuring heights and diftances. See Mensuration
and Surveying.
1HEODORE, king of Corlica, Baron Nieuhoff in
the county of La Marc in Weftphalia. He had his edu¬
cation in the French fervice, and afterwards went to
Spin, where he received fome marks of regard from
the duke of Riperda and Cardinal Alberoni; but being
of an unfettled difpofition, he quitted Spain, and travel¬
led into Italy, England, and Holland, in fearch of new
adventures. He at laft fixed his attention on Corfica,
and formed the fcheme of rendering himfelf fovereign
of that illand. He was a man of abilities and addrefs j
and having fully informed himfelf of every thing re¬
lating to Corfica, went to Eunis, where he fell upon
means to procure fome money and arms j and then went
to Leghorn, from whence he wrote a letter to the Cor-
fican chiefs Giafferi and Paoli, offering confiderable af-
fiftance to the nation if they would ele£t him as their
fovereign. This letter was configned to Count Dome¬
nico Rivarola, who a£!ed as Corfican plenipotentiary in
Tufcany, and he gave for anfwer, that if Theodore
brought the afliftance he promifed to the Corficans, they
would very willingly make him king.
Upon this he, without lofs of time, fet fail, and landed
at Tavagna in the fpring of the year 1736. He was a
man of a very ftately appearance, and the Turkilh drefs
he wore added to the dignity of his mien. He had a
few attendants with him 5 and his manners were fo en-
gaging, and his offers fo plaufible, that he was pro-
, claimed king of Corfica before Count Rivarola’s dif-
patches arrived to inform the chiefs of the terms upon
which he had agreed. He brought Avith him about 1000
.zequins of Tunis, befides fome arms and ammunition
and made magnificent promifes of foreign affiftance •’
whence the Corficans, who were glad of any fupport,
willingly gave into his fchemes. Theodore' inftantly
affumed every mark of royal dignity. He had his guards
and his officers of ftate ; he conferred titles of honour,
and ffruck money both of filver and copper. The fill
ver pieces were few in number, and can now hardly be
met with ; the copper coins have on one fide T. R. that
is, “ Theodorus Rex,” with a double branch croffed, and
round it this infeription, Pro bond publico Re. Co.
that is, “ For the public good of the kingdom of Cor¬
fica on the other fide is the value of the piece ; Cinque
fohdi, or five fous. 7
The Genoefe were not a little confounded with this
unexpected adventurer. They publiffied a violent mani-
fefio againft 1 heodore, treating him with great contempt j
but at the fame time ffiowing they were alarmed at his
appearance. 1 heodore replied, in a manifefto, with all
the calmnefs and dignity of a monarch ; but after beino-
about eight months in Corfica, perceiving that the peo^
pie began to cool in their affeCUons towards him, he af-
20 ] T H E
fembled his chiefs, and declared he would keep them m> TW
longer in a ftate of uncertainty, being determined toTliew
feek in perfon the fupport he fo long expefted. Lie fet- ^
tied an adminiftration during his abfence, recommended
unity in the ftrongeft terms, and left the ifland with re¬
ciprocal affurances of fidelity and affeClion. He went to
Holland, where he was fo fuccefsful as to obtain credit
from feveral rich merchants, particularly Jews, who
trufted him with cannon and other warlike ftores to a
great value, under the charge of a fupercargo. With
thefe he returned to Corfica in 1739 5 but by this time
the French, as auxiliaries to the Genoefe, had become
fo powerful in the ifland, that though Theodore threw
in his fupply of warlike ftores, he did not incline to ven¬
ture his perfon, the Genoefe having fet a high price on
his head. He therefore again departed; and after many
unavailing attempts to recover his crown, at length chofe
for retirement a country where he might enjoy the par¬
ticipation of that liberty which he had fo vainly endea¬
voured to give his Corficans > but his fituation in England
by degrees grew wretched, and he was reduced fo low as
to be^feveral years before his death a prifoner for debt in
the King’s Bench. At length, to the honour of fome
gentlemen of rank, a charitable contribution was fet on
foot for him in the year 1753. Mr Bofwell obferves,
that Mr Horace Walpole generoufly exerted himfelf for
the unhappy Theodore, and wrote a paper in The World
with great elegance and humour, foliciting a contribu¬
tion for the unhappy monarch in diftrefs, to be paid to
Mr Robert Dodlley bookfeller, as lord high treafurer.
This brought him a very handfome'fum, and he was fet
at liberty. That gentleman adds, that Air Whlpole has
the original deed, by which Theodore made over the
‘kingdom of Corfica in fecurity to his creditors, and that
he has alfo the great feal of the kingdom. Theodore
died in.1756, and was buried in St Ann’s churchyard,
Weftminfter 5 where, in 1757, a Ample unadorned monu¬
ment of marble was ere£t*d to his memory by a gentle¬
man, with an infcription, which, after mentioning fome of
the above particulars, concludes with the following lines 1
The grave, great teacher, to a level brings
Heroes and beggars, galley-flaves and kings :
But Theodore this moral learn’d ere dead, 1
Fate pour’d its leffon on his living head, >
Beftow’d a kingdom and deny’d him bread. J
THEODORET, biffiop of St Cyrrcus in Syria, in
the 4th century, and one of the moft learned fathers of
the church, was born in the year 386, and was the dif-
ciple of I heodorus Mopfueftia and St John Chryfoftom.
Having received holy orders, he was with difficulty per-
fuaded to accept of the bifliopric of St Cyricus, about
the year 420. Lie difeovered great frugality in the ex-
pences of his table, drefs, and furniture, but fpent con¬
fiderable fums in improving and adorning the city of
Cyricus. He erefted two large Bridges, public baths,
fountains, and aqueducts, and laboured with great zeal
and fuecefs in his diocefe. Yet his zeal was not confi¬
ned to his own church : he went to preach at Antioch
and the neighbouring towns j where he became admired
for his eloquence and learning, and had the happinefs to
convert multitudes of people. He wrote in favour of
John of Antioch and the Neftorians, againft Cyril’s
I welve Anathemas: he afterwards attacked the opinions
of Neftorius, and was depofed in the fynod held by the
Eutychians,
,
>■
j
THE
ret, Eutychians at Ephefus ; but was again reftored by the
( lius. gCneral council of Chalcedon, in which he w'as prefent,
' “mJin 45x. It is thought that he died loon after 5 though
others fay that he lived till the year 457. There are
dill extant Theodoret’s excellent Commentary on St
Paul’s Eoidles, and on feveral other books of the Holy
Scriptures. 2. His Ecclefiallical Hiftory from the time
of Arius to Theodolius the Younger. 3. The Hiltory
of the famous Anchorites of his time. 4. Epiltles.
5. Difcourfes on Providence. And, 6. An excellent
treatife againft the Pagans, entitled, De Curandis Grce-
corum Ajfeflibus; and other works. The belt edition
of all which is that of Father Sirmond in Greek and
Latin, in 4 vols folio.
THEODOSIUS I. called the Great, avas a native
of Spain. The valour he had drown, and the great fer-
vices he had done to the empire, made Gratian, when
THE
attacked by the Goths and Germans, to admit him as a Theodofua
partner in the government. He received the purple in " .
379, aged 43. See Constantinople, N° 77—88. ,
THEOGONY, from 0s#j, God, and yom, “ feed,
offspring,” that branch of the heathen theology which
taught the genealogy of their gods.
Hefiod gives us the ancient theogony in a poem under
that title. Among the molt ancient writers, Dr Burne
obferves that theogony and cofmogony fignified the
fame thing. In effecd, the generation of the gods of the
ancient Perfians, fire, water, and earth, is apparently no
other than that of the primary elements.
THEOGNIS, an ancient Greek poet of Me.gara
in Aehaia, fiouriihed about the 59th Olympiad, 144
B. C. We have a moral work of his extant, containing
a fummary of precepts and refleftions, ufuaily found in
the collections of the Greek minor poets.
C 321 ]
THEOLOGY
>n.
T5 a Greek word (SuXt'/ict), and fignifies that fcience
which treats of the being and attributes of God, his
relations to us, the difpenfations of his providence, his
will with refpe£t to our actions, and his purpofes with
refpeft to our end. The word was firft ufed to denote
the fables of thofe poets and pbilofophers who wrote of
the genealogy and exploits of the gods of Greece. It
was afterwards adopted by the earlieft writers of the
Chrillian church, who ilyled the author of the Apoca-
lypfe, by way of eminence, 0 (hoAaye;, the Divine.
Although every pagan nation of antiquity had fome
tutelary deities peculiar to itfelf, they may yet be con-
fidered as having all had the fame theology, fince an in¬
tercommunity of gods was univerfally admitted, and the
heavenly bodies were adored as the diimajorum gentium
over the whole earth. This being the cafe, we are hap¬
pily relieved from treating, in the fame article, of the
truths of Chrillianity and the fidtions of paganifm, as
we have elfewhere traced idolatry from its fource, and
ffewn by what.means “ the fooliib hearts of men be¬
came fo darkened that they changed the glory of the in¬
corruptible God into an image made like to corruptible
man, and to birds, and four-footed beads, and creeping
things.” See Polytheism.
The abfurdities and inconfidency of the pretended re¬
velation of the Arabian impodor have been fufficiently
expofed under the words Alcoran and Mahometa¬
nism *, fo that the only theology of which we have to treat
at prefent is the Ch'rijlian theology, which comprehends
that which is commonly called natural, and that which
is revealed in the feriptures of the Old and New Teda
ments. Thefe taken together compofe a body of fcience
fo important, that in compa.rifon with it all other fei-
etices fink into infignificance ; for without a compe¬
tent knowledge of the attributes of God, of the feveral
relations in which he dands to us, and of the ends for
which we were created, it is obvious that we mud wan¬
der through life like men groping in the dark, drangers
to the road on which we are travelling, as well as to the
fate awaiting us at the end of our journey.
But if this knowledge be neceffary to all Chridians,
it is doubly fo to thofe who are appointed to feed the
VOL. XX. Part I.
3
dock of Chrid, and to teach the ignorant what they are to be flu-
to believe, and what to do, in order to work out theird‘ecl care-
own falvation. The wifdom and piety of our aocedors
have accordingly founded profeffordiips of theology inLndedfor
all our univerfities, where the principles of our religion the fervice
are taught in a fydematic and fcientific manner j andofthe-
the church has ordained, that no man fhall be admitted cllurch'
to the office of a preacher of the gofpel who has not at¬
tended a regular courfe of fuch theological ledlures.
It mud not, however, be fuppofed, that, by merely
lidening to a courfe of lectures however able, any man
will become an accomplidied divine. The principles of
this feience are to be found only in the word and works
ot God ; and he who would extraH them pure and un-
fophidicated, mud dig for them himfelf in that exhaud- 4
iefs mine. To fit a man for this important invediga-Trevious
tion, much previous knowledge is requifite. He mud knowledge
dudy the works of God fcientifically before he can per- re<luifite
ceive the full force of that tedimony which they bear fecution of*
to the power, the wifdom, and the goodnefs of their au-this ftudy.
thor. Hence the neceffity of a general acquaintance
with the phyfical and mathematical fcietices before a
man enter on the proper dudy of theology, for he will
not otherwife obtain jud and enlarged conceptions of the
God of the univerfe. See Physics, N° 115.
But an acquaintance with the phyfical and mathema¬
tical fciences is not alone a fufficient preparation for the
dudy of theology. Indeed it is poffible for a man to
devote himfelf fo wholly to any of thefe fciences, as to
make it counteraft the only purpofes for which it can
be valuable to the divine ; for he who is condantly im-
merfed in matter, is apt to fufptH that there is no other
fubdance 5 and he who is habituated to the routine of
geometrical demondration, becomes in time incapable of
reafoning at large, and edimating the force of the vari¬
ous degrees of moral evidence. To avert thefe difagree-
able confequenees, every man* before he enter on the
dudy of that fcience which is the fubjeH of the prefent
article, diould make himfelf acquainted with the princi¬
ples of logic, the feveral powers of the human mind,
and the different fources of evidence ; in doing which he
will find the greated affidance from Bacon’s Novum Or-
S f ganttm,
323 T H E O
Int oQuc- ganutn, Locke’s E/Jliy on the Human Underfunding,
L field’s Ejj'uys on the IntelleEiual and Aciive Powers
Man, and Tat ham’s Chart and Scale of Truth. Theft;
works will teach him to think juftly, and guard him
againft a thoufand errors, which thofe who have not
laid fuch a foundation are apt to embrace as the truths
of God.
J he man who propofes to fludy theology ought to
have it in view as the ultimate end of his labours, to
impart to others that knowledge which he may procure
lor himfdlf. “ Amongft the many marks which diftin-
guifh the Chrijlian philofopher from the Pagan, this
* IVarbur- (fays a learned writer *) is one of the moft linking—the
Pagan fought knowledge in a felfifh way, to fccrete it
for his own ufe j the Chriflian feeks it with the generous
purpofe (firft in view, though lafl in execution) to im¬
part it to others. The Pagan philofopher, therefore,
having cultivated the art of thinking, proceeds to that
edfpeaking, in order to difplay his vanity in the dexter¬
ous ufe of deceit. On the other hand, the ChriJUan
philofopher cultivates the art of fpeaking, for the foie
purpofe of difleminating the truth in his office of preach¬
er of the gofpel.”
As every man, before he enters on the proper fludy
of theology, receives, at leafl in this country, the rudi¬
ments of a liberal education, it may perhaps be fuperflu-
ous to mention here any books as peculiarly proper to
teach him the art of fpeaking : we cannot however for¬
bear to recommend to our fludent the attentive perufal
of Quintilian’s Infhtutions, and Dr Blair’s Leclures on
Rhetoric and the Belles Lrttres. A familiar acquaint¬
ance with thefe works will enable him, if he be endow¬
ed by nature with talents fit for the office in which he
propofes to engage, to exprefs his thoughts with cor-
reftnefs and elegance j “ without which, it has been
well obferved, that fcience, efpecially in a clergyman,
is but learned lumber, a burden to the owner, and a nui-
fance to every "body elfe.”
No man can proceed thus far in the purfuits of gene¬
ral fcicnce without having been at leafl initiated in the
learned languages •, but he who intends to make theolo¬
gy his profeffion fhould devote himfelf more particularly
to the fludy of Greek and Hebrew, becaufe in thefe
tongues the original fcriptures are written. He who is
incapable of confulting the original fcriptures, muft reft
his faith, not on the fure foundation of the word of
God, but on the credit of fallible tranflators 5 and if he
be at any time called on to vindicate revelation againft
the feoffs of infidelity, he will have to ftruggle with
many difficulties which are eafily folved by him who is
^ mafter of the original tongues.
Cautions to The ftudent having laid in this flock of preparatory
be obferved knowledge, is now qualified to attend with advantage
iosMhelec-^ tll€ological figures of a learned profeflbr j but in
tures of a th*5; he Ihould be very careful neither to admit
profefTor. rmr rejedl any thing on the bare authority of his mafter.
Bight principles in theology are of the utmoft import-
LOGY.
ance, and can reft on no authority inferior to that of i,)tr0(i
the word of God. On this account we have long been tisn
of opinion, that a profeffor cannot render his pupils fo
much fervice by a fyftematical courfe of leclures, as by
directing their fludies, and pointing out the road in
which they may themfelves arrive in the fhorteft time at
the genuine fenfe of the facred fcriptures. In this opi¬
nion we have the honour to agree with the ablelt lec¬
turer * in theology that we have ever heard. The au¬
thors of all fyflems are more or lefs prejudiced in behalf
of fome particular and artificial mode of faith. He,4,//of
therefore, who begins with the fludy of them, and after-Wm 3
wards proceeds to the facred volume, fees with a jaun¬
diced eye every text fupporting the peculiar tenets of
his firft ma#er, and afls as abfurd a part as he who tries
not the gold by the copel, but the copel by the gold.
Before our young divine, therefore, fit down to the fe-
rious perufal of any one of thofe infitutes or bodies of
theology which abound in all languages, and even before
he read that which the nature of our work compels us
to lay before him, w'e beg leave to recommend to his
confideration the following
Preliminary Directions for the Study of
Theology. ,
fi
Christian theology is divided into two great parts,Chriftia 1
natural and revealed; the former comprehending thatd'eoing; t
which may be known of God from the creation of ihetiivide(i [
world, even his eternal power and Godhead ; the lat-g^p.
ter, that which is difeovered to man nowhere but in the
facred volume of the Old and New Teftaments. j
Concerning the extent of natural theology many opi- Firftprij J
nions have been formed, whilft fome have contended bplesol; |
that there is no fuch thing. Into thefe difputes Wetluoi(® ]
mean not at prefent to enter. We believe that one of^j
them could have had no exiftence among fober and en¬
lightened men, had the contending parties been at due
pains to define with accuracy the terms which they ufed.
Whatever be the origin of religion, which we have en¬
deavoured to afcerlain elfewbere (fee Religion, N°6—
17.), it is obvious, that no man can receive a written
book as the word of God till he be convinced by fome
other means that God exifts, and that he is a Being of
power, wifdom, and goodnefs, who watches over the
condufl of his creature man. If the progenitor of the
human race was inftru£led in the principles of religion
by the Author of his being (a faft of which it is diffi¬
cult to conceive how a confiftent theift can entertain a
doubt), he might communicate to his children, by na¬
tural means, much of that knowledge which he himfelf
could not have difeovered had he not been fupernatu-
rally enlightened. Between illuftrating or proving a, , ||
truth which is already talked of, and making a difeo-
very of what is wholly unknown, every one perceives
that there is an immenfe difference (a).
; To beings whofe natural knowledge originates wholly
from.
(a) The diferiminating powers of Ariftotle will not be queftioned ; and in the following extra# made by Cicero
ilora.r°me ‘lls works which are now loft, he expreffes our fentiments on this important fubje# with his ufual
preciion Praeclare ergo Ariftoteles, Si essent, inquit, qui fub terra femper habitaviffent, bonis, et illuftri-.
bus domicihis, quae effent ornata fignis atque pifturis, inflruHaque rebus iis omnibus, quibus abundant ii, qui beati
putantur, nec tanacn exiffent unquam fupra terrain ; ACCEFI5S£NT AUTEM FAMA ET AUDITIQNE, esse quoDBAivf
nemeir
T H E O
frt, unary from fenfation, and wliofe minds cannot, but by much
pi! tioiis. difcipline, advance from fenfe to fcience, a longferies of
*— revelations might be neceflary to give them at firft juft
notions of God and his attributes, and to enable them
*°jr (. to perceive the relation between the effedft and its caufe,
n,oi shy f0 as to infer by thfe powers of their own reafon the ex-
rcp pJ iftence of the Creator from the prefence of his creatures,
rtv tlons; revelations, however, could be fatisfadlory only to
thofe who immediately received them. Whenever the
Deity has been pleafed by fupernatural means to commu¬
nicate any information to man, we may be fure that he
has taken effe&ual care to fatisfy the perfon fo highly
favoured that his underftanding was not under the in ¬
fluence of any illufion } but fuch a perfon could not
communicate to another the knowledge which he had
thus received by any other means than an addrefs to his
rational faculties. No man can be required to believe,
no man indeed can believe, without proof, that another,
who has no more faculties either of fenfation or intelledl
than himfelf, has obtained information from a fource to
which he has no poflible accefs. An appeal to miracles
would in this cafe ferve no purpofe •, for we muft believe
in the exiftence, power, wifdom, and juftice of God, be¬
fore a miracle can be admitted as evidence of any thing
but the power of him by whom it is performed. See
Miracle.
anc it It is therefore undeniable that there are fome princi-
ma i pro-ples 0f theology which may be called natural; for
ural" though it is in the higheft degree probable that the pa-
jri, )!eSi rents of mankind received all their theological know¬
ledge by fuptrnatural means, it is yet obvious that fome
parts of that knowledge muft have been capable of a
proof purely rational, otherwife not a Angle religious
truth could have been conveyed through the fuceeeding
generations of the human race but by the immediate in-
fpiration of each individual. We indeed admit many
propofitions as certainly true, upon the foie authority of
the Jewifh and Chriftian fcriptures, and we receive thefe
fcriptules with gratitude as the lively oracles of God }
LOG Y. .?2 .?
but it is felf-evidcnt that we could not: do either the one Preliniirai
or the other, were we not convinced by natural means L>at‘ J1*' ‘‘j
that God exifts, that he is a Being of goodnefs, juftice,
and power, and that he infpired with divine wifdom the
penmen of thefe facred volumes. Now, though it is
very poflible that no man or body of men, left to them-
fcl ves from infancy in a defert world, would ever have
made a theological difeovery j yet whatever propofitionst
relating to the being and attributes of the firft caufe and
the duty of man, can be deraonftrated by human reafon,
independent of written revelation, may be called natu¬
ral theology, and are of the utmoll importance, as being
to us the firft principles of all religion. Natural the¬
ology, in this fenfe of the word, is the foundation of
the Chriftian revelation 5 for without a previous know¬
ledge of it, we could have no evidence that the fcrip¬
tures of the Old and New Teftaments are indeed the
word of God.
Our young divine, therefore, in the regular order of ,^^2
his ftudies ought to make himfelf mafter of naturalxh&nXavy \<s
theology before he enter upon the important talk of he feudied
fearching the fcriptures. On this fubjeft many bookslie^nr® thc
have been publithed in our own and other lanfruap:es;^”^rln,es
but perhaps there is none more worthy of attentiofi than t-lon>
the Religion of Nature delineated by MrWollafton (b).
It is a work of great merit, and bears ample teftlmony
to its author’s learning and acutenefs : yet we think it
ought to be read with caution. Mr Wollafton’s tl3Cory ^oi-Vrc-
of moral obligation is fanciful and groundlefs 5 and commend-
whilft we readily acknowledge that he demonftratesed.
many truths with elegance and perfpieuity, we cannot
deny that he attempts a proof of others, for which we
believe no other evidence can be brought than the de¬
clarations of Chrift and his apoftles in the holy fcrip¬
tures. To fupply the defeats of his theory of morals,
we would recommend to the ftudent an attentive perufal
of Cumberland on the Law of Nature, and Paley’s Ele¬
ments of Moral Philofophy. A learned author* ?&-*Waxburi
firms of Cumberland, that “ he excels all men in fixing^//.
S f 2 the
VUMEN, LT VIA! DEORUM •, deinde aliquo tempore, patefa&is terree faucibus, ex illis abditis fedibus evadere in liaec
loca, quae nos incolimus, atque exire potuifient : cum repente terrain, ct maria, ccelumque vidifient: nubium mag-
nitudinem, ventorumque vim cognoviffent, adfpexifientque folem, ejufque turn magnitudinem, pulchritudinemque,
turn etiam efficientiam cognoviffent, quod is diem efficeret, toto coeloluce diffufa: cum autem terras nox opacaffet,
turn coelum totum cernerent aftris diftin&um et ornatum, lunseque lumiiium varietatem turn crefcentis, turn fene-
feentis, eorumque omnium ortus et occafus, atque in omni reternitate ratos, immutabilelque curfus : haec cum vi-
derent, frofecto et ESSE DEOS, et halc TANTA opera DEORUM esse arbitrarentur.” De Nat. Deorum,
lib. n. § 37.
From this paffage it is evident, that the Stagyrite, though he confidered the motions of the heavenly bodies,
the ebbing and flowing of the fea, and the other phenomena of nature, as affording a complete proof of the being
and providence of God, did not however fuppofe that from thefe phenomena an untaught barbarian would difeover
this fundamental principle of religion. On the contrary, he expretly affirms, that before a man can feel the
force of the evidence Avhich they give of this important truth, he muft have heard of the exiftence and power
of God.
(b) It may not be improper to inform the reader, that Mr Wollafton, the author of the Religion of Nature,
was a different man from Mr Woolfton, who blafphemed the miracles of our Saviour. The former was a clergy¬
man of great piety, and of fuch moderate ambition as to r'efufe one of the higheft preferments in the church of
England wThen it was offered to him *, the latter was a clergyman likewife, but remarkable only for gloomy infide¬
lity, and a perverfe defire to deprive the wretched of every fource of comfort. In the mind of the former, philo¬
fophy and devotion were happily united *, in the mind of the latter, there was neither devotion nor fcience. Yet
thefe writers have been frequently confounded ; fometimes through inadvertence from the fimilarity of their name ;
and fometimes, we are afraid, defignedly, from a weak and bigotted abhorrence of every fyftem of religion that
pretends to have its foundation in reafon and in the nature of things.
324
l^e !me 8rounds ITlcr^ obligation, out of which na-
t ^  . tural law and natural religion both arife j’’ and we
have ourfelves never read a work in which the various
duties which a man owes to his Maker, himfelf, and his
fellow-creatures, are more accurately ftated or placed
on a furer bafis than in the moral treatife of the arch¬
deacon of Carlille.
As Wollafton demonftrates with great perfpicuity,
the being and many of the attributes of God, it may
perhaps appear fuperfluous to recommend any other book
on that fubjecl. Ihe prefent age, however, having
among ctner wonderful phenomena, witneiTed a revival
of Atheifra, we would advife our Hudent to read with
much attention Cudworth’s Intellectual Syftem, and to
read it rather in Molheim’s Latin tranllation than in
the author’s original^ Ehglifh. It is well known that
Cud worth wwote his incomparable work in confutation
Hobbes s philofophy j but inftead of confining him-
felf to the whimfies of his antagonift, which were in a
little time to fink into oblivion, he took a milch wider
range, and traced atheifm through all the mazes of an¬
tiquity, expofing the weaknefs of every argument by
which fuch an abfurdity had ever been maintained. In
exhaufting the metaphyfical queftions agitated among
the Greeks concerning the being and perfections of God,
he has not only given us a complete hiftory of ancient
learning, as far as it relates to thefe inquiries, but has
in fa ft anticipated moft of the fophifms of our modern
atheills, who are by no means fuch dilcoverers as they
are fuppofed to be by their illiterate admirers.
The ftudent having made himfelf mailer of natural
theology, and carefully endeavoured to afeertain its li¬
mits, is now prepared to enter on the important talk of
feaichjng the feriptures. In doing this, he ought to di-
\eil himfelf as much as pollibleof the prejudices of edu¬
cation in behalf of a particular fyltem of faith, and fit
T2 down to the Uudy of the facred volume as of a work to
riow the which he is an entire ftranger. He ought firil to read
are^to'be ^a mora^ hiftory of fafls and doCtrines, beginning
itudied. with the books of Mofes, and proceeding through the
relt, not in the order in which they are commonly pub-
liihed, but in that in which there is reafon to believe
they were written (fee Scriptures'). If he be mailer
of the Hebrew, and Greek languages, he will doubtlefs
prefer the original text to any verfion *, and in thisper-
ufal we would advife him to confult no commentator,
becaufe his objefl at prefent is not to lludy the dodlrines
contained in the bible, but merely to difeover what are
the fubjeas of which it treats. Many hillories of the
bible have been written ; and were we acquainted with
a good one, we fhould recommend it as a clue to direa
the. young divine’s progrefs through the various books
which compofe the facred volume. Stackhoufe’s hillory
haa been much applauded by fome, and as much cen-
fured by others. It is not a work of which we can ex-
prefs any high degree of approbation ; but if read with
attention, it may no doubt be ufeful as a guide to the
feries of faas recorded in the feriptures. Between the
Old and New 1 eftaments there is a great chafm in the
hiftory of the Jewilli nation j but it is fupplied in a very
able and fatisfa&ory manner by Dr Prideaux, whole
O/t/ and New Tejiatnent eonneEled is one of the molt va¬
luable hiftorical works in our own or any other lart-
guage. Shuckford’s Sacred and Profane Hijlory of the
War„d canne&ed is likewife a work of merit, and may
4
THEOLOGY.
be read vvith advantage as throwing light on many paC-WiJ
lages of the Old Teltament: but this author is not in-Direftk
titled to the fame confidence with Prideaux, as his learn-
ing was not fo great, and his partialities feem to have
been greater.
In thus making himfelf mailer of the hillory of the
Old and New Teltaments, the Undent will unavoidably
acquire fome general notion of the various dodlrines
which they contain. Thefe it will now be his bufinefs
to lludy more particularly, to afeertain the precife
meaning of each, and to dillinguilh fuch as relate to the
whole human race, from thofe in which Abraham and
his pollerity were alone interelled. He mull therefore
travel over the facred volume a fecond time ; and Hill
we would advife him to travel without a guide. From
Walton’s Polyglot bible, and the large colle&ion called
Critici f ieri, he may indeed derive much affillance in
his endeavours to afeertain the fenfe of a difficult text •
but we think he will do well to make little ufe of com!
mentators and expofitors, and dill lels of fyllem-build-
ers, till he has formed fome opinions of his own refpeft-
ing the leading do&rinesof the Jewiffi and Chriftianre.
ligions.
“ Imprefled (fays an able writer) with an awful fenfe
of the importance of the facred volume, the philofophi-
cal divine will (hake off the bias of prejudices however
formed, of opinions however fandlioned, and of paffions
however conflitutional, and bring to the lludy of it the
advantage of a pure and impartial mind. Inllead of
wafting all his labour upon a number of minute and lefs
fign.ificant particulars, and of refining away plain and
obvious .fenfe by the fubtleties of a narrow and corrofive
mind, his firft objecl will be to inftitute a theological in¬
quiry into the general defign of the written word, and
from principles fully contained and fairly underftood, to
illuftra te the true nature and genius of the religious dif
penfation in all its parts. He will mark the difference
between the firft and fecond covenants, and obferve the
conneflion that fubfifts between them. He will trace
the temporary economy of the Old T. ef ament, and weigh
the nature and intent of the partial covenant with the
Jews 5 obferving with aftonifhment how it was madein-
trodudlory of better things to come : and he will follow
it through the law and the prophets in its wonderful
evolutions, till he fee this vaft and preparatory machine
©f providence crowned and completed in the eternal
gofpel. I his New Tef ament, the laft and bell part of
the religious difpenfation, he will purfue through the
facred pages of that gofpel with redoubled attention}
contemplating the divine foundation on which it claims
to be built, the fupernatural means by which it was exe¬
cuted, and the immortal end which it has in view * Tathad
In the courfe of this inquiry into the import of ihe Mart and
facred volume, the ftudent will pay particular attention
to the circumftances of the age and country in which its lU *
various writers refpedlively lived, and to the nature of
the different f yles, analogical and parabolical, in which
it is written. He will likewife keep in mind that God,
whom it claims for its author, is the parent of truth,
and that all his actions and difpenfations muft be con-
fiftent with one another. He will therefore compare the
different paffages of the Old and New Teftaments which
relate to the fame dodlrine, or to the fame event, rea*
fonably concluding that the bible muft be the bell inter¬
preter of itfelf j and though the opinions which he thus
forms
Pre
l)ii
Ap
fyit
div.
con
! 6i^
:M<
per
T H E O
,inary forms may often be erroneous, they will feldom be dan-
tions. p.erous errors, and may eafily be correaed by mature re-
   deftion, or by confulting approved authors who have
treated'before him of the various points which have
been the fubjea of his ftudies. Of this mode of pro¬
ceeding one good confequence will be, that, having
from the facred feriptures formed a fyftem of theology
for himfelf, he will afterwards ftudy the fyftems of other
men without any violent prejudices for or againft them;
he will be fo much attached to his own opinions as not
to relinquilh them in obedience to mere human autho¬
rity, at the fame time that he will be ready to give them
up when convinced that they are not well founded ; and
if he have read the feriptures attentively, he will have
acquired fuch a love of truth as to embrace her where-
ever (lie may be found.
As we have fuppofed that every man, after having
formed a theological fyftem of his own, will confult the
fyftems of others, it may perhaps be expefted that we
(hould here recommend thofe which, in our opinion,
ved are moft worthy of his attention. I o do this, however,
5would, we apprehend, be an interference with the rights
of private judgment. But left we ihould be fufpe&ed
of wilhing to bias the mind of the young ftudent toward
the ftiort fyftem which we are obliged to give, we ftiall
juft obferve, that by the divines of what is called the
Arminian fchool, Epifcopius’s Theologur Injlituttones,
Limborch’s Theologta Chrijliana, and Locke’s Reajon-
ablenefs of ChriJUanity, have long been held in the
higheft efteem ; whilft the followers of Calvin have pre¬
ferred the Injlitutiones of their matter, Turretine’s Infti-
tutio Theologice Klenchcce, and Gill’s Body oj Divinity.
This laft work has many merits and many defers. Its
ftyle is coarfe and tedious 5 and the author embraces
every opportunity of introducing the diferiminating te¬
nets of his fed : but his book is fraught with profound
learning, breathes the fpirit of piety, and may be read
with advantage by every divine who has previoufly
formed the outlines of a fyftem for himfelf.
j». As the Jewifti and Chriftian difpenfations are elofely
:nd- linked together, being only parts of one great whole, it
t^?, is impoflible to have an adequate notion of the latter
without underftanding the defign of the former. Now,
though the Mofaic religion is nowhere to be learned
but in the Old Teftament, it may be convenient for
our ftudent, after he has formed his own opinions of it
from that facred fource, to know what has been writ¬
ten on the fubje£t by others. For illuftrating the ri¬
tual law, a learned prelate warmly recommends the
Dufflor Dubitnntium of Maimonides, and Spencer’s
book entitled De Legibus Hebrceorum Rituahbus. Both
works have undoubtedly great merit j but our young
divine will do well to read along with them Hermanni
Witfii JEgyptiaca, and Dr Woodward’s Difcourfe on
the Worthip of the Ancient Egyptians, where feme of
Spencer’s notions are (hortly and ably refuted. On the
other parts of this difpenfation, fuch as the nature of its
civil government j the rewards and puniftiments pecu-
LOGY. 325
liar to it (c) ; its extraordinary adminiftration by ap- Preliminary
pointed agents, endowed with fupernatural powers, and Pue lonsl
with the gifts of miracles and prophecy the double
fenfe in which the latter is fometimes involved •, and the
language confequent on its nature and ufe^—the reader
will find much erudition and ingenuity difplayed in the
fecond part of Warburton’s Divine Legation of Mofes de- .
monftrated. That work is entitled to a ferious perufal $
for it difplays great learning and genius, and, we be¬
lieve, the heavieft cenfures have fallen on it from thofe
by whom it was never read. ' 1;
Having proceeded thus far in the courfe, the ftudent’sInquiry to
next bufinefs {hould be to inquire ferioufty what evi-bemade
deuce there is that the doftrines which he has fo care- ^'[t°
fully ftudied were indeed revealed in times paft by God. Y^tion.
Tie muft already have perceived, in the nature and
tendency of the do&rines themfelves, ftrong marks of
their origin being more than human ; but he muft like-
wife have met with many difficulties, and he muft pre¬
pare himfelf to repel the attacks of unbelievers. Here he
will find opportunities of exerting the utmoft powers of
his reafoning faculties, and of employing in the fervice
of religion all the ftores he may have amaffed of human
learning. The feriptures pretend to have been written
by feveral men who lived in different ages of the world j
but the lateft of them in an age very remote from the
prefect. His firft bufinefs therefore muft be to prove
the authenticity of thefe books, by tracing them up by
hiftorical evidence to the feveral writers whofe names
they bear. But it is not enough to prove them authen¬
tic. They profefs to have been written by men divinely
infpired, and of eourfe infallible in what they wrote.
He muft therefore inquire into the truth of this infpira-
tion. The Bible contains a number of truths doflrinal
and moral, which are called myjleries, and afferted to
be the immediate diftates of God himfelf. To evince
this great point to man, a number of fupernatural tefs
and evidences are infeparably connefted with thofe my-
fteries; fo that if the former be true, the latter muft be
fo likewife. He muft therefore examine thefe tefts and
evidences, to eftablifh the divinity of the Holy Scrip¬
tures ; and in this part of his courfe be will find much
affiftance from many waiters whofe defences of the truth
and divinity of the Chriftian religion do honour to hu¬
man nature. 16
-The firft ftep towards the embracing of any truth is, Books re-.
to get fairly rid of the objections which are made to it •commencE
and the general objections made by deiftical writers to^- ^
the Chriftian revelation are by no writer more complete¬
ly removed than by Bifhop Butler, in his celebrated
work entitled The Analogy of Religion natural and re¬
vealed to the Conjiitution and Courfe of Nature. This
book therefore the ftudent fhoukt read with attention,
and meditate on with patience 5 but as it does not fur-
nifh a poftive proof of the divinity of our religion, he
fhould pafs from it to Grotius de Ventate Religionis
Chrjliunce, and Stillingfleet’s Origines Saerce. Both
thefe works are excellent j and the latter, which may be
confidered
(c) On this fubj-eCf the reader will find many excellent obfervations in Bifhop ’BxAVs Harmonia ApoJlo/ica,w\\h.
its feveral defences, and in a fmall book of Dr Wells’s, entitled A Help for the Right Underftanding of the feve¬
ral Divine Laws and Covenants, whereby man has been obliged through the feveral ages of the world to guide
himfelf in order to falvation.
326
T H E 0
^Jiredions^ Crniyere^ as an improvement of tlie former, is perhaps
*— t- ml left and ablelt defence of revelation in general
that is to be found in any language. In this part of
the united kingdom it is now indeed (carcely mention-
ed, or mentioned with indifference j but half a century
ago the Englilh divines thought it a fubjeft of triumph,
and ftyled its author their incomparable Stillin^Jleet.
Other works, however, may be read with great advan¬
tage, and none with greater than Paley’s Evidences of
the Chrijlian Religion, and Leflie’s Short Method with
t ie Deijls ; which laft work, in the compafs of a very
few pages, contains proofs of the divinity of the Jewifli
and Chnftian revelations, to which the celebrated Dr
Middleton confeffed (d), that for 20 years he had la-
r 'aJ boured in vain to fabricate a fpecious anfwer (e).
troverfyto having fatisfied himfelf of the truth of revelation in
be ftudied, it may be worth the young divine’s while to
provide a defence of the Chriftian religion againft the
objeftions of modern Judaifm. In this part of his
fludies he will need no other inftrudion than what he
may reap from Limborch’s work entitled De Veritate
ReUgioms Chrfiance arnica collatio cum erudito Judceo.
“ .In that difputation, which was held with Orobio, he
will find all that the ftretch of human parts on the one
hand, or fcience on the other, can produce to varnith
€rror or unravel fophiftry. All the papers of Orobio
in.defence of Judaifm, as oppofed to Chriftianity, are
* Warbur- at IarSe’ "'ith.Limborch’s anfwers, fetfion by
ton'sDirec-.on > an(^ ^ie fubtileft fophifms of a very fuperior
tions for genius are ably and fatisfaftorily deteffed and ex-
the Study pofed by the ftrong, profound, and clear reafoning, of
7JV tllls unowned remonftrant See Orobio and Lm-
BORCH.
and the va- ^ various controverfies fubfiiling between the feve-
rious con- ral denominations of Chrifiians, about points which fe-
amonff garf.te t.bem into different churches, ought next to be
Chriftians d:udied in order, of the courfe j for nothing is unim-
themfelves. Pormnt wdiich divides the followers of that Mailer
whofe favourite precept was love. It has indeed been
long fafhionable to decry polemical divinity as an ufe-
lefs, if.not a pernicious,, ftudy; but it is not impofiible
that this falhion has had its origin in ignorance, and that
it tends to perpetuate thofe fchifms which it profefles to
lament. We are, however, far from recommending to
the young divine a perufal of the works of the feveral
combatants.on each fide of a difputed quellion, till he
has fitted himfelf for judging between them by a long
couife of preparatory liudy $ and the only preparation
LOGY.
which can fit him for this purpofe is an impartial fluclv PreW
of ecclefiaftical hillory. Hef.ho has whh
traced the progrefs of our holy religion from the days'—/'
of the apoftles to the prefent time, and marked the in
trodu61 ion of new dodhines, and the rife of the various
leas, into which the Chrillian world is divided is
furnilhed with a criterion within himfelf by which to
judge of the importance and truth of the many conteft
ed dodlnnes j whillt he who, without this preparation
lhall read a multitude of books on any religious centre-
verfy, ivill be in danger of becoming a convert to his
laft author, if that author poffefs any tolerable lhare of
art and ingenuity.
many hm°ries of the Chriftian church
which poflefs great merit, but we are acquainted with of eccl, 1
none which appears to us wholly impartial. MolheimVicalhi j
is perhaps the moft perfed compend (f) ; and one of,ry’a’111 *
its greatert excellencies is, that on every fubjea the bellco?” a
writers are referred to for fuller information. Thefeed
indeed lliould often be confulted, not only to fupply the
defe&s neceflanly refulting from the narrownels of the
limits which the author, with great propriety, preferibed
to himfelf; but alfo to con-eft his partial obliquities:
for with all his merits, and they were many and great,
he is certainly not free from the influence of prejudice.
Indeed there is no coming at the true hiftory of the pri¬
mitive church, but by ftudy.ing the works of the primi¬
tive waiters ; and the principal works of the firft four
centuries will amply reward the labour of perufino-
them (g). i he rife and progrefs of the reformation in ge»
neral, the moft important period of church-hiftory, may
be belt learned from Sleidan’s book De Statu Religionis
et Rcipubliccv, Carolo V, Cfcfare, Commentarii; the Hi¬
ftory of the Reformation of the Church of Scotland
from Knox and Spotifwood ; and that of the Church
of England from the much applauded work of Bifliop
Burnet. r
After this courfe of ecclefiaftical hiftory, the young
divine may read with advantage the moft important
controverfies which have agitated the Chriftian world.
I o enumerate thefe controverfies, and to point out the
ableft authors who have written on each, would be a
tedious, and perhaps not a very profitable talk. On
one controverfy, however, we are induced to recommend
a very mafterly work, which is Chillingworth’s book
againft Knott, entitled The Religion of Protef!ants afafe
way to Salvation} in which the fchool jargon of that
Jeluit is admirably expofed, and the long difpute be¬
tween
A^oi: s? Dr Berke,ey’prebendary °f Ca"tCTb“ry- "'h°had *
",e,n,lSht,1;?ve the collection of fern,on, preached at Boyle’, leflure
on Pronhecv • and T ‘d ■r'"' J 739 ! tbe "'orks of Leknd > Bill'0P Newton’s DilTertation,
would be no^od of r ’ a ardneA Cr<!d,t;,ll,)r °C ^ Hiftory, with the Supplement to it. But there
amono thofe wi?i,lhomT'!nd,iS»e'I'ine"^ "T’l °n this fubJea’ We have “entloned fuel, a, we moft approve
tharie annrre of rSTfil,- , K afCqUa";'ed '> but ;ve f'>r oaution the reader againft fuppofing
^ f ?T y . b,e foUnd m any work exce?t the facred Scriptures. 11
e(n2 atrtl‘T ™d bk.The„l„g!eal Trad,, nrcom-
monds vk 1 O A- 1 ‘A . uuuivs puDiimea at tne en<3 ot Jus 1 heol
Formev’s loLtl161" °f ^reat mcrit i fuch as Dupin’s, Echaid’s, Gregory’s and
volumes 'n h Paui ErneJ}t ]ablo’fti Injhtuttones Hiforice Chrifiunce, publiftied at Frankfort in three
volumes, 1754-67.
THEOLOGY.
327
Lr( unary tween the Popiih and Reformed churches placed on its
lj) proper ground, the Holy Scriptures.
»-■   One^of the moft plaufible objeiRions to the ftudy of
T. ition polemical divinity, is its tendency to give a rigid/turn
X " to the fentiments of thofe long engaged in it; whilft
-we know, from higher authority that “ the end of the
commandment is charity.” But for preferving charity
in the minds of Chriftians, there are better means than
abfolute ignorance or indifference to truth. Charity is
violated only when a church unreafonably reftrains the
inquiries of its own members, or exereifes intolerance
towards thofe who have renounced its jurifdiftion. The
injuftice of the firfl fpecies of ecclefiaftical tyranny is
expofed in a very mafterly manner by Jeremy Taylor
in W\s Liberty of Propheajing, and by Stillingtleet in his
Irenicurn; the injuftice of the fecond, by Locke in his
celebrated Letters on Toleration. The man who lhall
perufe thefe three works, and impartially weigh the
force of their arguments, will be in little danger of
thinking uncharitably of thofe from whofe principles
the love of truth may compel him to diffent.
In thefe direflions for the ftudy of theology, we
might have enumerated many more books on each
branch of the fubjeft well deferving of the moft atten¬
tive perufal ; but he who lhall have gone through the
courfe here recommended, will have laid a foundation
on which he may raife fuch a fuperftrufture as will en¬
title him to the chara&er of an accomplilhed divine.
His diligence muft indeed be continued through life ;
for when a man ceafes to make acquifitions in any de¬
partment of learning, he foon begins to lofe thofe which
ne has already made ; and a more contemptible charac¬
ter is nowhere to be found than that of a clergyman un¬
acquainted with the learning of his profeflion. This
learning, however, is not to be acquired, and indeed is
fearcely to be preferved, by ftudying bodies or inJHtutes
of theology ; and though we have mentioned a few ge¬
nerally approved by two rival fe£ts of Gbriftians, and
muft, in conformity with the plan of our work, give
another ourfelves, we do not hefitate to declare, that
the man who has carefully gone through the courfe of
ftudy which we have recommended, though it be little
more than the outlines on which he is to work, may,
with no great-lofs to himfelf, negleft ours and all other-
lam, fyftetns. For as an excellent writer*; whom we have
often quoted, well obferves, “ to judge of the fail
whether fuch a revelation containing fuch a principle,
with its myfteries and credentials, was aftually lent
from God, and received by. man, by examining the evi¬
dences and circumjlances which accompanied it*—the Preliminary'
time when, the place where, the manner how, it was
delivered—the form in which it defeends to us—and in
what it is contained—together with the particular fub-
Jlance and burden of it—and how every part is to be
rightly underjlood: thefe are the various and extenfive
fubjedts which conftitute the fublime office of theoi.o-
GIC REASONING and the PROPER STUDY OF DIVINI¬
TY.” On this account We fliall pafsover flightly, many
things which every clergyman ought thoroughly to
underftand, and confine ourfelves, in the fhort compend
which we are to give, to the chief articles of Chriftian
theology. In doing this, we fhall endeavour to diveft
ourfelves of party prejudices; but as we are far from
thinking that this endeavour will be completely fuccefs-
ful (for we believe there is no man totally free from
prejudice), we cannot conclude this part of the article
more properly than with the following folemn CHARGE,^
with which a very learned divine-f- alwajs prefaced his
Theological Lectures. 21
I. “ I do folemly charge you, in the name of the A charge
God of Truth, and of our Lord Jefus Chrift, who is the1” ^lu^nts
Way, the Truth, and the Life, and before whole judge-0 1 80 0^'""
ment-feat you muft in no long time appear, that in all
your ftudies and inquiries of a religioirs nature, preient
or future, you do conftantly, carefully, impartially, and-
confcientioufly, attend to evidence, as it lies in the
Holy Scriptures, or in the nature of things* and the
dictates of reafun ; cautioufly guarding againft the fai¬
lles of imagination, and the fallacy of ill-grounded,
conjecture.
II. “ That you admit, embrace, or affent to no prin¬
ciple or.fentiment by me taught or advanced, but only
fo far as it fhall appear to you to be fupported and juf-
tified by proper evidence from revelation or the reafon
of things.
III. “ That if, at any time hereafter, any principle
or fentiment by me taught or advanced, or by you ad¬
mitted or embraced, fhall, upon impartial and faith¬
ful examination, appear to you to be dubious or falfe,
you either fufped or tetally-rejeCl fuch principle, or fen¬
timent.
IV. “ That you keep your mind always open to evi¬
dence: That you labour to banifh from your breaft all-
prejudice, prepoffeffion, and party-zeal: Thai you ftudy
to live in peace and love with all your fellow Chriftians;
and that you fteadily affert for yourfelf, and freely al¬
low to others, the unalienable rights of judgment amL
confcience.”
PART I. OF NATURAL THEOLOGY.
Sect. I. Of the Being and! Attributes of God.
1 Pm/. HE who cometh to God, fays an ancient divine
deeply read in the philofophy of his age, muft believe
that he is, and that he is a rewarder of them who drli-
j gently feek him. This is a4ruth as undenible as that
^eing a man Cannot concern himfelf about a nonentity. The
(! exiftence of God is indeed the foundation of all religion,
and the firft principle of the fcience which is the fubjeft
cf this article. It is likewife a principle which mufl
5;
command the affent of every man who has any notion
of the relation between effeCts and their caufes, and
whofe curiofity has ever been excited by the phenomena
of nature. This great and important truth we have
elfewhere endeavoured to demonftrate (fee Met aphy¬
sics, Part IIL Chap, vi.) ; but it may be proved by ar¬
guments lefs abftrafted than the nature of that article
required us to ufe. Of thefe we ftiall give one or two,
which we hope will be level to every ordinary capaci¬
ty ; while, at the fame time, we earneftly recommend
to the young divine a diligent ftudy ef thoie books on
the
3-2 8
T H E O
Being and the fubjeft wliich we have mentioned in the precedino-
of God.eS
* ■■■ ■ — j We fee that the human race, and every other fpecies
23 of animals, is at prefent propagated by the co-operation
propaga- 0f two parents 5 but has this procefs continued from eter
mats
nity ? A moment’s reflection will convince us that it
lias not. Let us take any one man alive, and let us
fuppofe his father and mother dead, and himfelf the on¬
ly perfon at prefent exilting : how came he into the
^vorld ? It will be faid he was produced mechanically or
chemically by the conjunction of his parents, and that
his parents were produced in the fame manner by theirs.
Let this then be fuppofed ; it muft finely be granted,
that when this man was born, an addition was made to
the feries of the human race. But a feries which can
be enlarged may like wife be diminilhed 5 and by tracing
it backwards, we muft at fome period, however remote,
reach its beginning. There muft therefore have been a
firft pair of the human race, who were not propagated
by the conjunction of parents. How did thefe come into
* S Z? ^ the world ?
ley's Boyle's Anaximander tells us*, that the firft men and all ani-
Leclures. mals were bred in warm moifture, inclofed in crultace-
ous fkins like erab-fifh or lobfters; and that when they
arrived at a proper age, their fhelly prifons growing
dry, broke, and made way for their liberty.- Empedo¬
cles informs us, that mother Earth at firft brought forth
vaft numbers of legs, and arms, and heads, &c. which
approaching each other, arranging themfelves properly,
and being cemented together,1 ftarted up at once full
grown men.
Surely thofe fages, or their followers, fhould have been
able to tell us why the earth has not in any climate this
power of putting forth vegetable men or the parts of
men at prefent. If this uriiverfal parent be eternal and
felf-exiftent, it muft be incapable of decay or the fmall-
eft change in any of its qualities ; if it be not eternal,
we fhall be obliged to find a caufe for its exiftence, or
at leaft for its form and all its powers. But fuch a
caule may have produced the firft human pair, and un-
24 doubtedly did produce them, without making them
andvege- fpring as plants from the foil. Indeed the growth of
'■a es» plants themfelves-vlearly evinces a caufe fuperior to any
vegetative power which can be fuppofed inherent in the
earth. No plant can be propagated but from feed or
flips irom the parent ftock j but when one contemplates
the regular procefs of vegetation, the exiftence of every
plant implies the prior exiftence of a parent feed, and
the exiftence of every feed the prior exiftence of a pa¬
rent plant. Which then of thefe, the oak or the acorn,
was the firft, and whence W’as its exiftenee derived ? Not
from the earth : for we have the evidence of univerfal ex¬
perience that the earth never produces a tree but from
feed, nor feed but from a tree. There muft therefore be
fome fuperior power which formed the firft feed or the
firrt tree, planted it in the earth, and gave to it thofe
powers of vegetation by which the fpecies has been pro-
*5 pagated to this day.
the hm / clearly do the proceffes of generation and vege-
of attrac- tat^on indicate a power fuperior to thofe which are ufual-
^ion and re- ly called the powers of nature. The fame thing ap-
pullion, &c. pears no lefs evident from the laws of attraction and re-
pulfion, which plainly prevail through the whole fyftem
of matter, and hold together the ftupendous ftruCture.
Experiment ftiows that very few particles of the xnoft
L o G Y. Part
folid body are in aHual conta& with each other (Tee Being
Optics, N° 63—68. Physics, N° 23.); and that there A«nbt
are confiderable interftiees between the particles of otGu
every elaftic fluid, is obvious to the fmalleft reflection. U^V'
Yet the particles of folid bodies flrongly cohere, whilft
thofe of elaftic fluids repel each other/ How are thefe
phenomena accounted for ? To fay that the former is
the efiLCt of attraction and the latter of repulfion, is on-
ly to lay that two individual phenomena are fubjeCt to
thofe laws which prevail-through the whole of the claffes
under which they are refpeCtively arranged 5 whilft the
queftion at iflue is concerning the origin of Thf. laws
themselves, the power which makes the particles of
gold cohere, and thole of air repel each other. Power
without iubftance is inconceivable ; and by a law of hu¬
man thought, no man can believe a being to operate
but where it is in fome manner or other aftually pre¬
fent : but the particles of gold adhere, and the particles
of air keep at a diftancefrom each other, by powers ex¬
erted where no matter is prefent. There muft therefore
be fome fubftance endowed with power which is not
material.
Of this fubftance or being the power is evidently im-
menfe. 1 he earth and other planets are carried round
the fun with a velocity which human imagination can
fcarcely conceive. That this motion is not produced by
the agency of thefe vaft bodies on one another, or by
the interpofition of any material fluid, has been ftiown
el few here (fee Metaphysics, N° 196—200. and Op¬
tics, N° 67.) ; and fince it is a law of our belt philo-
Tophy, that we are not to multiply fubfiunces without ne-
■teflity, we muft infer that the fame Being which formed
the firft animals and vegetables, endowing them with
powers to propagate their refpe&ive kinds, is likewife
the caufe of all the phenomena of nature, fuch as cohe-
fion, repulfion, e/af icily, and motion, even the motions
of the heavenly bodies themfelves.
If this powerful Being be felf-exiftent, intelligent,
and independent in his a6tions and volitions, he is an ori¬
ginal or firft caufe, and that Being whom we denomi¬
nate God. If he be not felf-exiftent and independent,
there muft be a caufe in the order of nature prior and
fuperior^to Him, which is either itfelf the firft caufe, or
a link in that feries of caufes and effe&s, which, how¬
ever vaft we fuppofe it, muft be traced ultimately to
feme one Being, who is felf-exiftent, and has in himfelf
the power of beginning motion, independent of every
thing but his own intelligence and volition. In vain
have Atheifts alleged, that the feries may afeend infi¬
nitely, and for that reafen have no firft mover or caufe.
An infinite feries of fucceflive beings involves an abfur- ^bfurditj
dity and contradiaicn (fee Metaphysics, N° 288.) :0faninfi-
but not to infill on this at prefent, we fhall only begnite ferie
leave to confider fuch a feries as a whole, and fee what0^^5,
confequences will flow from the fuppofition. That we
may with logical propriety confider it in this light, is
incontrovertible 5 for the birth of each individual of the
human race fhows that it is made up of parts; but parts
imply a whole as neccfiarily as an attribute implies its
fubjeft. As in this luppofed feries there is no caufe
which is not likewife an tffeft, nor any body moving
another which was not itfelf moved by a third, the
whole is undeniably equivalent to an infinite efftfft, or
an infinite body moved : but if a finite effedl muft ne-
ceffarily have proceeded from a caufe, and a finite body
in
I rt I. T H E O
. j ngand In motion muft have been put into that flate by a mo-
1 tributes ver> js there a human mind which can conceive an infi-
Go(]', nite effedt to have proceeded from no caufe, or an infi-
U v nite body in motion to have been moved by nothing?
No, furely ! An infinite effeft, were fuch a thing pof-
•fible, would compel us to admit an "infinite caufe, and
an infinite body in motion a mover of infinite power.
This great caufe is God, whofe v/ifdom, power, and
goodnefs, all nature loudly proclaims. That the pheno¬
mena which we daily fee evince the exigence of one
fuch Being, has juft been fhown ; and that we have no
reafon to infer the exiftence of more than one, is very
evident. For, not to lay more ftrefs than it will bear
j T] ‘7is on that rule of Newton’s, which forbids us to multiply
on i>ne fubftances without necefTity, fuch a harmony prevails
0 'on ,al through the whole vifible univerfe, as plainly (hows it
jj; ca ’ to be under the government of one intelligence. That
on this globe the feveral elements ferve for nourifhment
to plants, plants to the inferior animals, and animals to
man ; that the other planets of our fyftem are probably
inhabited, and their inhabitants nourilhed in the fame
or a fimilar manner ; that the fun is fo placed as to give
light and heat to all, and by the law of gravitation to
bind the whole planets into one fyftem with itfelf—are
truths fo obvious and fo univerfally acknowledged, as to
fuperfede the neceffity of eftablilhing them by proof.
The fair inference therefore is, that the folar fyftem and
all its parts are under the government of one intelligence,
which directs all its motions and all the changes which
take place among its parts for fome wife purpofes. To
fuppofe it under the government of two or more intel¬
ligences would be highly unreafonable ; for if thefe in¬
telligences had equal power, equal wifdom, and the fame
defigns, one of them would evidently be fuperfiuous ;
and if they had equal power and contrary defigns, they
could not be the parents of that harmony which we
clearly perceive to prevail in the fyftem.
But the Being capable of regulating the movements
of fo vaft a machine, may well be fuppofed to pofiefs
innnite power, and to be capable of fuperintending the
motions of the univerfe. That the widely extended fyf¬
tem of nature is but one fyftem, of which the feveral
parts are united by many bonds of mutual connexion,
has been fhown elfewhere (fee Physics), and appears
daily more and more evident from our progrefs in phy-
fical difeoveries ; and therefore it is in the higheft de¬
gree unreafonable to fuppofe that it has more than one
t 5 author, or one fupreme governor.
■ pov nitY unity de%n apparent in the works of cre-
* don 'nj1* I1**011 plenty proves the unity of their Author, fo do the
immenfity of the whole, and the admirable adjuftment
of the feveral parts to one another, demonftrate His
power and His wifdom. On this fubjedl the following
beautiful reflexions by Mr Wollafton are deferving of
|. the moft ferious attention.
|FA S'0*1 i( In order (fays that able writer *) to prove to any
k fetj ,ire’ orie grandnefs of this fabric of the world, one needs
Prrl 4. 0n^ *° him confider the Jun, with that infupport-
able glory and luftre that furrounds it ; to demonftrate
its Vaft diftance, magnitude, and heat •, to reprefent to
him the chorus of planets moving periodically, by uni¬
form laws, in their feveral orbits about it *, guarded
forne of them by fecondary planets, and as it were emu¬
lating the ftate of the fun, and probably all pofleffed by
proper inhabitants; to remind kirn, of thofe furprifing
Voe. XX. Part L
LOG Y.
329
vifits which the comets make to us, and the large trains Being an o'
of uncommon fplendour which attend them, the far coun- Attributes
try from which they come, and the curioluy and horror , ot ri<ld‘ .
which they excite not only among us, but in the inha- v ?
bitants of other planets, who may alfo be up to fee the
entry and progrefs of theie minifters of fate ; to dired
his eye and contemplation through thofe azure fields and
vaft regions above him up to thefxedjlars, that radiant
numberlefs hoft of heaven j and to make him underitand
how unlikely a thing it is that they Ihould be placed
tnere only to adorn and beipangle a canopy over our
heads; to convince him that they are rather fo many
other funs, with their feveral fyftems of planets about
them ; to Ihow him by the help of glafies ftill more and
more of thefe fixed lights, and to beget in him an appre-
henfion of their inconceivable numbers, and thofe im-
menfe fpaces that lie beyond our reach and even our
imagination : One needs but to do this (continues our
author), and explain to him luch things as are now
known almoft to every body ; and by it to ihow, that
if the world be not infinite, it is infnito fmil is, and un¬
doubtedly the work of an Infinite Architect.
But if we would take a view of all the particulars
contained within that aftomihing compafs which we have
thus haftily run over, how would wonders multiply up¬
on us >. Every corner, every part of the world, is as it
■were made up of other worlds. If we look upon this
our earth, what fcope does it furniih for admiration ?
The great variety of mountains, hills, valleys, plains,
rivers, ferns, trees, and plants ! The many tribes of dif¬
ferent animals with which it is flocked ; the multifari¬
ous inventions and works of one of thefe, i. e. of us
men ; with the wonderful inftinXs of others, guiding
them uniformly to what is beft for theml'elves, in fitua-
tions where neither fenfe nor reafon could direX them.
And yet when all thefe (heaven and earth) are furvey-
ed as nicely as they can be by the help of our unaflilled
fenfes and of telefcopes, we may difeover by the aflift-
ance of good microfcopes, in very fmall parts of mat¬
ter, as many new wonders as thofe already difeovered,
new kingdoms of animals, with new and curious archi-
teXure. So that as our fenfes and even conception fainted
before in the vaft journeys we took in confidering the
expanfe of the univerfe, they here again fail us in our’
refearches into the principles and minute parts of which
it is compofed. Both the. beginnings and the ends of
things, the leaf and the greatef, all confpire to baffle
us; and which way foever we profecute our inquiries, we
ftill meet with frtfti fubjeXs of amazement, and Irefti
reafons to believe that there are indefinitely more and
more behind, that will forever efcape our eagereft pur-
fuits and deepeft penetration.
“ In this vaft affetnblage, and amidft all the multifa¬
rious motions by which the feveral procefles of genera¬
tion and corruption, and the other phenomena of na¬
ture, are carried on, we cannot but obferve that there
are ftated methods, as fo many forms of proceeding, to
which things punXually and religioufly adhere. The
fame caufes circumftanced in the fame manner produce
always the hmeeffedls ; all the fpecies of animals aorong
us are made according to one general idea ; and fo are
thofe of plants alfo, and even of minerals. No new fpe¬
cies are brought forth or have arifen apv-wht re ; and the
old are preferVed and continued by the old ways.
“ It appears, laftly, beyond difpute, that in the part
X t and
330
T H E O
Being and and model of the world there is a contrivance for ac-
Au^Ts complHhing certain ends. The fun is placed near the
. | e • centre of our fyftem, for the more convenient difpenfing
of his benign influences to the planets moving about
him ; the place of the earth’s equator interfedts that of
her orbit, and makes a proper angle with it, in order to
diverfify the year, and create an ufeful variety of fea-
Jons; and many other things of this kind will be al¬
ways obferved, and though a thoufand times repeated,
be meditated upon with pleafure by good men and true
pinlofophers. Who can obferve the vapours to afcend,
efpecially from the fea, meet above in clouds, and fall
again after condenfation, without being convinced that
this is a kind of dijlillation, in order to clear the water
of its gruffer falls, and then by rains and dews to fupply
the fountains and rivers with frelh and wholefome li¬
quor ; to nouriflr the vegetables below by ftrowers, which
defcend in drops as from a watering-pot upon a garden ?
Who can view the JlruBure of a plant or animal, the
indefinite number of its fibres and fine veffels, the forma¬
tion of larger veffels, and the feveral members out of
them, with the apt difpofition of all thefe ; the means
contrived for the reception and diflribution of nutri¬
ment ; the effeB this nutriment has in extending the
veffels, bringing the vegetable or animal to its full
growth and expanfion, continuing the motion of the fe¬
veral fluids, repairing the decays of the body, and pre-
ferving life? Who can take notice of the feveral facul¬
ties of animals, their arts of faving and providing for
themfelves, or the ways in which they are provided for;
the ufes of plants to animals, and of fome animals to
others, particularly to mankind ; the care taken that
the feveral fpecies (hould be propagated, without confu-
lion, from their proper feeds ; the ftrong inclination
planted in animals for that purpofe, their love of their
young and the like.—Who (fays our author) can ob¬
ferve all this, and not fee a dcjign in fuch regular pie¬
ces, fo nicely wrought and fo admirably preferved ? If
there were but one animal in exiftence, and it could not
be doubted but that his eyes were formed that he might
fee with them, his ears that he might hear with them,
and his feet to be inftruments by which he might re¬
move bimfelf from place to place j if dejign and contri¬
vance can be much lefs doubted, when the fame things
are repeated in the individuals of all the tribes of ani¬
mals ; if the like obfervations be made with refpefl to
vegetables and other things ; and if all thefe clajfes of
things, and much more the individuals comprehended
under them, be inconceivably numerous, as moft un-
queilionably they are-—one cannot but be convinced,
from what fo plainly runs through the nobler parts of
the vifible world, that not onlv they, but other things,
even thofe that feem to be lefs noble, have their ends
likewife, though not always perceived by capacities li¬
mited like ours. And fince we cannot, with the Epi¬
cureans of old, fuppofe the parts of matter to have con¬
trived among £hemfelves this wonderful form of a world,
to have taken by agreement each its refpeftive pojf,
and then to have purfued in eonjun&ion conftant ends
by certain methods and meafures concerted, there muft be
fome other Being, whofe wifdom and power are equal
to fuch a mighty work as is the JlruBure and preferva-
Uon ul the world. t here muft be fome Almighty
Mind who modelled and preferves it *, lays the caufes
fcf things fg deep j prefcribes them fuch uniform and
LOGY. Part
fteady laws j deftines and adapts them to certain pur- Being!
pofes j and makes one thing to fit and anfwer another Attrit>1;
fo as to produce one harmonious whole. Yes,
Thefe are thy glorious works, Parent of good !
Almighty, thine this univerfal frame,
Thus wondrous fair j Thyself how wondrous then!
of Go
'—r
How wondrous in wifdom and in power!”
But the GOODNESS of God is not lefs confpicuous ingoodne:'
his works than His power or His wifdom. Contrivance
proves defign, and the predominant tendency of the
contrivances indicates the difpofition of the defigner.
“The world (fays an elegant and judicious writer *)
abounds with contrivances, and all the contrivances in
it with which we are acquainted are diredled to bene¬
ficial purpofes. Evil no doubt exifts •, but it is never
that we can perceive the object of contrivance. Teeth
are contrived to eat, not to ache ; their aching now and
then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps infepara-
ble from it ; but it is not its objeft. This is a diftinc-
tion which well deferves to be attended to. In defcrib-
ing implements of hufbandry, one would hardly fay of
a fickle that it is made to cut the reaper’s fingers,
though from the conftruftion of the inftrument, and the
manner of ufing it, this mifchief often happens. But
if he had occafion to defcribe inftruments of torture or
execution, this, he would fay, is to extend the finews j
this to diflocate the joints ; this to break the bones j
this to fcorch the foies of the feet. Here pain and mi-
fery are the very objefts of the contrivance. Norv no¬
thing of this fort is to be found in the works of nature.
We never difcover a train of contrivance to bring about
an evil purpofe. No anatomift ever difcovered a fyftem
of organization calculated to produce pain and difeafe 5
or, in explaining the parts of the human body, ever
faid, this is to irritate, this to inflame, this du<ft is to
convey the gravel to the kidneys, this gland to fecrete
the humour which forms the gout. If by chance he
came to a part of which he knows not the ufe, the moft
that he can fay is, that to him it appears to be ufelefs:
no one ever fufpedls that it is put there to incommode,
to annoy, or to torment. If God had wiftied our mi-
fery, he might have made fure of his purpofe, by form¬
ing our fenfes to be as many fores and pains to us as
they are now inftruments of gratification and enjoyment}
or, by placing us among objedls fo ill fuited to our
perceptions as to have continually offended us, inftead
of miniftering to our refrefhment and delight. He
might have made, for inftance, every thing we tafted
bitter, every thing we faw loathfome, every thing we
touched a fting, every fmell a flench, and every found
a difcord.”
Inftead of this, all our fenfations, except fuch as are
excited by what is dangerous to our health, are plea-
fures to us : The view of a landfcape is pleafant; the
tafte of nouriftiing food is pleafant; founds not too loud
are agreeable, while mufical founds are exquifite} and
fcarcely any fmells, except fuch are excited by effluvia
obvioufly pernicious to the brain, are difagreeable}
while fome of them, if not too long indulged, are de¬
lightful. Our lives are preferved and the fpecies is con¬
tinued by obeying the impulfe of appetites } of which
the gratification is exquifite when not repeated too fre¬
quently, to anfwer the purpofes of the Author of our
being. Since, then, God has called forth his confum-
ipat&
I rtl. THEO
] i£ and mate wndom to Contrive and provide for our happinefs,
t ibutes ancj }jas made thofe things which are neceffary to our
^ , exiftence and the continuance of the race fources of bur
greateft fenfual pleafures, who can doubt but that be¬
nevolence is one of his attributes $ and that, if it
were not impious to draw a comparifon between them,
it is the attribute in which he himfelf molt delight-
eth ?
But it is not from fenfation only that we may infer
the benevolence of the Deity : He has formed us with
minds capable of intelledtual improvement, and he has
implanted in the breaft of every man a very ftrong de¬
fire of adding to his knowledge. This addition, it is
true, cannot be made without labour ‘, and at firft the
requifite labour is to molt people irkfome: but a very
Ihort progrefs in any ftudy converts what was irkfome
into a pleafure of the moli exalted kind; and he who
by fludy, however intenfe, enlarges his ideas, experien¬
ces a complacency, which, though not fo poignant per¬
haps as the pleafures of the fenfualift, is fuch as endears
him to himfelf, and is what he would not exchange for
any thing elfe which this world has to beftow, except
the ftill Tweeter complacency arifing from the confciouf-
nefs of having difcharged his duty.
That the pra&ice of virtue is attended with a pecu¬
liar pleafure of the pureft kind, is a fact which no man
Jias ever queftioned, though the immediate fource of
that pleafure has been the fubjeft of many difputes. He
who attributes it to a moral fenfe, which inftin&ively
points out to every man his duty, and on the perfor¬
mance of it rewards him with a fentiment of felf-appro-
hation, muft of neceflity acknowledge benevolence to
be one of the attributes of that Being who has fo con-
ifituted the human mind. That to protect the inno¬
cent, relieve the diftrefled, and do to others as we would
in like circumftances Avilh to be done by, fills the breaft,
previous to all reflexion, with a holy joy, as the com-
miffion of any crime tears it Avith remorfe, cannot in¬
deed be controverted. Many, hoAvever, contend, that
this joy and this remorfe fpring not from any moral in-
ftinfl implanted in the mind, but are the eonfequence
cf early and deep-rooted affbciations of the praflice of
virtue Avith the hope of future happinefs, and of vice
with the dread of future mifery. On the refpedfive me¬
rits of thefe tAvo theories Ave ftiall not now decide, but
only obferve, that they both lead Avith equal certainty
to the benevolence of the Deity, who made us capable
of forming aflbciations, and fubjedled thofe affbciations
to fixed laAvs. This being the cafe, the moral fenfe.
With all its inftantaneous effects, affords not a more con¬
vincing proof of his goodnefs, than that principle in our
nature by which remote circurriftances become fo linked
together, that the one circumftance never occurs with¬
out bringing the other alfo into view. It is thus that
the pleafing complacency, Avhich Avas perhaps firft ex¬
cited by the hopes of future happinefs, comes in time to
be fo affociated with the confcioufnefs of virtuous con-
dufl, the only thing entitled to reward, that a man ne¬
ver performs a meritorious a£Uon Avithout experiencing
themoft exquifitejoy diffufed through his mind, though
his attention at that inftant may not be direfted either
to heaven or futurity. Were Ave obliged, before we
could experience this joy, to eftimate bv reafon the me-
every individual acftion, and trace its connexion
-■o heaven and future happinefs through a long train of
LOGY. 331
intermediate reafoning, we fhould be in a great mea- Being and
fure deprived of the prefent reward of virtue ; and
therefore this affociating principle contributes much <
to our happinefs. But the benevolence of a Be¬
ing, Avho feems thus anxious to furnifh us Avith both
fenfual and intelle&ual enjoyments, and Avho has made
our duty our greateft pleafure, cannot be queftioned}
and therefore Ave muft infer, that the Author of Nature
wifties the happinefs of the Avhole fenfible and intelligent
creation. 30
To fuch reafoning as this in fupport of the Divine Objedliotu;
Benevolence many objeftions have been made. Some
of them appear at firft fight plaufible, and are apt to
ftagger the faith of him vrho has beftoWed no time on
the ftudy of that branch of general fcience Avhich is cal¬
led phyjtcs (fee Physics). To omit thefe altogether in
fuch an article as this might be conftrued into neglect ;
Avhile it is certain that there is in them nothing Avor-
thy the attention of that man Avho is qualified either to
eftimate their force, or to underftand the arguments by
Avhich they have often been repelled.
It has been atked, Why, if the Author of Nature be
a benevolent Being, are Ave neceffarily fubjetft to pain,
difeafes, and death ? The fcientific phyfiologift replies,
Becaufe from thefe evils Omnipotence itfelf could not
in our prefent ftate exempt us, but by a conftant feries 31
of miracles. He Avho admits miracles, knoAvs likewife an^verc^*
that mankind were originally in a ftate in Avhich they
were not fubjeift to death; and that they fell under its
dominion through the fault of their common progeni¬
tors. But the fall and reftoration of roan is the great
fubjeft of revealed religion; and at prefent Ave are dif-
cufting the queftion like philofophers who have no other
data on Avhich to proceed than the phenomena of na¬
ture. Noav avc knoAV, that as all matter is divisible,
every fyftem compofed of it muft neceffarily be liable to
decay and diffolution; and our material fyftem Avould
decay and be diffolved long before it could ferve the
purpofes of nature, were there not methods contrived
Avith admirable wifdom for repairing the Avafte occafion-
ed by perpetual fri61ion. The body is furnilhed Avith
different fluids, Avhich continually circulate through it
in proper channels, and leave in their Avay what is ne-
ceftary to repair the folids. Thefe again are fupplied by
food ctb extra; and to the Avhole proceffes of digeftron,
circulation, and nutrition, the air Ave breathe is abfolute-
ly neceffary. But as the air is a very heterogeneous
fluid, and fubjeft to violent and fudden changes, it is
obvious that thefe changes muft affe61 the blood, and by
confequence the whole frame of the human body. The
air indeed in procefs of time confumes even marble it<*
felf; and therefore avc cannot Avonder that as it is in
one ftate the parent of health, it ftiould in another be
the fource of difeafe to fuch creatures as man and other
terreftrial animals. Nor could thefe confequenccs be
avoided without introducing others much more deplo¬
rable. The world is governed by general laAvs, Avithout
which there could be among men neither arts nor fei-
ences; and though Iuavs different from thofe bv Avhich
the fyftem is at prefent governed might perhaps have
been eftablifhed, there is not the fmalleft reafon to ima¬
gine that they could on the whole hav'e been better, or
attended with feAver inconveniences. As long as Ave
have material and folid bodies capable of motion, liable
to refiftance from other folid bodies, fupported'by food,
T t 2. fubje&
32
Sicknefs,
pain, and
the dread
of death
332 T H E O
Being and fubjeft to the agency of the air, and divifible, they muft
cf- 63 neceflarily be liable to pain, difeafe, corruption, and
» - t ■ death, and that too by the very influence of thofe laws
which preferve the order and harmony of the univerfe.
Thus gravitation is a general law fo good and fo necef-
fary, that were it for a moment fufpended, the world
would inftantly fall to pieces; and yet by means of this
law the man mufl: inevitably be crulhtd to death on
whom a tower fhall chance to tumble. Again, the at-
trathon of cohefion is a general law, without which it
does not appear that any corporeal fyftem could pof-
fibly exift: it is by this law too, or a modification of it,
that the glands and lafteals of the human body extract
fro'm the blood fuch particles as are neceflary to nourith
the folids ■, and yet it is by means of the very fame mo¬
dification of the very fame law that a man is liable to
be poifoned.
Alth ough the human body could not have been pre-
ferved from dangers and cifiblution but by introducing
evils greater on the whole than thofe to which it is now
ferve good liable, why, it has fometimes been alked, is every dif-
purpofes. order to which it is fubjeft attended with ficknefs or
with pain ? and why is fuch a horror of death implanted
in our breads, feeing that by the laws of nature death
is inevitable ? We anfwer, That ficknefs, pain, and the
dread of death, ferve the very bed purpofes. Could a
man be put to death, or have his limbs broken without
feeling pain, the human race had long ago been extindh
Felt we no uneafinefs in a fever, we fhould be infenfible
of the difeafe, and die before we fufpe&ed our health to
be impaired. The horror which generally accompanies
our refleftions on death tends to make us more careful
of life, and prevents us from quitting this world raddy
when our affairs profper not according to our widies. It
is likewife an indication that our exidence does not ter¬
minate in this world ; for our dread is feldom excited
by the profpeid of the pain which we may differ when
dying, but by our anxiety concerning what we may be
doomed to differ or enjoy in the next dage of our exid¬
ence and this anxiety tends more perhaps than any
thing elfe to make us live while we are here in fuch a
manner as to enfure our happinefs hereafter.
Thus from every view that we can take of the works
and laws of God, and even from conddering the objec¬
tions which have fometimes been made to them, we are
compelled to acknowledge the benevolence of their Au¬
thor. We mud not, however, fuppofe the Divine be¬
nevolence to be a fond affe&ion like that which is called
benevolence among men. All human affettions and
paffions originate in our dependence and wants; and it
has been doubted whether any of them be at fird didn-
tereded (fee Passion) : but ha to whom exidence is
effential cannot be dependent; he who is the Author of
every thing can feel no want.. The Divine benevolence
therefore mud be wholly difintereded, and of courfe
free from thofe partialities originating in felf-love, which
are alloys in the mod fublime of human virtues. The
mod benevolent man on earth, though he widies the
happinefs of every fellow-creature, has dill, from the
ties of blood, the endearments of friendfhip, or, perhaps
33 from a regard to his own intered, fome particular fa-
Thedivine vourites whom, on a competition with others, he would
wTcoin certaInl7 Prefer- But the equal Lord of all can have
ciden^with no. Par^CU^ar ^avourites. His benevolence is therefore
juftice. coincident with juftice ) or, that which is called divine
logy. part
jujiice, is only benevolence exerting itielf in a particular Being,
manner for the propagation of general felicity. When AttribJ
_G°d prefcribes laws for regulating the condudt of his of Go'
intelligent creatures, it is not becaufe he can reap any —^
benefit from their obedience to thofe laws, but becaufe
fuch obedience is neceffary to their own happinefs; and
when he punidies the tranfgreffor, it is not becaufe in
his nature there is any difpofition to which the profpeft
of fuch puniihment can afford gratification, but becaufe
in the government of free agents punifhment is neceffary
to reform the criminal, and to intimidate others from
committing the like crimes.
The eflence of this felf-exident, all-powerful,infinite-r
ly wife, and perfectly good Being, is to us wholly in-prehenf:
coroprehenfible. That it is not matter, is fhown'by theble;
piocefs of argumentation by which we have proved it to
exid : but what it is we know not, and it would be im¬
pious prefumption to inquire. It is fufficient for all the
purpofes of religion to know that God is fomehow or
other prefent to every part of his works ; that exidence
and every poflible perieftion is effential to him 5 and
that he withes the happinefs of all his creatures. From
thefe truths we might proceed to illudrate the perpetual
fuperintendance of his providence, both general and par¬
ticular, over every the minuted part of the univerfe:
but that fubjeft has been difcuffed in a feparate article j
to which, therefore, we refer the reader. (See Provi¬
dence).^ We diall only obferve at prefent, that the
manner in which animals are propagated affords as com¬
plete a proof of the condant fuperintendance of divine
power and wifdom, as it does of the immediate exertion
of thefe faculties in the formation of the parent pair of
each fpecies. For were propagation carried on by ne-
cejjary and mechanical laws, it is obvious, that in every
age there would be generated, in each fpecies of ani¬
mals, the very fame proportion of males to females that
there was in the age preceding. On the other hand,but con-
did generation depend on fortuitous mechanifm, it is notftantlyF
conceivable but that, fince the beginning of the world,fent“hl
leveral fpecies of animals fhould in fome ctge have gene¬
rated nothing but males, and others nothing but/e-
males ; and that of courle many fpecies would have been
long lince extinid. As neither of thefe cafes has ever
happened, the prefervation of the various fpecies of ani¬
mals, by keeping up condantly in the world a due, though
not always the fame, proportion between the fexes of
male and female, is a complete proof of the fuperinten¬
dance of Divine providence, and of that faying of the
apoftle, that it is “ in God we live, move, and have our
being.”
Sect. II. Of the Duties and SanBions of Natural Re-
ligion.
,$■
_ From the Abort view that we have taken of the di-ReVeren
vine perfeftions, it is evidently our duty to reverence in and grab
our minds the felf-exiftent Being to whom they belong.^ue
This is indeed not only a duty, but a duty of which notoGod"
man who contemplates thefe perft&ions, and believes
them to be real, can poflibly avoid the performance.
He who thinks irreverently of the Author of nature,
can never have confidered ferioufly the power, the wif¬
dom, and the goodnefs, difplayed in his works j for
whoever has a tolerable notion of thefe muft be con¬
vinced, that he who performed them has no imperfec¬
tion j
Pit I.
Du and tion ; that his power can accomplifh every thing which
jan 3115 ^involves not a contradidion j that his knowledge is in-
^ aral tuitive, and free from the pollibility of error ; and that
1R '10n‘ (Toodnefs extends to all without partiality and with¬
out any alloy of felfifli defign. This convidion muft
make every man on whofe mind it isimpreffed ready to
proftrate himfelf in the duft before the Author of his
being j who, though infinitely exalted above him, is the
fource of all his enjoyments, conflantly watches over
him with paternal care, and proteds him from number-
lefs dangers. The fenfe of fo many benefits muft ex¬
cite in his mind a fentiment of the livelieft gratitude to,
him from whom they are received, and an ardent wifh
1 for their continuance.
Of’ While filent gratitude and devotion thus glow in the
I tiv® breaft of the contemplative man, he will be careful not
be iied t0 f°rm even a mental image of that all-perfed Being
to whom they are direded. He knows that God is not
material j that he exifts in a manner altogether incom-
prebenfible j that to frame an image of him would be
to affign limits to what is infinite; and that to attempt
to form a pofitive conception of him would be impioully
5 to compare himfelf with his Maker.
Hoi e The man who has any tolerable notion of the perfec-
uug to betions of the Supreme Being will never fpeak lightly of
fpol of; }j{m> or
make ufe of his name at all but on great and
folemn occafions. He knows that the terms of all lan¬
guages are inadequate and improper, when applied di-
redly to him who has no equal, and to whom nothing
can be compared ; and therefore he will employ thefe
terms with caution. When he fpeaks of his mercy and
compaffion, he will not confider them as feelings wring¬
ing the heart like the mercy and compaffion experienced
by man, but as rays of pure and difinterelled benevo¬
lence. When he thinks of the ftupendous fyftem of
nature, and hears it, perhaps, faid that God formed it
for his own glory, he will refled that God is fo infinite¬
ly exalted above all his creatures, and fo perfed in him¬
felf, that he can neither take pleafure in their applaufe,
I nor receive any acceflion of any kind from the exiftence
of ten thoufand worlds. The immenfe fabrie of nature
therefore only difplays the glory or perfedions of its
Author to us and to other creatures who have not fa-
I j culties to comprehend him in himfelf.
Hk 5 When the contemplative man talks- of fervtng God,
( “e; by fie does not dream that his fervices can increafe the di-
en k*m*vine felicity ; but means only that it is his duty to obey
the divine laws. Even the pronoun He, when it refers
to God, cannot be of the fame import as when it refers
to man ; and by the philofophical divine it will feldom be
ufed but with a mental allufion to this obvious diftindion.
As the man who duly venerates the Author of his
being will not fpeak of him on trivial occafions, fo will
he be Hill further from calling upon him to wutnefs im¬
pertinences and falfehood (fee Oath). He will never
mention his name but with a paufe, that he may have
time to refled in filence on his numberlefs perfedions,
and on the immenfe dillance betrveen himfelf and the
Being of whom lie is fpeaking. The llighteft refledion
will convince him that the world with all that it con¬
tains depends every moment on that God wrbo formed
it; and this convidion will compel him to wiflr for the
divine protedion of himfelf and his friends from all dan¬
gers and misfortunes. Such a wilh is in effed a prayer,
and will-always be accompanied with adoration, confef-
333
lion, and thankfgiving (fee Prayer). But adoration, Duties and
confeflions, fupplication, and thankfgiving, conftitute Samfhons^of
what is called worjhip, and therefore the worlhip of Rei—on
God is a natural duty. It is the addrefling of ourfelves ■ ^ ■
as his dependants to him as the fupreme caufe and go¬
vernor of the world, with acknowledgements of what
we enjoy, and petitions for what we really want, or he
knows to be convenient for us. As if, ex. gr. I fliould
in feme humble and compofed manner (fays Mr Wol-
lafton) pray to that “ Almighty Being, upon whom de¬
pends the exiftence of the world, and by whofe provi- 40
dence I have been preferved to this moment, and en-Divine wor«.
of all his beneficence towards me ; that he would deli¬
ver me from the evil confequences of all my tranfgref-
lions and follies ; that he would endue me with fuch dif-
pofitions and powers as may carry me innocently and
fafely through all future trials, and may enable me on
all occafions to behave myfelf conformably to the laws
of reafon pioufly and wifely 5 that He would fuffer
no being to injure me, no misfortunes to befal me,
nor me to hurt myfelf by any error or mifcondu£t of my
own 1 that he would vouehfafe me clear and diftinfl
perceptions of things ; with fo much health and profpe-
rity as may be good for me ; that I may at lead: pafs
my time in peace, with contentment and tranquillity of
mind and that having faithfully difeharged my duty to
my family and friends, and endeavoured to improve my¬
felf in virtuous habits and ufeful knowledge, I may at
laft make a decent and happy exit, and find myfelf in
fome better ftate.”
That an untaught favage would be prompted by w-
J}in& to addrefs the Supreme Being in fuch terms as
this, we are fo far from thinking, that to us it appears
not probable that fuch a favage, in a ftate of folitude,
would be led by inftindl to fuppofe the exiftence of
that Being. But as foon as the being and attributes
of God Avere, by whatever means, made known to man,
every fentiment exprefled in this prayer muft neceffa-
rily have been generated in his mind ; for not to be fen-s
Able that we derive our exiftence and all our enjoyments
from God, is in effect to deny his being or his provi¬
dence •, and not to feel a wifh that he would give us
what we want, is to deny either his goodnefs or his
power.
The worfhip of God therefore is a natural duty re¬
fill ting from the contemplation of his attributes and
a fenfe of our own dependence. But the reafoning
which has led us to this conclufion refpeds only pri¬
vate devotion; for it is a queftion of much greater Whether 0 f
difficulty, and far enough from being yet determined, not is pub-
whether public worfhip be a duty of that religion he worfln'p
which can with any propriety be termed natural. Mr a fluty of
Wollafton indeed pofitively affirms that it is, and en-j|gj^a, re“
deavours to prove his pofilion by the following argu¬
ments.
“ A man (fays he) may be confidered as a member A 42 f
of fome fociety ; and as fuch he ought to worfhip God for it5
if he has the opportunity of doing it, if there be proper
prayers ufed publicly to which he may refort, and if his
health, &e. permit. Or the fociety may be confidered
as one body, that has common interefts and concerns,,,,
and as fuch is obliged to worfhip the Deity, and offer
one prayer, Befidesj there are many who know not o£
themfelves
THEOLOGY.
334 T H E O
Sanftlot^of1^610^6^63 fo°w to pray; perhaps cannot fo much as
Natural
Religion.
43
borrowed
from reve-
lation.
read. Thefe muft be taken as they are; and confe-
quently fome time and place appointed where they may
- have fuitable prayers read to them, and be guided in
their devotions. And further, towards the keeping
mankind in order, it is nece(fafy there (hould be forae
religion profefled, and even eftablilhed, which cannot
be without public worfliip. And were it not for that
fenfe of virtue which is principally (fo far as it
is preferved) by national forms and habits of religion,
men would foon lofe it all, run wild, prey upon one ano¬
ther, and do what elfe the worft of favages do.”
Thefe are in themfelves jud obfervations, and would
come with great force and propriety from the tongue or
pen of a Chriftian preacher, who is taught by revelation
that the Mafter whom he ferves has Commanded his
followers “ not to forfake the aflfembling of themfelves
together,” and has promifed, “ that if two of them fhall
agree on earth as touching any thing that they fhall
afk, it fhall be done for them of his Father who is in
heaven.” As urged by fuch a man, and on fuch grounds,
they would ferve to fhow the fitnefs of the divine com¬
mand, and to point out the benefits which a religious
obedience to it might give us reafon to expeft. But
the author is here profeffing to treat of naturalxeX\g\ax\,
and to date the duties which refult from the mere rela¬
tion which fubfifts between man as a creature and God
as his creator and conflant preferver. Now, though we
readily admit the benefits of public worfhip as experi¬
enced under the Chriftian difpenfation, we do not per¬
ceive any thing in this reafoning which could lead a
pious theift to expedt the fame benefit previous to all ex¬
perience. When the author thought of nationalforms
and ejiablfoments of religion, he certainly loft fight of
his proper fubjedt, and, as fuch writers are too apt to do,
comprehended under the religion of nature what belongs
only to that which is revealed. Natural religion, in the
proper fenfe of the words, admits of no particular^0/77;/,
and of no legal efablifhment. Private devotion is ob-
vioufly one of its duties, becaufe fentimentsof adoration,
confeflion, fupplication, and thankfgiving, neceflarily
fpring up in the breaft of every man who has juft no¬
tions of God and of himfelf: but it is not fo obvious
that fuch notions would induce any body of men to meet
at fated times for the purpofe of expreffing their devo¬
tional fentiments in public. Mankind are indeed focial
beings, and naturally communicate their fentiments to
each other; but we cannot conceive what fhould atfirft
have led them to think that public Worfhip at ftated
times would be acceptable to the felf-exiftent Author of
the univerfe. In cafe of a famine, or any other calami¬
ty in which the whole tribe was equally involved, they
might fpeak of it to each other, inquire into its caufe,
and in the extremity of their diftrefsjoin perhaps in one
fervent petition, that God would remove it. In the
fame manner they might be prompted to pour forth oc-
cafional ejaculations of public gratitude for public mer¬
cies; but it does not follow from thefe incidental occur¬
rences that they would be led to inftitute times and
places and forms of national worfhip, as if they believed
the omnifeient Deity more ready to hear them in public
than in private. That the appointment of fuch times
and forms and places is beneficial to fociety, experience
teaches us; and therefore it is the duty, and has been
the praftice, of the fupreme magiftrate, in every age
Natura
Religicr
^OGY. Part
and in every civilized country, to provide for the main- Duties,
tenance of the national worfhip. But this pra&ice hasSanift^
taken its rife, not from the dedu&ions of reafon, but ci-
ther from direft revelation, as among the Jews and
Chriftians; or from tradition, which had its origin in
fome early revelations, as among the more enlightened
Pagans of ancient and modern times.
We hope none of our readers will imagine that we
mean, in any degree, to call in queftion the fitnefs or
the duty of public worfhip. This is far from our in
tention
but while we are convinced of the importance
and neceffity of this duty, we do not apprehend that
we leffen its dignity, or detraft from the weight of al-
moft univerfal practice, by endeavouring to derive that
praftice from its true fource, which appears to us to be
not human reafon, but divine revelation.
But whatever doubts may be entertained with refpe£l The prac
to the origin of public worfhip, there can be none as to'‘ce 0b’«
the foundation of moral virtue. Reafon clearly perceives ^ a du:
it to be the will of our Maker, that each individual ofSi?'
the human race fhould treat every other individual as, in S
fimilar circumftances, he would exped to be treated
himfelf. It is thus only that the greateft fum of human
happinefs can be produced (fee Moral Philosophy,
N° 17. and 135.)? for were all men temperate, fober,
juft in their dealings, faithful to their promifes, chari¬
table to the poor, &c. it is obvious that no miferies
would be felt on earth, but the few which, by the laws
of corporeal nature, unavoidably refult from the union
of our minds with fyftems of matter. But the defign of
God in farming fentient beings was to communicate to
them fome portion, or rather fome refemblance, of that
felicity which is effential to himfelf; and therefore every
aftion which in its natural tendency co-operates with
this defign muft be agreeable to him, as every a£Hon of
a contrary tendency muft be difagreeable.
From this reafoning it follows, that we are obliged
not only to be juft and beneficent to one another, but
alfo to abftain from all unneceffary cruelty to inferior
animals. I hat we have a right to tame cattle, and em-Cruelty to
ploy them for the purpofes of agriculture and other arts d’f‘D^r'°
where ftrength is required, is a pofition which we be-aniraalsa
lieve has feldom been controverted. But ifitisthe in- in'
tention of God to communicate a portion of happinefs to
all his creatures endowed with fenfe, it is obvious that
we fin again ft him when we fubje£t even the horfe or the
afs to greater labour than he is able to perform; and this
fin is aggravated when from avarice wre give not the ani¬
mal a fufficient quantity of food to fupport him under the
exertions which we compel him to make. That it is our
duty to defend ourfelves and our property from the rava¬
ges of beaft of prey, and that wTe may even exterminate
fuch beafts from the country in which we live, are truths
which cannot be queftioned; but it has been the opinion
of men, eminent for wifdom and learning, that we have
no right to kill an ox or a ftieep for food, but in confe-
quence of the divine permiffion to Noah recorded in the
ninth chapter of the book of Genefis. Whether this
opinion be well or ill founded we fhall not pofitively de¬
termine, though the arguments on which it refts are of
fuch a nature as the reafoners of the prefent day would
perhaps find it no eafy talk to anfwer; but it cannot
admit of a doubt, that, in killing fuch animals, we are,
in duty to their Creator and ours, bound to put them to
the leaft poflible pain. If this be granted, it is ftill more
evident
Pa
Dm
San
N
Re
i
STatn
igior
edn
:s ev
faf
ate.
Tiel
lies
itioij
lute
Cic,
*fc-
M-
I.
and evident that we a£t contrary to the divine will when we
)nsoftorttire and put to death fuch animals as are confeffedly
:ral not injurious to ourfelves, or to any thing on which the
ion'. comforts of life are known to depend. We are indeed
far from being convinced with the poet, that infefts and
reptiles “ in mortal fufferance feel as when a giant dies:”
but their feelings on that occafion are certainly fuch, as
that, when we wantonly inflidt them, we thwart, as far
as in our power, the benevolent purpofe of the Creator
in giving them life and fenfe. Let it be obferved too,
that the man who praftifes needlefs cruelty to the brute
creation is training up his mind for exercifing cruelty
towards his fellow-creatures, to his {laves if he have
any, and to his fervants ; and, by a very quick progrefs,
to all who may be placed beneath him in the fcale of
fociety.
Such are the plain duties of natural religion •, and if
they were univerfally pradtifed, it is evident that they
would be produdlive of the greateft happinefs which
mankind could enjoy in this world, and that piety and
virtue would be their own reward. They are however
far from being univerfally pradtifed; and the confequence
is, that men are frequently raifed to affluence and power
by vice, and fometimes funk into poverty by a rigid ad¬
herence to the rules of virtue.
This being the cafe, there can be no queftion of
greater importance, while there are few more difficult
to be anfwered, than “ What are the fandtions by which
natural religion enforces obedience to her own laws ?”
It is not to be fuppofed that the great body of mankind
fliould, without the profpedt of an ample reward, prac-
tife virtue in thofe inftances in which fuch pradtice would
be obvioufly attended with injury to themfelves; nor
does it appear reafonable in any man to forego prefent
enjoyment, without the well-grounded hope of thereby
fecuring to himfelf a greater or more permanent enjoy-
re-inent in reverfion. Natural religion therefore, as a fyf-
tem of dodtrines influencing the condudt, is exceedingly
n defedlive, unlefs it affords fufficient evidence, intelligible
re to every ordinary capacity, of the immortality of the foul,
or at lead of a future date of rewards and puniffiments.
That it does afford this evidence, is flrenuouily main¬
tained by fome deids, and by many philofophers of a dif¬
ferent defcription, who, though they profefs Chridianity,
feem to have fome unaccountable dread of being decei¬
ved by their bibles in every dodfrine which cannot be
fupported by philofophical reafoning.
e- One great argument made ufe of to prove that the
■ immortality of the foul is among the dodtrines of natu-
ltf ml religion, is the univerfal belief of all ages and na¬
tions that men continue to live in fome other date after
death has feparated their fouls from their bodies. “ Quod
fi omnium confenfus naturce vox ejl: omnefque, qui ubi-
que funt, confentiunt effe aliquid, quod ad eos pertineat,
qui vita cefferint: nobis quoque idem exidimandunhed:
et fi, quorum aut ingenio, aut virtute animus excellit,
eos arbitramur, quia natura optima funt, cernere naturae
vim maxime : verifimile ed, cum optimus quifque maxime
pojleritatiferviat, effe aliquid, cujus is pod mortem fen-
fum fit habiturus. Sed ut deos effe natura opinamur,
qualefque fint, ratione cognofcimus, fic permanere ani-
inos arbitramur confenfu nationum omnium
:<,A Tfflat this is a good argument for the truth of the doc¬
s’ trine, through whatever channel men may have received
d, we readily acknowledge) but it appears not to us to
335
be any proof of that dodlrine’s being the dedudtion of Duties and
human reafoning. The popular belief of Paganifm, both
ancient and modern, is fo fantadic and abfurd, that it K,eiigion.
could never have been rationally inferred from what na- ■ ■ . i-j
ture teaches of God and the foul. In the Elyfium of 48
the Greek and Roman poets, departed fpirits were vi-j10*.
fible to mortal eyes ; and mud therefore have been nPartufe>°
clothed with fome material vehicle of fufficient denfity
to refleft the rays of light, though not to refid the hu¬
man touch. In the mythology of the northern nations,
as deceafed heroes are reprefented as eating and drink¬
ing, they could not be confidered as entirely diveded of
matter ) and in every popular creed of idolatry, future
rewards were fuppofed to be conferred, not for private
virtue, but for public violence, on heroes and conquerors
and the dedroyers of nations. Surely no admirer of what
is now called natural religion will pretend that thefe are
part of its doftrines 5 they are evidently the remains of
fome primeval tradition obfcured and corrupted in its
long progrefs through ages and nations.
The philofophers of Greece and Rome employed much Opinions
time and great talents in difquifitions concerning the hu-
man foul and the probability of a future date ; and if refpeifting
the genuine conclufions of natural religion on this fub- a future
jedl are anywhere to be found, one would naturally ttate.
look for them in the writings of thofe men whofe ge¬
nius and virtues did honour to human nature. Yet it is
a faft, that the philofophers held fuch notions concern¬
ing the fubdance of the foul and its date after death as.
could afford no rational fupport to differing virtue, (fee
Metaphysics, Part III. chap. 4.). Socrates is indeed
an exception. Confining himfelf to the dudy of ethics,
that excellent perfon inferred by the common moral ar¬
guments (fee Moral Philosophy,N°23 2—246.), that
the reality of a future date of rewards and punidiments
is in the highed degree probable. He was not, however,
at all times abfolutely co/m'flm/ of this important truth j
for a little before his death he faid to fome who were
about him, “ I am now about to leave this world, and
ye are dill to continue in it ) which of us have the bet¬
ter part allotted us, God only knows And again, * piatoip
at the end of his mod admired difcourfe concerning the Apoieg.
immortality of the foul, delivered at a time when he‘Sto,,
mud have been ferious, he faid to his friends who came
to pay their lad vifit, “ I would have you to know that
I have great hopes that I am now going into the com¬
pany of good men ; yet I would not be too peremptory
and confident concerning it f.” t Plato iii
Next to Socrates, Cicero was perhaps the mod re- Ph^d'
fpeftable of all the philofophers of antiquity ; and he
feems to have dudied this great quedion with uncom¬
mon care : yet what were his conclufions.? After retail¬
ing the opinions of various fages of-Greeee, and diowing
that fome held the foul to be the heart; others, the
blood in the heart) fome the brain ; others, the breath ;
one, that it was harmony ; another, that it was number $
one, that it was nothing at all) and another, that it was
a certain quintejfence without a name, but which might
properly be called wl&ix.uz—he gravely adds, Harum
fententiarum quse vera fit, Deus aliquis viderit: que ve-
rifimillima, magna quedio efi J.” He then proceeds to f -
give his own opinion ; which was, that the foul was part lib. j-
of God. §5. io.U,
To us who know by other evidence that the foul is
inmcrtal, and that there will be a future date in which
all
THEOLOGY,
33<>
Religion.
» Ibid.
i . 5°
Without
the light
of revela¬
tion we
Duties and all t’ne obliquities of the prefent (hall be made ftraight,
Natural*3 t^ie argument drawn from the moral attributes of God,
and the unequal didribution of the good things of this
life, appears to have the force of demonftration. Yet
none of us will iurely pretend to fay that his powers of
reafoning are greater than were thofe of Socrates and
Cicero : and therefore the probability is, that had we
been like them delfitute of the light of revelation, we
fliould have been difturbed by the fame doubts, and have
fa id Avith the latter, on reading the arguments of the
former as detailed by Plato. “ Nefcto quomodo, dum
lego, aflentior : cum pofui librum, et mecum ipfe de
immortalitate animorum ccepi cogitare, alfenfio ilia ela-
bitur
No one, AA'e hope, Avill fufpefl us of an- impious at¬
tempt to weaken the evidence of a future date. God
forbid ! The expedition of that date is the only fup-
Itiould have port of virtue and religion ; and we think the argu-
iike them men^s we have dated eifewhere, and referred to on the
prefent occafion, make the reality of it fo highly pro¬
bable, that, though there were no other evidence, he
would aft a very foolilh part who diould confine his at¬
tention wholly to the prefent life. But we do not ap¬
prehend that we can injure the caufe either of virtue or
of religion, by confeffing, that thofe arguments which
left doubts in the minds of Socrates and Cicero appear
not to us to have the force of complete demonjlration of
that life and immortality Avhich our Saviour brought
51 to light through the gofpel.
-Ji^cmhas*3" ^ere t*ie ca^e» however, otherAvife ; were theargu-
no meanTof™6.11*8 nature affords for the immor-
certainly tality of the human foul as convincing as any geometri-
reconciling cal demondration—natural religion Avould dill be defec-
ilBners ty t0t*ve ’ ^ecau^e ^ P°ints out no method by Avhich fuch as
lancrs. jiave 0g-en(jecj q0(j may. reporecj to favour ancj
to the hopes of happinefs Avhich by their fin they had
lod. That he Avho knoAVs whereof Ave are made would
fhow himfelf placable to finners, and that he Avould find
iome Avay to be reconciled, might perhaps be reafonably
mferred from the confideration of his benevolence dif-
THEOLOGY. part
played in his works. But Avhen Ave cotne to Inquire more Duties
particularly how we are to be reconciled, and Avhether aSanflic \
propitiation Avill be required, nature flops1 ihort, and ex- Nat"
pefts with impatience the aid of feme particular revela-> ^
tion. That God Avill receive returning finners, and ac- 'r'
cept of repentance inflead of perfeft obedience, cannot
be certainly known by thofe to whom he has not de¬
clared that he will. For though repentance be the mod
probable, and indeed the only means of reconciliation
which nature fuggeds ; yet Avhether he, who is of purer
eyes than to behold iniquity, will not require fomethincr
further before he redores finners to the privileges which
they have forfeited, mere human reafon has no Avay of
difeovering. From nature therefore arifes no fufficient
comfort to finners, but anxious and endlefs folicitude
about the means of appealing the Deity. Hence thofe
different ways of facrificing, and thofe numberlefs fuper-
ditions which overlpread the heathen Avorld, but which
were fo little fatisfaftory to the Avifer part of mankind,
that, even in thofe days of darknefs, the philofophers
frequently declared that, in their opinion, thofe rites and
oblations could avail nothing toAvards appealing the
Avrath of an od'ended God, or making their prayers ac¬
ceptable to him. Hence Socrates and one of his difciples
are reprefented by Platof as expefting a perfon divinelyt
commiffioned to inform them Avhether facrifices be
ceptable to the deity, and as refolving to offer no more
till that perfon’s arrival, Avhich they pioudy hoped might
beat no great didance.
This darknefs of the pagan Avorld is to us Avho liveTheff
under the funftiine of the gofpel happily removed by the doubts r
various reA’dations contained in the feriptures of the Old move<*
and New Tedaments. Thefe taken together exhibit^™
fuch a difplay of providence, fuch a fydem of doftrines,
and fuch precepts of praftical Avifdom, as the ingenuity
of man could never have difeovered. The Chriftian,
Avith the feriptures in his hands, can regulate his con-
duft by an infallible guide, and red his hopes on the
fared foundation. Thefe feriptures it is noAV our bufi-
nefs to examine.
TART II. OF REVEALED THEOLOGY.
' S3
fences to re- ^ every civilized country the popular fydem of the-
velation, 0^°8y has claimed its origin from divine revelation. The
Pagans of antiquity had their augurs and oracles; the
Chinefe have their infpired teachers Confucius and Fohi:
the Hindoos have their facred books derived from Bra-
hama ; the followers of Mahomet have their Koran dic¬
tated by an angel ; and the Jetvs ^apd Chridians have
the Scriptures of the Old and New Tedaments, which
they believe to have been Avritten by holy men of old,
Avho fpake and Avrote as they Avere moved by the Holy
Ghod.
I hat the claims of ancient Paganifm to a theology
derived from heaven, as well as the fimilar claims of the
Chinefe, Hindoos, and Mahometans, are ill founded, has
been diown in various articles of this Avork, (fee China,
Hindostan, Mahometanism, Mythology, and Po¬
lytheism); Avhilft under the Avords Religion, Reve¬
lation, and Scripture, avc have diffidently proved
the divine infpiration of the JeAvifh and Chridian ferip¬
tures, and of courfe the divine origin of JeAvifh and Chri¬
dian theology. Thefe indeed are not Iavo fydems of theo- though tl
logy, but parts of one fydem which Avas gradually re-Jewifli an
vealed as men were able to receive it; and therefore
both feriptures mud be dudied by the Chridian divine.^gea|one
There is nothing in the facred volume Avhich it is nottrue.
of importance to underdand ; for the whole proceeds
from the fountain of truth : but fome of its doftrines are
much more important than others, as relating imme¬
diately to man’s everlading happinefs $ and thefe it has
been cudomary to arrange and diged into regular fy¬
dems, called bodies or injlitutes of Chrijlian theology.
Could thefe artificial fydems be formed with perfeft
impartiality, they Avould undoubtedly be ufeful, for the
bible contains many hidorical details, but remotely re¬
lated to falvation ; and even of its mod important truths,
it requires more time and attention than the majority
of Chridians have to bedoAV, to difeover the mutual
conneftion and dependence. divifio"561
Artificial fydems of theology are commonly dividedreVeale<l
into two great parts, the theoretic and the practical;theoiog.v‘
and
[
I
ii
rt II. THEO
;ealed and thcfe again are fubdivided into many inferior branch-
ology. es> Under tlie theoretic part are fometimes claffed,
i. Dogmatic theology j which comprehends an entire
fyflem of all the dogmas or tenets which a Ghritlian is
bound to believe and profefs. The truth of thefe the
divine muft clearly perceive, and be able to enforce on
his audience: and hence the neceflity of Undying what
t:i' Hi
6
fs.
Is called,
, 2. The excgejis, or the art of attaining the true fenfe
of the holy fcriptures \ and,
3. Hermeneutic theology, or the art of interpreting
and explaining the leriptures to others *, an art of which
no man can be ignorant who knows how to attain the
true fenfe of them himfelf.
4. Polemical theology, or controverfy ; and,
5. Moral theology, which is diftinguilhed from moral
philofophy, or the fimple dodtrine of ethics, by teaching
a much higher degree of moral perfedtion than *he mere
light of reafon could ever have difcovered, and adding
new motives to the pradtice of virtue.
The pradtical fciences of the divine are,
1. Homiletic or pajloral theology j which teaches him
to adapt his difcourfes from the pulpit to the capacity of
his hearers, and to purfue the belt methods of guiding
them by his dodtrine and example in the tvay of falvation.
2. Catechetic theology, or the art of teaching youth
and ignorant perfons the principal points of evangelical
dodtrine, as well with regard to belief as to pradtice.
3. Cafuijlic theology, or the fcience which decides on
doubtful cafes of moral theology, and that calms the
fcruples of conlcience which arife in the Chriftian’s foul
during his journey through the prefent world.
We have mentioned thefe divifions and fubdivifions
of the fcience of theology, not becaufe we think them
important, but merely that our readers may be at no lofs
to underftand the terms when they meet with them in
other works. Of fuch terms we (hall ourfelves make no
ufe, for the greater part of them indicate diftindlions
where there is no difference, and tend only to perplex
the ftudent. As the truths of Chriftianity are all con¬
tained in the fcriptures of the Old and New Teftaments,
it is obvious that dogmatic theology muft comprehend
the fpe^ulative part of that which is called moral, as
well as every dodtrine about which controverfy can be
of importance. But no man can extradt a fingle dogma
from the bible but by the pradtice of what is here called
the exege/is ; fo that all the fubdivilions of this arrange¬
ment of theoretical theology muft be ftudied together as
they neceffarily coalefce into one. The fame thing is
true of the three branches into which pradtical theology
is here divided. He who has acquired the art of adapt¬
ing his homilies to the various capacities of a mixed au¬
dience, will need no new ftudy to lit him for inftrudling
children, and the molt ignorant perfons who are capable
of inftrudtion ; and the complete mafter of moral theo¬
logy will find it no very difficult talk to refolve all the
cafes of confcience which he can have reafon to fuppofe
will ever be fubmitted to his judgment. For thefe rea-
fons we {hall not trouble our readers with the various
divifions and fubdivifions of theology. Our preliminary
diredtions will (how them how we think the fcience
fliould be ftudied •, and all that we have to do as fyftem-
builders is to lay before them the view which the fcrip¬
tures prefent to us of the being and perfedlions of God,
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY.
his various difpenfations to man, and the duties thence
incumbent on Chriftians. In doing this, we ftiall follow
the order of the divine difpenfations as we find them re¬
corded in the Old and New Teftaments, dwelling long-
eft on thofe which appear to us of moft general import¬
ance. But as we take it for granted that every reader
of this article will have previoufty read the whole facred
volume, we (hall not fcruple to illuftrate dogmas con¬
tained in the Old Teftament by texts taken from the
New, or to illuftrate dodtrines peculiar to the Chriftian
religion by the teflimony of Jewilh prophets.
God tire!
his Attri¬
butes.
Sect. I. Of God and his Attributes.
57
In every fyftem of theology the firft truths to be be-Thefirft
lieved are thofe which relate to the being and attributes tevelation
of God. The. Jewifh lawgiver, therefore, who records
the earlieft revelations that were made to man, begins
his hiftory with a difplay of the power and wifdom ofbe a known
God in the creation of the world. He does not inform truth,
his countrymen, and expedt them to believe, on the au¬
thority of his divine commiffion, that God exifs; for
he well knew that the being of God muft be admitted,
and juft notions entertained of his attributes, before man
can be required to pay any regard to miracles which
afford the only evidence of a primary revelation. “ In
the beginning (fays he) God created the heavens and
the earth.” Here the being of God is affumed as a
truth univerfally received ; but the fentence, fhort as it
is, reveals another, which, as we ftiall afterwards fhew,
human reafon could never have difcovered.
There is nothing which the fcriptures more frequent! v
or more earneftly inculcate than the unity of the divine,
nature. The texts afferting this great and fundamental
truth are almoft numberlefs. “ Unto thee (fays Mofes
to his countrymen*) it was {hewed, that thou mighteft* Deut.iv.
know that the Lord is God ; there is none elfe befdes2sS ^2>9*
him. Know therefore that the Lord he is God in hea- v'- 4‘
ven above and upon the earth beneath : there is none
elfe.'1'1 And again, “ Hear, O Ifrael, the Lord our God
is one Lordf or, as it is exprefled in the original, “ Je¬
hovah our God is one Jehovah,” one Being to whom
exiftence is effential, who could not have a beginning
and cannot have an end. In the prophecies of Ifaiah,
God is introduced as repeatedly declaring f, “lam, jfaiah xiv.
Jehovah, and there is none elfe; there is no God befdes'^ 6, «8,
me ; that they may know from the rifing of the fun and 3 xliv> 5*
from the weft, that there is none beftdes me : I am Je¬
hovah, and there is none elfe: Is there a God bolides
me ? Yea there is no God; 1 know not any.” In per¬
fect harmony with thefe declarations of Mofes and the
prophets, our Saviour, addreffing himfelf to his .Father,
fays J, “ This is life eternal, that they might know I John xvii.
Thee, the only true God, and Jefus Chrift whom Thou 3-
haft fentand St Paul, who derived his dodtrine
from his divine Mafter, affirms §, that “ an idol is no- § 1 Cor.
thing in the world $ and that there is none other Cod'1111-4'
but one.','>
The unity of the divine nature, which, from the or¬
der and harmony of the wmrld, appears probable to hu¬
man reafon, thefe texts of revelation put beyond a doubt.
Hence the firft precept of the Jewilh law, and, accord¬
ing to their own writers, the foundation of their whole
religion, was, “ Thou {halt have none other gods before
U u Me.?
338
God ant]
It is Attri-
bates.
Me.”
THEOLOGY.
Hence, ton, the reafon of that ftri6t command
Part
to Jews and Chri'ftians to give divine woriliip to none
but God : “ Thou flialt worfhip the Lord thy God,
5,8
Denotes a
plurality of T Te*
pet inns in In the
the. God-
head.
a:,d him only llialt thou ferve •” becaufe he is God
alone. Him only muft we fear, becaufe he alone hath
infinite power; in him alone muft we truft, becaufe “ he
only is our rock and our falvation and to him alone
muft we direft f>ur devotions, becaufe “ he only knovveth
the hearts of the children of men.”
The word D'nbx does not indicate a plurality of gods,
the opinion, however, of many eminent divines, it
denotes, by its junction with the lingular verb, a plu¬
rality of perfons in the one Godhead ; and fome few
have contended, that by means of this peculiar conftruc-
tion, the Chriftian do&rine of the Trinity may be
proved from the firft chapter of the book of Genefis.
J o this latter opinion we can by no means give our af-
lent. That there are three diftinft perfons in the one
divine nature may be inferred with fufficient evidence
from a multitude of palTages in the Old and New Tefta-
ments diligently compared together; but it would per¬
haps be ralh to reft the proof of fo fublime a myftery on
any Angle text of holy feripture, and would certainly be
fo to reft it on the text in queftion. That Mofes was
acquainted with this do&rine, we may reafonably con¬
clude from his fo frequently making a plural name of
God to agree with a verb in the fingular number ; but
3iad we not poffeffed the brighter light of the New Tef-
tament to guide us, we ftiould never have thought of
drawing fueh an inference. For fuppofing the word
D'rtbx to denote clearly a plurality'of perfons, how could
we have known that the number is neither more or lefs
than three, had it not been afeertained to us by fubfe-
quent revelations *
There are indeed various pafiages in the Old Telia-
ment, of the phrafeology of which no rational account
can be given, but that they indicate more than one per-
fbn in the Godhead. Such are thofe texts already no¬
ticed ; “ and the Lord God faid, let us make man in
our image, after OUR likenefs and “ the Lord God
faid, behold the man is become like one of us.” To
thefe may be added the following, which are to us per-
feftly unintelligible on any other fuppofition ; “and the
Lord God faid, let us go down, and there confound
* Gen. xi. their language “ If I be a Majler (in the Hebrew
i 6 adonim, masters), where is my fearf ?” “ The fear
of the Lord (Jehovah) is the beginning of wifdom, and
the knowledge of the Holy (in the Hebrew holy ones)
j'Prev. ix* is underftanding L” “Remember thy Creator (He¬
brew, thy Creators) in the days of thy youth §.”
“ And now the Lord God and his Spirit hath fent
me ||.” “ Seek ye out of the book of the Lord and
read ; for MY mouth it hath commanded, and his SPIRIT
io
§ Eccl. xii.
jj I fa i ah
sdviii. 16.
* Tfaiah
xxxiv. 16.
it hath gathered them
That thefe texts imply a plurality of divine perfons,
feems to us incontrovertible. When Mofes reprefents
God as faying, let us make man, the majefty of the plu¬
ral number had not been adopted by earthly fovereigns ;
and it is obvious that the Supreme Being could not, as
has been fuppofed, call on angels to make man ; for in
flobix. 8. different places of feripture f creation is attributed to
Ifa. xlv. gocj a]one> Hence it is that Solomon fpeaks of Crea¬
tors in the plural number, though he means only the
one Supreme Being, and exhorts men to remember
theBi' in the days of their youth. In the paffage firft
1
pa (Jim.
quoted from Ifaiah, there is a diftin&ion made between GwlacJ
the Lori/ God and his Spirit; and in the other, three
divine perfons are introduced, viz. the Speaker, the butl;s'
Lord, and the Spirit of the Lord. It does not, how- ~~ir'
ever, appear evident from thefe paffages, or from any
other that we recolleff in the Old Teftament, that the
perfons in Deity are three and no more : but no fober
Chriftian will harbour a doubt but that the precife
number was by fome means or other made known to
the ancient Hebrews ; for inquiries leading to it would
be naturally fuggefted by the form in which the high
prieft was commanded to blefs the people. “ The Lord
blefs thee and keep thee. The Lord make his face
to ftiine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee. The *^Tmn,)'f|
Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee ^ 24,
peace
I he form of Chriftian baptifm eftablifhes the truth of A Trinit J
the dodlrine of the Trinity beyond all reafonable ground ’n unity1 j
of difpute. “ Go (fays our bleffed Saviour) and teach (!0<^rmec|
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father,tCnptUi:e‘
«md of the Son, and of tire Holy Ghoft.” What was it
the apoftles were to teach all nations ? Was it not to
turn from their vanities to the living God; to renounce
their idols and falfe gods, and fo to be baptized in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghoft ? What now muft occur to the Gentile nations
on this occafion, but that, inftead of all their deities, to
whom they had before bowed down, they were in fu¬
ture to ferve, worftiip and adore, Father, Son, and
Holy Ghoft, as the only true and living God ? To fup-
pofe that God and two creatures are here joined to¬
gether in the folemn rite by which men were to be ad¬
mitted into a new religion, which diredlly condemns all
creature-worjkip, would be fo unreafonable, that we are
perfuaded fueh a fuppofition never was made by any
converted Polytheift of antiquity. The nations were to
be baptized in the name of three perfons, in the fame
manner, and therefore, doubtlefs, in the fame fenfe. It
is not faid in the name of God and his two faithful
fervants; nor in the name of God, and Christ, and
the Holy Ghost, which might have fuggefted a thought
that one only of the three is God ; but in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Whatever honour, reverence, or regard, is paid to the
firft perfon in this folemn rite, the fame is paid to all
three. Is he acknowledged as the objeft of worfhip ?
So are the other two likewife. Is he God and Lord
over us ? So are they. Are we enrolled as fubjefts,,
fervants, and foldiers, under him ? So are we equally
under all. Are we hereby regenerated and made the
temple of the Father ? So are we likewife of the Son
and Holy Ghoft. “ We will come (fays our Saviour f) j j0hn xin
and make our abode with him.” 23.
If thofe who believe the infpiration of the feriptures
could require any further proof that the Godhead com¬
prehends a trinity of perfons in one nature, we might
urge the apoftolical form of benediftion ; “ The grace
of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and
the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you
all J.” Would St Paul, or any other man of common! a Cor.
fenfe, have in the fame fentence, and in the moft folemn
manner, recommended his Corinthian converts to the
love of God, and to the grace and communion of twe
creatures ? We fhould think it very abfurd to reconw
mend a man at once to the favour of a king and a beg-
gar;
|| rt II. T H E O
J and gar •, but bow infinitely fmall is the diftance between
I } Attri- jjjg greateft earthly potentate and the meaneft beggar,
I ites' , when compared wdth that which mull for ever fublift
i between the Almighty Creator of heaven and earth and
the moll elevated creature ?
But how, it will be alked, can three divine perfons
Di ulties be but one and the fame God ? Thisisaquellion which
in s doc- has been often put, but which, we believe, no created
tri being can fully anfwer* The divine nature and its man¬
ner of exiftence is, to us, wholly incomprehenlible •, and
we might with greater reafon attempt to weigh the
mountains in fcales, than by our limited faculties to fa¬
thom the depths of infinity. The Supreme Being is
prefent in power to every portion of fpace, and yet it is
demonllrable, that in his effence he is not extended (fee
Metaphysics, N° 309, 310). Both thefe truths, his
inextenlion and omniprefence, are fundamental principles
in what is called natural religion ; and when taken to¬
gether they form, in the opinion of moll people, a myf-
tery as incomprehenfible as that of the Trinity in unity.
Indeed there is nothing of which it is more difficult to
form a dillinfl notion than unity fimple, and abfolutely
indivifible. Though the Trinity in unity, therefore,
were no Chrillian doflrine, mylleries mull Hill be be¬
lieved ; for they are as infeparable from the religion of
nature as from that of revelation ; and atbeifm involves
the moll incomprehenfible of all mylleries, even thebe-
ginning of exiltence without a caufe. We mull indeed
form the bell notions that we can of this and all other
mylleries ; for if we have no notions whatever of a Tri¬
nity in unity, wre can neither believe nor diffielieve that
doctrine. It is however to be remembered, that all our
notions of God are more or lefs analogical ; that they
mull be expreffed in words which, literally interpreted,
are applicable only to man j and that propolitions under-
Hood in this literal fenfe may involve an apparent con-
tradidlion, from which the truth meant to be exprelled
by them would be feen to be free, had we direfl and
adequate conceptions of the divine nature. On this ac¬
count it is to be wifhed that men treating of the mylle-
ry of the Holy Trinity, had always expreffed themfelves
in fcripture language, and never aimed at being wife
above what is written j but fince they have added other-
wife, we mull, in jullice to our readers, animadvert on
one or two llatements of this dodlrine, which we have
reafon to believe are earnellly contended for by fome
who eonfider themfelves as the only orthodox.
In the fcriptures, the three perfons are denominated
by the terms Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or by
God, the Word, who is alfo declared to be God, and
the Spirit of God. If each be truly God, it is ob¬
vious that they mull all have the fame divine nature,
juft as every man has the fame human nature with every
other man ; and if there be but ONE God, it is equally
obvious that they mud be of the fame individual fub-
Hance or elfence, which no three men can poffibly be.
In this there is a difficulty $ but, as will be feen by and
by, there is no contradidlion. The very terms Father
and Son imply fuch a relation between the two perfons
io denominated, as that though they are of the fame
Sub bibflance, pofleffed of the fame attributes, and equally
;ion ^ G°d, juft as a human father and his fon are equally
reco an(i men> yet the fecond mull be perfonally fubordinate to
:hir er_ the firft. In like manner, the Holy Ghost, who is
called the Spirit of God, and is faid to proceed from the
LOGY. 33
Father, and to be fent by the Son, mull be conceived as God
fubordinate to both, much in the fame way as a fon is *11S AtUi
fubordinate to his pai'ents, though poffeffed of equal or
even of fuperior powers. That this is the true doflrine,
appears to us undeniable from the words of our Saviour
himfelf, who, in j prayer addrefled to his Father, ftyles
him * by way of pre-eminence, “ the only true God,” a« * John
being the fountain or origin of the Godhead from which xv^‘
the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their true divinity.
In like manner, St Paul, when oppofing the polytheifm
of the Greeks, fays exprefsly -j-, that “ to us there is butf r Cor.
one God, the Father, of whom are all things, andviir. 6.
we in, or for, him j and one Lord Jesus Christ, by
whom are all things, and we by him.”
That the primitive fathers of the Chrillian church
maintained this fubordination of the fecond and third
perfons of the bleffed Trinity to the firft, has been
evinced with complete evidence by Biftiop Bull. We
Ihall tranfcribe two quotations from him, and refer the
reader for fuller fatisfadlion to Je6l. 4. of his Dcfe nfio
Jidei Nicenee. The firrt Ihall be a paflage cited from
Novation, in which the learned prelate aflures us the
fenfe of all the ancients is expreffed. “ Quia quid ell
Filius, non ex fe eft, quia nec innatus eft 5 fed ex patio
eft, quia genitus eft : five dum verbum eft, five dum
virtus eft, five dum fapientia eft, five dum lux eft, five
dum Filius eft, et quicquid horum eft, non aliunde eft
quam ex Patre, Patri fuo originem fuam debens.” The
next is from Athanafius, who has never been accufed of
holding low opinions refpefling the fecond perfon of the
holy Trinity. This father, in his fifth difcourfe againft
the Arians, fays, ko[\cc xcv laxww ev txuIy, tjj x*
« axt 0 Xoyo;, yv Trpof rov 6itv. ©g«{ yxg erliv x vgy,*.,
*.xi iTrt^x* aet/Jus eir]*, oix tovto xmi nv 0 Aoyaj ; ac¬
cording to John, the Word was in this firfl principle,
and the Word was God. For God is the principle ; and
becaufe the Word is from the principle, therefore the
Word is God. Agreeably to this doiftrine, the Nicene
fathers, in the creed which they publiffied for the ufe of
the univerfal church, ftyle the only begotten Son, God
of God, hot; tx 6icv.
Regardlefs however of antiquity, and of the plain Demtd by
fenfe of fcripture, fome modern divines of great learning forae mo-
contend, that the three perfons in Deity are all confub-^^
fantial, co-eternal, co-ordinate, without derivation, fubor- vines’ but
dination, or dependence, of any fort, as to nature or ef¬
fence $ while others affirm, that the fecond and third
perfons derive from the firft their perfonality, but not
their nature. ^Ve ffiall confider thefe opinions as diffe¬
rent, though, from the obfeurity of the language in
which we have always feen them expreffed, we cannot
be certain but they may be one and the fame. The
maintainers of the former opinion hold, that the three
perfons called Elohim in the Old Teftament, naturally
independent on each other, entered into an agreement
before the creation of the world, that one of them ffiould
in the fulnefs of time affume human nature, for the pur-
pofe of redeeming mankind from that mifery into which
it was forefeen that they would fall. This antemundane;
agreement, they add, conftitutes the whole of that pa¬
ternal and filial relation which fubfifts between the firft
and fecond perfons whom we denominate Father and
Son \ and they hold, that the Son is faid to be begotten
before all worlds, to indicate that He who was before
all worlds was begotten, or to begotten, into the office
UU2 «f
340
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
* See.
f Johri iv.
9-
bf fedot'.mer ; or, more decifively, to fignify that he un¬
dertook that office before the creation, and a {fumed to
himfelf fome appearance or figure of the reality in which
he was to execute it; and he is called ftcreyiMjf, or the
Ridgeley's only begotten, becaufe he alone was begotten into the
0/ office of redeemer *.
n.ty many (>f our rcaders we doubt not but this will
The exprefs appear a very extraordinary do&rine, and not eafy to be
doctrine of reconciled with the unity of God. It is however fuffi-
feripture. ciently overturned by two fentences of holy feripture,
about the meaning of which there can be no difpute.
“ In this (fays St John f) was manifefted the love of
God towards us, becaufe that God fent his only begot¬
ten Son into the world, that we might live through
him.” Taking the word fori in its ufual acceptation,
this was certainly a wonderful degree of love in the Fa¬
ther of mercies to fend into the world on our account a
perfon fo nearly related to him as an only fon ; but if
we fubftitute this novel interpretation of the words only
begotten fon in their (lead, the apoftle’s reafoning will
lofe all its force. St John will then be made to fay,
“ In this was manifefted the love of God toward us,
becaufe that God fent a divine perfon equal to himfelf,
and no way related to him, but who had before the crea¬
tion covenanted to come into the world, that we might
live through him.” Is this a proof of the love of the
perfon here called God ? Again, the infpired author of
the epiftle to the Hebrews, treating of our Saviour’s
priefthood, fays, among other things expreftive of his
humiliation, that “ though he was a son, yet learned
i Heb. v. S. he obedience by the things which he fuffered J.” If
the word fin be here underftood in its proper fenfe, this
verfe difplays in a very ftriking manner the condefcen-
fion of our divine Redeemer, who, though he was no
lefs a perfon than the proper Son of God by nature, yet
vouchfafed to learn obedience by the things which he
fuffered •, but if we fubftitute this metaphorical fonlhip
in place of the natural, the reafoning of the author will
be very extraordinary. “ Though this divine perfonage
agreed before all worlds to fuffer death for the redemp¬
tion of man, yet learned he obedience by the things
which he fuffered.” What fenfe is there in this argu¬
ment ? Is it a proof of condefcenfion to fulfil one’s en¬
gagement ? Surely, if the meaning of the word fon,
when applied to the fecond perfon of the bleffed Tri¬
nity, were what is here fuppofed, the infpired writer’s
argument would have been more to the purpofe for
which it is brought had it run thus : “ Though he was
noi a fon, i. e. though he had made no previous agree¬
ment, yet condefcended he to learn,” &e.
The other opinion, which fuppofes the Son and the
Holy Ghoft to derive from the Father their perfonality,
but not their nature, is to us wholly unintelligible ; for
perfonality cannot exift, or be conceived in a ftate of
feparation from all naHires, any more than a quality can
exift in a ftate of feparation from all fubftances The
former of thefe opinions we are unable to reconcile with
the unity of God •, the latter is clothed in words that
have no meaning. Both, as far as we can underftand
them, are palpable polytheifm ; more palpable indeed
than that of the Grecian philofophers, who though
they worlhipped gods many, and lords many, yet all
held one God fupreme over the reft. See Polythe¬
ism, N° 32.
But if the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their na~
J
THEOLOGY. partI
ture^as well as their perfonality from the Father, will it God?r
not follow that they mult be pofterior to him in time his Att
fince every yffedf is pofterior to its caufe ? No; this con- butes’
fequence feems to follow only by reafoning too clofely
from one nature to another, when there is between the The ft J
two but a very diftant analogy. It is indeed true, thatthin
✓ o-    w ^ CiJUC ‘■“‘HI
among men, every father mult be prior in time as well Perf0Krj
ir» *-»*vf. 1 1-.!,. . 1 *.   •. /V .• 1 pOftcriOr 1
as in the order of nature to his fon ; but were it effentialh
to a man to be a father, fo as that he could not exiftthe h,‘t'
otherwife than in that relation, it is obvious that his fon
would be coeval with himfelf, though ftill as proceeding
from him, he would be pofterior in the order of nature.
I his is the cafe with all necellary caufes and effedts.
The vifible fun is the immediate and necefiary caufe of
light and heat, either as emitting the rays from his own
fubftance, or as exciting the agency of a lluid diffufed
for that purpofe through the whole fyftem. Light and
heat, therefore, muft be as old as the fun ; and had he
exifted from eternity, they would have exifted from eter¬
nity with him, though ftill, as his effedts, they would
have been behind him in the order of nature. Hence
it is, that as we muft fpeak analogically of the Divine
nature, and when treating of mind, even the Supreme
mind, make ufe of words literally applicable only to the
modifications of matter, the Nicene fathers illuftrate the
eternal generation of the fecond perfon of the bleffed
Irinity by this proceffion of light from the corporeal
fun, calling him God OF God, light OF light.
Another comparifon has been made ufe of to enable
us to form fome notion, however inadequate, how three
Divine perfons can fubfift in the fame fubftance, and
thereby conftitute but one God. Mofes informs us, that
man was made after the image of God. That this re¬
lates to the foul more than to the body of man, has
been granted by all but a few grofs anthropomorphites;
but it has been well obferved*, that the foul, though in *-
itfelf one indivifible and unextended fubftance, is con- LnWtfJ
ceived as confifting of three principal faculties, the un- Contro-
derjlanding, the memory, and the will. Of thefe, though
vnh-
they are all coeval in time, and equally effential to a
rational foul, the underftanding is in the order of nature
obvioufly the firft, and the memory the fecond ; for
things muft be perceived before they can be remember¬
ed ; and they muft be remembered and compared to¬
gether before they can excite volitions, from being fome
agreeable, and others difagreeable. The memory there¬
fore may be faid to fpring from the underftanding, and
the will from both ; and as thefe three faculties are con¬
ceived to conftitute one foul, fo may three Divine per¬
fons partaking of the fame individual nature or effence
conftitute one God. 65
Thefe parallels or analogies are by no means brought Noeon;^
forward as proofs of the Trinity, of which the evidence
is to be gathered wholly from the word of God ; but
they ferve perhaps to help our labouring minds to form 0f the ft
the jufteft notions of that myftery which it is poffible nity.
for us to form in the prefent ftate of our exiftence; and
they feem to refeue the dodlrine fufficiently from the
charge of contradidlion, which has been fo often urged
againft it by Unitarian writers. To the laft analogy we
are aware it has often been objected, that the foul may
a^- well be faid to confift of ten or twenty faculties as of
three, fince the paflions are equally effential to it with
the underftanding, the memory, and the will, and are
as different from one another as thefe three faculties are.
This,
Pil
Ob]
Atii
: IT. T H E O
anij Xhls, however, is probably a miftake j for the beft phi-
ttn- lofophy feems to teach us, that the paffions are not in-
' nate ; that a man might exift through a long life a
Granger to many of them j and that there are probably
no two minds in which are generated all the pafiions (fee
Passion) •, but underftanding, memory, and will, are
abfolutely and equally neceffary to every rational being.
But whatever be in this, if the human mind can be con¬
ceived to be one indivilible fubilance, confiding of dif¬
ferent faculties, whether many or few, why ftiould it
be thought an impoflibility for the infinite and eter¬
nal nature of God to be communicated to three per-
fons a£Hng different parts in the creation and govern¬
ment of the world, and in the great fcheme of man’s re¬
demption.
'• ■ To the doftrine of the Trinity many objections have
' ' been made, as it implies the divinity of the Son and the
Holy Ghoft •, of whom the former affirmed our nature,
and in it died for the redemption of man. Thefe we
fliall notice when we come to examine the revelations
more peculiarly Chriftian ; but there is one objection
which, as it refpeCts the doCtrine in general, may be
properly noticed here. It is faid that the firft Chriftians
borrowed the notion of a Triune God from the later
Platonifts ; and that we hear not of a Trinity in the
church till converts were made from the fchool of Alex¬
andria. But if this be the cafe, we may properly afk,
whence had thofe Platonifts the doCtrine themfelves ? It
is not furely fo fimple or fo obvious as to be likely to
have occurred to the reafoning mind of a Pagan philo-
fopher ; or if it be, why do Unitarians fuppofe it to in¬
volve a contradiction ? Plato indeed taught a doCtrine
in fome refpeCts fimilar to that of the Chriftian Trinity,
and fo did Pythagoras, with many other philofophers of
Greece and the Eaft (fee Platonism, Polytheism,
and Pythagoras) ; but though thefe fages appear to
have been on fome occafions extremely credulous, and
on others to have indulged themfelves in the molt myf-
terious fpeculations, there is no room to fuppofe that
they were naturally weaker men than ourfelves, or that
they were capable of inculcating as truths what they
perceived to involve a contradi&ion. The Platonic and
Pythagorean trinities never could have occurred to the
mind of him who merely from the works of creation en¬
deavoured to difcover the being and attributes of the
Creator ; and therefore as thofe philofophers travelled
into Egypt and the Eaft in quell of knowledge, it ap¬
pears to us in the higheft degree probable, that they
picked up this myfterious and fublime doClrine in thofe
regions where it had been handed down as a dogma from
p the remoteft ages, and Avhere uTe know that fcience was
red. not taught fyftematically, but detailed in collections of
fententious maxims and traditionary opinions. If this
be fo, we cannot doubt but that the Pagan trinities had
their origin in fome primaeval revelation. Nothing elfe
indeed can account for the general prevalence of a doc¬
trine fo remote from human imagination, and of which
we find veftiges in the facred books of almoft every civi¬
lized people of antiquity. The corrupt Hate in which it
is viewed in the writings of Plato and others, is the na¬
tural confequence of its defcent through a long courfe
of oral tradition j and then falling into the hands of men
who bent every opinion as much as poflible to a con¬
formity with their own fpeculations. The trinity of
Platonifm therefore, inftead of being an objeflion, lends,
341
God and
his Attri¬
butes.
L O GY.
in our opinion, no feeble fupport to the Chriftian doc¬
trine, fince it affords almoft a complete proof of that
doClrine’s having made part of the firft revelations com¬
municated to man.
Having thus difcovered that the one God compre¬
hends three perfons, let us now inquire what this triune
God exerted when he created the heaven and the earth.
That by the heaven and the earth is here meant the
whole univerfe, vifible and invifible, is known to every
perfon acquainted with the phrafeology of Scripture;
and we need inform no man converfant with Englifh
writers, that by creation, in its proper fenfe, is meant
bringing into being or making that to exijl which exifted
not before. It mull, however, be acknowledged, that
the Hebrew word k*u does not always imply the pro¬
duction of fubftance, but very often the forming of par¬
ticular organized bodies out of pre-exifting matter. Thus
when it is faid * that “ God created great whales, and e- * Gen. i.
very livingcreature that movetlqwhich the watersbrought ZI> 27’
forth abundantly after their kind,” and again, “ that he
created man male and female though the word *03 is
ufed on both occafions, we are not to conceive that the
bodies of the firft human pair, and of thefe animals,
were brought into being from nonentity, but only that
they were formed by a proper organization being given gg
to pre-exiftent matter. But when Mofes fays, “ In the Creation
beginning God created the heaven and the earth,” he taught by
cannot be fuppofed to mean, that “ in the beginning God
only gave form to matter already exifting of itfelf ■” for
in the very next verfe we are allured that after this act
of creation was over, “ the earth was ftill without form
and void,” or, in other words, in a chaotic ftate.
That the Jews, before the coming of our Saviour,
underftood1 their lawgiver to teach a proper creation, is
plain from that palfiage in the fecond book of the Mac¬
cabees, in which a mother, to perfuade her fon to fuffer
the cruelleft tortures rather than forfake the law of his
God, ufes the following argument: “ I befeech thee,
my fon, look upon the heaven and the earth, and all
that is therein, and confider that God made them of
things that were not.” To the fame purpofe the infpi-
red author of the epiftle to the Hebrews, when magni¬
fying the excellence of faith, fays, “ Through faith we
underftand that the worlds -were framed by the word of
God, fo that things which are feen were not made of
things which do appear ;” where, as Bilhop Pearfon has
ably proved f, the phrafe y.14 ixQctuiopuur is equivalent to f Expof-
cvk e| ovruv, in the quotation Irom the Maccabees. tion of the
The very firft verfe, therefore, of the book of Gene-^r<’^’^•
fis informs us of a moft important truth, which all the
uninfpired wifdom of antiquity could not difcover. It
alTures us, that as nothing, exifts by chance, fo nothing
is necefiarily exifting but the three divine perfons in the
one Godhead. Every thing elfe, whether material or
immaterial, derives its fubftance, as well as its form or
qualities, from the fiat of that felf-exiftent Being, “ who
was, and is, and is to come.”
It does not, however, follow from this verfe, or from xhe whole
any other palfiage in the facred Scriptures, that the univerfe
whole univerfe was called into exiftence at the fame in- not created
ftantj neither is it by any meansevident that the chaos of at
our world was brought into being on the firft of thofe fix
days during which it was gradually reduced into form.
From a palfiage in the book of Job, in which we are + . •••
told by God himfelf, that when the “ foundation of the * XXXVU1‘ ^
earth
342
THEOLOGY.
Got! and earth Was laid the morning ftars fang together, and all
Lis Attri¬
butes.
* Pfalm
cxxxvi. p.
the fons of God thouted for joy,” it appears extremely
.w probable that worlds had been created, formed, and in¬
habited, long before our earth had any exiftence. Nor
is this opinion at all contrary to what Mofes fays of the
creation of the ftars ; for though they are mentioned in
the fame verfe with the fun and moon, yet the manner
in which, according to the original, they are introduced,
by no means indicates that all the ftars were formed at
the fame time with the luminaries of our fyftem. Moft
of them have been created long before, and fome of
them fince, our world was brought into being j for that
claufe (verfe 16.) “ he made the ftars alfo,” is in the
Hebrew no more than “ and the ftars j” the words he
made being inferted t>y the tranllators. The word verfe
therefore ought to be rendered thus, “ and God made
two great lights ; the greater light to rule the day, and
the lefler light with the ftars to rule the night $ where
nothing is intimated with refpeft to the time when the
ftars were formed, any more than in that verfe of the
Pfalms *, which exhorts us to give thanks to God who
made the moon and ftarS to rule by night; for his
mercy endureth “ for ever.” The firft verfe of the
book of Genefis informs us that all things fpiritual and
corporeal derive their exiftence from God ; but it is
nowhere faid that all matter was created at the fame
time.
That the whole corporeal univerfe may have been
created at once muft be granted ; but if fo, we have rea-
fon to believe that this earth, with the fun and all the
•planets of the fyftem, were fuffered to remain for ages
in a ftate of chaos, “ without form and void becaufe
.it appears from other fcriptures, that worlds of intelligent
•creatures exifted, and even that fome angels had fallen
from a ftate of happinefs prior to the era of the Mofaic
  cofmogony. That the fun and the other planets revol-
fyftem crea-ving round him were formed at fhe fame time with the
ted at once, garth, Gannot indeed be queftioned j for it is not only
probable in itfelf from the known laws of nature, but is
exprefsly affirmed by the facred hiftorian, who relates
the formation of the fun and moon in the order in which
it took place ; but there is one difficulty which has fur-
niffied ignorance with fomethinglike an objeftion to the
divine legation of the Hebrew lawgiver, and which we
71 dhall notice.
A difficulty Mofes informs us, that on thejitjl day after the pro¬
duction of the chaos, the element of light W'as created ;
and yet within a few fentences he declares, that the fun,
the fountain of light, was not made till the fourth day.
How are thefetwo paflagesto be reconciled ? We anfwer,
That they may be reconciled many ways. Mofes wrote
for the ufe of a whole people, and not for the amufement
or inftrudtion of a few aftronomers ; and in this vifew
his language is fufficiently proper, even though we fup-
pofe the formation of the fun and the other planets to
have been carried on at the fame time, and in the fame
progreffive manner, with the formation of this earth.
The voice which called light into exiftence would fepa-
rate the fiery and luminous particles of the chaos from
thofe which were opake, and, on this hypothefis, confo-
lidate them in one globe, diffufing an obfcure light
through the planetary fyftem ; but if the earth’s atmo-
Iphere continued till the fourth day loaded with vapours,
as from the narrative of Mofes it appears to have done,
the fun could not till that day have hezn feen from the
7©
The folar
-folved.
earth, and may therefore, in popular language, be faid Coda
with fufficient propriety to have been formed on the hisAt =
fourth day, as it was then made to appear. (See Crea- butei
tion, N° 13.). But though this folution of the difficulty Wy'
ferves to remove the objection, and to fecure the credit
of the facred hiftorian, candour compels us to confefe
that it appears not to be the true folution.
The difficulty itfelf arifes entirely from fuppofing the
fun to be the foie fountain of light ; but the truth of this
opinion is not felf-evident, nor has it ever been efia-
blithed by fatisfaClory proof. It is indeed to a mind di-
vefted of undue deference to great names, and confider-
ing the matter with impartiality, an opinion extremely
improbable. The light of a candle placed on an emi¬
nence may in a dark night be feen in every direction at
the diftance of at leaft three miles. But if this fmall
body be rendered vifible by means of rays emitted from
itfelf, the flame of a candle, which cannot be fuppofed
more than an inch in diameter, muft, during every in-
ftant that it continues to burn, throw from its own fub-
fiance luminous matter fufficient to fill afpherical fpaee
of fix miles in diameter. This phenomenon, if real, is
certainly furprifing j but if we purfue the reflection a lit¬
tle farther, our wonder will be greatly increafed. The
matter which, when converted into flame, is an inch in
diameter, is not, when of the confiftence of cotton and
tallow, of the dimenfions of the 20th part of an inch j
and therefore, on the common hypothefis, the 20th part
of an inch of tallow may be fo rarefied as to fill a fpace
of 113.0976 cubic miles ! a rarefaCtion which to us ap¬
pears altogether incredible. We have indeed beard much
of the divifibility of matter ad infinitum, and think we
underftand what are ufually called demonfirations of the
truth of that propofition ; but thefe demonftrations prove
not the aCIual divifibility of real folid fubftances, but
only that on trial we ffiall find no end of the ideal pro-
cefs of dividing and fubdividing imaginary extenfion.
On the whole, therefore, we are much more inclined
to believe that the matter of light is an extremely fub-
tile fluid, diffufed through the corporeal univerfe, and
only excited to agency by the fun and other fiery bodies,
than that itconfifts of ftreams continually iffuing from
the fubftance of thefe bodies. It is indeed an opinion
pretty generally received, and certainly not improbable
in itfelf, that light and eleCIricity are one and the fame
fubftance (fee ElecTBICITT-Index) ; but we know that
the eleCtrical fluid, though pervading the whole of cor¬
poreal nature, and, as experiments (how, capable of aCt-
ing with great violence, yet lies dormant and unpercsi-
ved till its agency be excited by fome foreign caufe. Juft
fo it may be with the matter of light. That fubftance
may be “ diffufed from one end of the creation * to the* Katvri
other. It may traverfe the whole univerfe, form a com-diffafi
munication between the moft remote fpheres, penetrate
into the inmoft receffes of the earth, and only wait to be
put in a proper motion to communicate vifible fenfations
to the eye. Light is to the organ of fight what the air is
to the organ of hearing. Air is the medium which, vi¬
brating on the ear, caufes the fenfation of found j but it
equally exifls round us at all times, though there be no
fonorous body to put it in motion. In like manner, light
may be equally extended at all times, by night as well
as by day, from the moft diftant fixed ftars to this earth,
though it then only ftrikes our eyes fo as to excite vifible
fenfations when impelled by the fun or fome other mafs ■
ef
p tir. T H E o
i I q and of fire.” Nor let any one imagine that this hypothefis
hi' ttri- interferes with any of the known laws of optics ; for if
, the rays of light be impelled in ftraight lines, and in
the fame direftion in which they are fuppofed to be
emitted, the phenomena of vifion muft neceffarily be the
fame.
M<> a Mofes therefore was probably a more accurate philofo-
J’0' |)h;‘ pher th an he is fometimes fuppofed to be. The element
r' of light was doubtlefs created, as he informs us, on the
fird day •, but whether it was then put in that ftate in
which it is the medium of vilion, we cannot know, and
we need not inquire, fince there was neither man nor in-r
ferior animal with organs fitted to receive its impref-
fions. For the firft three days it may have been ufed
only as a powerful inftrument to reduce into order the
jarring chaos. Or if it was from the beginning capable
of communicating vifible fenfations, and dividing the day
from the night, its agency muft have been immediately
excited by the Divine power till the fourth day, when
the fun was formed, and endowed with proper qualities
for inftrumentally difcharging that office. This was in¬
deed miraculous, as being contrary to the prefent laws
of nature : but the whole creation was miraculous; and
we furely need not hefitate to admit a lefs miracle
where we are under the neceffity of admitting a greater.
The power which called light and all other things into
exiftence, could give them their proper motions by ten
thoufand different means ; and to attempt to folve the
difficulties of creation by philofophic theories refpe&ing
the laws of nature, is to trifle with the common fenfe of
mankind: it is to confider as fubfervient to a law that
very power by whofe continued exertion the law is efta-
blillied.
Having thus proved that the univerfe derives its being,
as well as the form and adjudment of its feveral parts,
from the one fupreme and felf-exiftent God, let us here
paufe, and refleft on the fublime conceptions which fuch
aftonifhing works are fitted to give us of the divine per-
i fe£lions.
s ™^ And, in the firft place, how ftrongly do the works of
; he a- creation imprefs on our minds a convidlion of the infinite
:or. power of their Author ? He fpoke, and the univerfe
ftarted into being ; he commanded, and it flood faft.
How mighty is the arm which “ ftretched out the hea¬
vens and laid the foundations of the earth ; which re-
moveth the mountains and they know it not; which
overturneth them in his anger ; which ffiaketh the earth
out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble ! How
powerful the word which commandeth the fun, and it ri-
feth not; and which fealeth up the ftars which fuf-
taineth numberlefs worlds of amazing bulk fufpended in
the regions of empty fpace, and diretfts their various and
inconceivably rapid motions with the utmoft regularity!
“ Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, who hath cre¬
ated all thefe things ? By the word of the Lord were
the heavens made, and all the hoft of them by the breath
of his mouth. Hell is naked before him, and deftruc-
tion hath no covering. He ftretcheth out the North
over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon no¬
thing. He has meafured the waters in the hollow of his
hand, and meted out the heavens with a fpan •, and com¬
prehended the duft of the earth in a meafure j and weigh¬
ed the mountains in feales, and the hills in a balance.
Behold ! the nations are as a drop of the bucket, and
are counted as the fmall duft of the balance j behold, he
L O G Y. 343
taketh up the ifies as a very little thing. All nations Gcu and
before him are as nothing, and they are counted to him ^ ^ur*“
lefs than nothing, and vanity. To whom then will ye ' .
liken God, or what likenefs will ye compare unto * pf xxxiii,
him * ?” 6, g; Job
As the works of creation are the effe&s of God’s *x-4> &c*
power, they likewife in the moft eminent manner dif-js
play his wifdom. This was fo apparent to Cicero, even * ^
from the partial knowledge in aftronomy which his time His wif-
afforded, that he declared-f- thofe who could affert thedom,
contrary void of all underftanding. But if that great
mafter of reafon had been acquainted with the modern ^ ’
difeoveries in aftronomy, which exhibit numberlefs
worlds fcattered through fpace, and each of immenfe
magnitude j had he known that the fun is placed in the
centre of our fyftem, and that to diverfify the feafons the
planets move round him with exquifite regularity; could
he have conceived that the diftimftion between light and
darknefs is produced by the diurnal rotation of the' earth
on its own axis, inftead of that difproportionate whirling
of the whole heavens which the ancient aftronomers
were forced to fuppofe ; had he known of the wonderful
motions of the comets, and confidered how fuch eccen¬
tric bodies have been preferved from falling upon fome
of the planets in the fame fyftem, and the feveral fyf-
tems from falling upon each other; had he taken into
the account that there are yet greater things than thefe,
and “ that we have feen but a few of God’s works -
that virtuous Pagan would have been ready to exclaim
in the words of the Pfalmift, “ O Lord, how manifold"
are thy works! In wifdom haft thou made them all j
the earth is full of thy riches.”
That creation is the offspring of unmixed goodnefs, anj good-
has been already ftiown with fufficient evidence (feenefs.
Metaphysics, N°3i2. and N° 29. of this article) v
and from the vaft number of creatures on our earth en¬
dowed with life and fenfe, and a capability of happinefs,
and the infinitely greater number which probably inha¬
bit the planets of this and other fyftems, we may infer
that the goodnefs of God is as boundlefs as his power,
and that “ as is his majefty, fo is his mercy.” Out of
his own fulnefs hath he brought into being numberlefs
worlds, repleniffied with myriads of myriads of crea¬
tures, furniffied with various powers and organs, capa¬
cities and inftindts; and out of his own fulnefs he con¬
tinually and plentifully fupplies them all with every
thing neceffary to make their exiftence comfortable.
“ The eyes of all wait upon him, and he giveth them
their meat in due feafon. He openeth his hand and fa-
tisfies the defires of every living thing ; he loveth righ-
teoufnefs and judgment; the earth is full of the goodnefs
of the Lord. He watereth the ridges thereof abundantly;
he fettleth the furrows thereof; Ire maketh it foft with
fliowers, and bleffeth the fpringing thereof. He crown-
eth the year with his goodnefs; and his paths drop fat-
nefs. They drop upon the paftures of the wildernefs ;
and the little hills rejoice on every fide. The paftures
are clothed with flocks ; the valleys alfo are covered
with corn ; they ffiout with jny, they alfo fing J.” Sur- cxjV;
vey the whole of what may be feen on and about this 15,16.
terraqueous globe, and fay, if our Maker hath a fparingxxh'- 5- lv.
hand. Surely the Author of fo much happinefs muft IO»
be effential goodnefs ; and we muft conclude with St
John, that “ God is love.”
Thefe attributes of power, wifdom, and goodnefs, fo
confpicuoufly 1
344 T H E O
God and contpicuoufly difplayed in tlie works of creation, belong
^botes'** ^ame ^uPreme degree to each perfon in the blefled
> ' vTrinity j for Mofes declares that the heaven and the
76 earth were created, not by ons perfon, but by the Elo-
The fecond him. The Auyoj indeed, or fecond perfon, appears to
perfon m liaVe been the immediate Creator j for St John allures
ke imme- us *» t*iat “ a11 things were made by him, and that
diate Grea- without him was not any thing made that was made.”
tor. Some Arian writers of great learning (and we believe
* Ch. i. 3. the late Dr Price was of the number) have afferted,
that a being who was created himfelf may be endowed
by the Omnipotent God with the power of creating
other beings ; and as they hold the Aeye; or %vord, to
be a creature, they contend that he was employed by
the Supreme Deity to create, not the whole univerfe,
but only this earth, or at the utmoft the folar fyftem.
44 The old argument (fays one of them), that no being
inferior to the great Omnipotent can create a wmrld, is
fo childilh as to deferve no anfwer. Why may not God
communicate the power of making worlds to any being
whom he may choofe to honour with fo glorious a pre¬
rogative ? I have no doubt but fuch a power may be
communicated to many good men during the progrefs
of their exiftence j and to fay that it may not, is not on¬
ly to limit the power of God, but to contradidl acknowT-
77] ledged analogies.”
Creation We are far from being inclined to limit the power of
peculiar to God. He can certainly do whatever involves not a di-
reft contradi&ion ; and therefore, though we know
nothing analogous to the power of creating worlds, yet
as we perceive not any contradiction implied in the no¬
tion of that power being communicated, w^e lhall admit
that fuch a communication may be pojfib/e, though we
think it in the higheft degree improbable. But furely
no man will contend that the whole univerfe was
brought into exiftence by any creature; becaufe that
creature himfelf, however highly exalted, is neceflarily
comprehended in the notion of the univerfe. Now St
f Colof. iv. Paul exprefsly affirms f, that, by the fecond perfon in
x7* the bleffed Trinity, “ were ALL things created that are
in heaven, and that are in earth, vi/ible and invifible,
whether they be thrones, or dominions, or princi¬
palities, or POWERS ; all things were created by him
and for him ; and he is before all things, and by him
all things confift.” Indeed the Hebrew Scriptures in
I Ifa. xl. more places than one J exprefsly declare that this earth,
12. xliv. 24. and of courfe the whole folar fyftem, was formed, as
Jerem. x. well as created, not by an inferior being, but by the
IC I3* true God, even Jehovah alone 5 and in the New Tefta-
$ Rom. i. ment §, the Gentiles are faid to be without excufe for
.48—22. not glorifying him as God, “ becaufe his eternal power
and Godhead are clearly feen from the creation of the
world.” But if it were natural to fuppofe that the
power of creating worlds has been, or ever will be,
communicated to beings inferior to the great Omnipo¬
tent, this reafoning of the apoftle’s would be founded on
falfe principles, and the fentence which he paffedon the
Heathen would be contrary to juftice.
But though it be thus evident that the Auyay was the
immediate Creator of the univerfe, we are not to fup¬
pofe that it was without the concurrence of the other
two perfons. The Father, who may be faid to be the
fountain of the Divinity itfelf, was certainly concerned
in the creation of the world, and is therefore in the
■sapoftle’s creed denominated the “ Father Almighty
LOGY. pMt
Maker of heaven and earth and that the Holy Ghoft God;
or third perfon is likewife a Creator, we have the ex- ks Ailfl
prefs teftimony of two infpired writers: “ By the word butf! I
of the Lord (fays the Pfalmift) were the heavens made, 1
and all the holt of them by the breath (Hebrew, Spi¬
rit) of his mouth.” And Job declares, that the
“ Spirit of God made him, and that the breath of the
Almighty gave him life.” Indeed thefe three divine
perfons are fo intimately united, that what is done by
one muft be done by all, as they have but one and the
fame will. This is the reafon affigned by Origen * for * Ctr
our paying divine worlhip to each ; w* rwCelfl
y-ai rov vkh rmv ctMtua.i, o»]ct }vc tij
tnrotrlxiru iv ^ r>] epovaicc, v.eci t» ervfttpamct kxi
TxvIoiviTi TJjj fiovXye-ws, “ we worffiip the Father of
truth, and the Son the truth itfelf, being two things as
to hypoftafis, but one in agreement, conlent, and iame-
nefs of will.” Nor is their union a mere agreement in
will only 5 it is a phyfical or eflential union : fo that
what is done by one muft neceflarily be done by the
others alfo, according to that of our Saviour, “ I am in
the Father and the Father in me : The Father who
dwelleth in me, he doth the works.”
Sect. II. Of the Original State of Man, and thefirf
Covenant of Eternal Life which God vouchfafed to
make with him,
I
In the Mofaic account of the creation, every atten-Peculial f
tive reader muft be ftruck with the manner in which the of the < I
fuprtme Being is reprefented as making man : “ AndPreffionH
God faid, let us make man in our image, after our^^j
likenefs ; and let them have dominion over the filh ofmaken|
the fea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cat¬
tle, and over nil the earth, and over every creeping
thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created
man in his own image ; in the image of God created he
him; male and female created he THEM. And God
blefied them ; and God faid unto them, be fruitful, and
multiply, and replenilh the earth, and fubdue it ; and
have dominion over the fifli of the fea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth
upon the earth. And God faid, behold, I have given
you every herb bearing feed, which is upon the face of
all the earth ; and every tree, in the which is the fruit
of a tree yielding feed : to you it ffiall be for meat.
And God faw every thing that he had made, and, be¬
hold, it w^as very good. And- the evening and the
morning were the fixth day. Thus the heavens and the
earth were finiftied, and all the hoft of them. And on
the feventh day God ended his work which he had
made ; and he refted on the feventh day from all his
works which he had made. And God blefled the feventh
day and fan&ified it: becaufe that in it he had refted
from all his work which God created and made *.” Gen.
This is a very remarkable paflage, and contains much 26, !
important information; It indicates a plurality of per- b 2>3'
fons in the Godhead, defcribes the nature of man as he
came at firft from the hands of his Creator, and furnifh-
es data from which we may infer what were the duties
required of him in that primeval ftate, and what were
the rewards to which obedience would entitle him. 79 p
Of the plurality of Divine perfons, and their eflential In his o' f
union, we have treated in the preceding feftion, andimaSe'
proceed now to inquire into the fpecific nature of the
firft man. This muft be implied in the image of God,
in
I
I
19
rent
rt II. • T H E O
ginal in which he is faid to hav^e been created •, for it is by
te that phrafe alone that he is charadterired, and his pre-
ian‘ eminence marked over the other animals. Now this
image or likenefs muft have been found either in his
body alone, his foul alone, or in both united. That it
could not be in his body alone, is obvious j for the infi¬
nite and omnipotent God is allowed by all men to be
without body, parts, or paffions, and therefore to be
fuch as nothing corporeal can polfibly refemble.
If this likenefs is to be found in the human foul, it
Dns re-comes to be a queftion in what faculty or power of the
in£ foul it confifts. Some have contended, that man is the
^ only creature on this earth who is animated by a prin¬
ciple effentially different from matter ; and hence they
have inferred, that he is faid to have been formed in
the Divine image, on account of the immateuality of
that vital principle which was infufed into his body
when the “ Lord God breathed into his noftrils the
n. u. breath of life, and man became a living foul That
this account of the animation of the body of man indi¬
cates a fuperiority of the human foul to the vital prin¬
ciple of all other animals, cannot, ave think, be quef-
tioned ; but it does not therefore follow, that the hu¬
man foul is the only immaterial principle of life which
animates any terreftrial creature. It has been fhown
elfewhere (fee METAPHYSICS, N° 235.), that the power
of fenfation, attended with individual confcioufnefs, as
it appears to be in all Ihe higher fpecies of animals, can¬
not refult from any organical flrufture, or be the qua¬
lity of a compound extended being. The vital princi¬
ple in fuch animals therefore muft be immaterial as well
as the human foul ; but as the word immaterial denotes
only a negative notion, the fouls of men and brutes,
though both immaterial, may yet be fubftances eflential-
Ty different. This being the cafe, it is plain that the
Divine image in which man was formed, and by which
he is diftinguiftied from the brute creation, cannot con-
fift in the mere circumftance of his mind being a fub-
ftance different from matter, but in fome pofitive qua¬
lity which diftinguifties him from every other creature
, on this globe.
niftic About this chara&eriftic quality various opinions have
m?. been formed. Some have fuppofed f “ that the image
q. of God in Adam appeared in that re<ftitude, righteouf-
r.b.iii.nefs, and holinefs, in which he was made j for God
made man upright (Ecclef. vii. 2.), a holy and righ¬
teous creature; which holinefs and righteoufnefs were in
their kind perfect ; his underftanding was free from all
error and miftakes; his will biaffed to that which is
good ; his affeftions flowed in a right channel towards
their proper objects ; there were no finful motions and
evil thoughts in his heart, nor any propenfity or inclina¬
tion to that which is evil ; and the whole of his conduft
and behaviour was according to the will of God. And
this righteoufnefs (fav they) was natural, and not per-
fonal and acquired. It was not obtained by the exer-
cife of his free-will, but was created with him, and be¬
longed to his mind, as a natural faculty or inflin61.”
T hev therefore call it original righteoufnefs, and fuppofe
that it was loft in the fall.
To this doffrine many objeflions have been made. It
has been faid that righteoufnefs confiding in right ac¬
tions proceeding from proper principles, could not be
created with Adam and make a part of his nature ; be-
caufe nothing which is produced in a man without his
Voi.. XX. Part I.
2
Sed
LOGY.
knowledge and confent can be In him either virtue or
vice. Adam, it is added, was unqueftionably placed in
a ftate of trial, which proves that he had righteous ha¬
bits to acquire ; whereas the do&rine under confidera-
tion, affirming his original righteoufnefs to have been
perfe£t, and therefore incapable of improvement, is in^
confident with a ftate of trial. That his underftanding
was free from all errors and miftakes, has been thought
a blafphemous pofition, as it attributes to man one of
the incommunicable perfeftions of the Deity. It is like-
wife believed to be contrary to fa6I ; for either his un¬
derftanding was bewildered in error, or his affedfions
flowed towards an improper objedf, when he differed
himfelf at the perfu'afion of his wife to tranfgrefs the ex-
prefs law of bis Creator. The objeftor expreffes his
■wonder at its having ever been fuppofed that the ’whole
of Adam’s condudf and behaviour was according to the
will of God, when it is fo notorious that he yielded to
the firft temptation with which, as far as we know, he
was aflailed in paradife.
Convinced by thefe and other arguments, that the
image of God in which man was created could not con-
fift in original righteoufnefs, or in exemption from all
poflibility of error, many learned men, and Biffiop
Bull * among others, have fuppofed, that by the image
of God is to be underftood certain gifts and powers fu-
pernaturally infufed by the Holy Spirit into the minds
of our firft parents, to guide them in the ways of piety
and virtue. This opinion they reft chiefly upon the au¬
thority of Tatian, Irenaeus, Terlullian, Cyprian, Alha-
nafius, and other fathers of the primitive church ; but
they think, at the fame time, that it is countenanced by
feveral paffages in the New Teftament. Thus when St
Paul faysf, “ and fo it is written, The firft man Adam
was made a living foul, the laft Adam was made a
quickening Spiritthey underftand the whole paffage
as relating to the creation of man, and not as drawing a
comparifon between Adam and Chrift, to ftiow the
great fuperiority of the latter over the former. In fup-
port of this interpretation they obferve, that the apoftle
immediately adds, “ howbeit, that was not firft which
is fpiritual, but that which is natural, and afterwards
that which is fpiritual an addition which they think
was altogether needlefiq if by the quickening Spirit he
had referred to the incarnation of Chrift, which had
happened in the very age in which he was writing.
They are therefore of opinion, that the body of Adam,
after being formed of the dull of the ground, was firft
animated by a vital principle endowed with the facul¬
ties of reafon and fenfation, which entitled the whole
man to the appellation of a living foul. After this they
fuppofe certain graces of the Holy Spirit to have been
infufed into him, by which he was made a quickening
fpirit, or formed in the image ot God ; and that it was
in confequenee of this fucceflion cf powers communica¬
ted to the fame peifon, that the apoftle faid, “How beil,
that was not firft which is fpiritual, but that which is
natural.”
We need hardly obferve, that with refpeft to a que¬
ftion of this kind the authority of Tatum and the other
fathers quoted is nothing. i hofe men had no better
means of difeovering the true fenfe of the feriptures of
the Old Teftament than we have ; and their ignorance
of the language in which thefe feriptures are written,
added to feme met^phyfical notions refnefling the foul,
X x which
345
Original
State of
Man.
* See his
Engl.Jlr
IVcrts, vofu
iii.
33
Opinion of
Bilhop Bull
anti fome
of the an¬
cient fa-J
thers
f 1 Cof.
xv. 45,
46
T H E O
Original
State of
Man
&4
ill-founded
8S
Other opi¬
nions.
f Warbur-
ton's Di¬
vine Leg.
book ix.
t Gill's Bo¬
dy of Divi¬
nity, book
iii. chap. 3.
which too many of them had derived from the fcliool of
Plato, rendered them very ill qualified to interpret the
writings of Moles. Were authority to be admitted, vve
Ihould confider that of Bifhop Bull and his modern fol¬
lowers as of greater weight than the authority of all the
ancients to whom they appeal. But authority cannot
be admitted ; and the reafoning of this learned and ex¬
cellent man from the text of St Paul is furely very in-
conclufive. It makes two perfons of Adam ; a firft,
when he was a natural man composed of a body and a
reafonable foul ; a fecond, wThen he was endowed with
the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and by them formed in the
image of God ! In the verfe following too, the apoftle
exprefsly calls the fecond man, of whom he had been
fpeaking, “ the Lord from heaven but this appella¬
tion we apprehend to be too high for Adam in the Hate
of greatell perfedtion in which he ever exifted. That
our firlt parents were endowed with the gifts of the Ho¬
ly Ghoft, w'e are ftrongly inclined to believe for reafons
which (hall be given by and by \ but as thefe gifts were
adventitious to their nature, they could not be that
image in which God made man.
Since man was made in the image of God, that phrafe,
whatever be its precife import, mult denote fomething
peculiar and at the fame time effential to human nature j
but the only two qualities at once natural and peculiar
to man are his lhape and his reafon. As none but an
anthropomorphite will fay that it was Adam’s lhape
which refledted this image of his Creator, it has been
concluded that it was the faculty of reafon which made
the refemblance. I'o give ftrength to this argument it
is obferved f, that when God lays, “ let us make man
in our image,” he immediately adds, “ and let them
have dominion over the filh of the fea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the
earth but as many of the cattle have much greater
bodily {Length than man, this dominion could not be
maintained but by the faculty of reafon bellowed upon
him and withheld from them.
If the image of God was impreffed only on the mind
of man, this reafon feems to be cor.clufive j but it
has been well obferved % that it was the whole man,
and not the Jbulalone, or the body alone, that is faid to
have been formed in the divine image-, even as the
whole man, foul and body, is the feat of the new and
fpiritual image of God in regeneration and fan&ification.
“ The very God of peace (fays the apoltle) fanftify you
wholly ; and may your whole fpirit, foul and body, be
preferved blamelefs to the coming of our Lord Jefus
Chrift.” It is worthy of notice, too, that the reafon
afiigned for the prohibition of murder to Noah and his
fens after the deluge, is, that man was made in the
image of God. “ Whofo Iheddetb man’s blood, by
man lhall his blood be Ihed ; for in the image of God
made he man.” Thefe texts feem to indicate, that
whatever be meant by the image of God, it was damp¬
ed equally on the foul and on the body. In vain is it
faid that man cannot refemble God in lhape. This is
true, but it is little to the purpofe ; for man does not
refemble God in his reafoning faculty more than in his
form. It would be idolatry to fuppofe the fupreme ma-
jelly of heaven and earth to have a body or a lhape ;
and it would be little Ihort of idolatry to imagine that
he is obliged to compare ideas and notions together j to
advance from particular truths to general propolitions 5
3
LOGY. partI1
and to acquire knowledge, as we do, by the tedious Origina
proceffes of indu&ive and fyllogiftic reafoning. There Stateo
can therefore be no direft image of God either in the Man'
foul or in the body of man j and the phrafe really feems 3
to import nothing more than thofe powers or qualities True Un.
by which man was fitted to exercife dominion over thePort°fth
inferior creation j as if it had been faid, “ Let us make
man in our image, after our likenefs, that they may
have dominion, &c.” But the eredl form of man con¬
tributes in fome degree, as well as his rational powers,
to enable him to maintain his authority over the brute
creation ; for it has been obferved by travellers, that
the fierce!! beaft of prey, unlefs ready to perilh by
hunger, Ihrinks back from a fteady look of the human
face divine.
By fume*, however, who have admitted the proba- * Gill, &
bility of this interpretation, another has been devifed for
its being faid that man was formed in the image of God.
All the members of Chrift’s body, fay they, were writ¬
ten and delineated in the book of God’s purpofes and
decrees, and had an ideal exiftence from eternity in the
divine mind ; and therefore the body of Adam might
be faid to be formed after the image of God, becaufe it
was made according to that idea. But te this reafoning
objeffions may be urged, which we know not how to
anfwer. All things that ever were or ever lhall be,
the bodies of us who live at prefent as well as the bodies
of thofe who lived 5000 years ago, have from eternity
had an ideal exiftence in the Divine mind j nor in this
fenfe can one be faid to be prior to another. It could
not therefore be after the idea of the identical body of
Chrift that the body of Adam was formed ; for in the
Divine mind ideas of both bodies were prefent together
from eternity, and each body was formed after the ideal
archetype of itfelf. It may be added likewife, that the
body of Chrift was not God, nor the idea of that body
the idea of God. Adam therefore could not with pro¬
priety be faid to have been formed in the image of God,
if by that phrafe nothing more were intended than the
refemblance between his body and the body of Chrift.
T hefe objedfions to this interpretation appear to us un-
anfwerable ; but we mean not to didfate to our readers.
Every man will adopt that opinion which he thinks
fupported by the belt arguments; but it is obvious, that
whatever more may be meant by the image of God in
which man was made, the phrafe undoubtedly compre¬
hends all thofe powers and qualities by which he is en¬
abled to maintain his authority over the inferior creation.
Among thefe the faculty of reafon is confeffedly the
molt important ; for it is by it that man is capable of
being made acquainted with the Author of his being,
the relation which fubfifts between them, and the duties
implied in that relation from the creature to the Cre-
ator. _ 87
I hat the firft man, however, was not left to difcoverReijgK>us
thefe things by the mere eftprts of his own unaffifiedinftrudion
reafon, w7e have endeavoured to Ihow in another place;cornin'1111'
(fee Religion, N° c—-10.) ; and the conclufion to c.at,cl'
(fee Religion, Nl° 5—10.) ; and the conclufion lwA(]anl
which we were there led, is confirmed by the portion of
revelation before us. The infpired hiftorian fays, that
“ God bleffed the feventh day and fanflifed it, becaufe
that in it he had relied from all his works, which he
created and made but Adam could not have under-
ftood what was meant by the fanflifcation of a particu¬
lar day, or of any thing elfe, unlefs he had previoufly
received
—
I
II
ot
b;
lo
‘U
D
IB
cr
ft;
t
i;
; f
rt II.
iginal received Tome religious inftru&ion. There cannot there-
ite of fore be a doubt, but that as foon as man was made, his
lan- Creator communicated to him the truths of what is
called natural religion, which we have endeavoured to
exnlain and eftablifti in Part I. of this article ; and to
thefe were added the precept to keep holy the Sabbath-
dav, and fet it apart for the purpofes of contemplation
and worfhip.
®tion This was a very wife inftitution, as all the divine in-
a Sab- ftitutions muft be. “ The great end for which we are
brought into life, is to attain the knowledge and be
confirmed in the love of God. This includes obedience
to his will in thought, word, and deed, or that courfe
of condudt which can alone make us happy here, and
fit us for everlafling glory hereafter. But of thefe
things we cannot retain a proper fenfe without clofe and
repeated application of thought $ and the unavoidable
cares and concerns of the prefent life occupying much
of our attention, it is, in the nature of things, neceflary
that fome certain portion of time Urould be appropriated
to the purpofes of religious inftru&ion and the public
adoration of our Creator, in whom we all live, and
move, and have our being.” Hence a very learned di-
. ra),_ vine f has inferred, that though the particular time is
fNor- a matter of pofitive appointment, the obfervation of a
fabbath in general is a duty of natural religion, as ha¬
ving its foundation in the reafon of things. See SaB-
5 BATH.
es of Man therefore in his natural and original date was a
in his rational and religious being, bound to do “ juftice, to
1131 love mercy, to walk humbly with his God, and to
keep holy the Sabbath-day.” Thefe feem to be all the
duties which in that date were required of him •, for as
foon as he was introduced into the terredrial paradife
and admitted into covenant with his Maker, he was
placed in a fupernatural date, when other duties were
of eourfe enjoined.
That our fird parents were both made on the dxth
n j day, Mofes exprefsly affirms when he fays J, that “ God
, j. created them male and female, and bleffed them, and
called their name Adam (k), in the day when they were
created:” but that they were introduced into the gar¬
den of Eden on that day, is an opinion which, however
generally it may be received, feems not to be reconcile-
able with the plain narrative of the facred penman.
After telling us that on the fixth day God finiffied all
his works, which he faw to be very good, and reded
on the feventh day, he briefly recapitulates the hidory
of the generations of the heavens and of the earth,
gives us a more particular account of the formation of
the fird man, informing us that the “ Lord God form¬
ed him out of the dud of the ground, and breathed into
his nodrils the breath of life, when man became a living
n .. foul and then proceeds to fay ||, that the “ Lord
ancj‘ God planted a garden eadward in Eden, where he put
the man whorti he HAD formed?"1 From this ffiort hi¬
dory of the fird pair it appears beyond difpute evident,
that neither the man nor the woman was formed in the
garden $ and that from their creation fome time elapfed
347
before the garden was prepared for their reception, is Original
likewife evident from a comparifon of Gen. i. 29. with S^t^n°^
Gen. ii. 16, 17. In the fird of thefe paffages God give? / ,
to man, immediately after his creation, “ every herb
bearing feed which was upon the face of all the earth, before he
every tree, without exception, in which was thewas P*ace<l
fruit of a tree bearing feed: to him he faid it diould be^
for meat.” In the fecond, “ he commanded the man
faying, of every tree of the garden thou mayed freely
eat; but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil,
thou flialt not eat of it j for in the day thou eated
thereof thou dialt furely die.” When the fird grant of
food was given, Adam and his wife mud have been
where no tree of knowledge grew, and they mud have
been intended to live at lead fo long in that date as
that they diould have occafion for food, otherwife the
formal grant of it would have been not only fuperfluous,
but apt to miflead them with refpefl to the fubfequent
redriftion.
In this original date man was under the difeipline of
what we have called natural religion, entitled to happi-
nefs while he diould perform the duties required of him,
and liable to puniffiment when he diould negledt thofe
duties, or tranfgrefs the law of his nature as a rational
and moral agent. This being the cafe, it is a matter of
fome importance, to afeertain, if we can, what the re¬
wards and punilhments are which natural religion holds
out to her votaries.
That under every difpenfation of religion the pious
and virtuous man diall enjoy more happinefs than mi-
feryj and that the incorrigibly wicked diall have a
greater portion of mifery than happinefs, are truths
which cannot be controverted by any one who admits,
that the Almighty governor of the univerfe is a Being
of wifdom, goodnefs, and judice. But refpefting the
rewards of virtue and the puniffiment of vice, more than
thefe general truths feems not to be taught by natural 9l
religion. Many divines, however, of great learning did not
and worth, have thought otherwife, and have contend- when per-
ed, that from the nature of things the rewardsjbedowedl?™6^11*
by an infinite God upon piety and virtue mud be eter-10 eternai
nal like their author. Thefe men indeed appear willing life,
enough to allow that the punidiments with which natu¬
ral religion is armed againd vice mud be only of a tem¬
porary duration, becaufe reafon, fay they, is ready to
revolt at the thought of everlajling punidiment.
This opinion, which confounds natural with revealed
religion, giving to the former an important truth which
belongs exclufively to the latter, has been fo ably con¬
futed by a learned writer, that we diall fubmit his ar¬
guments to our readers in preference to any thing w hich
we can give ourfelves.
“ If reafon doth, on the one hand, feem to revolt at
everlajling punijhment, we mud confefs that FANCY, on
the other, (even when full plumed by vanity'), hath
fcarcely force enough to rife to the idea of infinite re¬
wards. How the heart of man came to confider this
as no more than an adequate retribution for his right
conduft during the diort trial of his virtue here, would
X x 2 be
THEOLOGY.
(k) The woman was fome time aftenvards didinguidied by the name of Eve, mn, becaufe die was to be the mo.
ther of all living, and particularly of that bleffed feed which was to bruife the head of the ferpeirt. See Parkhmfi's
Lexicon on the word.
.34-8
Original
State of
Man.
92
Arguments
to prove
tli at they
did incon-
clulive.
be bard to tell, did tve not know wliat tnonfters pride
begot of old upon Pagan philofopfiy ; and how much
greater ftill thefe latter ages have difclofed, by the long
incubation of fchool-divinity upon folly. What hath
been urged from natural reafon, in fupport of this ex¬
travagant prefumption, is fo very {lender, that it recoils
as you enforce it. Firft, you fay, “ that the foul, the
fubjeft of thefe eternal rewards, being immaterial, and
fo therefore unaffe&ed by the caufes which bring mate¬
rial things to an end, is, by its nature, fitted for eter¬
nal rewards.— This is an argument ad ignorantiam, and
holds no farther.-—Becaufe an immaterial being is not
fubjeft to that mode of diffolution which affefts mate¬
rial fubftances, you conclude it to be eternal. This is
going too faft. There may be, and probably are, many
natural caufes (unknown indeed to us), whereby imma¬
terial beings come to an end. But if the nature of
things cannot, yet God certainly can, put a final period
to fuch a being when it hath ferved the purpofe of its
creation. Doth annihilation impeach that wifdom
and goodnefs which was difplayed when God brought it
out of nothing? Other immaterial beings there are,
viz. the fouls of brutes, which have the fame natural
fecurity with man for their exiftence, of whofe eternity
Ave never dream. But pride, as the poet obferves, calls
God unjufl,
THEOLOGY. Part
devil. But thefe re&fonefs, in their attention to the Orig
divinity, overlook the humanity, which makes the de- Sta'll
creafe keep pace with the accumulation, till the rule of.
logic, that the conclufon follows the weaker part, comes '
in to end the difpute
*Wm
If man alone engrofs not heaven’s high care ;
Alone made perfett here, immortal there.
However, let us (for argument’s fake) allow the human
foul to be unperifhable by nature, and fecured in its ex-
iHence by the unchangeable will of God, and fee rvhat
Avill follow from thence—An infnite reward fir virtue
during one moment of its exiftence, becaufe reafon dif-
eovcrs that, by the law of nature, fame reward is due ?
Ly no means. When God hath amply repaid us for
the performance of our duty, will he be at a lofs how to
difpofe of us for the long remainder of eternity? May
he not find new and endlefs employment for reafonable
creatures, to which, when properly difcharged, new re-
Avards and in endlefs fucceffion will be aftigned ? Modeft
reafon feems to di&ate this to the followers of the law
of nature. 1 he flattering expedient of eternal re¬
wards for virtue here was invented in the fimplicity of
early fpeculation, after it had fairly brought men to
conclude that the foul is immaterial.
“ Another argument urged for the eternity of the re-
Avards held out by natural religion to the practice of
piety and virtue is partly pliyfical and partly moral.
The merit of fervice (fay the admirers of that religion)
increafes in proportion to the excellence of that Being
to whom, our fervice is direfted and becomes acceptable.
An infinite being, therefore, can difpenfe no rewards but
Avhat are infinite. And thus the virtuous man becomes
entitled to immortality.
“ The misfortune is, that this reafoning holds equally
on the fide of the unmerciful do&ors, as they are called
who doom the wicked to EVERLASTING PUNISHMENT.
Indeed were this the only diferedit under Avhich it la¬
bours, the mercilefs do£tors would hold themfelves little
concerned. But the truth is, that the argument from
infinity proves juft nothing. To make it of any force,
both the parties ftiould be infnite. This inferior ema¬
nation of God’s image, MAN, fhould either be fupremely
good or fupremely bad, a kind of deity or a kind of
4
Thefe arguments feem to prove unanfwerably that im-^’A
mortality is not eflential to any part of the compound
being man, and that it cannot be claimed as a reward^”1 J
due to his virtue. It is not indeed effentiai to any***
created being, for what has not exiftence of itfelf, can¬
not of itfelf have perpetuity of exiftence (fee Meta¬
physics, N° 272, &c.) ; and as neither man nor angel
can be.profitable to God, they cannot claim from him
any thing as a debt. Both, indeed, as moral agents,
have duties preferibed them j and while they faithfully
perform thefe duties, they have all the fecurity which
can arife from the perfect benevolence of him who
brought them into exiftence, that they {hall enjoy a
fufficient portion of happinels to make that exiftence
preferable to non-exiftence j but reafon and philofophy
furnifti no data from which it can be inferred that they
ftiall exift for ever. Man is compoled in part of perifti-
able materials. However perfeft Adam may be thought
to have been when he came firft from the hands of his
Creator, his body, as formed of the duft of the ground,
muft have been naturally liable to decay and difiolution.
His foul, indeed, was of a more durable fubflance j but
as it was formed to animate his body, and had no prior
confcious exiftence, it is not eafy to conceive what
ftiould have led him, under an equal providence, where
rervards and puniftiments were exatlly diftribuled, to
fuppofe that one part of him fliould furvive the other.
In his natural and original ftate, before the covenant
made with him in paradile, he was unqueftionably a
1- -—-7 -- -— —u. 53
mortal creature. How long he continued in that ftate, Adam hj
it feems not pofiible to form a plaufible conie&ure. ^ hissl
.1 1 • dr , rodui
Biftrop Warburton fuppofes him to have lived leveral
lud
years, under no other difpenfation than that of naturaldife m!
religion ; during which he was as liable to death as his to dead
fallen pofterity are at prefent.
“ We muft needs conclude (fays this learned writer*), * Dmm
that God having tried Adam in the fate of nature, and IWt.ion
approved of the good ufe he made oi his free-will under J ;
the direAion of that light, advanced him to a fuperior ^54 i
ftation in Paradfe. How long, before this remove, How loi !
man had continued fubjeft to natural religion alone, wehe c0,|t|
can only guefs : but of this we mny be affuVed, that it ^in th
Avas feme confiderable time before the garden of Eden * e’
could naturally be made fit for his reception. Since
Mofes, when he had concluded his hiftory of the crea¬
tion, and of God’s ref on, and fandi if cation of, the
feventh day, proceeds to Ipeak of the condition of this
new tvorld in the following terms: “ And God made
every plant of the feld before it was in the earth, and
every herb of the feld before It grew; for the Lord God
had not caufed it to rain upon the earth j-.” Which t Gen. ii
feems plainly to intimate, that vvhen the feeds of vege-^S-
tables had been created on the third day, they were left
to nature, in its ordinary operations, to mature by fun
and {bowers. So that Avhen in courfe of time Paradife
was become capable of accommodating its inhabitants,
they were tranfplanted thither.”
This reafoning is not without a portion of that inge¬
nuity which Avas apparent in every thing that fell from
the pen of Warburton j but it was completely confut¬
ed:
ptir. theo
c rinal e(j almoft as foot! as it was given to the public, and
! te°f (hown to be deduced from premifes which could be em-
C. ■ ployed again ft the author’s fyftem. If only thcfier/s of
vegetables were created on the third day, and then left
to nature, in its ordinary operations, to mature by fun
and (bowers, the firft pair muff have perilhed before a
fina!e vegetable could be fit to furnilh them with food j
and we may fuppofe that it was to prevent this difaifer
that the garden of Eden was miraculoufly ftortd at once
with full grown trees and fruit in perfect maturity,
whillt the reft of the earth was left under the ordinary
laws of vegetation. There is, however, no evidence
that they were only the feds of vegetables that God
3i i, created. " On the contrary, Mofes fays expreisly *, that
God made the earth on the third day bring forth the
herb yielding feed after his kind, and the tree yielding
fruit wVoiefeed was in itfelf after his kind and when
he recapitulates the hiftory of the creation, he favs, that
God made, not every feed, but every plant of the field
before it was in the earth, and every het'b of the field
before it grew. From the procefs of vegetation, there-
fore, nothing can be inferred with refpedf to the time of
Adam’s introduction into paradife, or to afeertain the
duration of his original (fate of nature. If angels were
created during the fix days of which the Hebrew law¬
giver writes the hiftory, an hvpothefis very generally
received (fee Angel), though in the opinion of the pre-
fent writer not very probable, there can be no doubt
but our firft parents lived a confiderable time under the
law of nature before they were raifed to a fuperior fta-
tion in the garden of Eden ; for it feems very evident
, that the period of their continuance in that flat ion was
[bn lible not long. Of this, however, nothing can be faid with
certainty. They may have lived for years, or only a
^ few days in their original ftate •, but it is very neceffary
to diftinguifh between that ftate in which they were
under no other difpenfation than what is commonly cal¬
led entitled, upon their obedience, to
the indefinite rewards of piety and virtue, and their
ftate in Paradife when they were put under a new law,
and by the free grace of God promifed, if they fhould
be obedient, a fupernatural and eternal reward. Into
that ftate. we muft now attend them, and afeertain, if
we can, the precife terms of the firft covenant.
Mofes, who in this inveftlgation is- our only guide,
tells us, that the Lord God, after he had formed the firft
pair, “ planted a garden eaftward in Eden, and took
the man and put him into the garden to drefs it and to
keep it. And the Lord God (continues he) command¬
ed the man, faying, of every tree of the garden thou
mayeft freely eat 5 but of the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil thou (halt not eat of it $ for in the day
LOGY. ^ 349
that thou eateft thereof, thou ilialtfurely die-f.” Here Onginal
is no mention made of the laws oi piety and moral vir- ‘'tf, Y*
tue refulting from the relation in which the various  
individuals of the human race (land to each other, and f Gen. i:.
in which all as creatures ftand to God their Almighty S, 15, if,
and beneficent Creator. With thefe laws Adam was1/*
already well acquainted *, and he muft have been fenfi-
ble, that as they were founded in his nature no fuble-
quent law could difpenie with their obligation. I hey
have been equally binding on all men in every ftate and
under every difpenfation ; and they will continue to be
fo as long as the general praftiee of juftice, mercy, and
piety, (hall contribute to the ium ot human happinds.
The new law peculiar to his paradifaical ftate was the
command not to eat of the truit ot the tree of the
knowledge of good and evii. i his was a pefitive pre¬
cept, not founded in the nature of man, hut very pro¬
per to be the left of his obedience to the will of his 96
Creator. The laws of piety and virtue are ianchoned Ehe cove-
by nature, or by that general fyftem of rules according
to which God governs the phyfical and moral worlds, niacj'e
and by which he has fecured, in fome ftate or other, .C1 min
happinefs to the pious and virtuous man, and miiery toparadiie,
fuch as (hall prove incorrigibly wicked. The law re-
fpeding the forbidden fruit was fanClioned by the penal¬
ty of death denounced againit difobedience ; and by the.
fubjecls of that law the nature of this penalty muft: have
been perfeflly underftood : bu< Chriftian divines, as we
(hall afterwards fee, have differed widely in opinion re-
fpeifting the full import of the Hebrew words which our
tranflators have rendered by the phrafe thou f altfurely
die. All, however, agree that they threatened death,
in the common acceptation of the word, r the lepara-
tion of the foul and body as one part of the puniftiroent
to be incurred by eating the forbidden fruit *, and henco
we muft infer, that had the forbidden fruit not been
eaten, our firft parents would never have died, becaufc
the penalty of death was denounced againlt no other
tranfgreffion. What therefore is faid refpefling the
fruit of the tree of knowledge, implies not only a law
but alfo a covenant (l), promifing to man, upon the
obfervance of one pofitive precept, immortality or eter¬
nal life } which is not effential to the nature of any crea¬
ted being, and cannot be claimed as the merited reward
of the greateft vir'ue or the moil fervent piety.
This obvious truth will enable us te.difpofe of the
obje&ions which have been fometimes brought by free-
thinking divines againft the wifd< m and juftice of
punithing fo feverely as by death the breach of a mere
pofitive precept; which, confidered in itfelf, appears to
be a precept of very little importance. Wt have only
to reply, that as an exemption from death is not due
either
(l) It does not appear that any tranfaTion between God and mankind in general was denominatid by a word
equivalent to the Englifti word covenant till the end of the fourth century, when fuch phrafeology was introduced
into the church by the celebrated Auguftine, biftmp of Hippo. That the phfrafeology is ftricflv proper, no man can;
fuppofe who reflects on the infinite diftance between the contrafling parties, and the abfolute dominion of the one
ever the other. To be capable of entering into a covenant, in the proper fenfe of the word, both parties muft have
a right either to agree to the terms propofed or to rejeft them j but furely Adam had no ri»ht to bargain with his
Maker, or to refufe the gift of immortality on the terms on which it was offered to him. The word difpenfation
■Would more accurately denote what is here meant by the word covenant; but as this laft is in general ufe, u e have
retained it as fufficient, when thus explained, to diftinguifh what man received from God upon certain pofitive
ditions, from what he had a claim to by the conftitution of his nature.
350
Original
State of
Man
f Bull's
State of
T H E O
either to the nature or to the virtue of man, it was wife
and juft to make it depend on the obfervance of a pofi-
^ tive precept, to imprefs on the minds of our firft parents
a conftant convidion, that they were to be preferved
immortal, not in the ordinary courfe of divine provi¬
dence, but by the fpecial grace and favour of God. The
fame confideration will ihow us the folly of thofe men
who are for turning all that is faid of the trees of know¬
ledge and of life into figure and allegory. But the
other trees which Adam and Eve were permitted to eat
were certainly real trees, or they muft have perilhed for
want of food. And what rules of interpretation will
authorife us to interpret eating and trees literally in one
part of the fentence and figuratively in the other? A
garden in a. delightful climate is the very habitation,
and the fruits produced in that garden the very food,
which we (liould naturally fuppole to have been pre¬
pared for the progenitors of the human race j and
though in the garden actually fitted up for this purpofe
two trees were remarkably diftinguilhed from the reft,
perhaps in fituation and appearance as well as in ufe, the
diftinaion was calculated to ferve the beft of purpofes.
The one called iht tree of life, of which, while they
continued innocent, they were permitted to eat, ferved
as a facramental pledge or affurance on the part of God,
that as long as they could obferve the terms of the cove¬
nant their life fhould be preferved j the other of which
it was death to tafte, wras admirably adapted to imprefs
on. their minds the neceflity of implicit obedience to the
Divine will, in whatever manner it might be made
known to them.
A queftion has been ftarted of feme importance. What
would, have finally become of men if the firft covenant
had not been violated ? That they would have been all
immortal is certain; but it is by no means clear that
they would have lived for ever on this earth. On the
contrary, it has been an article of very general beliefin
all ages of the church f, that the garden of Eden was
an emblem or type of heaven, and therefore called Pa
fanFaeu°reradife ^ .Parad1sk); ^d that under the firft cove-
nant, mankind, after a fufficient probation here, were to
had it not he tranflated into heaven without tailing death.
This
been viola- do&rine is not indeed explicitly taught in Scripture;
ded him'to T”7 thingS conrPire to make it highly probable!
heaven. 1 he frefluent communications between God and man
before the fall (m), feem to indicate that Adam was
training up for fome higher ftate than the terreftrial pa-
radife. Had he been intended for nothing but to cul¬
tivate the ground and propagate his fpecies, he might
have been left like other animals to the guidance of his
own reafon and inftinas; which, after the rudiments of
knowledge were communicated to him, muft furely have
been fufficient to direft him to every thing neceffarv to
the comforts of a life merely fenfual and rational, other-
wife he would have been an imperfe& animal. It is
obvious too, that this earth, however fertile it may have
onginallj been, could not have afforded the means of
fubfiftence to a race of immortal beings multiplying to
infinity. For thefe reafons, and others which ^vvill
readily occur to the reader, it feems incontrovertible,
logy. ^ Partl
that, under^ the jirfi: covenant, either mankind would Origin:
have been fucceftively tranflated to fome fuperior ftate, State t
or would have ceafed to propagate their kind as foon as Man>;
the earth ffiould have been repleniftied with inhabitants.
He who refleas on the promife, that,’after the general*
refurreaion, there is to be a new heaven and a new
earth, will probably embrace the latter part of the al¬
ternative; but that part in its confequenees differs not
from the former. In the new earth promifed in the
Chriftian revelation, nothing is to dwell but righteeuf-
nefs. It.will therefore be precifely the fame with what
we conceive to be exprefled by the word heaven; and if
under the .firft covenant this earth was to be converted ' I
into a fimilar place, where, after a certain period, men
ftiould never.marry nor be given in marriage, but en¬
joy what divines have called the beatific vifion, we may
confidently affirm, that, had the firft covenant been
faithfully obferved, Adam and his pofterity, after a Ef¬
ficient probation, would all have been tranflated to fome
fuperior ftate or heaven. 8 :
To fit them for that ftate, the gifts of divine grace an<l the
feem to have been abfolutely neceffary. To them itS!ft.s of
was a ftate certainly fupernatural, otherwife a God ofdivine
infinite wifdom and perfeft goodnefs would not, for a^'
moment, have placed them in an inferior ftate. But to
enable any creature, efpecially fuch a creature as man,
whom an ancient philofopher has juftly ftyled
f&iftvhxov, to riie above its nature, foreign and divine aid
is unqueftionably requifite: and therefore, though we
cannot perfuade ourfelves that the gifts of the Holy
Ghoft conftituted that image of God in which man was
originally made, we agree with Biffiop Bull, that thefe
gifts were beftowed on our firft parents to enable them
to fulfil the terms of the covenant under which they
were placed.
On the whole, we think it apparent from the por¬
tions of fcripture which we have examined, that Adam
and Eve were endued with fuch powers of body and
mind as fitted them to exercife dominion over the other
animals; that thofe powers conftituted that image of
God in which they are laid to have been formed ;&that
they received by immediate revelation the firft princi¬
ples of all ufeful knowledge, and efpecially of that fyf-
tem which is ufually called natural religion; that they
lived for fome time with no other religion, entitled to
the. natural rewards of piety and virtue, but all the
while.liable to death; that they were afterwards tranf¬
lated into paradife where they were placed under anew
law, with the penalty of death threatened to the breach
of it, and the.promife of endlefs life if they ftiould faith¬
fully obferve it; and that they were endued with thelt is there-
gifts of the Holy Ghoft, to enable them, if not wanting fore impro;
to themfelves, to fulfil the terms of that covenant, which
has been improperly termed the covenant of works, fince^T
it. flowed trom the mere grace of God, and conferred pri-
vileges on man to which the moft perfe<51 human virtue
could lay no juft claim.
Sect. III. Of the Pall of Adam, and its Confequences.
From the preceding account of the primeval ftate of
the^ate^rVarK-r1'6 ^'r ^^ent communieations, has been ffiown to be in the higheft degree probable by
- e late Di La., biffiop of Carhfle. See his Dfcourfe on the feveral Difpenfations of revealed Religion.
rt II. T H E O
of A- man, it is evident that his continuance in the terreftrial
i >paradife, together with all the privileges which he there
on'e" enjoyed, were made to depend on his ohfervance of one
pofitive precept. Every other duty incumbent on him,
ho whether as refulting from what is called the law of his
.'oiild nature, or from the exprefs command of his God, was
^ate^ as much his duty before as after he was introduced into
the garden of Eden •, and though the tranfgreflion of
to one any law would undoubtedly have been punifhed, or have
;e been forgiven only in confequence of fincere repentance
an^' and amendment, it does not appear that a breach of the
moral\a.\v, or of the commandment refpetfling the fanc-
tification of the Sabbath-day, would have been puntfhed
with death, whatever may be the import of that word
in the place where it is firfl threatened. The punifli-
ment was denounced only againft eating the fruit of the
tree of the knowledge of good and evil : For “ the
Lord God commanded the man, faying, of every tree
of the garden thou mayeft freely eat, but of the tree of
the knowledge of good and evil thou lhalt not eat of it j
for in the day that thou eateft thereof thou (halt fufely
die.” To the word death in this palfage divines have
affixed many and different meanings. By fome it is
fuppofed to import a feparation of the foul and body,
while the latter was to continue in a ftate of confcious
exiftence ; by others, it is taken to imply annihilation
or a ftate without confcioufnefs $ by fome, it is imagined
to fignify eternal life in torments ; and by others a fpi-
ritual and moral death, or a ftate neceffarily fubjeft to
fin. In any one of thefe acceptations it denoted fome-
thing new to Adam, which he could not underftand
without an explanation of the term ; and therefore, as
it was threatened as the puniffiment of only one tranf¬
greflion, it could not be the divine intention to inflift
t it on any other.
i vi0. The abftaining from a particular fruit in the midft of
a garden abounding with fruits of all kinds, was a pre¬
cept which at firft view appears of eafy obfervation j
and the penalty threatened againft the breach of it was,
in every fenfe, awful. The precept, however, was bro¬
ken notwithftanding that penalty j and though we may
thence infer that our firft parents were not beings of
fuch abfolute perfection as by divines they have fome-
times been reprefented, we (hall yet find, upon due con-
fideration, that the temptation by which they were fe*
duced, when taken with all its cireumftances, was fuch
as no wife and modeft man will think himfelf able to
have refifted. The ftiort hiftory of this important tranf-
aftion, as we have it in the third chapter of the book
of Genefis, is as follows.
“ Now the ferpent was more fubtile than any beaft
of the field which the Lord God had made ; and he faid
unto the woman, Yea, hath God faid, ye fhall not eat
of every tree of the garden ? And the woman faid unto
the lerpent, We may eat of the fruit of the trees of the
garden *, but ot the fruit of the tree which is in the
midft of the garden, God hath faid ye fhall not eat of
it, neither ftiall ye touch it, left ye die. And the fer¬
pent faid unto the woman, ye thall not furely die : For
God doth know, that on the day ye eat thereof, then
your eyes fhall be opened, and ye fhall be as gods,
knowing good and evil. And when the woman faw
that the tree was good for food, and that it was plea-
to the eyes, and a tree to be defired to make one
LOGY.
35*
wife, fhe took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave Fall of A-
alfo unto her hufband with her, and he did eat.” fts'confe^
To the lefs attentive reader this converfation between ^iie ces"
the ferpent and the woman muft appear to begin abrupt- *- — t - «
ly j and indeed it is not poflible to reconcile it with the 102
natural order of a dialogue, or even with the commonin confe-
rules of grammar, but by fuppofing the tempter’s que-
ftion, “ Yea, hath God faid, ye thall not eat of every fui tea)pta_
tree of the garden ?” to have been fuggefted by fome- non,
thing immediately preceding either in words or in figni-
ficant figns. Eve had undoubtedly by fome means or
other informed the ferpent that the was forbidden to eat
of the fruit on which he was probably feafting j and
that information, whether given in words or in aCtions,
muft have produced the queftion with which the facred
hiliorian begins his relation of this fatal dialogue. We
are told that the woman faw that the tree was good for
food; that it was pleafant to the eyes, and a tree to be
defired to make one wife ; but all this the could not have
feen, had not the ferpent eaten of its fruit in her pre¬
fence. In her walks through the garden, it might have
often appeared pleafant to her eyes •, but previous to ex¬
perience the could not know but that its fruit was the
moft deadly poifon, far lefs could the conceive it ca¬
pable of conferring wifdom. But if the terpent ate of
it before her, and then extolled its virtues in rapturous
and intelligible language, the would at once lee that it
was not deftruCtive of animal life, and naturally infer
that it had very Angular qualities. At the moment the
was drawing this inference, it is probable that he invited
her to partake of the delicious fruit, and that her retu-
fal produced the conference before us. That the yield¬
ed to his temptation need excite no wonder ; for the
knew that the ferpent was by nature a mute animal, and
if he attributed his fpeech to the virtues of the tree, the
might infer, with fome plaufibility, that what had power
to raife the brute mind to human, might raife the hu¬
man to divine, and make her and her hufband, accord¬
ing to the promife of the tempter, become aa gods, know-
ing good and evil. Milton, who was an eminent divine
as well as the prince of poets, makes her reafon thus with
herfclf.
Great are thy virtues, doubtlefs, beft of fruits,
Tho’ kept from man, and worthy to be admir’d j
Whofe tafte, too long forborne, at firft effay
Gave elocution to the mute, and taught
The tongue not made for fpeech to fpeak thy praife.
—————For us alone
Was death invented ? or to us denied
This intellectual food, for beafts referved ?
For beafts it feems: yet that one beaft which firft
Hath tailed, envies not, but brings with joy
The good befallen him, author unfufpedt,
Friendly to man, far from deceit or guile.
What fear I then, rather what know to fear
Under this ignorance of good and evil,
Of God or death, of law or penalty ?
Here grows the cure of all, this fruit divine,
Fair to the eye, inviting to the tafte,
Of virtue to make wife : what hinders then
To reach, and feed at once both body and mind ?
Paradife Lofl, book ix.
Full.
352
Fall of A-
(lam, and
its confe-
quences.
T H E O
luiTelf to divinity, and
LOGY.
Full of tliefe hopes of railit ^
not, as has fometimes been fuppofed, led headlong by
a fenfual appetite, Hte took of the fruit and did eat, and
gave to her hufband with her, and he did eat. The
great poet makes Adam delude himfelf with the fame
fophrftry that had deluded Eve, and infer, that as the
lerpent had attained the languageand reafoning powers
of man, they ihould attain
Part
I03
and Adam
and Eve
burned out
-of paradife,
Proportional afccnt, which could not be
But to be gods, or angels, de mi-gods.
204
The temp¬
ter punifli-
ed.
Thus was the covenant, which, on the introduftion of
our firft parents into paradife, their Creator wasgraciouf-
ly pleafed to make with them, broken by their violation
of the condition on which they were advanced to that
fupernatural date ; and therefore the hiftorian tells us,
that “ left they ftiould put forth their hand and take al-
fo of the tree of life and eat, and live for ever, the
Lord God fent them forth from the garden of Eden to
till the ground from whence they were taken (n).”
Had they been lb fent forth without any farther intima¬
tion refpefting their prefent condition or their future
profpefts, and if the death under which they had fallen
was only a lofs of confcioufnefs, they would have been
in precifely the fame ftate in which they lived before
they were placed in the garden of Eden ; only their
minds muft now have been burdened with the inward
fenfe of guilt, and they muft have known themfelves to
be fubjeft to death; of which, though not exempted
from it by nature, they had probably no apprchen/ion till
it wras revealed to them in the covenant of life which
they had fo wantonly broken.
God, however, did not fend them forth thus hopelefs
and forlorn from the paradife of delights which they had
:o recently forfeited. He determined to punifh them
for their tranfgreffion, and at the fame time to give them
an opportunity of recovering more than their loft inhe¬
ritance. Calling therefore the various offenders before
him, and inquiring into their different degrees of guilt,
he began with pronouncing judgment on the ferpent in
terms which implied that there was mercy for man.
“ And the Lord God faid unto the ferpent, Becaufe
thou haft done this, thou art curfed above all cattle, and
above every'beaft of the field : upon thy belly fhalt thou
go, and duft (halt thou eat all the days of thy life ; and
I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and be¬
tween thy feed and her feed : it ftiall bruife thy head,
and thou ftialt bruife his heel.”
That this fentence has been fully inflicled on the fer¬
pent, no reafoning can be neceJTary to evince. Every
fpecies of that reptile is more hateful to man than any
other terreftrial creature ; and there is literally a per¬
petual war between them and the human race. It is
remarkable too that the head of this animal is the only
part which it is fafe to bruife. His tail may be bruifed,
or even cut off, and he will turn with fury and death on
his adverfary : but the flighteft ftroke on the head in¬
fallibly kills him. That the ferpent, or at leaft the
greater part of ferpents, go on their belly, every one
knows ; though it is faid that in fome parts of the Fall l,
eaft ferpt nts have been feen with wings, and others with !*ait ii
feet, and that thefe fpecies are highly beautiful. If'tS(p
there be any truth in this ftory, we may fuppofe thatwll! ^
thefe walking and flying ferpents have been fuffered to*0f,{yj
retain their original elegance, that mankind might fee^
what the whole race was before the curfe was de-m""7,l
nounced on the tempter of Eve : but it is certain that^
moil of the fpecies have neither wings nor feet, and that
many of the moft poifonous of them live in burning de-
ferts, where they have nothing to eat but the duft a
mong which they crawl f. {Sen
To this degradation of the ferpent, infidels have ob-^fl'f|
jefted, that it implies the punifhment of an animal
which was incapable of guilt; but this objeftion is^
founded in thoughtleffnefs and ignorance. The elegantZinA
form of any fpecies of inferior animals adds nothing to Fun
the happinefs of the animals themfelves: the afs is pro¬
bably as happy as the horfe, and the ferpent that crawls
as he that flies. Fine proportions attract indeed the no¬
tice of man, and tend to imprefs upon his mind juft no¬
tions of the wifdom and goodnefs of the Creator ; but
furely the fymmetry of the horfe or the beauty of the
peacock is more properly difplayed for this purpofe than
the elegance of the inftrument employed by the enemy
mankind. The degradation of the ferpent in the pre-
of
fence of our firft parents muft have ferved the beft of
purpoles. If they had fo little refledtion as not yet to
have difeovered that he was only the inftrument with
which a more powerful being had wrought their ruin,
they would be convinced, by the execution of this fen¬
tence, that the forbidden fruit had no power in itfelf to
improve the nature either of man or of beaft. But it is
impoflible that they could be fo ftupid as this objection
fuppofes them. They doubtlefs kneAv by this time that
fome great and w'icked fpirit had adluated the organs of
the ferpent; and that when enmity was promifed to be
put between its feed and the feed of the woman, that
promife was not meant to be fulfilled by ferpents oc-
cafionally biting the heels of men, and by men in return
bruifing the heads of ferpents ! If fuch enmity, though
it has literally taken place, was all that was meant by
this predidlion, why was not Adam directed to bruife
the head of the identical ferpent which had feduced his
wife ? If he could derive any confolation from the exer-
cife of revenge, furely it would be greater from his re¬
venging himfelf on his own enemy, than from the know¬
ledge that there fhould be a perpetual warfare between
his defeendants and the breed of ferpents through all ge¬
nerations.
We are told, that when the foundations of the earth
were laid, the morning ftars fang together, and all the
Ions of God ftiouted for joy ; and it is at leaft probable
that there would be fimilar rejoicing when the fix days
work of creation was finilhed. If fo, Adam and Eve,
who were but a little lower than the angels, might be
admitted into the chorus, and thus be made acquainted
with the exiftence of good and evil fpirits. At all e-
vents, we cannot doubt but their gracious and merciful
Creator
(n) The ideas which this language conveys are indeed allegorical; but they inform us of this, and nothing but
this, that immortal life was a thing extraneous to our nature, and-mot put into our pafte or compofition when firft
faftupned by the forming hand of the Creator.” IVarburton's Divine Legation, book ix. chap. 1.
| rt II. TMEO
I of A- Crealbr Would infurtrl them that they had a powerful
enemy ; that he was a rebellious angel capable of de¬
ceiving them in many ways j and that they ought there¬
fore to be conftantly on their guard againft his -wiles.
They muft have known too that they were themfelves
animated by fomething different from matter; and when
they 'found they were deceived by the ferpent, they
might furely, without any remarkable ftretch of faga-
eity, infer that their malignant enemy had aftuated the
organs of that creature in a manner fomewhat fimilar to
that in which their own fouls actuated their own bodies.
If this be admitted^ the degradation of the ferpent would
convince them of the vveaknefsof the tempter wrhen com¬
pared with their Creator ; and confirm their hopes, that
lince he was not able to preferve unhurt his own inftru-
ment of mifchief, he fliould not be able finally to prevail
againit them ; but that though he had bruifed their
heels, the promifed feed of the woman fliould at laft
bruife his head, and recover the inheritance which they
had loft. See Prophecy, N° 9, 10.
Sb nee Having thus puniftied the original inftigator to evil,
pa Ion the Almighty Judge turned to the fallen pair, and faid
A< 1 and j.0 ^ woraan> “ I -wfll greatly multiply thy forrow and
thy conception : in forrow- (halt thou bring forth chil¬
dren ; and thy defire (hall be to thy hufband, and he
(hall rule over thee. And unto Adam he faid, Becaufe
thou haft hearkened unto the voice of thy wife, and haft
eaten of the tree of which I commanded thee, faying,
Thou (halt not eat of it ; curfed is the ground for thy
fake ; in forrow (halt thou eat of it all the days of thy
life. Thorns alfo and thiftles (hall it bring forth unto
thee, and thou (hall eat the herb of the field. In the
fweat of thy face (halt thou eat bread till thou return
unto the ground ; for out of it waft thou taken : for
dull thou art, and unto dull (halt thou return.”
Here is a terrible denunciation of toil and mifery and
death upon two creatures ; who, being inured to no¬
thing, and formed for nothing but happinefs, muft have
felt infinitely more horror from fuch a fentence, than
we, who are familiar with death, intimate with mifery,
and “ born to forrow as the fparks fly upward,” can
form any adequate conception of. The hardfliip of it,
too, feems to be aggravated by its being feverer than
what was originally threatened againft the breach of
the covenant of life. It was indeed faid, “ In the day
thou eateft thereof, thou (halt furely die :” but no men¬
tion was made of the woman’s incurring forrow in con¬
ception, and in the bringing forth of children ; of the
curfe to be inflifled on the ground ; of its bringing forth
thorns and thiftles inftead of food for the ufe of man ;
and of Adam’s eating bread in forrow and the fweat of
' his face till he (hould return to the dull from which he
,5 was taken.
An fcure Thefe feeming aggravations, however, are in reality
inftances of divine benevolence. Adam and Eve were
ofd yej111 n°w fubjefted^to death ; but in the fentence paffed on
om the ferpent, an obfcure intimation had been given them
that they were not to remain for ever under its power.
It was therefore their intereft, as well as their duty, to
reconcile themfelves as much as poflible to their fate ;
to wean their affeftions from this world, in which they
were to live only for a time ; and to hope, with hum¬
ble confidence, in the promife of their God, that, upon
their.departure from it, they ihould be received into
V-ol. XX. Part I.
anc
it.
cam, a mi
itb conte-
quenctjs.
L O G Y. 353
fome better date. To enable them to wean their af- of A-
fections from earth, nothing could more contribute than
to combine fenfual enjoyment with forrow, and lay them
under the neceflity of procuring their means of fubiift-
ence by labour, hard and often fruitlefs. This would
daily and hourly imprefs upon their minds a full convic¬
tion that the prefent world is not a place fit to be an
everlafting habitation ; and they would look forward,
with pious refignation, to death, as putting a period to
all their woes. Had they indeed been furniihed with no
ground of hope beyond the grave, we cannot believe
that the Righteous Judge of all the earth would have
added to the penalty originally threatened. That pe¬
nalty they would doubtlefs have incurred the very day
on which they fell ; but as they were promifed a delive¬
rance from the confequences of their fall, it was proper
to train them up by fevere difcipline for the happinefs
referved for them in a future ftate.
After the pafling of their fentence, the man and wo¬
man were turned out into the world, where they had
formerly lived before they were placed in the garden
of Eden ; and all future accefs to the garden was for
ever denied them. They were not, however, in the
fame ftate in which they were originally before their
introdu&ion into Paradife : They were now confcious
of guilt ; doomed to fevere labour ; liable to forrow and
ficknefs, difeafe and death : and all thefe miferies they
had brought, not only on themfelves, but alfo on
their unborn pofterity to the end of time. It m'iy feem
indeed to militate againft the moral attributes of God,
to inflidl mifery on children for the fins of their parents;
but before any thing can be pronounced concerning the
Divine goodnefsand juftice in the prefent cafe, we muft
know precifely how much we fuffer in confequence of
Adam’s tranfgreflion, and whether we have ourfelves any
(hare in that guilt which is the caufe of our fufferings.
That women would have had lefs forrow in the bring- Doubtful
ing forth of children ; that we (hould have been fubjedl- w hether
ed to lefs toil and exempted from death, had our firft pa j ^
rents not fallen from their paradifaical ftate—are truths exempted
incontrovertible by him who believes the infpiration of from pain
the Holy Scriptures; but that mankind would in thatunder t,ie
ftate have been wholly free from pain and every bodily ,‘^)tco'e'
diftrefs, is a propofition which is not to be found in the
Bible, and which therefore no man is bound to believe.
The bodies of Adam and Eve confided of flefli, blood,
and bones, as ours do ; they were furrounded by mate¬
rial objefts as we are ; and their limbs were unqueftion-
ably capable of being fra&ured. That their fouls fliould
never be feparated from their bodies while they abftain-
ed from the forbidden fruit, they knew from the infal¬
lible promife of him who formed them, and breathed
into their noftrils the breath of life ; but that not a bone
of themfelves or of their numerous pofterity ftiould ever
be broken by the fall of a done or of a tree, they were
not told, and had no reafon to expeft. Of fuch frac¬
tures, pain would furely have been the confequer.ee ;
though we have reafon to believe that it would have
been quickly removed by fome infallible remedy, pro¬
bably by the fruit of the tree of life.
Perhaps it may be faid, that if we fuppofe our firft
parents or their children to have been liable to accidents
of this kind in the garden of Eden, it will be difficult t«
conceive how they could have been preferved from death,
Y y as
107
354 T H E O
as a flone migiit have fallen on their heads as well as on
their feet, and have at once deftroyed the principle of
vitality. But this can be faid only by him who knows
little of the phyficai world, and ftill lefs of the power
ot God. There are many animals which are fufceptible
cf pain, and yet not eafily killed j and man in paradife
might have refembled theft. At any rate, we are fure
that the Omnipotent Creator could and would have pre-
ferved him from death ; but we have no reafon to be¬
lieve that, by a conftant miracle, he would have pre-
ferved him from every kind of pain. Indeed, if, under
the firft convenant, mankind were in a Bate of proba¬
tion, it is certainly conceivable that fome one individual
of the numerous race might have fallen into fin, with¬
out actually breaking the covenant by eating the fruit
of the tree of knowledge ; and fuch a finner would un¬
doubtedly have been punifhed by that God who is of
purer eyes than to behold iniquity: but how punifhment
could have been infli&ed on a being exempted from all
poffibility of pain as well as of death, we confefs our-
felves unable to imagine. Remorfe, which is the infe-
parable confequence of guilt, and conftitutes in our pre-
fent Bate great part of its punilhment, flows from the
fearful looking for of judgment, wdiich the finner know's
fhall, in a future ftate, devour the adverfaries of the
gofpel of Chrift; but he, who could neither fuffer pain
nor death, had no caufe to be afraid of future judge¬
ment, and was therefore not liable to the tortures of re¬
morfe. We conclude, therefore, that it is a miftake
to fuppofe pain to have been introduced into the world
by the fall of our firft parents, or at leaft that the opi¬
nion contrary to ours has no foundation in the word of
God.
Death, however, was certainly introduced by their
from death. fa]1 ’ tlie infpired apoftle affures us, that in Adam all
' die * ; and again, that through the offence of ONE many
are dead\. But concerning the full import of the word
death in this place, and in the fentence pronounced up¬
on our firft parents, divines hold opinions extremely dif¬
ferent. Many contend, that it includes death corporal,
fpiritual or moral, and eternal; and that all mankind
are fubjedfed to thefe three kinds of death, on account
of their {hare in the guilt of the original tranfgreflion,
which is ufually denominated- originalfn, and confider-
ed as the fource of all moral evil.
That all men are fubjecled to death corporal in con¬
fequence of Adam’s tranfgreftion, is univerfally admit¬
ted 5 but that they are in any fenfe partakers of his
guilt, and on that account fubjefted to death fpiritual
and eternal, has been very ftrenuoufly denied. To dif-
cover the truth is of great importance •, for it is inti¬
mately conne£fed with the Chriftian do&rine of redemp¬
tion. We fliall therefore ftate, with as much impartia¬
lity as we can, the arguments commonly urged on each
fide of this much agitated queftion.
ori^nal faf Thofe who maintain that all men finned in Adarn,
aated.*1 m generally ftate their do&rine thus: “ The covenant be¬
ing made with Adam as a public perfon, not for himfelf
only but for his pofterity, all mankind defcending from
him by ordinary generation finned in him and fell with
him in that firft tranfgreflion ; whereby they are depri¬
ved of that original righteoufnefs in which he was crea¬
ted, and are utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made op-
pofite to all that is fpiritually good, and wholly inclined
to all evil, and that continually ; which is commonly
LOGY.
Part 1]
toS
though
they would
* Cor.
XV. 2 2.
f Rom.
v. 15.
109
called original jin, and from which do proceed all ac- FallofA
tual tranfgrefiions, fo as we are by nature children of dam, am
wrath, bond-llaves to Satan, and juftly liable to all pu- its CMfe
niftiments in this world and in that which is to come . que"c^
even to everlafting feparation from the comfortable pre-
fence of God, and to moft grievous torments in foul and
body, without intermiflion, in hell fire for ever.”
That which in this paffage we are firft to examine, is
the fentence which affirms all mankind defcending from
Adam by ordinary generation to have finned in him and
fallen with him in his firft tranfgreflion ; the truth of
which is attempted to be proved by various texts of
Holy Scripture. Thus St Paul fays exprefsly, that “by
one man fin entered into the world, and death bv fin •
and fo death palled upon all men, for that all have fin-
ned. But not as the offence, fo alfo is the free gift. Ar ^
For if, through the offence of one, many be dead; much for1t.mCR
more the grace of God, and the gift by grace, which is
by one man, Jefus Chrift, hath abounded unto many -
and not as it was by one that finned, fo is the gift (for
judgment was by one unto condemnation) ; but the
free gift is of many offences unto juftifieation. For if,
by one man’s offence, death reigned by one; much more
they, who receive the abundance of grace and of the
gift of righteoufnefs, {hall reign in life by one, Jefus
Chrift. Therefore as, by the offence of one, judgment
came upon all men to condemnation ; even fo, by the
righteoufnefs of One, the free gift came upon all men
unto juftification of life. For as by one man’s difobe-
dience many were made finner s ; fo by the obedience of
one {hall many be made righteous*.” In this paffage^ „
the apoftle affures us, that all upon whom death hath
paffed have fnned; but death hath paffed upon infants/2’ 5
who could not commit a&ual fin. Infants therefore
muft have finned in Adam, fince death hath paffed up¬
on them ; for death “ is the wages only of fin.” He
tells us likewife, that by the offence of one, judgment
came upon all men to condemnation ; and therefore
fince the Righteous Judge of heaven and earth never
condemns the innocent with the wicked, we muft con¬
clude, that all men partake of the guilt of that offence
for which judgment came upon them to condemnation.
Thefe conclufions are confirmed by his faying exprefsly,
that “ by one man’s difobedience many (/. e. all man¬
kind) were madefinnersand elfewheref, that “ there |Ror,
is none righteous, x\o not one f and that his Ephefian io.and
converts “ were dead in trefpaffes and fins, and were by Eph.‘i'I*
nature children of wrath even as others ” The fameaiul3*
do£lrine, it is faid, we are taught by the infpired writers
of the Old Feftament. Thus Job, expoftulaling with
God for bringing into judgment with him fuch a crea¬
ture as man, fays, “ Who can bring a clean thing out
of an unclean ? Not one.” And Eliphaz, reproving
the patient patriarch for what he deemed prefumption,
alks j, “ What is man that he ftiould be clean, or he , Job
who is born of a woman that he fliould be righteous andxv.
From thefe two paffages it is plain, that Job and his 14.
unfeeling friend, though they agreed in little elfe, ad¬
mitted as a truth unqueftionable, that man inherits from
his parents a finful nature, and that it is impoflible for
any thing born of a woman by ordinary generation to
be righteous. The pfalmift talks the very fame lan¬
guage ; when acknowledging his tranfgreflions, he
fays )|, “ Behold I was ftrapen in iniquity, and in fin | pfalm &
did my mother conceive me.” 5.
Having
iirt II. THEO
Having tlius proved the facl, that all men are made
finners by Adam’s difobedience, the divines, who em¬
brace this fide of the queftion, proceed to inquire how
1 they can be partakers in guilt which was incurred fo
many ages before they were born. It cannot be by imi¬
tation j for infants, according to them, are involved in
t tonin'1* ^is guilt before they be capable of imitating any thing,
j erity. Neither do they admit that fin is by the apoftle put for
the confequences of fin, and many faid to be made fin¬
ners by one man’s dilobedience, becaufe by that difobe¬
dience they were fubjefled to death, which is the wages
of fin. This, which they call the doctrine of the Ar-
minians, they affirm to be contrary to the whole fcope
and defign of the context; as it confounds together fin
and death, which are there reprefented, the one as the
caufe, and the other as the effeft. It likewife exhibits
the apoftle reafoning in fuch a manner as would, in their
opinion, difgrace any man of common fenfe, and much
more an infpired writer •, for then the fenfe of thefe
words, “ Death hath paffed upon all men, for that all
have finned,” muft be, death hath pafied upon all men,
becaufe it hath pafled upon all men ; or, all men are ob¬
noxious to death, becaufe they are obnoxious to it. The
only way therefore, continue they, in which Adam’s po-
fterity can be made finners through his difobedience, is
by the IMPUTATION of his difobedience to them •, and
his imputation is not to be confidered in a moral fenfe,
as the aflion of a man committed by himfelf, whether
good or bad, is reckoned unto him as his own •, but in a
forenjic fenfe, as when one man’s debts are in a legal
way placed to the account of another. Of this we have
an inftance in the apoftle Paul, who faid to Philemon
concerning Onefimus, “ If he hath wronged thee, or
oweth thee any thing (sAAays*), let it be imputed to
me,” or placed to and put on my account. And thus
the pofterity of Adam are made finners by his difobedi¬
ence ; that being imputed to them and put to their ac¬
count, as if it had been committed by them perfonally,
though it was not.
Some few divines of this fchool are indeed of opinion,
that the phrafe, “ By one man’s difobedience many were
made finners,” means nothing more than that the pofte¬
rity of Adam, through his fin, derive from him a cor¬
rupt nature. But though this be admitted as an un¬
doubted truth, the more zealous abettors of the fyftem
contend, that it is not the whole truth. “ It is true
(fay they) that all men are made of one man’s blood,
and that blood tainted with fin ; and fo a clean thing
cannot be brought out of an unclean. What is born of
the flefh is flelh, carnal and corrupt: every man is con¬
ceived in fin and ffiapen in iniquity; but there is a dif¬
ference between being madejinners and beconting finful.
. The one refpedts the guilt, the other the pollution of na¬
ture ; the one is previous to the other, and the founda¬
tion of it. Men receive a corrupt nature from their im¬
mediate parents •, but they are made finners, not by any
aift of their difobedience, but only by the imputation of
the fin of Adam.”
To illuftrate this doftrine of imputed fin, they obferve,
that the wTord Kcthrjx(!ntrx)i, ufed by the apoftle, fignifies
conjhtuted in a judicial way, ordered and appointed in
the difpenfation of things that fo it ftiould be ; juft as
Chrift was made fin or a finner by imputation, or by
that conftitution of God which laid upon him the fins
of all his people, and dealt with him as if he had been
LOGY.
355
the guilty perfon. That this is the fenfe of the palTage, TM of A-
they argue further from the puniftiment intlidled on men ^aR:’ al:^
for the fin of Adam. The puniffiment threatened to that q„enees.
fin Avas death j Avhich includes death corporal, moral,——v—. i..>
and eternal. Corporal death, fay they, is allowed by n2
all to be fuffered on account of the fin of Adam j and if i he puiiith-
fo, there muft be guilt, and that guilt made over to tbem(.nt,° ‘111*
loiterer, which can be done only by imputation. A mo¬
ral death is no other than the lofs of the image of God
in man, Avhich confided in rigbteoufnefs and hoiinefs j
and particularly it is the lofs of original righteoufnefs,
to Avhicb fucceeded unrighteoufnefs and unholinefs. It
is both a fin and a puniffiment for fin ; and fince it
comes on all men as a puniffiment, it muft i’uppofe pre¬
ceding fin, which can be nothing but Adam’s difobe¬
dience ; the guilt of ivliich is made over to bis pofterity
by imputation. This appears ftill more evident from the
pofterity of Adam being made liable to eternal death in
confequence of his tranfgreffion \ for the wages of fin is
death, even death eternal, Avhich never can be inflitfted
on guiltlefs perfons. But from the paffage before us avc
learn, that “ by the offence of judgment came up¬
on all men to condemnation and therefore the guilt
of that offence muff be reckoned to all men, or they
could not be juftly condemned for it. That Adam’s fin
is imputed to his pofterity, appears not only from the
Avords, “ by one man’s difobedience many Avere made
finners but likewife from the oppofite claufe, “ fo by
the obedience of One ffiall many be made righte¬
ous for the many ordained to eternal life, for Avhom
Chrift died, are made righteous, or juftified, only through
the imputation of his righteoufnefs to them \ and there¬
fore it follows, that all men are made finners only through
the imputation of Adam’s difobedience.
To this doctrine it is faid to be no objection that
Adam’s pofterity Avere not in being Avhen his fin Avas
committed j for though they had not then aftual being,
they had yet a virtual and reprefentative one. They
Avere in him both feminally znd. federally, and finned in
him *; juft as Levi Avas in the loins of Abraham, and*Roni. a-.
paid in him tithes to Melchizedeck f. From Adam they 12.
derive a corrupt nature j but it is only from him, as their ^ v“,
federal head, that they derive a fliare of his guilt, and9, I°j,
are fubjefted to his puniffiment. That he Avas a federal Adam a fe-
head to all his pofterity, the divines of this fchool think deral head
evident from his being called a figure of Cbrift J $ and t? l“s P0^-1
the firft Adam deferibed as natural and earthly, in con'7^em v
tradiftin&ion to Chrift the fecond Adam deferibed as j^
fpiritual and the Lord from heaven; and from the pu-
niftiment threatened againft his fin being inflifted not on
himfelf only, but on all bis fucceeding offspring. He
could not be a figure of Chrift, fay they, merely as a
man ; for all the Tons of Adam have been men as Avell
as be, and in that fenfe Avere as much figures of Chrift
as he; yet Adam and Chrift are conftantly contrafted,
as though they had been the only tAvo men that ever
exifted, becaufe they Avere the only Iavo heads of their
refpediive offspring. He could not be a figure of Chrift
on account of his extraordinarv produ6tion ; for though
both Avere produced in ways uncommon, yet each was
brought into the Avorld in a Avay peculiar to himfelf.
The firft Adam Avas formed of the duft of the ground ;
the fecond, though not begotten by a man, Avas born of
a Avoraan. They did not therefore referable each other
in the manner of their formation, but in their office as
Y y 2 covenant
114
No caufe
of com¬
plaint in
things.
St A.ugu-
ftian the
a ithor of
this doc¬
trine.
T H E O
covenant-heads; and in that alone the comparifon be¬
tween them is exafl.
Nor have any of the pofterity of Adam, it is faid, rea-
fon to complain of fueh a procedure. Had he flood in
his integrity, they would have been, by his Handing,
partakers of all his happinefs ; and therefore fhould not
murmur at receiving evil through his fall. If this do
this confti- not Satisfy, let it be confidered, that lince God, in his
tution of infinite wifdom, thought proper that men fhould have a
head and reprefentative, in whofe hands their good and
happinefs fin>uld be placed, none could be fo fit for this
high flation as the common parent, made after the
image of God, fo wife, fo holy, juft, and good. Laftly,
to filence all objections, let it be remembered, that
what God gave to Adam as a federal head, relating to
himfelf and his pofterity, he gave as the Sovereign of
the univerfe, to whom no created being has right to afk,
BodvS11'1" What doft thou*
Divirnt". Such are the confequences of Adam’s fall, and fuch
the doftrine of Original fin, as maintained by the more
rigid followers of Calvin. That great reformer, how-
11- ever, was not the author of this dodlrine. It had been
taught fo early as in the beginning of the fifth century,
by St Auguftine, the celebrated bifhop of Hippo (fee
Augustine) *, and the authority of that father had
made it more or lefs prevalent In both the Greek and
Roman churches long before the Reformation. Calvin
was indeed the moft eminent modern divine by whom
it has been held in all its rigour ; and it conftitutes one
great part of that, theological fyftern, which, from be¬
ing taught by him, is now known by the name of Cu/-
vinifm.
But if it was as fovereign of the univerfe that God
gave to Adam what he received in paradife relating to
liimfelf and his pofterity, Adam could in no fenfe of the
words be a federal head ; becaufe, upon this fuppofition,
there was no covenant. The Sovereign, of the univerfe
may unqueftionably difpenfe his benefits, or withhold
them, as feems expedient to his infinite wifdom ; and
none of his fubjefts or creatures can have a right to fay
to him, What doft thou ? But the difpenfing or with¬
holding of benefits is a tranfaClion very different from
the entering into covenants 5 and a judgment is to be
formed of it on very different principles. Every thing
around us proclaims that the Sovereign of the univerfe
is a being of perfeCt benevolence j but, fay the difciples
of the fchool now under confideration, the difpenfation
given to Adam in paradife was fo far from being the off-
fpring of benevolence, that, as it is underftood by the
followers of Calvin, it cannot poffibly be reconciled with
the eternal laws of equity. The felf-exiftent and all-
fufficient God might or might not have created fuch a
being as man $ and in either cafe there would have been
no reafon for the queftion “ What doft thou ?” But as
foon as he determined to create him capable of happi¬
nefs or mifery, he would not have been either benevolent
or juft, if he had not placed him in a ftate where, by his
own exertions, he might, if he choofe, have a greater
ihare of happinefs than of mifery, and find hisexiftence,
upon the whole, a blefling. They readily acknowledge,
that the exiftence of any created being may be of long¬
er or (horter duration, according to the good pleafure of
the Creator ; and therefore they have no objection to
the apoftolic doftrine, that “ in Adam all diefor im¬
mortality being not a debf, but a free gift, may be be-
n6
Objedtions
to it,
dam, anc
its conk
quences.
.I!7
' as incon-
LOGY. PaitI]
flowed on any terms, and with perfedl juftlee withdrawn Fall of a
when thefe terms are not complied with. Between
death, however, as it implies a lofs of confeioufnefs, and
the extreme mifery of eternal life in torments, there is
an immenfe difference. To death all mankind might
juftly be fubjedted through the offence of one j becaufe
they had originally no claim to be exempted from it,
though that one and they .too had remained for ever in¬
nocent : but eternal life in torments is a punilhment
which a God of juftice and benevolence can never in-
flidt but upon perfonal guilt of the deepeft die. That fiftentwit
we can perfonally have incurred guilt from a crime com-tlle
mitted fome thoufands of years before we were born, isofGoii'
impoflible. It is indeed a notion as contrary to Scrip¬
ture as to reafon and common fenfe: for the apoftle ex-
prefsly informs us*, “ that fin is the tranfgreffion of*^^
feme law and the fin of Adam was the tranfgreflion 4.
of a law which it was never in our power either to ob-
ferve or to break.. Another apoftle f affures us, thatf Romi;Vi
“ where no law is, there is no tranfgreflion” j but there 15.
is now no law, nor has been any thefe 5000 years, for¬
bidding mankind to eat of a particular fruit; for, ac¬
cording to the Calvinifts themfelves J, Adam had. not Gill’sEi
fooner committed his firft fin, by which the covenant^ °/^
with him was broken, than he ceafed to be a covenant-^’b,lli
head. This law given him was no more j the promifeCl0’
of life by it ceafed 5 and its fan&ion, death, took place.
But if this be fo, how is it poflible that his unborn po¬
fterity ftiould be under a law which had no exiftence, or
that they fhould be in a worfe ftate in confequence of
the covenant being broken, and its promife having ceaf¬
ed, than he himfelf was before the covenant was fitft
made ? He was originally a mortal being, and was pro-
mifed the fopernatural gift of immortality on the fingle
condition of his abftaining from the fruit of the tree of
knowledge of good and evil. From that fruit lie did
not abftain but by eating it fell back into his natural -• n8
ftate of mortality. Thus far it is admitted that his po-tBe ferip-
fterity fell with him: for they have no claim to a fa per-tine, and
natural gift which he had forfeited by his tranfgreffion.tbe n.ature
But we cannot admit, fay the divines of this fchool, that0^tlun*
they fell into his guilt; for to render it poffible for a man
to incur guilt by the tranfgreffion of a law, it is necef-
fary not only that he have it in his power to keep the law,
but alfo that he be capable of tranfgreffing it by a co-
luntarij deed. But furely no man could be capable of
voluntarily eating the forbidden fruit 5000 years before
lie himfelf or his volitions exifted. The followers of
Calvin think it a fuffieient objection to the doftrine of
tranfubftantiation, that the fame numerical body cannot
be in different places at the fame inftant of time. But
this ubiquity of body, fay the remonftrants, is not more
palpably abfurd, than the fuppofition that a man could
exert volitions before he or his will had any exiftence. up
Nor will the introduction of the word impuhilion into The word
this important queftion remove a fingle difficulty, EoriMPUTA-
what is that we mean by faying that the fin of Adam TI0^cr®'
is imputed to his pofterity? Is the guilt of that fin
transferred from him to them ? So furely thought Br
Gill, when he faid that it is made over to them. But
this is the fame abfurdity as the making over of the fen-
fible qualities of bread and wine to the internal fub-
ftance of our Saviour’s body and blood ! This imputa¬
tion either found the pofterity of Adam guilty of his
fin, or it made tliem fo. It could not find them guilty
' for
r ;t ii. T H E O L O G Y.
I of A- for the reafon already affigned j as well as becaufe the
557
and
j onfe-
( nces.
ip-
apoftle fays exprefsly, that for the offence of one judge¬
ment came upon all men, which would not be true had
«//offended. It could not make them guilty j for this
reafon, that if there be in phylicsor metapliyfics a fingle
truth felf-evident, it is, that the numerical powers, ac¬
tions, or qualities, of one being cannot poffibly be trans¬
ferred to another, and be made its powers, a&ions, or
qualities. Different beings may in diftant ages have
qualities of the fame kind 5 but as eafily may 4 and 3
be made equal to 9, as two beings be made to have the
fame identical quality. In Scripture we nowhere read
of the aftions of one man being imputed to another.
“ Abraham (\ye are told) believed in God, and it was
counted to him for righteoufnefs j” but it was his own
faith, and not the faith of another man, that was fo
counted. “ To him that worketh not, but believeth,
his faith (not another’s) is imputed for righteoufnefs.”
And of our faith in him that raifed Chrift from the
dead, it is faid, that “ it fhall be imputed, not to our
fathers or our children, but to us for righteoufnefs.”
M nng of When this phrafe is ufed with a negative, not only is
th .wrd the man’s own perfonal fin fpoken of, but the non- im¬
putation of that fin means nothing more but that it
brings not upon the finner condign punifhment. Thus
when Shemei “ faid unto David, Let not my lord im¬
pute iniquity unto me j” it could not be his meaning
that the king fhould not think that lie had offended ;
for with the fame breath he added, “ Neither do thou
remember that which thy fervant didperverfeltj, the day
that my lord the king, went of Jerufalem, that the king
fhould take it to his heart. For thy fervant doth know
that l haveJinned.” Here he plainly confeffes his fin,
and declares, that by intreating the king not to impute
it to him, he wifhed only that it fhould not be fo remem¬
bered as that the king fhould take it to heart, and pu-
nifh him as his perverfenefs deferved. When therefore
it is faid *, that “ God was in Chrift reconciling the
world to himfelf, not imputing to them their iniquities,
the meaning is only that for Chrift’sfake he was pleafed
to exempt them from the punithment due to their fins.
In like-manner, when the prophet, foretelling the fuf-
ferings of the Mefliah, fays, that “ the Lord laid on
him the iniquity of us all,” his meaning cannot be, that
the Lord by imputation made his immaculate Son guilty
of all the fins that men have ever committed; for in that
cafe it would not be true that the “ jufl fuffered for the
unjuft,” as the apoftle exprefsly teaches-f-: but the fenfe
of the verfe muft be, as Biihop Coverdale tranflated it,
“ through him the Lord pardoneth all our fins.” This
interpretation is countenanced by the ancient verfion of
the Seventy, nuffiaKi* uvlov rxig hpccflixts
•, words which exprefs a notion very different from
that of imputed guilt. The Mefliah was, without a
breach of juftice, delivered for fins of which he had vo¬
luntarily offered to pay the penalty ; and St Paul might
have been juftly charged by Philemon with the debts of
Onefimus, which he had defired might be placed to his
account. Had the apoftle, however, exprefled no fuch
defire, furely Philemon could by no deed of his have
made him liable for debts contra&ed by another 5 far
lefs could he by imputation, whatever that word may
mean, have made him virtually concur in the contraffting
of thofe debts. He could not have been juftly fubjefted
to fyffering without his own confent j and he could not
qucnces.
* or. v-
10
r eter
i'i 3.
poflibly have been made guilty of the fins of thofe for Full of A-
whom he fuffered. itTconfe
The dodtrine of imputed guilt therefore, as underftood
by the Calvinifts, is, in the opinion of their opponents,
without foundation in Scripture, and contrary to the na¬
ture of things. It is an impious abfurdity (fay they), to
which the mind can never be reconciled by the hypo-
thefis, that all men were in Adam both feminally and
federally, and finned in him, as Levi paid tithes to
Melchizedeck in the loins of Abraham. The apoftle,
when he employs that argument to leflen in the minds
of his countrymen the pride of birth and the lofty opi¬
nions entertained of their priefthood, plainly intimates,
that he was ufing a bold figure, and that Levi’s paying
tithes is not to be underftood in a llridi and literal fenfe.
“ Now confider (fays he) how great this man was, unto
whom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth of
the fpoils. And, as l may fo fay, Levi alfo, who re-
ceiveth tithes, paid tithes in Abraham : for he wras yet
in the loins of his father when Melchizedeck met him.”
This is a very good argument to prove that the Leviti-
cal priefthood was inferior in dignity to that of Melchi¬
zedeck 5 and by the apoftle it is employed for no other
purpofe. Levi could not be greater than Abraham,
and yet Abraham was inferior to Melchizedeck. This I2I
is the whole of St Paul’s reafoning, which lends no fup- Moral guilt
port to the dodtrine of original fin, unlefs it can be cannot be
fhown that Levi and all his defcendants contradled from tranfmitted
this circumftance fuch a ftrong propenfity to the paying CI
of tithes, as made it a matter of extreme difficulty for
them, in every fubfequent generation, to comply with
that part of the divine law which conftituted them re¬
ceivers of tithes. That all men were feminally in A-
dam, is granted; and it is likewife granted that they
may have derived from him, by ordinary generation,
difeafed and enfeebled bodies: but it is as impoflible to
believe that moral guilt can be tranfmitted from father
to fon by the phyfieal adt of generation, as to conceive
a fcarlet colour to be a cube of marble, or the found of
a trumpet a cannon ball. That Adam wras as fit a per-
fon as any other to be entrufted with the good and bap-
pinefs of his pofterity, may be true ; but there is no fit-
nefs whatever, according to the Arminians, in making
the everlafting happinefs or mifery of a whole race de¬
pend upon the condudt of any fallible individual. “ That
any man ftiould fo reprfcfent me (fays Dr Taylor '*), * Lctlrine
that when he is guilty, I am to be reputed guilty } °/
when he tranfgrefies, I fhall be accountable and punifh- Part 111*
able for his tranfgreffion j and this before 1 am born,
and confequently before I am in any capacity of know¬
ing, helping, or hindering, what he*doth : all this every
one who ufeth his underftanding muft clearly fee to be
falfe, unreafonable, and altogether inconfiftent with the
truth and goodnefs of God.” And that no fuch appoint¬
ment ever had place, he endeavours to prove, by ftiorv-
ing that the texts of Scripture upon which is built the
dodtrine of the Calvinifts refpedting original fin, will
each admit of a very different interpretation.
One of the ftrongeft of thefe texts is Romans v. 19. The feveral
which we have already quoted, and which our author texts o«
thus explains. He obferves, that the apoftle was a Jew,
familiarly acquainted with the Hebrew tongue; that hebu;ltcapa_
wrote his epiftle as well for the ufe of his own country-ble of a dif.
men refiding in Rome, as for the benefit of the Gentile ferent in-
converts ; and that though he made ufe of the Greek rfrPreta«
language,tlon*
f Gen. xx.
358 T H E O
^In'aral" Ian8:ll:1Se. “oft generally underftood, lie frequently
its confe- emPiuytJ<J Hebrew idioms. Now it is certain that the
quences. Hebrew words fTKton and “ fin and iniquity,” are
1 - frequently ufed in the Old i eftament to tigntfy fufer-
ing, by a figure of fpeech which puts the effeft for the
caufe ; and it is furely more probable, that in the verfe
under confideration, the apofile uied the correfponding
Greek word in the Hebrew fenfe, than that
he meant to contradsdf what he had faid in the former
verfe, by teaching that all men were made guilty of an
aft of difobedienee committed thoufands of years before
-the majority of them had any being. In the preceding
verfe he lays, “ that by the offence of one, judgment
came upon all men to condemnation.” But this cannot
be true, if by that olfence all men were made finners j
■‘.or then judgment mult have come upon each for his
own lhare in the original difobedience. “ Any one
may fee (Tays our author) that there is a vaft differenee
between a man’s making himfelf a finner by his ovon
wicked aft, and his being made a finner by the wicked
a£I of another. In the latter cale, he can be a finner
in no other fenfe but as he is a fufferer j juft as Lot would
« Gen x x *iaVe k660 8 *'lnner ^ie Sodomites, had he
en‘ X1X' been confumed in the iniquity of the city * ; and as the
fubjefts of Abimelech would have been made finners,
had he, in the integrity of his heart, committed adultery
with Abraham’s wifef. That the people of Gerar
could have contrafted any real guilt from the adultery
of their fovereign, or that he, by lying with a woman
whom he had reafon to believe to be not the wife but
the filter of another man, would have incurred all the
moral turpitude of that crime, are pofitions which can¬
not be maintained. Yet he fays, that Abraham had
brought upon him and on his kingdom a great fin ;
though it appears, from comparing the 6th verfe with
the 1 ^th and 18th, that he had not been brought under
fin in any other fenfe than as he was made to fuffer for
taking Sarah into his houfe. In this fenfe, “ Chrift,
though we are fure that he knew no fin, was made fin
for us, and numbered with the tranfgreffors,” becaufe he
fuffered death for us on the crofs j and in this fenfe it
is true, that by the difobedience of Adam all mankind
were made finners, becaufe, in confequence of his of¬
fence, they were by the judgment of God made fubieft
to death.
But it may be thought that this interpretation of the
wordsyf/z andfnners, though it might perhaps be ad¬
mitted in the ipth verle, cannot be fuppofed to give the
apoftle’s real meaning, as it would make him employ in
the 12th yerfe an abfurd argument, which has been al¬
ready noticed. But it may perhaps be pofiible to get
quit of the abfurdity, by examining the original textin-
itead of our tranflation. The words are, £15
cdiQqwttqps 0 S’asvulog tty a nuxglov. In order
to afeertain the real fenfe of thefe words, the firft thing
to be done is to difeover the antecedent to the relative
L 0 G Y- Patti
?lIr tranflators feem to confider it as ufed abfolute- Fallon
ly without any antecedent j but this is inaccurate, as it
may be queftioned whether the relative was ever ufed in itsconfl
any language without an antecedent either expreffed or ^
underftood. Accordingly, the Calvinift critics, and
even many Remonftrants, confider £v«j x^irov in the
beginning of the verfe as the antecedent to « in the end
ot it, and tranllate the claule under confideration thus :
“ .And fo death hath paffi d upon all men, in whom
(viz. Adam) all have finned.” however, fiands
much nearer to « than xvS^MTrev j and being of the fame
gender, ought, w-e think, to be confidered as its real
antecedent: but it fo, the claufe under confideration
Ihould be thus tranjlated : “ and fo death hath paffed
upon all men, unto which (o) all have finned, or, as
the Arminians explain it, have fuffered. If this criti-
cifm be admitted as juft, s<p ® muft be confidered as
Handing here under a particular emphafis, denoting the
utmoft length of the confequences of Adam’s fin (p) ;
as if the apoftle had faid, “ fo far have the confequences
of Adam’s fin extended, and fpread their influence
among mankind, introducing not only a curfe upon the
earth, and forrow and toil upon its inhabitants, but even
death, universal death, in every part, and in all
ages of the world.” His words (fay the Remonftrants)
Avill unqueftionably bear this fenfe ; and it is furely
much more probable that it is their true fenfe, than that
an infpired writer ftiould have taught a doftrine fubver-
five of all our notions of right and wrong, and which,
if really embraced, muft make us incapable of judging
when we are innocent and when guilty.
W hen the apoftle fays that there is none righteous,
no not one, he gives us plainly to underftand that he is
quoting from the 14th Pfalm ; and the queftion firft to be
anfwered is, In what fenfe were thefe ivords ufed by the
Pfalmift ? That they were not meant to include all the
men and women then living, far lefs all that have ever
lived, is plain from the fifth verfe of the fame Pfalm,
where we are told that thofe wicked perfons “ w'ere in
great fear, becaufe God was in the congregation of the
righteous.” There was then, it feems, a congregation of
righteous perfons, in oppofition to thofe called the chil¬
dren of men, of whom alone it is faid that there was
none that did good, no not one. The truth is, that the
perfons of whom David generally complains in the book
of Pfalms, conftituted a ftrong party difaffefted to his
perfon and government. That faftion he deferibes as
proud and oppreflive, as deviling mifehief againft him,
as violent men continually getting together for war.
He ftyles them his enemies ; and fometimes charafterizes
them by the appellation which was given to the apoftate
defeendants of Cain before the deluge. Thus in the
57th Pfalm, which was compofed when he fled from
Saul to the cave in which he fpared that tyrant’s life,
he complains, “ I lie among them that are fet on fire,
even the sons of men, whofe teeth are fpears,” &c.;
and
Thiwt S r’-SWl’e,n/ conftruedf"’ith a dafiv' cafe> "f!en fignifies » or unlo, is known io every Greek fcholar.
Qw. 1 r V?’ ^ Wny,ta fame-> (Lucian). ^ KuKov^yo? tin tio a criminal unto death, (Demofth.). Eiri
/'Gal V, v CUa d?/ t0 (eUtl °r executl0ni (Roc.). eyr eXivfcgta ye have been called to liberty,
L *lf ' , -T, r • £y3,<rTf. U<rov S7rt created in Chrift Jefus unto good works, (Ephef. ii. 10A
r^°'> : urC 7’>r and many other places of the New Teftament. *
(p) » has hkewife this import, denoting the terminus ad quern in Phil. iii. 12. and iv. 10.
jp.lt II. THEO
■ " * 1 f 1-10 l*QfV» OTalni 1-»P» /oxrc T^rv tr^ at-ksIfiAsJ
ri
.,. 0Htr, . ^
u! C^Lj texts with x Sam. xxvi. 19. it will appear evident that
by the SONS OF men mentioned in them, he meant to
characterize thofe enemies who exafperated Saul againft
him. Now it is well known, that there was a party ad¬
hering to the interefts of the houfe of Saul, which conti¬
nued its enmity to David during the 40 years of his
reign, and joined with Abfalom in rebellion againft him
only eight years before his death. But it is the opinion
\Hc, nont1,o{ the moft judicious commentators f, that the 14th
&c' Pfalm was compofed during the rebellion of Abfalom ;
and therefore it is furely much more probable, that by
the children of men, of whom it is faid there is “ none
that doth good, no not one,” theinfpired poet meant to
characterize the rebels, than that he ftrould have direCt-
ly contradicted himfelf in the compafs of two fentences
fucceeding each other. Had he indeed known that all
the children of men, as defeending from Adam, “ are
utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made oppolrte to all
that is fpiritually good, and wholly and continually in¬
clined to all evil,” he could not, with the leaft degree
of conliftency, have reprefented the Lord as looking
down from heaven upon them, to fee if there were any
that did underftand and feek after God j” but if by the
children of men was meant only the rebel faCtion, this
fcenical reprefentation is pcrfe.Ctly confident, as it was
natural to fuppofe that there might be in that faCtion
fome men of good principles milled by the arts of the
rebel chiefs.
Having thus afeertained thefenfeof the words as ori¬
ginally ufed by the Pfalmift, the Arminian proceeds to
inquire for what purpofe they were quoted by the a-
poftle ; and in this inquiry he feems to find nothing dif¬
ficult. The averflon of the Jews from the admiffion of
the Gentiles to the privileges of the gofpel, the high
opinion which they entertained of their own worth and
fuperiority to all other nations, and the ftrong perfua-
fion which they had that a ftriCt obedience to their own
law was fufficient to jullify them before God, are faCts
univerfally known j but it was the purpofe of the apoftle
to prove that all men flood in need of a Redeemer, that
Jews as well as Gentiles had been under the dominion
of fin, and that the one could not in that refpeCt claim
any fuperiority over the other. He begins his epiftle,
therefore, with Ihowing the extreme depravity of the
Heathen world ; and having made good that point, he
proceeds to prove, by quotations from the book of
Pfalms, Proverbs, and Ifaiah, that the Jews were in no¬
wife better than they, that every mouth might be liop-
ped, and all the rvorld become guilty, or inlufficient for
their own juftification before God.
The. next proof brought by the Calvinifts in fupport
of their opinion, that all men derive guilt from Adam
by ordinary generation, is that text in which St Paul
fays that the Ephefians “ rvere by nature children of
wrath even as others.” To this their opponents reply,
that the doftrine of original fin is in this verfe, as in the
laft quoted, countenanced only by our tranflation, and
not by the original Greek as underftood by the ancient
fathers of the Chriftian church, who were greater ma¬
ilers of that language than we. The words are y.u.1 hpiv
TSicvas ty-jtnt in which it is obvious, that rsxw,
though in its original fenfe it fignifies the genuine chil-
Fa >1
an(l fpeak
nfe- uprig
LOG Y. 359
dren of parents by natural generation, cannot be fo un- Fall of A-
derftood here j becaufe no man was ever begotten by,
or born of, the abltradt notion wrath. It muft there- qSuencec~
fore be ufed figuratively ; and in other places of ferip-1 ^
ture it often denotes a clofe relation to any perfon or
thing. Thus we read of the children of God, of the
kingdom, the refurreBion, wifdom, light, obedience, and
peace; whence it is concluded, that by the children of
wrath are meant thofe who are liable to punifhment or
rejection. And becaufe there were in thofe days fome
children, in a lower and lefs proper fenfe, by adoption^
and others, in a higher and more proper fenfe, by natu¬
ral generation, of whom the relation of the latter to
their parents was much clofer than that of the former j
the apoftle tells the Ephefians, that they were by na¬
ture children of wrath, to convince them that they were
really liable to it by the ftridleft and clofeft relation
pofiible. That the word <ptm< here is of the fame im¬
port with really or truly, and that it does not fignify
what we mean by nature in the proper fenfe of that
word, the ancient fathers are generally agreed *; and * See/fa/;.--
that the modern Greeks, who ftill fpeak a dialed oimejidand
the noble language of their anceftors, underftand the Whitby on
word in the fame fenfe, is apparent from their verfion of
the text before us. In the moft correct and elegant g" the^word
edition of the New Teft ament in their vernacular tongue, (pvtnu
the words under confideration are thus rendered; km
<PvanKct viu.cte$-eiv rix.vct aitrav Kelt ct Xoittoi, where it is
impoftible that (pvtrix.x can fignify natural, otherwife the
apoftle will be made to fay, not that we are by na¬
ture derived from Adam liable to wrath, but that we
were naturally begotten by wrath in the abftraft ! For
taking the word (pvm in the fenfe of really or truly,
both the ancient and modern Greeks appear indeed to
have the authority of St Paul himfelf 5 who, writing to
Timothy, calls him yvymev nxyov, “ his true or genuine
fon j” not to fignify that he was the child of the apoftle
by natural generation, but that he was clofely related to
him in the faith to which St Paul had converted him.
That the words tixux tyvni egyns can fignify nothing but
truly or really relations to wrath, is ftill farther evident
from the ground afilgned of that relation. It is not the
fin of Adam, or the impurity of natural generation,
“ but the trefpaffes and fins in which the Ephefians in
time paft walked, according to the courfe of the world,
according to the prince of the power of the air,” the
fpirit that at the time of the apoftle’s writing “ work¬
ed in the children of difobedienee.” Surely no man
can fuppofe that the Ephefians at any paft time walked
in Adam’s trefpafs and fin, or that the prince of the
power ol the air tempted them to eat the forbidden
fruit.
Having thus commented on the principal texts which
are cited from the New Teftament to prove the do£trin©
of original fin, the Arminians treat thofe which are
quoted from the Old Teftament, in fupport of the fame
doflrine, with much lefs ceremony. Thus, when Job
fays, “ who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean ?
Not one,” he is fpeaking, fay they, not of the pravity
of our nature, but of its frailty and weaknefs, of the
fhortnefs and mifery of human life. The fentence is
proverbial 5 and as it is ufed only to fignify, that nothing
can be more perfe6t than its original, it muft, whenever
it occurs, be underftood according to the fubjed to
which it ist applied. That in the place under confidera¬
tion <
,36ft
THEOLOGY.
Doclrn!'.,
part ii.
f Ubifu-
pra.
fYll of A- tion it rtier-i iu om* mortality, they think plain from the
its'cohfe- conlexti aiui k>r I'aylor adds*, with feme plaufibility,
quences. t-iat the words refer to the guilt which we are fup-
——v—-- pofed to derive from Adam, they will prove, too much
* Scripture to ferve the common fcheme of original fin. They will
.. . . . , ~ • r r j t*
.prove that our natural and inherent pravity* lo far from
•rendering us fit fubjefts of wrath, may be urged as a
reafon why God fiiould not even bring us into judge¬
ment •, for the patriarch’s whole expoftulation runs thus,
Dofi: thou open thine eyes upon fuch a one, and
bringeft me into judgment with thee? Who can bring
a clean thing out of an unclean ?’’
The other text, quoted from the fame book, they
think ft til lefs to the purpofe; for Elipbaz is evidently
contrafting the creature with the Creator ; in compari-
fon with whom, he might well fay, without alluding to
original guilt, “ what is man that he (hould be clean ?
and he who is born of a woman that he fhould be
righteous ? Behold he putteth no truft in his faints;
yea the heavens are not clean in his fight. How much
more abominable and filthy is man, who drinketh ini¬
quity like water ?” He does not fay, who derives by
birth an iniquitous nature 5 for he knew well, that as
we are born, we are the pure workmanftdp of God,
s‘ whofe hands have falhioned and formed every one of
usbut “ who drinieth iniquity like water,” who
maketh himfelf iniquitous by running headlong into
every vicious practice.
Of the text quoted from the fifty-firft. pfalm in fup-
port of the do&rine of original fin, Dr Taylor laboursf,
by a long and ingenious criticifm, to prove that our
tranfiators have miftaken the fenfe. The word which
they have rendered he fhows.to be ufed once by
Ifaiah, and twice in the book of Proverbs, to fignify
brought forth ; and that ^’hich is rendered conceived me,
is never, he fays, employed in feripture to denote hu¬
man conception. In this laft remark, however, he is
contradifted by a great authority, no lefs indeed than
that of Mr Parkhurft who fays, that the LXX con-
Lexicon oh ftantly render it by xnrtrctm or tyxnrtrxu, and the Vulgate
tbe word generally by concipio. Without taking upon us to de-
■ cide between thefe two eminent Hebrew fcholars, we
II Gen- xxx> ftiall only obferve, that upon one occafion || it certainly
com^recT" $eni;)tes ideas much groffer than thofe which the Pfalmift
with xxxi. muld have-had of his mother’s conception ; and that
jo. there, at leaft, Dr Taylor, properly tranflates it, incalef
cebant, adding, “ de hoc vero inealefeendi genere loqui
Davidem nemo fanus exiftimare poteft. Matrem enim
incaluifle, aut ipfum calefecifle eo modo quo incalefce-
rent Jacobi pecudes Regem dicere, prorfus indecorum et
abfurdum.” He contends, however, that the original
force of the word is to be hot, and that it is applied to
conception, to refentment, to warmth by which the body
is nourilhed, to idolaters in love with idols, and to the
heat of metals. The heat of idolaters, of refentment,
and of metals, are evidently foreign to the Pfalm ill’s
purpofeq and the idea conveyed by the word inealefeere
being fet afide for the reafons already afligned, there re¬
mains only the warmth by which the body is nourilhed,
and of that warmth our author is confident that David
Ipoke.
If this criticifm be admitted, the whole verfe will
then run thus : “ Behold I was born in iniquity, and in
fin did my mother nurfe me which hath no reference
£0 the original formation of his conftitution, but is a
Part
q See his
periphralis of his being a finner from the wemb, and FailC1
means nothing more than that he was 2. great finner, or ^ani, , ]
had contracted early habits of fin. He no more de- ltsc01 j
figned to fignify in this verfe, that by ordinary genera- JUIT’ ]
tion he had a nature conveyed to him which was “ ut¬
terly indifpofed, difabled, and opnolite to all that is
fpiritually good, and wholly and continually inclined to
evil,” than he meant in another * to fignify ftrictly and*Pf. 1 j I
properly that “ the wicked are eftranged from the3-
womb, and tell lies as foon as they are'born j” or
that Job meant to fignify f, that from the moment heHobxW
came from his mother’s womb he had been a guide to18,
the widow and a fuccour to the fatherlefs. All thefe
are hyperbolical forms of expreffion ; which, though
they appear drained, and perhaps extravagant, to the
phlegmatic inhabitants of Europe, are perfedly fuited
to the warm imaginations of the orientals, and to the
genius of eaftern languages. They mean not that Job
was born with habits of virtue, that the wicked adtually
wa/ked, and fpoke, and fpoke lies from the inftant of
their birth, or that the Plalmift was really fhapen in fn
and conceived in iniquity. This laft fentence, if inter¬
preted literally, would indeed be grofsly impious : it
would make the infpired penman throw the whole load
of b is iniquity and fin from off himfelf upon him who
fliaped, and upon her who conceived him ; even upon
that God “ whofe hands had made him and falhioned
him, -and whom he declares that he will praife for ha¬
ving made him fearfully and wonderfully,” and upon
that parent who conceived him with forrow, and brought
him forth with pain, and to whom the divine law com¬
manded him to render honour and gratitude. “ But if,
after all. (fays Dr Taylor J), you will adhere to the li-1
teral fenfe of the text for the common doftrine of ori-^0^!"
ginalfin, ftiow me any good reafon why you ought notl’artI1,
to admit the literal fenfe of the text, this is my body,
for tranfubfiantiation ? If you fay, it is abfurd to fup-
pofe that Chrift fpeaks of his real natural body j I fay,
it is likewife abfurd to fuppofe that the Pfalmift fpeaks
of his being really and properly fhapen in iniquity, and
conceived in fin. If you fay, that the fenfe of the
words this is my body may be clearly explained by other
texts of feripture where the like forms of fpeech are
ufed j I fay, and have fhown, that the Pfalmift’s fenfe
may as clearly and evidently be made out by parallel
texts, where you -have the like kind of expreflion. If
you fay that tranfubllantiation is attended with confe-
quences hurtful to piety, I fay that the common doc¬
trine of original fin is attended with confequences e-
qually hurtfulq for it is a principle apparently leading
to all manner of iniquity, to believe that fin is natural
to us, that it is interwoven and ingrafted into our very
conftitution from our conception and formation in the
womb.” ujl
The Arminians having thus, as they think, proved Confe^
that the pofterity of Adam, are not in any fenfe render-
ed guilty by his fin, contend, that the death threatened
againft his eating of the forbidden fruit, and which, inlruit) ac-
confequence of his tranfgreflion, came upon all men,cording1
can mean nothing more than the lofs of that vital prin-ffeAr®
ciple which he received when God breathed into his11111115’
noftrils the breath of life, and he became a living foul.
Every thing beyond this is pure conjeflure, which has
no foundation in the feriptures of truth, and is dire&ly
contrary to all the notions of right and wrong which
we
rt II. T H E O
of A- we have been able to acquire from the ftudy of thofe
, and very fhriptures. It is not conceivable from any thing
an‘e' in the hiftory, that Adam could underftand it of the
i Jofs of any other life than that which he had lately re¬
ceived, for no other life is fpoken of to which the threat¬
ened death can be oppofed; and in fuch circumftances,
it was llrange indeed, if by the word c/eat/i he under-
ftood either eternal life in mifery, or a neceflity of con¬
tinuing in fin. The fenfe therefore of the threatening,
fay they, is this : “ I have formed thee of the dull of
the ground, and breathed into thy noftrils the breath of
life ; and thus thou art become a living foul. But if
thou eatefl: of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of
good and evil, thou (halt ceafe to be a living foul;
for I will take from thee the breath of life, and thou
,4 flialt return to the dull of which thou wall formed.”
Thus far the Arminians of the prefent day are agreed
ohn
^ loir
;[er.
Hat.
i
nd 1
" trati
m pi
lies i
&
teic
tam
vith
' our,
rt.
|of _    , j ^ 
admit In oppofing the doftrine of the rigid Calviniils, and in
J’™' Hating their own notions of the'confequences of Adam’s
iture fall; but from that event their adverfarits deduce one
confequence, which fome of them admit and others
deny. It is faid, that though we cannot poflibly be
partakers in Adam’s guilt, we yet derive from him a
moral taint and infeftion, by which we have a natural
propenfity to fin ; that having loft the image of God,
in which he was created, Adam begat fons in his own
image ; and in one word, that the fenfual appetites of
human nature were inflamed, and its moral and intellec¬
tual powers greatly weakened by the eating of the for¬
bidden fruit. The heathens themfelyes acknowledged
and lamented this depravity ; though they were igno¬
rant of the fource from which it fprung. The feriptures
affert it, affirming that no man can be born pure and
clean; that whatever is born of the fleih, or comes into
the world by ordinary generation, is fleffi, carnal and
corrupt ; that the imagination of the thoughts of man’s
heart is only evil continually ; that the heart is deceitful
above all things and defperately wicked ; and that out
v. 4. of it proceeds all that is vile and finful *.
j6' This depravity of human nature, thus clearly deduci-
i p'blc from feripture, and confirmed by the teftimony of
.19. ages, an ingenious writer of the moderate Arminian
fchool undertakes to illuftrate upon the principles of na¬
tural knowledge. “ We know (fays he f), that there
are feveral fruits in feveral parts of the world of fo noxi-
ia- ous a nature as to deftroy the. beft human conftitution on
ow-earth. We alfo know that there are fome fruits in the
, world which inflame the blood into fevers and frenzies;
7o« an^ we are t'iat Indians are acquainted with a
certain juice, which immediately turns the perfon who
«- drinks it into an idiot, leaving him at the fame time in
a- the enjoyment of his health and all the powers of his
ln body. Now I afk Whether it be not poffible, nay,
whether it be not rational, to believe, that the fame
fruit, which, in the prefent infirmity of nature, would
utterly deftroy the human conftitution, might, in its
bigheft perfeflion, at lead difturb, impair, and difeafe
it . and whether the fame fruit, which would now in¬
flame any man living into a fever or frenzy, might not
inflame Adam into a turbulence and irregularity of paf-
fion and appetite ; and whether the fame fluids, which
inflame the blood into irregularity of paffion and appetite,
Oiay not naturally produce inftftion and impair the con¬
ftitution ? That the forbidden fruit had the effeft to pro¬
duce irregularity of appetite, appears as from other proofs,
Vol..XX. Parti. U 1
LOGY. 361
fo I think fully and clearly from the covering which Fail of A-
Adam and Eve made ufe of foon after their offence ; for ^arn> aiH*
there is no imaginable reafon for that covering but one,
and that one lufficiently demonftrates, that irregularity -J  »
and violence of appetite, independent of the dominion
of reafon, was.the effe£t of their offence. But the fruit
which inflamed the fenfual appetite might likewife de-
bafe their rational powers ; for I afk, whether the fame
juice, which now affedls the brain of an ordinary man
fo as to make him an idiot, might not affeft the brain of
Adam fo as to bring his underltanding down to the pre¬
fent ftandard of ordinary men ? And if this be poffible,
and not ablurd to be fuppofed, it is evident that the fub-
fequent ignorance and corruption of human nature may
b« clearly accounted for upon thefe fuppofitions ; nay*
1 had almoft faid upon any one of them. For it is uni-
verfally known, that the infeffions and infirmities of
the father aftedft the children yet in his loins ; and if
the mother be equally infedfed, muft, unlefs removed
by proper remedies, affedf their pofterity to the end
of the world, or at leaft till the race become extindK
Therefore why all mankind might not by their firft fa-,
ther’s fin be reduced to the fame condition of infirmity
and corruption with himfelf, efpecially when the mo¬
ther was equally infirm, and infedfed, I believe no man
anyway {killed in the knowledge of nature will fo much
as pretend to fay.”
This account of the corruption of human nr.ture feems
to be generally adopted by moderate divides, as well
among the Calvinifts as among the Arminians ; but by
the high-fliers in both fchools it is rejedVed, on different
principles indeed, with great indignation. The zea¬
lous Calvinift contends, that this hereditary corrup¬
tion is not to be accounted for ov explained by any
principle of phyfical fcience, finco it is part of that pu-
nifhment which was inflidled on the race for their origi¬
nal fin. If we were not partakers of Adam’s guilt, fay
they, we fhould not have bC'en partakers of his corrup¬
tion. The one.is previous to and the foundation of the
other. The depravity of human nature is a punifti-
ment for fin ? and fo It was threatened to Adam, and
came upon him as fuch, and fo to all his pofterity, by the
ordination and appointment of God; for which there can
be no other foundation but the imputation of Adam’s
difobedience to them, nor can any thing elfe vindicate
the righteoufneTs of God. For if the law of nature was
fufficient, why fhould this original taint infedf men ra¬
ther than the fins of their immediate parentsT” XGilVsBc-
The more violent Arminians, on the other hand, de-dy of
ny that we inherit any moral taint whatever from Adam, "{O', kook
or that the rational powers of our minds are naturally1:1 ^h10’
weaker than his were. Of that wonderful degree of I> an I^’
perfection which is ufually attributed to the firft pair,
they find no evidence in feripture. All that we learn thers rejea
of them, fay they, is, that they fell from a ftate of ex-the doc-
quifite happinefs by yielding to a temptation Ids power-trine»
ful by far than fome others which many of their dege¬
nerate fons have fuccefsfully refilled. “ I leave you to
judge (far pr Taylor fl "hell,er Jofiph, when
reiilted the lolicitations of his miitrefs, and Mofes when Do£irine,
he refufed to be called the fun of Pharaoh’s daughter,
choofing rather to fuffer affliftion with the people of
God than to enjoy the pleafures of fin for a feafon,
efteeming the reproach of true religion greater riches
than the treafures of Egypt, did not exhibit proofs of
Z z regularity
362
rdl of A- regularity of paffions-and appetites equal at leaft to what
dam, and difplayed in the garden of Eden. When the
three young men mentioned in the book of Daniel iub-
mitted to be burnt alie’e in a fiery furnace rather than
worlhip Nebuchadnezzar’s golden image 5 when Daniel
himfelf refolved, rather than conceal the worftrip of
God for one month only of his life, to be torn in pieces
by hungry lions; and, to come nearer to our own times,
when numbers of men and women, during the reign of
Mary queen of England, chofe rather to be burnt at a
flake than renounce the reformed religion and embrace
the errors of popery—furely all thefe perfons exhibited
a virtue, a faith in God, and a (teady adherence to what
they believed to be the truth, far fuperior to what A-
dam difplayed, when his wife gave him of the forbidden
fruit, and he did eat.” If it be faid that thefe perfons
were fupported under their trials by the grace of God
flrengthening them, the fame will be faid of Adam. He
was undoubtedly fupplied with every aid from the fpirit
of grace which was neceffary to enable him to fulfil his
duty 5 for being defigned for more than mere animal
■ilfe, even for the refined enjoyments of heaven, there is
■eve ry reafon to believe, as we have already obferved,
that he was put under the guidance of the Holy Ghoft,
to tr<n'n him for that fupernatural Hate of felicity. Thefe
communications of the fpirit would of courfe be with¬
drawn Wiien he forfeited his right to thofe privileges, on
account of' which they were originally vouchfafed to
him •, but ti’at any pofitive malignity or taint was infu-
fed into his rV-ture, that his mere rational powers rvere
weakened, or .his appetites inflamed by the forbidden
fruit, there is no evidence to be found in fcripture, or in
the known conffitntion of things. Ihe attributing of
this fuppofed hereditary taint to the noxious qualities of
the forbidden fruit, vs a whimfical hypothecs, which
receives no countenance from any well authenticated
fa£t in natural hiftory. After the numberlefs falfe-
the. phyfical hoods that have been told of the poifon tree of Java,
illurtration fumething more would be requifite than the com¬
mon evidence of a lying voyager to give credit to the
qualities of the Indian tree, of which the fruit in-
ftantly turns the wifeft man into tin idiot : and yet for
this fingular (lory our ingenious author vouchfafes not
even that evidence, flight as it generally is. T he in¬
ference drawn from the covering ufed by our firfl: pa¬
rents is contradifted by every thing that we know of
human nature j for furely no man inflamed to the ut-
mofl: with the fire of animal love, ever turned his eyes
from a naked beauty ready and eager to receive him to
her embrace. Yet this, it feems, was the behaviour of
Adam and Eve in fuch a ftate ! According to our au¬
thor, the juice of the forbidden fruit had rendered tkeir
carnal appetites violent and independent of reafon •, ac¬
cording to the fcripture, they were both naked ; and as
they were hufband and wife, there was no law prohibit¬
ing them from gratifying thefe inflamed appetites. In
fuch circumftances, how did they conduC themfelves ?
One would naturally imagine that they immediately re¬
tired to fume fliady grove, and pleafed themfelves in all
the foft dalliances of wedded love. Their conduC, how¬
ever, was very different. We are told, that “ they
fewed fig-leaves together, and made themfelves aprons
to cover their nakednefs And this tranfaCion is
brought as a proof of the impetuofity of their carnal ap¬
petites'* The truth is, that the carnal appetite; appears
T H E O L O G Y. Partll
not to be naturally more violent than is neceflary to aa- Fall of A
TV]
and deem
of it v,'him-
fi.cal;
fwer the end for which it was implanted in the human
conftitulion. Among favages the defires of animal love
are generally very moderate ; and even in fociety they
have not often, unlefs inflamed by the luxurious arts of
civil life, greater Itrength than is requifite to make
mankind attend to the continuation of their fpecies. In
the decline of empires highly poiifhed, where the dif¬
ference of rank and opulence is great, and where every
man is ambitious of emulating the expence of his imme¬
diate fuperiors, early marriages are prevented by the in¬
ability of moll people to provide for a family in a way
fuitable to what each is pleafed to confider as his proper
ffation *, and in that ftate of things the violence of ani¬
mal love will indeed frequently produce great irregula¬
rities. But for that ftate of things, as it was not in¬
tended by the Author of nature, it is perhaps unrea-
fonable to fuppofe that provifion fhould be made 5 and
yet we believe it will be found, upon due confideration,
that if the defires of animal love were lefs violent than
they are, the general confequences would be more per¬
nicious to fociety than all tlje irregularities and vices
which thefe defires now accidentally produce j for there
would then be no intercourfe between the fexes what¬
ever except in_the very higheft ftatinns of life. That
our conftitution is attended with many fenfual appetites
and pafllons, is true •, and that there is a great danger
of their becoming exceffive and irregular in a world fo
full of temptation as ours is, is alfo true *, but there is
no evidence that all this is the confequence of Adam’s
fall, and far lefs that it amounts to a natural propenjity I2S
to fin. For I prefume (fays Dr Taylor), that by a maintains
natural propenfity is meant a neceflary inclination to fin,ing that I
or that we are neceflarily finful from the original bent*)av^r'°
and bias of our natural powers. But this muft be falfe jt
for then we fhould not be linful at all, beeaufe that which fln,
is neceflary, or which we cannot help, is not fin. That
we are weak and liable to temptation, is the will of
God holy and good, and for glorious purpofes to our-
felves ; but if we are wicked, it muft be through our
own fault, and cannot proceed from any conftraint, or
neceflity, or taint in our conftitution.”
Thus have we given as full and comprehenfive a view
as our limits will permit of the different opinions of the
Calvinifts and Arminians refpeffing the confequences of
Adam’s fall. If we have dwelt longer upon the fcheme
of the latter than of the former, it is becaufe every Ar-
minian argument is built upon criticifm, and appeals to
the original text j whilft the Calvinifts reft their faith
upon the plain words of fcripture as read in our tranfla-
tion. If we might hazard our own opinion, we fhould The opii
fay that the truth lies between them, and that it has or,s ofw
been found by the moderate men of both parties, who,
while they make ufe of different language, feem to us^ivimS
to have the fame fentiments. That all mankind really ami Am
finned in Adam, and are on that account liable to molt mans tb'
grievous torments in foul and body, without intermif-^’^
fi«n, in hell fire for ever, is a do&rine which cannot
reconciled to our natural notions of God. On the otbevneraitra
hand, if human nature was not fomehow debafed by thetion.
fall of our firft parents, it is not eafy to account for the
numberlefs phrafes in fcripture which certainly feem to
fpeak that language, or for the very general opinion of
the Pagan philofophers and poets refpefling the golden
age and the degeneracy of man. Cicero, in a quotation
prefervea
I rt II. T H E O
eology prefervcd by St Auguftlne from a work that is now loft
m^e has thefe remarkable words, “ Homo non ut a matre fed
(1 °tothe ut a noverca natura editus eft in vitam, corpore nudo, et
■ c ling of fragili, et infirmo; animo autem anxio ad moleftias, hu-
irift. mill ad timores, molli ad labores, prono ad libidines; in
^ quo tamen ineft tanquam obrutus quid am divinus ignis in-
^ ' lib, genii et mentis Nor do we readily perceive what
, h ontra Ihould induce the more zealous Arminians to oppofe fo
f gium. vehemently this general opinion of the corruption of hu-
\ ;etiam nature> Their defire to vindicata the juftiee and
C ^Con g00^ne^s God does them honour 5 but the doflrine of
!: ii>yj inherent corruption militates not againft thefe attributes;
for what we have loft in the firft Adam has been amply
fupplied to us in the fecond ; and we know from the
highert authority that the duties required of us are in
proportion to our ability, fince we are told, that “ unto
whomfoever much is given, of him fliall much be re¬
quired.” 1
Sect. IV. V lew of Theology from the fall of Adam to
the comitig of Chrijl.
We have dwelt long on the original ftate of man, his
introduflion into the terreftrial paradife, the privileges
to which he was there admitted, his forfeiture of thofe
privileges, and the ftate to which he was reduced by
tranfgrefting the law of his Maker ; but the import¬
ance of thefe events renders them worthy of all the at¬
tention that we have paid to them. They paved the
way for the coming of Chrift and the preaching of the
gofpel; and unlefs we thoroughly underftand the origin
of the gofpel, we cannot have an adequate conception
of its defign. By contrafting the firft with the fecond
Adam, St Paul gives us clearly to underftand, that one
purpofe for which Chrift came into the world and fuf-
fered death on the crofs, was to reftore to mankind that
life which they had loft by the fall of their original pro¬
genitor. The preaching of the gofpel therefore com¬
menced with the firft hint of fuch a reftoration ; and the
promife given to Adam and Eve, that “the feed of,the
woman ftiould bruife the head of the ferpent,” was
as truly evangelical as thefe words of the apoftle, by
which wre are taught, that “ this is a faithful faying and
worthy of all acceptation, that Chrift Jefus came into
f zm. i. the world to fave finners-f.” The former text taken by
li itfelf is indeed obfcure, and the latter is explicit; but
both belong to the fame fyftem, for the Scriptures con¬
tain but two covenants or difpenfations of God to man,
j 50 ln which the whole race is included.
t ^ ianity Chriftianity therefore is indeed very near as old as the
■ ■ fa'd creation ; but its principles were at firft obfcurely re-
: coi ienced vea^e^5 an^ afterwards gradually developed under differ-
■ wi the ent forms as mankind became able to receive them, (fee
frl Prophecy, N° 5. &c.). All that appears to have been
at firft revealed to Adam and Eve was, that by fome
means or other one of their pofterity ftiould in time re¬
deem the whole race from the curfe of the fall ; or if
they had a diftinft view of the means by which that re¬
demption was to be wrought, it Was probably communi¬
cated to them at the inftitution of facrifices, (fee Sacri¬
fice). This promife of a future deliverer ferved to com¬
fort them under their heavy fentence; and the inftitution
of facrifices, whilft it imprefled upon their minds lively
ideas of the punifhment due to their tranfgreflion, was
LOGY. . 363
admirably calculated to prepare both them and their Theology
pofterity for the great atonement which, in due time,
was to take away the fins of the wrorld. ^am to the
Our firft parents, after their fall, were fo far from be- coming: of
ing left to fabricate a mode of worftiip for themfelves by Chntt.
thofe innate powers of the human mind of which we ’ v
daily hear fo much, and feel fo little, that God was gra- {^ev^art:0„t
cioully pleafed to manifeft himfelfto their fenfes, and vi- requent in
fibly to conduct them by the angel of his prefence in all the early
the rites and duties of religion. This is evident from aSes 0^t*ie
the different difcourfes which he held with Cain, as weIlwor* ’
as from the complaint of that murderer of being hid from
his face, and from its being faid, that “ he went out
from the prefence of the Lord and dwelt on the eaft of
Eden.” Nor does it appear that God wholly withdrew
his vifible prefence, and left mankind to their own in¬
ventions, till their wickednefs became fo very great that
his fpirit could no longer ftrive with them. The infant
ftate of the world flood in conftant need of his fuperna-
tural guidance and protection. The early inhabitants
of this globe cannot be fuppofed to have been able, with
Mofes*, to look up to him who is invifble, and perform * Heb. kL.
a worftiip purely rational and fpiritual. They were all »3*
tillers of the ground, or keepers of cattle ; employed in
cultivating and repleniftiing this new world; and, through
the curfe brought upon it by their forefather, forced,
with him, to eat their bread “ in the fweat of their
brow.” Man in fuch circumftances could have little
leifure for fpeculation ; nor has mere fpeculation, unlefs
furniftied with principles from another fourqe, ever ge¬
nerated in the human mind adequate notions of God’s,
nature or providence, or of the means by which he can
be acceptably worfliipped. Frequent manifeftations, there¬
fore, of his prefence would be neceffary to keep a toler¬
able fenfe of religion among them, and fecure obedience
to the divine inftitutions ; and that the Almighty did not
exhibit fuch manifeftations, cannot be inferred from the
filence of that very ftiort hiftory which we have of thofe
early ages. Adam himfelf continued 930 years a living
monument of the juftice and mercy of God ; of his ex¬
treme hatred and abhorrence of fin, as well as of his love
and long fuffering towards the finner. He was very fen-
fible how fin bad entered into the world, and he could
not but apprife his children of its author. He would at
the fame time inform them of the unity of God, and his
dominion over the evil one ; of the means by which he
had appointed himfelf to be worftiipped ; and of his pro¬
mife of future deliverance from the curfe of the fall.
Such information would produce a tolerable idea of the
Divine Being, and afford fufficient motives to obey his
will. The effeffs of it accordingly were apparent in the
righteous family of Seth, who foon diftinguifhed them¬
felves from the pofterity of Cain, and for their eminent
piety were honoured with the appellation of the fans of
God. Of this family fprang a perfon fi) remarkable for
virtue and devotion, as to be exempted from Adam’s
fentence and the common lot of his fons ; for after he
had walked with God.300 years, and prophefied to his
brethren, he was tranflated that he Humid not fee death.
Of this miraculous event there can be no doubt but that
his contemporaries had fome vifible demonftration ; and
as the fate of Abel was an argument to their reafon, fo
the tranfiation of Enoch was a proof to their fenfes of an¬
other ftate of life after the prefent. To Adam himfelf,
Z z 2 if
*3*
yet vice,
and proba-
valent.
133
Pure reli¬
gion for
fome time
after the
Hood;
364 ■ T H E O
Theology ;f he was t]ien auve ^5), it muft have been a lively and
fa Hof inftance of what he might have enjoyed, had
dam to the ^ePt innocence ; it mud have been a comfortable
coming of earned of the promifed victory over the evil one •, and
Chrift. have confirmed his hope, that when the head of the fer-
1" v ^ pent fitould be completely bruifed, he and his poderity
would be redored to the favour of their Maker, and be¬
hold his prefence in blils and immortality.
Notvvithdanding this watchful care of God over his
fallen creature man, vice, and probably idolatry, fpread
^n‘t^try’through the world with a rapid pace. The family of
came pre- married into that of Cain, and adopted the man¬
ners of their new relations. Rapine and violence, un¬
bounded lud and impurity of every kind, prevailed uni-
verfally ; and when thofe giants in wickednefs had filled
the earth with tyranny, injudice and oppredion ; when
the whole ra'ce was become entirely carnal—God, af¬
ter raifing up another prophet to give them frequent
warnings of their fate for the fpace of 120 years, was at
length obliged, in mercy to themfelves as well as to the
fucceeding generations of men, to cut them off by a ge¬
neral deluge. See Deluge.
Thus did God, by the fpirit of prophecy, by frequent
manifedations of his own prefence, and by uninterrupt¬
ed tradition, make ample provifion for the indruflion
and improvement of the world for the fird 1600 years.
After the deluge he was pleafed to converfe again with
Noah, and make in his perfon a new and extenfive co¬
venant with mankind, (fee Prophecy, N® ij.). Of
his power, judice, and goodnefs ; of his fupreme domi¬
nion over the earth and the heavens; of his abhorrence
of fin, and his determination not to let it go unpunifii-
ed—that patriarch and his family had been mod aw¬
fully convinced : nor could they or their children, for
fome time, want any other argument to enforce obedi¬
ence, fear, and w or (hip. The fons of Noah were an
hundred years old when the deluge overwhelmed the
earth. They had long converfed with their ancedors
of the old world, had frequented the religious affemblies,
obferved every Sabbath day, and had been indrucled by
thofe who had feen Adam. It is therefore impoffible that
they could be ignorant of the creation of the world, of
the fall of man, or of the promife of future deliverance
from the confequences of that fall; or that they could
offer their facrifices, and perform the other rites of the
indituted worfliip, without looking forward with the
eye of faith to that deliverance feen, perhaps obfeurely,
through their typical oblations.
In this date of things religion might for fome time
be fafely propagated by tradition. But when by de-
the Agrees mankind corrupted that tradition in its mod effen-
fion from " Parts ’ when> indead of the one Supreme God, they
fet up feveral orders of inferior deities, and worfliipped
all the hod of heaven ; when, at the fame time they
were uniting under one head, and forming a univerfal
empire under the patronage of the Sun their chief divi¬
nity (fee Babel)—God law itneceffary to difperfe them
into didinft colonies, by caufing fuch difeord among
them as rendered it impoffible for any one fpecies of
idolatry to be at once univerfally edablifhed.
After this difperfion, there is reafon to believe that
>34
Idolatry,
however,
L:°GY- Part II
particular revelations were vouehfafed wherever men Jheol,
were difpofed to regard them. Peleg had his name pro- fr«m thl
phetically given him from the difnerfion whioh fall0fA.
happen in his days ; and not only his father j Ewfbi;****
eomms of
all the heads of families mentioned from Noah to Abra- chtf
ham, are w'ith much plaufibility fuppofed to have had v-*
the fpirit of prophecy on many occafions. Noah was
undoubtedly both pried and prophet ; and living till
within two years of the birth of Abraham, or, accord¬
ing to others, till that patriarch was near 60 y, ars old
he would furely be able to keep up a tolerable fenfe of
true religion among fuch of his defeendants as fojourned
within the influence of his do&rine and example. His
religious fon Shem, who lived till after the birth of
Ifaac, could not but preferve in tolerable purity the
faith and worfliip of the true God among fuch of his
own defeendants as lived in his neighbourhood.
But though the remains of true religion were thus
preferved among a few righteous men, idolatry had in a
(hort time prevailed fo far among the fons of Noah that
God faw it expedient not only to fliorten the lives of
men, but alfo to withdraw his prefence from the wene-
rality, who had thus rendered themfelves unworthy of
fuch communications ; and to feledt a particular family,
in which his werfhip might be preferved pure amidfl the •
various corruptions that were overfpreading the world. j,?
With this view Abraham was called, and, after many The Slot
remarkable trials of his faith and conftancy, admitted to Abraham
a particular intimacy and friendfliip with his Maker.was
God entered into a peculiar covenant with him, enga¬
ging to be his prefent guide, prote&or, and defender ;
to beftow all temporal bleflfings upon him and his feed;
and to make fome of thofe feed the inftruments of con¬
veying bleflings of a higher kind to all the nations of
the earth. ^
It was doubtlefs for his Angular piety that Abraham to prevent
was fixed upon to be the parent of that people lvho,heuniver'
 _r 11   *.r , • fal fpread-
fhould preferve the knowledge of the unity of God in
the midft of an idolatrous and polytheiftic world ; but^y.
we are not to imagine that it was for his fake only that
all this was done, or that his lefs worthy defeendants
were by the equal Lord of all treated with partial fond-
nefs for the virtues of their anceftor ; it was for the be¬
nefit of mankind in general that he was called from his
country, and from his father’s houfe, that he might pre¬
ferve the dodlrine of the divine unity in his own family,
and be an inftrument in the hand of Providence (and a
fit one he was) to convey the fame faith to the nations-
around him. Accordingly, we find him diftinguiflied a-
mong the neighbouring princes, and kings reproved for
his fake ; who being made acquainted with his prophe¬
tic cbara&er, defired his interceffion with God. Hiltory
tells us of his converfing on the fubjefl of religion with
the mod learned Egyptians, who appear to have derived
from him or fome of his defeendants the rite of circum-
cifion, and to have been for a while flopt in their pro¬
gress towards the laft ftage of that degrading idolatry
which afterwards rendered their national worlhip the op¬
probrium of the whole earth, (fee Polytheism, N° 28).
We are informed that his name was held in the greateft
veneration all over the Eaft; that the Magians, Sabians,
Perfians,
of ido-
(s) According to the Samaritan chronology, he was alive ; according to the Hebrew, he had been dead 57 years,
p t II.
THEOLOGY.
365
ah e-
fea
ant
Chi
oth^ nous
tnei
I ilogy Perfians, and Indians, all glory in him as the greateft re-
{ 1 the former of their refpedfive religions : and to us it appears
^ A,' extremely probable, that not only the Brachmans', but
^;1 t0 ^ like wife the Hindoo god Brahma *, derive their names
C< rift from the father of the faithful. As he was let into the
u. 7 various counfels of the Almighty, and taught to reafon
*J and refledt upon them j as he was fully apprifed of the
e~ overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah, with the particular
Itwt. circumftances of that miraculous event; and as he had
• frequent revelations of the promifed Redeemer, whofe
day he longed earneftly to fee, and feeing it was glad—
there can be no doubt but that he and his family took,
care to propagate thefe important dodfrines in every na¬
tion which they vifited •, for the only reafon which we
can conceive for his being made to wander from place
to place was, that different people might be induced to
inquire, after his profeffion, his religion, and his hopes.
But though the Supreme Being was pleafed to mani-
feft himfelf in a more frequent and familiar manner to
Abraham, he by no means left the reff of the world
without fufficient light. Lot profeffed the true religion
in the midft of Sodom. In Canaan we meet with Mel-
chizedeck, king and pried of the mod high God, who
bleffed Abraham, and to whom that patriarch himfelf
Occ Ll did homage. Abimelech king of Gerar receiving an
rev tions admonition from the Lord, immediately paid a due re-
glv to garci t0 . anci the fame lenfe of religion and virtue de-
' ’fcended to his fun. Laban and Bethuel acknowledged
the Lord, and the former of them was even favoured
with a vifion. In Arabia, we find Job and his three
friends, all men of high rank, entering into the deeped
difquifitions in theology •, agreeing about the unity, om¬
nipotence, and fpirituality of God ; the judice of his
providence, with other fundamental articles of true reli¬
gion ; and mentioning divine infpiration or revelation as
* J iv. a thing not uncommon in their age and country * (u).
IJ>|» Balaam appears to have been a true prophet 5 and as he
1T.. I0* was unquedionably a man of bad morals, the natural in-
II '2‘ ference is, that the gift of prophecy was then, as after¬
wards, bedowed on individuals, not for their own fakes,
but for the fake of the public and that, as in “ every
nation, he who feareth God and worketh righteoufnefs
is accepted of him 5” fo in thofe early ages of the world,
when mankind were but children in religious know¬
ledge, they were bleffed with the light of divine reve¬
lation wherever they were difpofed to make a proper ufe
3 of it.
Af nd Very few, however, appear to have had this difpofi-
e fur t{on . an(j therefore God was pleafed to adopt Abraham
bra- ,^asand part of his poderity as the race from which the great
call Redeemer was to fpring, to train them up by degrees in
fuitable notions of their Creator, and gradually to open
up to them, as they were able to receive it, the nature
of that difpenfation under which “all the nations of the
earth were to be bleffed in the patriarch’s feed, (fee
Prophecy N° 13.). Bor this purpofe, he held fre¬
quent correfpondence with them j and to drengthen and
confirm their faith, to fix and pfeferve their dependence Theology
on the one God of heaven and earth, he daily gave
them new promifes, each more magnificent than that^,^ tj~e
which preceded it. He bleffed Ifaac, miraculoudy in- coming of
crealed his fubdance, and foon made him the envy of Thrift-
the neighbouring princes. He foretold the condition of
his two fons, renewed the pramife made to Abraham,
and bleffed the adopted fon Jacob, with whom he con-
defcended to converfe as he had converfed with A-
braham and Ifaac ; renewing to him the great promife j
bedowing upon him all kinds of riches ; and imprefling
fuch ten-or upon all the cities which were round about
him as prevented them from hurting either him or hi’s
family.
All this was indeed little enough to keep alive even
in the mind of Jacob a tolerable fenfe of duty and de¬
pendence on his Creator. After the fird vifion he is
furprifed, and hefitates, feemingly inclined to make a
kind of dipulation with his Maker. “ If (fays he) God
will be with me, and will keep me in this way that I.
go, and will give me bread to eat, and raiment to put
on, fo that I come again to my father’s hcufe in peace,
t/ien diall the Lord be my God f.” It appears not to f Gen.
have been till after many fuch revelations, bleffings, andxxviii. zo,
deliverances, and being reminded of the vow which on2I‘
this occafion he had vowed, that he fet himfelf in good
earned to reform the religion of his own family, and to
drive out from it all drange gods *. So little able, in * Gen.
that age, were the beaded powers of the human mindxxxv' 2“
to preferve in the world jud notions of the unity of the
Godhead, that we fee there was a neceflity for very fre¬
quent revelations, to prevent even the bed men from
running headlong into polytheifm and idolatry.
Thus was God obliged to treat even with the pa¬
triarchs themfelves, by wray of pofitive covenant and ex-
prefs compaft 5 to promife to be their God if they rvould
be his people ; to give them a portion of temporal blef¬
fings as introdu&ory to future and fpiritual ones; and to
engage them in his fervice by immediate rewards, till
they could be led on to higher views, and prepared by
the bringing in of abetter hope to worlhip him in fpirit
and in truth. With regard to what may be called the
theory of religion, mankind were yet fcarcely got out of
their childhood. Some extraordinary perfons indeed ec-
cafionally appeared in different countries, fuch as Enoch,
Noah, Abraham, and Job, with many others, who had a
more enlarged profpeft of things, and entertained more
worthy fentiments of the divine difpenfations and of the
ultimate end of man ; but thefe were far fuperior to the
times in which they lived, and appear to have been pro¬
videntially raifed up to prevent the favage Rate and
favage idolatry from becoming univerfal among men,.
See Savage.
The worfhip which was pra&ifed by thofe holy men The patri-
appears to have confilfed principally of the three kinds ayhal wor-
of facrifice mentioned elfewhere (fee Sacrifice) ^ to|h')f0e, rl
which were doubtlefs added prayers and praifes, with ag.'eseper_y
the formed in¬
faith.
(u) There are great difputes among the learned refpefting the antiquity and the author of the book of Job, and
whether it be a hiftory of events, or a poem which has its foundation in hiftory. All fober men, however, are
agreed, that there really was fuch a perfon as Job, eminent for patience under uncommon fufferings j and that he
was of very remote antiquity. The LXX give us the names of his father and mother, and fay that he was the-
fifth from Abraham.
4
366
THEOLOGY.
'theology the more valuable oblation of pure hands and devout
faUof A- ^earts* Such of them as looked forward to a future re¬
dam to the deraption, and had any tolerable notion of the means by
coming of which it was to be effe<5fed, as Abraham certainly had,
Chritt. " ’ ’   -
140
*of a futu’ e
Redeemer.
141
Such faith,
however.
muft have been fenfible that the blood of bulls and of
goats could never take away fin, and that their facrifices
were therefore valuable only when they were oft'ered in
faith of that great promife, “ which they, having feen
it afar off, were perfuaded of, and embraced : and con-
feffed that they were ftrangers and pilgrims upon earth.”
That fuch perfons looked for “ a better country,
even a heavenly one,” in a future ftate, cannot be que-
ftioned ; for they knew well how fin and death had en¬
tered into the world, and they muft have underftood the
promife made to their original progenitor, and repeated¬
ly renewed to themfelves, to include in it a deliverance
at fume period from every confequence of the firft tranf-
greflion. They were to all intents and purpofes Chri-
ftians as well as we. They indeed placed their confi¬
dence in a Redeemer, who in the fulnefs of time was to
appear upon earth, while we place ours in a Redeemer
that has been already manifefted ; they expreffed that
confidence by one mode of worftiip, -we exprefs it by an¬
other; but the patriarchal worftiip had the fame end in
view with the Chriftian—the attainment of everlaftino-
life in heaven.
The generality of men, however, appear not, in the
. ^ early age of which we now write, to have extended their
not general. v;ews beyond the prefent life. From the confufed re¬
mains of ancient tradition, they acknowledged indeed
fome fuperior power or powers, to whom they frequently
applied for direftion in their affairs ; but in all probabi¬
lity it was only for dire&ion in temporal affairs, fuch as
the cultivation of the ground, or their tranfa&ions with
each other. In the then ftate of things, Avhen no part
of the world was overftocked with inhabitants, and when
luxury with its confequences was everywhere unknown,
virtue and vice muft have produced their natural effefts ;
and the good man being happy here, and the wicked
man miferable, reafon had no data from which to infer
the reality of a future ftate of rewards and puniftiments.
Thofe who were bleffed with the light of revelation un¬
doubtedly looked forward to that ftate with a holy joy;
but the reft worfhipped fuperior powers from worldly
motives. How many of thofe powers there might be,
or how far their influence might reach, they knew not.
Uncertain whether there be one Supreme Governor of
the whole world, or many co-ordinate powers prefiding
each over a particular country, climate, or place——gods
of the hills and of the valleys, as they were afterwards
diftinguilhed—they thought that the more of thefe they
couM engage in their intereft the better. Like the Sa¬
maritans therefore, in after times, they fought, wherever
they came, the “ the manners of the god of the land,”
and ferved him, together with their own gods.
Thus was the world ready to lofe all knowledge of
the true God and his worftiip, had not he been graciouf-
*43
The pur-
■pofe for
give them an opportunity of imparting much religious Theoio,
knowledge to the natives. The natives, however, were fn®tl
grots idolaters ; and that his chofen people might be as fillll)f<'
b dam to
iSlSt?6 ly Pleafed to interP°fe, and take effeaual care to pre-
,in Egypt.
were made ^erve t')at knowledge in one nation, from which it might
to fojourn ke conveyed to the reft: of mankind at different times,
and in greate.r or lefs degrees, as they fliould be capable
of receiving it. To this purpofe he made way for the
removal of Jacob and his family to one of the moft im¬
proved and polithed countries of the world ; and intro¬
duced them into it in a manner fo advantageous, as to
far as poflible from the contagion of their example, he'co ■
placed them upon the borders of Egypt, where, though Thrift
they multiplied exceedingly, they were by their very u-v
occupation f ftill kept a feparate people, and muft have f Gen.r
been rendered, by a long and fevere oppreftion, in a^'34'
great degree averfe to the manners and religion of their
neighbours. This averfion, however, feems to have
gradually becomes lefs and lefs; and before they were
miraeuloufiy redeemed from their boufe of bondage,
they had certainly loft all correft notions of the unity of
God, and the nature of his worftiip, and had adopted
the greater part of the fuperftitions of their talk-mailers.
Of this we need no other proof than what is implied in
the words of Mofes J, when he faid unto God, “ Be-1Exod,
hold, when I come unto the children of Ifrael, and fay ,4J
unto them, the God of your fathers hath fent me unto Confer
you ; and they fhall fay unto me, What is his name ?ceso^t’
what ftiall I fay unto them ?” Had not the deflined
lawgiver of the Hebrews been aware that his country¬
men had adopted a plurality of gods, this difficulty
could not have occurred to him ; for names are never
thought of but to diftinguifti from each other beings of
the lame kind ; and he muft have remembered, that in
Egypt, ivhere the multitude of gods w'as marlhalled in¬
to various claffes, the knowledge of their names was
deemed of great importance. I his wfe learn likewife
from Herodotus, who informs us*, that the Pelafgi/ Lib.ii
after fettling in Greece, thought it neceffary to confult^P'
the oracle of Dodona, whether it would be proper to^'5*
give to their own gods the names of the Egyptian di¬
vinities ? and that the oracle, as might have been fup-
pofed, affured them that it would. Indeed the Hebrews
during their refidence in Egypt had acquired fuch an
attachment to the idolatrous worlhip of the country,
that it appears never to have left them entirely till many
ages afterwards, when they were carried captive into
Babylon, and feverely punifhed for their repeated apo-
ftafies ; and fo completely were they infatuated by thefe
fuperftitions at the era of their exodus, that, as the pro¬
phet Ezekiel informs us §, they rebelled againft God, § Ch.n-
and w'ould not call away their abominations, or forfake
the idols of Egypt, even in the very day that the hand
of Omnipotence was lifted up to bring them forth of
that land in which they had been fo long and fo cruelly
opprefled. In fuch a ftate of things, to have fuffered
them to remain longer in Egypt, could have ferved no
good purpofe; and therefore to fulfil the promife which
he had given to Abraham, God determined to deliver
them out of the hands of the Egyptians by means which
fliould convince both them anjl their offspring of his
own fiipremacy over heaven and earth.
As Mofes was the perfon appointed to deliver God’s Mofes ap
meffage to Pharaoh, and to demand of him leave for the pointed
tw X Udl ciUIJ 9 ClIIU LU UClIidllU UI Jilin leave lv)r UJC JAHIU'-U
Ifraelites to go three days journey into the wildernefs to bring
r .1 /-< 1 c .1 • r .‘i . 1 - 1 out M"'
ferve the God of their fathers, it was neceffary that heout^
   • ’ - - - J . gyp'-
   J ~   
Ihould be endowed with the power of working miracles
to evince the reality of his divine million. Without a
conviflion that his claims were well founded, neither
Pharaoh nor his own countrymen could reafonably have
been expefted to liften to the propofals of a man who,
though bleffed in his youth with a princely education,
had come diredlly on his embaffy from the humble em¬
ployment
P t II. T H E O
■ 'f Jogy ployment of a fliepnerd, which he had for many years
h .tlie exercifed in the country of Midian. To prove that he
yj; 0 was really lent by God, any vifible and undoubted con-
c ng of troul of the laws of nature would have been abundantly
■ i: ift- fufficient; but be was to prove not only this truth, but
u alfo the unity of the Divine nature j and the miracles
which he was directed to work were executions of judge-
11 k xu. ment again!! the very gods of Egypt f.
11 When Pharaoh firit turned a deaf ear to his requeft,
though enforced by the converfion of a rod into a fer-
pent, at the command of Jehovah he fmote with the
- lame rod upon the waters in the river, which were in-
T1 uo- ftantly converted into blood, and occafioned the death
Pn ! ot^f aji the fiflies that fwam in them. To any people
i *v,' CS this miracle would have been a proof of Divine agency:
W! rht but it was in a particular manner calculated to open the
eyes of the blind and infatuated Egyptians, who conli-
dered the Nile as one of their greatelt gods, and all the
fifties that it contained as fubordinate divinities. They
called that noble river fometimes Sirius, fometimes OJi-
ris, fometimes Canobus (fee Canobus), and not unfre-
quently (x) •, and adored it as the parent of
all their deities. What then muft the people have
thought when they found their mod revered god, at
the command of a fervant of Jehovah, converted into
blood, and all his facred offspring into {linking carcafes?
To conceive their confternation, if it can be conceived,
the reader mull remember, that the Egyptian priefts
held blood in the utmoft abhorrence, as a thing of which
the very touch would deeply pollute them, and require
immediate and folemn expiation. The fame facred river
was a fecond time polluted, when it fent forth frogs,
which covered all the land of Egypt, and died in the
houfes, in the villages, and in the fields ; thus render¬
ing it impoflible for the people to avoid the touch of
dead bodies, though from every fuch contacl they be¬
lieved themfelves to contract an impurity, which, in the
cafe before us, muft have been the more grievous, that
in the whole country there was not left a pool of unin-
fefled water to walh away the {lain.
t5 The third plague indicted on the Egyptians was, the
i t0( dence converting of the duft of the land into lice, upon man
f of and upon beaft, throughout the whole kingdom. To
■- wo ip. fee the propriety of this miracle as a judgment upon
their idolatry, we muft recollect their utter abhorrence
of all kinds of vermin, and their extreme attention to
external purity above every other people perhaps that
has hitherto exifted on the face of the earth. On this
head they were more particularly felicitous when about
to enter the temples of their gods*, for Herodotus in¬
forms us, that their priefts wore linen raiment only, and
ftiaved, off every hair from their heads and bodies, that
there might be no loufe or other deteftable objedt upon
them when performing their duty to the gods. This
plague therefore, while it lafted, made it impoffible for
them to perform their idolatrous worihip, without giving
fuch offence to their deities as they imagined could
never be forgiven. Elence we find, that on the produc¬
tion of the lice, the priefts and magicians perceived im¬
mediately from what hand the miracle had come, and
exclaimed, “ This i§ the finger of God!” The fourth
LOGY. 367
plague feems to have been likewife acknowledged to be Theology
the finger of God, if not by the magicians, at leaft by
Pharaoh*, for in a fit of terror he agreed that the Ifrael-to the
ites Humid go and fervC the Lord. That he wasterrifi- coming of
ed at the fwarms of flies which infefted the whole coun- Chnft.
try, except the land of Goftien, will excite no wonder, ' ‘ <
when it is known that the worihip of the fly originated
in Egypt j whence it was carried by the Caphtorim to
Paleltinej by the Phoenicians to Sidon, Tyre, and
Babylon*, and from thefe regions to other parts of the
world. The denunciation of this plague was delivered5
to Pharaoh early in the morning, when he was on the
banks of the Nile, probably paying his accuftomed de¬
votion to his greateft god; and when he found himfelf
and his people tormented by a fwarm of fubordinate di¬
vinities, who executed the judgment of Jehovah in de¬
fiance of the power of the fupreme numen of Egypt, he
muft have been convinced, had any candour remained
in his mind, that the whole fyftem of his fuperftition
was a mafs of abfurdities, and that his gods were only
humble inftruments at the difpofalof a Superior Power.
He was not, however, convinced; he was only alarm¬
ed, and quickly relapfed into his wonted obftinacy.
The fifth plague therefore, the murrain among the cat¬
tle, brought death and deftrudiion on his molt revered
gods themfelves. Neither Ofiris, nor Ills, nor Ammon,
nor Pan, had power to fave his brute reprelentatives.
The facred bull, and heifer, and ram, and goat, were
carried off by the fame malady which kvept away all the
other herds of deities, thefe diiJiercovei, who lived on
grafs and hay. The impreflion of this pumflhment muft
have been awful on the minds of the Egyptians, but
perhaps not equal to that which fuccteded it.
In Egypt there were feveral altars on which human..
facrifices were offered; and from the defeription of the
perfons qualified to be victims, it appears that thofe un¬
happy beings muft have been foreigners, as they were
required to have bright hair and a particular com¬
plexion. The hair of the Ifraelites was much brighter
than that of the Egyptians, and their complexions fair¬
er; and therefore there can be little doubt but that,
during their refidence in Egypt, they were made to fur-
ni!h the viftims demanded by the bloody gods. Thefe
victims being burnt alive on a high altar, and thus fa-
crificed for the good of the nationj their alhes were ga¬
thered together by the priefts, and fcattered upwards m
the air, that a blefling might be entailed on every place
to which an atom of this duft ftiould be wafted. Mofes
too, by the direcliun of the true God, took aflies of the
furnace, probably of one of thofe very furnaces in
which fome of his country men had been burnt, and
fprinkiing them towards heaven in the fight of Pharaoh,
brought boils and blains upon all the people, of fo ma¬
lignant a nature, that the magicians and the other mini-
fters of the medical gods, with which Egypt abounded
beyond all other countries, could not themfelves efcape
the infedtion.
The powers of darkneft were thus foiled ; but the
heart of the monarch was ftill hardened. DeftrutStion
was therefore next brought.on him and his country by
the elements, which were among the earlieft idol deities
not
(x) Whence came the Greek word fxwa?, th( ocean*..
TroafthI n-0t 0nI7 liie Egyptians, but of every other polytheif-
fall'of H0 nati°n* “ Ehe Lord rained hail on the land of
dam to the Egypt } fo that there was hail, and fire mingled with
coming of the hail, fuch as there was none like it in all the land
, Chnft of Egypt fince it became a nation. And the hail fmote
* throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the
field, both man and bead ; and the hail fmote every
Tierb of the field, and broke every tree of the field.”
This was a dreadful calamity in itlelf; and the horror
which it excited in the minds ox the people mult have
been greatly aggravated by the well-known that
Egypt is bleffed with a Iky uncommonly ferene ; that
in the grcatelt part of it rain has never been feen at any
other time fince the creation of the world 5 and that a
flight and tranfient Ihower is the utmoft that in the or¬
dinary courfe of nature falls anywhere throughout the
country. The fmall quantity of vegetables which was
left undeftroyed by the fire and the hail was afterwards
devoured by locufts, which by a fining eafi wind were
• brought in fuch numbers from Arabia, where they a-
bounded at all times, that they covered the whole face
of the earth, and did eat every herb of the land, and all
the fruit of the trees, lo that there remained not any
green thing in the trees or in the herbs of the field
through all the land of Egypt.
Ihe ninth plague which the obftinacy of Pharaoh
brought upon his country, whilft it feverely punifhed the
Egyptians for their cruelty to the Hebrews, ftruck at
the very foundation of all idolatry. We have elfewhere
ihown, that the firft objects of idolatrous w'orfliip were
the contending powers of light and darknefs (fee Poly¬
theism) j and that the benevolent principle, or the
power of light, was everywhere believed to maintain a
confiant fuperiority over the power of darknefs. Such
was the faith of the ancient Perfians ; and fuch, as a
very learned writer has lately proved, was likewife the
faith of the earlier Egyptians. It was therefore with
wifdom truly divine, that God, to (how the vanity of
their imaginations, brought upon thofe votaries of light,
who fancied themfelves the offspring of the fun, a preter¬
natural darknefs, which, for three days, all the pow'ers
of their fupreme deity, and his fubordinate agents, could
not difpel.
1 he tenth and laft plague brought on this idolatrous
people was more univerfally and feverely felt than any
which had preceded it. It was likewife, in fome fenfe,
an inftance of the /ex la/ienis, which requires an eye for
an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, &c. Mofes was -com¬
manded, at his firft interview with Pharaoh, to fay,
1 hus faith the Lord, Ifrael is my fon, even my firft-
born. Let my fon go that he may ferve me : and if
thou refufe to let him go, behold, I will flay thy fon,
even thy firft-born.” Before this threat was put in exe¬
cution, every attempt was made to foften the hardened
heart of the obftinate tyrant. The waters of his facred
river were turned into blood, and all the fifties that it
" w 0 v Part;,
contained ftain j frogs were brought over all the land to The|
pollute the people ; the minifters of religion were ren- fromj
dered fo impure by vermin, that they could not difcharge ,fal1 |
their wonted offices ; the animals moll revpred as gods, ^ |!t
or emblems of gods, were cut off by a murrain ; the Chjj
elements, that were everywhere worihipped as divinities
carried through the land a devaftation, which was com¬
pleted by fwar ms of locufts ; the allies from the facred
furnace, which were thought to convey bleftings whi-
therfoever they were wafted, were made to communicate
incurable difeafes j a thick and preternatural darknefs
was fpread over the kingdom, in defiance of the power
of the great Ofiris ; and when the hearts of the people
and their fovereign continued flill obdurate, the eldeft
fon in each family was flain, becaufe they refufed to let
go Ifrael, God’s firft-born. From this univerfal pefti-
lenee the Ifraelites were preferved by fprinkling the
door-pofts of their houfes with the blood of one of the
animals adored in Egypt ; a fa a which, as it could not
be unknown to Pharaoh or his fubjeds, ought to have
convinced that people of the extreme abfurdity of their
impious fuperftitions. This efted it feems not to have-
had ; but the death of the firft-born produced the de¬
liverance of the Hebrews j for when it was found that
there was not a houfe where there was not one dead,
“ Pharaoh called for Mofes and Aaron by night, and
faid, Rife up, and get you forth from among my people,
both you and the children of Ifrael ; and blefs me alfo.
And the Egyptians were urgent upon the people, that
they might fend them out of the land in hafte ; for they
faid, W e be all dead men (y).” I he wonted obftinacy
of the monarch indeed very foon returned ; and his
fubjefts, forgetting the lofs of their children, joined
with him in a vain attempt to bring back to bondage
the very people whom they had been thus urgent to
fend out of the land ; but their attempt was defeated by
Jehovah, and all who engaged in it drowned in the Red
fea.
J he God of Ifrael having thus magnified himfelf over
the Egyptians and their gods, and refcued his people
from bondage by fuch means as mull not only have
Itruck terror and aftonilhment into the whole land, but
alfo have fpread his name through all the countries
which had any communication with that far-famed na¬
tion, proceeded to nvftrudt and exercife the Hebrews for
many years in the wildernefs. He inculcated upon them j^eaj'on
the unity of the Godhead ; gave them ftatutes and deTairirl
judgments more righteous than thofe of any other na-the Ifra
tion } and by every method confiftent with the freedom !tes I
of moral agency guarded them againft the contagion of1"
idolatry and polytheifm. He fent his angel before
them to keep them in the way, took upon bimielf the
office of their fupreme civil governor, and by bis pre¬
fence directed them in all their undertakings. He led
them with repeated figns and wonders through the
neighbouring nations, continued to try and difcipline
them
Ml
publiftjrf bv M, rZI f wA S f ar? ,n.d.cbted 'I'O valuable Obfervatiam on the fubjefl
opin ons becfufe iflft'o b 1 J T.T authorities by "biuh the learned and piou, author fupport.his
recourfe lo Ms work of »bi b P b • “ t'1" aCC“Unt °f ,here imPOTta"1 tranMions the reader will have
feaion k l A V j h ''T6 g,v™ opy a very brief ablWt. For much of the preeedinj; parts of this
•jeaUd 'Religion. ' ° 'satlons 10 BldloP Law's admirable difcourfe on the Several Difpcnftitwm of Re-
fctir. ' T H E o
P'1 logy them till they were talerably attached to his govern-
the ment and eftabliftied in his worfhip, and introduced
j the them into the Promifed Land when its inhabitants were
Soi j,rof ripe for deftruftion. At their entrance into it, he gave
t ft. theta a fummary repetition of their former laws, with
^ more fuch ordinances, both of a ceremonial and moral
kind, as were both fuited to their temper and circura-
ftances, as well as to prefigure, and by degrees to pre¬
pare them for, a more perfect difpenfation under the
1 j Mefliab.
Grt ob- The Jewilh law had two great ofcje&s in view ; of
ect fthe ■which the firft was to preferve among them the know-
lew laWi ie(jge 0f the true God, a rational worfliip fpringing
from that knowledge, and the regular praftice of moral
virtue : and the fecond was to fit them for receiving the
accomplilbment of the great promife made to their an-
ceftors, by means analogous to thofe which a fchool-
jnafter employs to fit his pupils for difcharging the duties
of maturer years. Every thing in that law peculiar to
itfelf, its various ceremonies, modes of facrificing, the
fan&ions by which it was enforced, and the theocratic
government by which it was adminiflered, had a direft
tendency to promote one or other of thefe ends j and
keeping thefe ends in view, even the minuteft laws, at
which impious ignorance has affe&ed to make itfulf
merry, will be difcovered by thofe who {hall ftudy the
whole fyftem, and are at the fame time acquainted with
the genius of anciewt polytheifm, to have been enadted
with the moft confummate wilclom.
It is not eafy for us, who have been long bleffed with
the light of revelation, to conceive the propenfity of all
nations, in that early age of the world, to the worfhip
of faHe gods, of which they were daily adding to the
number. It is indeed probable, from many paflages of
Scripture, as well as from profane authors of the great-
eft antiquity, that one fupreme numen was everywhere
acknowledged : but he was confidered as an extramun-
dane being, too highly exalted to concern himfelf with
the affairs of this world, the government of which, it
was believed, he had delegated to various orders offub-
•rdinate deities. Of thofe deities, fome were fuppofed
to have the charge ©f one nation and fome of another.
Hence it is, that we read of the gods of Egypt, the
gods of the Amorites, and the gods of the different na¬
tions around Paleftine. None of thofe nations denied
the exiftence of their neighbour’s gods; but all agreed,
that while the Egyptians were the peculiar care of Ofi-
ris and Ifis, the Amorites might be the favourites of
Moloch, the Phoenicians of Cronus, and the Philiftines
of Dagon; and they had no obje&ion occafionally to
join with each other in the worfhip of their refpeftive
tutelary deities. Nay, it was theught impiety in
foreigners, while they fojourned in a ftrange country,
not to facrifice to the gods of the place. Thus Sopho¬
cles makes Antigone fay to her father, that a ftranger
fliould both venerate and abhor thofe things which are
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY. 369
venerated and abhorred fn the city where he reftdes $ l heology
and another author *, who, though comparatively late,
drew much of his information from ancient writings ,iam to the
which are now loft, afiures us, that this eomplaifance coming of
proceeded from the belief that the “ feveral parts of Chnft.
the world were from the beginning diftributed to feveral ^ v f
powers, of which each had his peculiar allotment and ^
refidence.”
From this notion of local divinities, whofe power or
partial fondnefs was confined to one people, the Ifraelites,
on their departure from Egypt, appear not to have been
free (z). Hence it is, that when the true God ftrft
tells them, by their leader Moles -f, that if they would t Exod.
obey his voice indeed and keep his covenant, then they X1X- 5*
{hould be a peculiar treasure to him above all
people: to prevent them from fuppofing that he (hared
the earth with the idols of the heathen, and had from
partial fondnefs chofen them for his portion, he immedi-
ately adds, for ALL THE EARTH IS MINE. By this ad-Purpofeof
dition he gave them plainly to underftand that they tlie'r ^Pa_
were chofen to be his peculiar treafure for fome purpefe
or general importance ; and the very hrlt article or thepiej
covenant which they were to keep was, that they fhould
have no other gods but him. So inveterate, however,
was the principle which led to an intercommunity of
the objects of worlhip, that they could not have kept
this article of the covenant but in a ftate of feparation
from the reft of mankind | y and that feparation could j x sam>
neither have been effeifted nor continued without thexxvi. 19.,
vifible providence of the Almighty watching over them
as his peculiar treafure. This we learn from Mofes
himfelf, who, when interceding for the people after
their idolatrous worlhip of the golden calf, and intreat¬
ing that the prefence of God would ftill accompany
them, adds thefe words J : “ For wherein (hall it be § Exod.
known here that I and thy people have found grace in xxxi“« ^
thy fight ? Is it not in that THOU GOEST WITH us ? So
{hall we be SEPARATED, I and thy people, from all the
people that are on the face of the earth.” On this fe-
paracion every thing depended ; and therefore to render
it the more fecure, Jehovah was gracioufty pleaftd to
become likewife their fupreme Magiftrate, making them
a “ kingdom of priefts and a holy nation,” and deliver¬
ing to them a digeft as well of their civil as of their re¬
ligious laws.
The Almighty thus becoming their King, the govern-
ment of the Ifraelites was properly a THEOCRACY, in theocratic
which the two focieties, civil and religious, were ofgovern-
courfe incorporated. They had indeed after their fettle- mcnt«
ment in the Promifed- Land, at firft, temporary judges
occafionally raifed up ; and afterwards permanent ma-
giftrates called kings, to lead their armies in war, and
to give vigour to the adminiftration of juftice in peace:
but neither thofe judges nor thofe kings could abrogate
a fingle law of the original code, or make the fmalleft
addition to it but by the fpirit of prophecy. They can-
3 A not
(z) It is not indeed evident that they had got entirely quit of this abfurd opinion at a much later period. Jeph-
tha, one of their judges, who, though half paganized (as Warburton obferves) by a bad education, had probably as
correft notions of religion as an ordinary Ifraelite, certainly talked to the king of Ammon as if he had believed
the different nations of the earth to be under the immediate protection of different deities : “ Wilt not thou (fays
he) poffefs that which Chemofli THY GOD giveth thee to poffefs ! So whomfoever the Lord OUR God (hall drive
out from before us, them will we poffefs.” (Judges xi. 24.).
57° T H E O L O G Y.
thcnTore be confidercd as fujireme magidrates, by
Parti]
lf" whatever title they may have been known for they
t Warhur-
ton's Div.
fall of A- - ' .   -7 - --
clam to thewere to S° out anc- cemc in at the word of the priefts,
coming of " ho were to afk coimfel for them of the Lord, and with
, chrift- , whom they were even aflfociated in all judicial proceed-
* r>s!u,l1 as weli of a civil as of a fpiritual nature *. Under
xxvii. a't. any other than a theocratic government, the Hebrew?
and Deut. could not have been kept ieparate from the nations
xvii. S -13. around them j or if they could, that feparation rvould
not have anfwered the great purpofe for which it was
eRablifhed* “ I he people, on their leaving Egypt,
were funk into the lowed: praflices of idolatry. To re¬
cover them by the chfcipline of a feparation, it was ne-
ceffary that the idea, of God and his attributes fiiould be
imprefied upon them in the moil fenfible manner. But
this could not be commodioufly done under his charac¬
ter of God of the univerfe : under his cbarafler of King
of Ifrael, it rvell might. Hence it is, that ive find him
in the Old Teltament fo frequently reprefented with
affeflions analogous to human-paflions. The civil rela¬
tion in which he flood to the Ifraelites made fuch a re-
prefentation natural 5 the groffhefs of their conceptions
made the reprefentation neceffary 5 and the guarded
manner in which it was always qualified prevented it
from being mifehievousf.” Hence too it is, that un¬
der the Mofaic difpenfation, idolatry was a crime of
^: b°ok date, puni(liable by the civil magiftrate. It ,was indeed
tv ’ 2’ high treafon, againft which laws were enacted on the
juft eft principles, and carried into efteft without danger
of error. Nothing lefs indeed than penal laws of the
fevereft kind could have reftrained the violent propen-
fity of that headftrong people to worfhip, together with
their^own God, the gods of the Heathen. But penal
laws enaffed by human authority for errors in religion
are manifeftly unjuft 3 and therefore a theocratic govern¬
ment feems to have been abfolutely neceflary to obtain
the end for which the Ifraelites were feparated from the
IjI furrounding nations.
and of the It was for the fame purpofe that the ritual law was
ritual law, given, after their prefumptuous rebellions in the wilder-
nefs. Before the bufinefs of the golden calf, and their
frequent attempts to return into Egypt, it feems not to
have been the Divine intention to lay on them a yoke
of ordinances; but to make his covenant depend en-
t tirely on their duly pra&ifing the rite of circumcifion 3
cbferving the feftivals inftituted in commemoration of
their deliverance from bondage, and other fignal fervices
vouchfafed them 3 and keeping inviolate all the precepts
of the decalogue (a), which, if they had done, they
(hould have even lived in them But after their re¬
peated apoftafies, and impious wifties to mix with the
furrounding nations, it was neceflary to fubjeel them
to a multifarious ritual, of which the ceremoniaLparts
were folemn and fplendid, fitted to engage and fix the
attention of a people whofe hearts were grofs 3 to in-
fpire them with reverence, and to withdraw their affec¬
tions from the pageantry of thofe idle fuperftitions
which they had fo long witneffed in the land of Egypt.
f Divine
Leg. book
. v. feci. 6.
To keep them warmly attached to their public worfliip, Theolog,
that worfliip was loaded with operofe and magnificent ^lumth
rites, and fo completely incorporated with their civil
polity as to make the fame things at once duties of re- comin
ligion and a£ts of ftate. The fervice of God was indeed Cl5,°
fij ordered as to be the conftant bufinefs as well as enter- '““Y—
tainment of their lives, fupplying the place of all other
entertainments 3 and the facrifices which they were
commanded to offer on the mofl: folemn occafions, were
of fuch animals as the Egyptians and other Heathens
deemed facred. r„
Thus a heifer wdthout blemifli was in Egypt held fa-!nftailc«!
ered to the goddefs Ifis, and worfhipped as the rtpre-‘ntheinj
fentative of that divinity 3 but the fame kind of heifer
was by the ritual law of the Hebrews commanded to be
burnt without the camp, as the vileft animal, and the
water of feparation to be prepared from her afhes
The goat was by the Egyptians held in great venera¬
tion as emblematical of their ancient god Pan, and fa-
crifices of the mofl: abominable kind were offered to the
impure animal (Tee Pan) 3 but God, by his fervant
Mofes, enjoined the Ifraelites to offer goats tbemfelves
as facrifices for fin, and on one occafion to difmifs the
live animal loaded with maledictions into the wilder-
nefsf. The Egyptians, with lingular zeal, worfhip-f Leviu*
ped a calf without blemifh as the fymbol of Apis, or
the god of fertility ; and it appears from the book' of
Exodus, that the Ifraelites themfelves had been inf edit'd
with that fuperflition. They were, however, fo far
from being permitted by their Divine lawgiver to con-
fider.tbat animal as facred, that their priefts were com¬
manded to offer for themfelves a young calf as a fin-of¬
fering jy No animal was in Egypt held in greater ve- ^ GAix»
neration than the ram, the lymbol of their god Ammon,
one of the conftellations. It was therefore with wifdom
truly divine, that Jehovah, at the inflitution of the paf-
lover, 01 deled his people to kill and eat a young ram
on the very day that the Egyptians began their annual
folemnities § in honour of that animal as one of their $ %em!
greateft gods 3 and that he enjoined the blood of this di- hS"'
vimty to be fprinkled as a fign on the two fide-pofts and lib. ii.
upper door-poft of the houfe in 'which he was eaten. caP’ft'
Surely it is not in the power of imagination to conceive
a ntual better calculated to cure the Ifraelites of their
propenfity to iaol worfhip, or to keep them feparate
from the people who haa firft given them that propen-
fity, than one which enjoined them to offer in facrifice
the very creatures which their fuperftitious mailers had
worfhipped as gods. “ Shall we (faid IVTofes) facrifice
the abominations of the Egyptians before their eyes, and
will they not ftone us ?”
But it was not againft Egyptian idolatry only that
the ritual law was framed : the nations of Syria, in the
midft of whom the Iiraelites were to dwell, were addict¬
ed to many cruel and abfurd iuperftilions, againft which
it was as neceffary to guard the people of God as againft
the brute-worlhip of Egypt. We need not inform any
reader of the book of Mofes that thofe nations worfhip¬
ped
(a) Of thefe precepts we think it not neceffary, in an abftraa fo fhort as this, to wafte the reader’s time with
a lormal and laboured defence. To the decalogue no objection can be made by any man who admits the obliga¬
tions^ ot natural religion 3 for, except the obfervation of the Sabbath-day, it enjoins not a Angle duty which does
not by the confeflion of all men refult from our relations to God, ourfelves, and our fellow-creatures.
Is
Fa II-
T H E O
Tl:
frc
i'al
dam
con
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!aud
law;
Ypac
eati
drin
'and
cult
* Sj
4
fD
xvii
29-
Lev
2, £■
IE)
19.
26.
xiv.
and
ogy ped the fun and moon and all the holt of heaven ; or
the fhat it was part of their religion to propitiate their of-
A' fended gods by oceafionally facrificing their fons and
’Jlf their daughters. From fueh worfliip and facrifices the
l Ifraelites were prohibited under the fevered penalties •,
but we cannot confider that prohibition as making part
of the ritua/ law, fince it relates to praftices impious
and immoral in themfelves, and therefore declared to be
abominations to the Lord. The Phoenicians, however,
and the Canaanites, entertained an opinion that every
child came into the world with a polluted nature, and
that this pollution could be removed only by a lujlral
the fire. Hence they took their new-born infants, and with
particular ceremonies made them pafs through the flame
" 0£ a pile facred to Baal or Moloch, the fymbols of their
great god the fun. Sometimes this purgation was de-
.. layed till the children had arrived at their tenth or
• twelfth year, when they were made either to leap
through the flame, or run feveral times backwards and
forwards between two contiguous facred fires j and this
luftration was fuppofed to free them from every natural
pollution, and to make them through life the peculiar
ctr care of the deity in whofe honour it was performed *.
’ The true God, however, who would have no fellowfhip
;• with idols, forbade all fuch purgations among his peo¬
ple, whether done by fires confecrated to himfelf or to
the bloody deities of the Syrian nations. “ There
fhall not be found (fays he) among you any one that
maketh his fon or his daughter to pafs through the
|. _ firef.”
’•xii- There are, in the Jewifh law, few precepts more fre-
xx quently repeated than that which prohibits the feething
’ of a kid in its mother’s milk t} and there being no mo-
.xiii.ral fitnefs in this precept when confidered abfolutely and
av- without regard to the circumftances under which it was
ut- given, infidel ignorance has frequently thought fit to
make it the fub]e£! of profane ridicule. But the ridi¬
cule will be forborne by thofe who know that, among
the nations round Judea, the feafting on a kid boiled in
its mother’s milk was an eflential part of the impious
and magical ceremonies celebrated in honour of one of
their gods, who was fuppofed to have been fuckled by a
fhe-goat. Hence, in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the text
runs thus: “ Thou (halt not feeth a kid in its mother’s
milk; for whoever does fo, is as one who facrifices an
■er, abominable thing, which offends the God of Jacob
Another precept, apparently of very little importance,
is given in thefe words : “Ye (hall not round the cor¬
ners of your heads, neither (halt thou mar the corners
of thy beard j|.” But its wifdom is feen at once, when
■ we know that at funerals it was the practice of many of
the heathens, in that early period, to round the corners
of their heads, and mar their beards, that by throwing
the hairs they had cut off on the dead body, or the fu¬
neral pile, they might propitiate the (hade of the de¬
parted hero •, and that in other nations, particularly in
Phoenicia, it was cuftomary to cut off all the hair of
their heads except what grew on the crown, which,
with great folemnity, was confecrated either to the fun
ctri or to Saturn *. The unlearned Chriftian, if he be a
man of refle&ion, mud read with fome degree of won¬
der fueh laws as thefe : “ Thou (halt not low thy vine¬
yard with divers feeds, left the fruit of thy feed which
thou haft fown and the fruits of thy vineyard be defiled.
Thou (halt not plough with an ox and an afs together.
ij 0 O \. 37 ^
Thou (halt not wear a garment of divers forts, or of theology
woollen and linen together f.” But his wonder will A-
ceafe when he knows that all thefe were praftices from dam t0 the
which the Sabian idolaters of the eaft expedled the coming of
greateft advantages. Their belief in magic and judicial Chriit. ^
aftrology led them to imagine, that by fowing different ’
kinds of corn among their vines they fliould propitiate ^ I0;
the gods which were afterwards known in Rome by then,
names of Bacchus and Ceres ; that, by yoking animals
fo heterogeneous as the ox and the afs in the fame
plough, they (hould by a charm fccure the favour of the
deities who prefided over the affairs of hufbandry 5 and
that a garment compofed of linen and ivoollen, worn
under certain conjundlions of the ftars, would protedt its
owner, his flocks, his herds, and his. field, from all ma¬
lign influences, and render him in the higheft degree
profperous through the whole courfe of his life Butt Spencer,
mauical ceremonies were always performed in order tollb-11-
render propitious good or evil demons (fee Magic) j '33.*
and therefore fuch ceremonies, however unimportant in0
themfelves, were in that age moft wifely prohibited in
the Mofaic law, as they naturally led thofe who were
addidfed to them to the worlhip of idols and impure fpi-
rits.
If the whole ritual of the Jewifh economy be exa¬
mined in this manner, every precept in it will be found
to be diredted againft fome idolatrous pradlice of the
age in which it was given. It was therefore admirably
calculated to keep the Ifraelites a feparate people, and
to prevent too clofe an intercourfe between them and
their Gentile neighbours. The diftindlion made by
their law between clean and unclean animals (fee Sla¬
very, N° 33.) rendered it impoffible for them, with¬
out a breach of that law, to eat and drink with their
idolatrous neighbours *, their facred and civil ceremonies
being diredtly levelled againft the Egyptian, Zabian,
and Canaanitilli fuperftitions, had a tendency to gene -
rate in their minds a contempt of thofe fuperftitions ;
and that contempt muft have been greatly increafed by
their yearly, monthly, and daily facrifices, of the very
animals which their Egyptian mafters had worlhipped
as gods. , x x
That thefe laws might have the fuller effect on minds The Mo-
grofs and carnal, they were all enforced by temporal Lie laws
fan£tions. Hence it is that Mofes allured them, that ifenforced
they would hearken to God’s judgments, and keep^
them, and do them, they (hould be' bleffed above alltions.
people ; threatening them at the fame time with utter
deftruftion if they ftiould at all walk after other gods,
and ferve them, and worlhip them §. Nor were thefe (j Deut,
temporal rewards and puniftiments held out only to
nation as a collective body •, they were promifed and
threatened to every individual in his private capacity as
the certain confequences of his obedience or difobedi-
ence. Every particular Hebrew was commanded to
honour his father and mother, that it might go Avell
with him, and that his days might be prolonged j whilft
he who curfed his father or his mother was furely to be
put to death. Againft every idolater, and even againft
the wilful tranfgreffor of the ceremonial law, God re¬
peatedly declared that he would fet his face, and would
cut off that man from among his people : and that indi¬
viduals, as well as the nation, were in this life aftually. ^
rewarded and punifhed according to their deferts, has{,u0^ 7 ^
been proved by Bifliop Warburton ||. Indeed Uie Mo-fedt. 4.
3 A 2 faic
3?2
Theology
from the
fall of A-
ilarn to the
coming of
thrift.
THEOLOGY.
* Deut.
XXX. 15 
19. XXXIX.
25-
rSS .
Whence it
has been
ralhly in¬
ferred that
the ancient
Hebrews
had no
hope be¬
yond the
grave.
faic law, taken in its litefal ienfe, liolds out no other
profpe&s to the Ifraelites than temporal happinefs; fuch
as health, long life, peace, plenty, and dominion, if
they Ihould keep the covenant; and temporal mifery,
viz. difeafes, immature death, war, famine, want, fub-
'jedlion, and captivity, if they ftiould break it. “ See
(fays Mofes), I have fet before thee this day life and
good, death and evil; in that I command thee this day
to love the Lord thy God, to walk in his ways, and to
keep his commandments, and hisftatutes, and his judge¬
ments, that thou mayeft live and multiply j and the
Lord thy God (hall blefs thee in the land whither thou
goeft to poffefs it. But if thine heart turn away, fo
that thou wilt not hear, but (halt be drawn away, and
worfhip other gods, and ferve them *, I denounce unto
you this day, that ye fliall furely perilh, and that ye
fliall not prolong your days upon the land whither thou
paffeft over Jordan to poflefs it.” And elfewhere, ha¬
ving informed them that, upon their apoitafy, their
land (hould be rendered like Sodom and Gomorrah, he
adds, that all men (hould know the reafon of fuch bar-
rennefs being brought upon it, and fliould fay, “ Be-
caufe they have forfaken the covenant of the Lord God
of their fathers, which he made with them when he
brought them forth out of the land of Egypt, the anger
of the Lord was kindled againft this land, to bring up¬
on it all the curfes that are written in this book
From this faft, which fcarcely any man of letters will
venture to deny, fome divines have concluded, that the
ancient Ifraelites had no hope whatever beyond the
grave ; and that in the whole Old Teftament there is
not a fingle intimation of a future Hate. That many of
the lower claffes, who could neither read nor write,
were in this date of darknefs, may. be true ; but it is
impoflible that thofe who underftood the book of Ge-
nefis could be ignorant that death came into the world
by the tranfgreflion of their firft parents, and that God
had repeatedly promifed to redeem mankind from every
confequence of that tranfgreflion. They muft likewife
have known that, before the deluge, Enoch was tranf-
lated into heaven without tafling death ; that after¬
wards Elijah had the fame exemption from the common
lot of humanity j and that, as God is no refpefter of
perfons, every one who ferved him with the zeal and
fidelity of thefe two prophets would, by fome means or
other, be made capable of enjoying the fame rewards.
The God of Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, was not the
God of the dead, but of the living.
In the earliefl: periods of their commonwealth, the
Ifraelites could, indeed, only infer, from different pafla-
ges of their facred books, that there would be a general
refurre&ion of the dead, and a future Hate of rewards
and puniffunents ; but from the writings of the prophets
it appears, that before the Babylonifli captivity that
doftrine muft have been very generally received. In
the Pfalms, and in the prophecies of Ifaiah, Daniel,
and Ezekiel, there are feveral texts which feem to us
to prove incontrovertibly, that, at the time when thefe
infpired books were written, every Ifraelite who could
read the feriptures muft have had forae hopes of a refur-
reftion from the dead. We fhall confider two of thefe
texts, becaufe they have been quoted by a very learned
and valuable writer in fupport of an opinion the reverfe
of ours.
In a fublime fong, compofed with a view to incite
3'
Partll
the people to confidence in God, the prophet Ifaiah has Theolo*,
thefe remarkable words j “ Thy dead men (hall live; fri® the
together with my dead body (hall they arife. Awake/lilofA-
and fing, ye that dwell in the dull ; for thy dew is as
the dew of herbs, and the earth fliall caft out the
dead We agree with Biftiop Warburton that thefe —v-
words are figurative, and that they were uttered to give IS5,
the Ifraelites confolation in very difallrous times. The rh's°!)u
purpofe of the prophet was to alfure them, that though S°n'
their community ftiould, in Babylon, be as completely‘chip,
diflblved as a dead body reduced to dull, yet God would mi' ‘P-
reftore them to their own land, and raife that commu¬
nity again to life. This was indeed a prophecy only of
a temporal deliverance ; but as it is exprefled in terms
relating to the death and refurreftion of man, the doc¬
trine of a refurreftion muft then have been well known,
and generally received, or fuch language would have
been altogether unintelligible.
The prophet Ezekiel, when the ftate of things was
moft defperate, is carried by the Spirit into a valley full
of dry bones, and alked this queftion $ “ Son of man,
can thefe bones live ?” To which he anfwers ; “ O
Lord God, thou knoweft f.” He was not alked if c//t Chap,
the dead would rife at the laft day j but only if the par-mviil 3’
ticular bones then prefented to him could lire at that
time, and while other bones were mouldering in cor¬
ruption : and to fuch a queftion we cannot conceive any
anlwer that a man brought up in the belief of a general
refurre&ion could have given, but—O Lord God,
thou knoweft.” Had Ezekiel been a ftranger to the
do&rine of a general refurreftion, or had he not be¬
lieved that doctrine, he would doubtlefs have anfwered
the queftion that was put to him in the negative ; but
convinced that all men are at fome period to rife from
the dead, “ that every one may receive the things done
in his body, according to that he hath done, whether
it be good or bad,” he very naturally faid, that God
alone knew whether the bones then exhibited to him
in the valley would rife before the general refurrec-
tion.
But though the more intelligent and righteous Ifrael- The hope
ites certainly “ all died in faith, and not having re-oftheHe-
ceived the promifes, but having feen them afar off,^rews;
were perfuaded of them and embraced them, confefling^^’
that they were ftrangers and pilgrims on earth, who de-their own
fired a better country, that is, a heavenly one J,” we law,
are not to fuppofe that this heavenly defire arofe froml^e^‘lu‘
any thing taught in the law of Mofes. That law, when^’^C'
taken by itfelf, as unconnedled with prior and fubfe-
quent revelations, makes no mention whatever of a hea¬
venly inheritance, which St Paul affures us § was given} Gal.nh
430 years before to Abraham by a promife which may16"19'
be traced back to the firft ray of comfort vouchfafed to
fallen man in the fentence pafled on the original de¬
ceiver. “ Wherefore then ferved the law ? It was add¬
ed (fays the apoftle), becaufe of tranfgreflions, till the
feed ftiould come te whom the promife was made.”
The tranfgreflions here alluded to were polytheifm and
idolatry, which, with a train of cruel and deteftable
vices, had overfpread the whole world ; and the pri¬
mary intention of the law was to ftem the torrent of
thefe corruptions, for which we have feen it was admi¬
rably calculated •, and, like a fchoolmafter, to inftruft
the Ifraelites in the unity and worftiip of Jehovah* and
thus by degrees bring them to Chrift.
But
F-tll. THEO
1 ology But though it is apparent that a future ftate of re-
fi i the wards and punithments made no part of the Mofaic dif-
,£ V penfation, yet the law had certainly a fpiritual meaning
^ n^of6 t(> be underftood when the fulnefs of time (hould come,
rift. Every Chriftian fees a ftriking refemblance between the
r-^facrifice of the pafchal lamb, which delivered the If-
raelites from the deftroying angel in Egypt, and the
facrifice of the Lamb of God, which taketh away the
fin of the world. Indeed the whole ritual of facrifice
muft have led the more intelligent of them to faith in a
future facrifice ; by which, while the heel of the feed of
the woman (hould be bruifed, the head of the ferpent
(liould be completely crufhed (fee Sacrifice) *, and as
prophets were raifed up from time to time, to prepare
them for the coming of the Mefliah, and to foretel the
nature of his kingdom, there can be no doubt but that
thofe infpired teachers would lay open to them, as far
as was expedient, the temporary duration of the Mofaic
I law, and convince them that it was only the (hadow of
W the better things to come. From the nature of their ritual,
lav as and the different prophecies vouchfafed them, which
bl b became more and more explicit as the time approached
for their accomplifliment, they muft furely have been
led to expeft redemption from the curfe of the fall by
the fufferings of their Meffiah ; but that any one of
them knew precifely the manner in which they were to
be redeemed, and the nature of that religion which was
to fuperfede their own, is wholly incredible. Such
^knowledge would have made them impatient under the
yoke of ordinances to which they were fubjefted j for
after the Chriftian faith came into full fplendour, man¬
kind could be no longer under the tuition of fuch a
fchoolmafter as the law, which “ had only a Jhadow of
good things; and fo far from their reality, not even the
*1 >, very image of them*.” Through thefe (hadows, how-
*•1 ever, the Jews, aided by the clearer light of prophecy,
though it too (hone in a dark place, might have feen
enough of God’s plan of redemption to make them ac¬
knowledge Jefus of Nazareth, when he came among
them working miracles of mercy, for the Mefliah fo
long promifed to their forefathers, and in whom it was
repeatedly faid, that all the nations of the earth (hould
) be bleffed.
Mt s ufed While fuch care was taken to prepare the defcendants
the afid* Abraham for the coming of the Prince of Peace, we
for e co- muft not fuppofe that God was a refpefter of perfons,
rah of and that the reft of the world was totally neglefted.
• The difperfion of the ten tribes certainly contributed to
fpread the knowledge of the true God among the eaft-
ern nations. The fubfequent captivity of the tribes of
Judah and Benjamin muft have confirmed shat know
ledge in the great empires of Babylon and Perfia ; and
that particular providence of God which afterwards led
Ptolemy Philadelphus to have the Jewifli fcriptures
tranflated into the Greek language, laid the divine ora¬
cles open to the ftudy of every accompliflied fcholar.
At laft, when the arms of Rome had conquered the ci¬
vilized world, and rendered Judea a province of the
empire; when Auguftus had given peace to that em-
LOGY. 373
pire, and men were at leifure to cultivate the arts and Theology
fciences ; when the different fefts ot philofophers had
by their difputations whetted each others underftandings, t0
fo that none of them was difpofed to fubmit to an im- coming of
pofture ; and when the police of the Roman govern- Chritt.
ment was fuch that intelligence of every thing import- '' « ''1 ■'
ant was quickly tranfmitted from the molt diftant pro¬
vinces to the capital of the empire ; “ when that fulnefs
of time was come, God fent forth his Son made of a
woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were
under the law, that we might receive the adoption of
funs,” and be reftored to that inheritance of which the
forfeiture introduced the feveral difpenfations of revealed
religion into the world.
SECT. V. View of Theology more peculiarly Chrijlian.
Mankind being tra ned by various difpenfations of
providence for the rectption of Jefus Chrift, and the
time fixed by the prophets for his coming being arrived,
“ a meffenger was fent before his face to prepare his
way before him by preaching the baptifm of repentance
for the remiflion of fins.” This meffenger was John
the Baptift, a very extraordinary man, and the greateft
of all the prophets. His birth was miraculou-, the
fcene of his miniftry the wildernefs, his manners auftere,.
and his preaching upright, without refpeft of perlons.
He frankly told his audience that he was not the Mef¬
fiah, that the Mefliah would foon appear among them,
that “ he was mightier than himfelf, and that he would
baptife them with the Holy Ghoft and with fire.”
Mightier indeed he was; for though born of a wo-thrift the
man the Meffiah wras not the fon of a human father; divine
and though living for the firft thirty years of his life in worU in*
obfcurity and poverty, he was the lineal defendant of
David, and heir to the throne of Ifrael. But the dig¬
nity of his human defcent, great as it was, vanifhes
from confideration when compared with the glory which
he had with his Father before the world was. The
Jewifti difpenfation was given by the miniftry of Mofes,
and illuftrated by fubfequent revelations voucbfafed to
the prophets ; the immediate author of the Chriitian re¬
ligion is the Aeyof or the fecond perfon of the bleffed
Trinity, of whom St John declares, that “ he was iu
the beginning with God, and was God ; that all things
wTere made by him ; and that without him was not any
thing made that was made.” We have already proved
that in the one Godhead there is a Trinity of perfons ;
and that the is one of the three, is apparent from
thefe words of the apoftle, and from many other paffa-
ges of facred fcripture. Thus he is called the Lord of
hojls himfelf} the firjl and the laf, beftdes whom there is
no God; the mof high God} God bleffed forever; the
mighty God, the everlafing Father, Jehovah our righ~
teoufnefs ; and the only wife God our Saviour(ff). This
great Being, as the fame apoftle affures us, was made
flefti, and dwelt among men ; not that the divine na¬
ture was or could be changed into humanity, for God
is immutable, the fame almighty and inconjprehenfible
Spiritj
(B) Ifaiah viii. 13, 14. compared with 1 Peter ii. 7, 8.; Ifaiah vi. 5. compared with John xii. 41.; Ifaiah xiiv. 6.
compared with Revelation xxii. 13.; Pfalm Ixxviii. 56. compared with 1 Corinthians x. 9. Romans ix. 5. Ifaiali
ix. 6. Jeremiah xxjii. 6. Jude.
374
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri
Ilian.
\Gi
Objections
to the in¬
carnation
of the
Word.
xGz
Obviated.
* Eph. i.
io. Col. i.
20.
t Col. ii.
jHeb. i. 3,
T H E O
Spirit yefterday, to-day, and foreVer • but the Word or
fecond perfon in the godhead, afluming a human foul
and body into a perfonal union with himfelf, dwelt up¬
on earth as a man, veiling his divinity under mortal
flefh. Hence he is laid elfewhere to have been “ mani-
fefled in the flefh,and “ to have taken upon him the
natuie of man phrafes of the fame import with that
which afferts “ the Word to have been made flefh.”
This incarnation of the Son of God is perhaps the
great eft myftery of the Chriftian faith, and that to
which ancient and modern heretics have urged the moil
plaufible objedlions. r]'he doiftrine of the Trinity is in¬
deed equally incomprehenfible j but the nature of God
and the mode of his fubfiftence, as revealed in fcripture,
no man, vftio thinks, can be furprifed that he does not
comprehend ; for a revelation which fhould teach
nothing myfterious on fuch a fubject would be as incre¬
dible and as ufelefs as another which contained nothing
but mystery* . 1 he difficulty relpedling the incarnation,
which forces itfelf on the mind, is not how two natures
ro different as the divine and human,can be.fo intimately
united as to become one perfon 5 for this union in itfelf
is not more inconceivable than that of the foul and body
in one man 3 but that which at firft is apt to flagger the
laith of the reftefting Chriftian is the infinite diftanee
between the two natures in Chrift, and the compara¬
tively fmall importance of the objedl:,for the attainment
of which the eternal Son of God is faid to have taken
on him our nature.
Upon mature refledlion, however, much of this diffi¬
culty will vanifli to him who confiders the ways of Pro¬
vidence, and. attends to the meaning of the words in
which this myftery is taught. The importance of the
object for which fire Word condefcended to be made
llefn, we cannot adequately know. The oracles of truth
indeed inform us, that Chrift. Jefus came into the world
to favc. finners 3 but there are paffages fcattered through
the New Teftament* which indicate, not obfeurely,
that the influence of his fufferings extends to other
worlds befides this: and if fo, who can take on him to
fay, that the quantity of good which they may have
produced was not of fufficient importance to move even
to this condefcenfion a Being who is emphatically Ityled
LOVE ?
But let us fuppofe that every thing which he did and
taught and fuffered was intended only for the benefit of
man, v.e fhall, in the daily adminiftration of providence,
find other inftances of the divine condefcenfion 3 which
though they cannot be compared with the incarnation
of the fecond perfon in the bleffed Trinity, are yet fuffi¬
cient to reconcile our underftandings to that myftery
when revealed to us by the Spirit of God. That in
Chrift there ftiould have dwelt on earth “ all the fulnefs
of the Godhead bodily f,” is indeed a truth by which
the devout mind is overwhelmed with aftoniffiment 3
but it is little lefs aftoniffiing that the omnipotent Crea¬
tor ftiould be intimately prefent at every inftant of time
to the meaneft of his creatures, “ upholding all things,
the vileft reptile as well as the moft glorious angel, by
the word of his power Yet it is a truth felf-evident,
that without this conftant prefence of the Creator, no¬
thing^ which had a beginning could continue one mo¬
ment in being 3 that the vifible univerfe would not only
etumble into chaos, but vaniffi into nothing 3 and that
the fouls of men, and even flic moft exalted fpirifs of
log y.
Part II
creation, would inftantly lofe that exiftence, which as Th ’
it was not of itfelf, and is not neceflary, muft depend
wholly on the will of Him from whom it was otiginally liailH:hii
derived. See Metaphysics, N° 272 276. and-
Providence, N° 3. - > ‘ u
In what particular way God is prefent to his works
we cannot know. He is not diffufed through the uni¬
verfe like thc amma mundi of the ancient Platonifts or
that modern idol termed the fubjlratum of[pace (Me¬
taphysics, N° 309, 310) 3 but that he is in power as
intimately prefent now to every atom of matter as when
be firft brought it into exiftence, is equally the diftate
ot found philofophy and of divine revelation 3 for “ in
him we live and move and have our being 3” and power
without fubftance is inconceivable. If then the divine
nature be not debafed, if it cannot be debafed by beim*-
•conftantly prefent with the vileft reptile on which we
tread, why ftiould our minds recoil from the idea of a
ftill defer union between the fecond perfon of the ever
bleffed Trinity and the body and foul of Jefus Chrift ?■
The one union is indeed different from the other, but
we are in truth equally ignorant of the nature of both.
Beafon and revelation affure us that God muft be pre¬
fent to his works to preferve them in exiftence ; and re¬
velation informs us farther, that one of the perfons in
the Godhead affumed human nature into a perfonal union
with himfelf, to redeem myriads of rational creatures
from the miferable confequences of their own folly and
.wickednefs. The importance of this objed is fuch, that,
for the attainment of it, we may eafily conceive that he
who condefcends to be potentially prefent with the
worms of the earth and the grafs of the field, would
oondefeend ftill farther to be perfonaily prefent with the
fpotlefs foul and body of a man. Jefus Chrift lived in¬
deed a life of poverty and fuffering upon earth, but his
divine nature was not affeded by his bufferings. At the
very time when, as a man, he had wot a place where to
lay bis bead ; as God,, he ivas in heaven as well as upon
earth *, dwelling in light inacceffible 3 and while, as a* T.
man, he was increafing in wifdom and ftature, his divi-n
mty was the fulnefs of him who filleth all in all, and 3‘
from whom nothing can be hid.
Perhaps the very improper appellation of mother of
God, which at an early period of the church was ffiven
to the Virgin Mary, may have been one caufe of the
reluctance with which the incarnation has been admit¬
ted 3 for as we have elfewhere obferved (fee Nes-
torius), fuch language, in the proper fenfe of the
words, implies what thofe, by whom it is ufed, cannot
poffibly believe to be true ; but it is not the language of
fcripture* e are there taught, that u Chrift being in
the form of God, thought it no robbery to be equal
with God 3 but made himfelf of no reputation, and took
upon him the form of a fervant, and was made in the
likenefs of man f 5” that “ God font forth his Son made , p,
or a woman, made under the law, to redeem them thatg -
were under the law, that we might receive the adoption
of fons J . and that u the word who was in the
ginning with God, and was God, by whom all things4>5-
were made, was made flelh, and dwelt among men (who
beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of
the Father), full of grace and truth § but we are no-$ John i.
where taught that, as God, he had a mother! It was j| Hotfo)1*
indeed the do&rine of the primitive church If that theSerm0!>l':
very principle of perfonality and individual exiftence in
Mary’s
P; t II.
T1 logy Mary’s foil, Was union with the uncreated Word ; and
moj jccu- this doflrine is thought to imply the miraculous concep-
liar Chn- tjori) which is recorded in the plained terms by trvo of
^ ^ the evangelifts; for he was conceived by the Holy
k ;3 Ghoft and born of a virgin * 5 but, as God, he had
His vine been begotten from all eternity of the Father, and in
j nai t>e- orcler of nature was-prior to the Holy Ghoft. This is
tht ither. ev>dent from the appellation of 0 Aeys? given to him by
! * p :th. i. St John ; for the term being ufed in that age, both by
| 18, the Jewifti rabbles and the heathen philofophers, to de-
• Lnl *• 27'note the fecond divine fubfiftence, which they confidered
as art eternal and neceftary emanation from the firft,
fometimes called TuyxQcv and fometimes to sv and the
apoftle giving no intimation of his ufing the word in any
uncommon fenfe, we muft neceffarily conclude, that he
meant to inform us that the divinity of Chrift is of eter¬
nal generation. That the term Aeyos was ufed in this
fenfe by the later Platonifts, and in all probability by
Plato himfelf, we have fufficiently (hewn in another
place (fee Platonism) j and that afimilar mode of ex-
preffion prevailed among the Jews in the time of St
John, is apparent from the Chaldee paraphrafe ; which,
m the noth pfalm, inftead of the words “ the Lord
faid unto my Lord,” has, “ the J_.ord faid unto his
WORD.” Again, where we are told in the Hebrew
T6 xv. that Jehovah laid to Abraham f, “ I am thy (hield and
thy exceeding great rewmrd,” w7e read in the Chaldee,
** my word is thy ftrield, and thy exceeding great re¬
ward.” Where it is faid, “ your new moons and your
; tIf; ii. appointed feafts my foul hateth J,” the paraphraft hath
’ 14. it, “ my WORD hateth 5” and where it is faid, that
, “ Ifrael (hall be faved in the Lord with an everlafting
falvation in the fame paraphrafe it is, “ Ifrael (hall
’Y' • be faved by the word of the Lord with everlafting fal¬
vation.” But there is a paffage in the Jerufalem Tar-
gum which puts it beyond a doubt, that by the
the Jews underftood a divine perfon begotten of his Fa¬
ther before all worlds ; for commenting on Genefis iii.
22, the authors of that work thus exprefs themfelves :
“ The word of the Lord faid, behold Adam, whom I
created, is the only begotten upon earth, as I am the
only begotten IN HEAVEN :” in conformity with
: Di 5T/) which, Philo introduces j| the Logos fpeaking thus of
ult b. ii. himielf j JUxi ystg cvh «tys»yij7«s w? (kfl; av, ovh yivtiqlog k<;
vy-'.'f. 1 am neither unbegotten, as God, nor begotten
hlf j after the fame jnanner as ijou are,
: ktl oxy From thefe quotations w'e may juftly conclude, that
’ 'Ll Vi- the Nicene fathers expreffed themfelves properly when
^ eed. they declared that the only begotten Son of God was
begotten of his Father before all worlds, and is God of
375
God ; for if St John had believed the Aeyaj or WORD to Theology
be unbegotten, contrary to the belief of all who made“.’01je
ufe of the phrafe at the time when he wrote, he would 11‘u1^an11
furely have exprefled his diffent from the generally re- 1 —v— »
ceived opinion. This however he is fo far from doing,
that he gives the ampleft confirmation of that opinion,
by declaring, that “ he beheld the glory of the word
incarnate as the glory of the only begotten of the Fa¬
ther j” for this declaration is true only of the divinitv
of Chrift, h i§ human nature not being begotten of the
Father, but conceived by the Holy Ghoft of the Virgin
Mary. Hence our bluffed Lord affures us, that “ as
the Father hath life in himself, fo hath he given the
Son to have life in himfelf j” that “ the Son can do no¬
thing of himfelf, but what he feeth the Father do * j” * St Joi.n
and that a he knew the Father, becaufe he was from 26 19.
him and fent by him f.” We muft therefore agree with f John vii.
Bifhop Pearfon (c), that “ though the Father and Son 29.
are both truly God, and therefore equal in refpeft of
nature, yet the one is greater than the other, as being
the fountain of the Godhead. The Father is God, but
tiot of God; I-ight, but not of Light. Chrift is God,
but of God ; Light, but of Light. There is no differ-
ence or inequality in the nature or effenee, becaufe the
fame in both ; but the Father of our Lord Jefus Chrift;
hath that eflence of himfelf, from none 5 Chrift hath the
fame effence, not of himfelf, but from him.” ^ ;
I he great purpofe for which this divine perfon was f’urpole
fent into the world, was to bruife the head of the fer-for whicl1
pent, and reftore mankind to the inheritance which had f^r’intT3
been forfeited.by Adam’s tranfgreffion. Every difpen-th^wodd.
fatten of Providence from the fall had been preparatory
to this reiteration. Prophets had been raifed from time
to time to preferve in the early ages of the world the
knowledge and worfhip of the true God : the children
of Abraham had been feparated from the furrounding
rations for the fame purpofe ; and by the difperfion 0^
the ten tribes, the captivity of the other two in Babylon,
and the tranflation of the Plebrew feriptures into the
Greek language, much of the knowledge which had
been revealed to the Ifraelites was gradually diffufed
over the eaftern world.
But while the Jews were thus rendered the inftru-
merits, of enlightening the heathen nations of antiquity,
their intercourfe with thofe nations made them almoft
unavoidably acquainted with the phihLophy which was
cultivated among the Chaldeans, the Perfians, and the
Egyptian Greeks ; and ingrafting many of the opinions
derived from thofe fchools upon the doctrines of Mofes
and the prophets-, they corrupted their own religion
while"
theology.
(c) We. beg leave to recommend to our readers this author’s excellent expofition of the apoftle’s creed as a
work which will render them great aflTftance in acquiring juft notions of the fundamental articles of the Chriftian
t?1 -ri -ey,W1 've ^Fik, a complete antidote againft the poifon of modern Unitarians and modern Tri-
t leiks ; ot whom the former teach that Jefus Chrift was a mere man, the fon of Jofeph as well as of Mary : vhile
the latter running to.the other extreme, maintain, that, with refpea to his divinity, he is in no fenfe fubordinate
to the lather, but might have been the Father, the Son, or the Holy Ghoft, according to the good pleafure of
the eternal three. We have been at feme pains to prove his divinity, and likewife his eternal generation ; but in
. a feort com pend as we muft give, it fee ms not to be worth while to prove his miraculous conception. That
nurac e is plainly aflerted-in the New leftament in words void of all ambiguity ; and as it is furelv as eafy for
od to make a man of the fubftance of a woman as of the duft of the earth, we cannot conceive what fliould have
induced any perfon profeffing Chriftianity to call it in queftion. The natural generation of Chrift is a groundlcfs
rancy, which can ferve no purpofe whatever, even to the Unitarians. •
376 T H E O
1 hcology while they improved that of their neighbours. Hence,
Uarly Uiri-ky t*me t*iat thrift camj; among them, they had
ftian. made the Avord of God of none effect through a number
-v—•' of idle fancies which they inculcated on the people as
i<56 the traditions of the elders j and as they had attached
oftheJews ^iem^e^ves to different mafters in philofophy, their un-
at the time authorifed opinions were of courfe different according to
of his co- the different fources whence they were drawn. The
swing. peculiar tenets of the Essenes feem to have been a
fpecies of myffic Platonifm. The Pharisees are thought
to have derived their origin from a Jewifh philofopher
of the Peripatetic fchool j and the refemblance between
the doftrines of the Sadducees and the philofophy of
Epicurus has efcaped no man’s obfervation.
Though thefe feds maintained mutual communion in
public worfhip, they abhorred each other’s diftinguifhing
tenets ; and their wranglings had nearly banifhed from
them every fentiment of true religion. They agreed,
however, in the general expectation of the Meffiah pro-
mifed to their fathers ; but, unhappily for themfelves,
expeCted him as a great and temporal prince. To this
miftake feveral circumfiances contributed : fome of their
prophets had foretold his coming in lofty terms, borrow¬
ed from the ritual law, and the fplendour of earthly mo-
narchs. The neceffity of calling this veil over thofe
living oracles we have fhewn in another place (fee Pro¬
phecy, N° 17.). At the time when the predictions
were made, the Mofaic fyftem had not run out half its
courfe, and was therefore not to be expofed to popular
contempt by an information that it was only the harfh
rudiment of one more eafy and perfeCt. To prevent,
however, all miftakes in the candid and impartial, when
the Mefliah fhould arrive with the credentials of mira¬
culous powers, other prophets had deferibed him in the
cleareft terms as having no form nor comelinefs, as a
/heep dumb before his fhearers, and as a lamb Erought
to the flaughter j but the Jews had fuffered fo much
from the Chaldeans, the Greeks, and other nations by
whom they had been conquered, and were then fuffer-
ing fo much from their mafters the Romans, that they
could think of no deliverance greater than that which
fliould refeue their nation from every foreign yoke.
What men earneftly wifh to be true, they readily be¬
lieve. Hence that people, lofing fight of the yoke un¬
der which they and the whole human race were brought
by the fall of Adam, miftaking the fenfe of the blefling
promifed to all nations through the feed of Abraham,
and devoting their whole attention to the molt magni¬
ficent deferiptions of the Meffiah’s kingdom, expeCted
in him a prince who Ihould conquer the Romans, and
eltablilh on earth a univerfal monarchy, of which Jeru-
*67 falem was to be the metropolis.
je<£ts<of"his -^LS our Saviour came for a very different purpofe, the
preaching. firR objeCt of his million was to reCtify the notions of his
erring countrymen, in order to fit them for the deliver¬
ance which they were to obtain through him. Accord¬
ingly, when he entered on his office as a preacher of
righteoufnefs, he embraced every opportunity of inveigh-
ing again(t the falfe doctrines taught as traditions of the
elders ; and bv his knowledge of the fecrets of all
hearts, he expofed the vile hypocrify of thofe who made
a gain of godlinefs. The Jews had been led, by their
feparation from the reft of the world, to confider them¬
felves as the peculiar favourites of Jehovah ; and the
fconfequence was, that, contrary to the fpirit of their
LOGY. _ partll
own law, and the explicit do&riues of fome of their pro- Thwloj,
phets, they looked on all other nations with abhorrence,1^6 P«*
as on people phyfically impure. Thefe prejudices the ^ |j
blefled Jefus laboured to eradicate. Having defired a > h
lawyer, by whom he was tempted, to read that part of '
the law of Mofes which commanded the Ifraelrtes to
love their neighbours as themfelves, he compelled him,
by means of a parabolical account of a compaffionate
Samaritan, to acknowledge, that under the denomina¬
tion of neighbour the divine lawgiver had comprehended
all mankind as the objects of love*. The importance * St Lub t*
in which Mofes held the ritual law, and to which, as*-^—3! I
the means of preferving its votaries from the contagion
of idolatry, it was juftly intitled, had led the Jews to
confider every ceremony of it as of intrinfic value and
perpetual obligation : but Jefus brought to their recol-
le&ion God’s declared preference of mercy to faerificej
ftiewed them that the weightier matters of the law,
judgment, mercy, and faith, claimed their regard in
the firft place, and its ceremonial obfervances only ia
the fecond ; and taught them, in conformity with the
predi&ions of their own prophets f, that the hour was f Jerma '
about to come when the worffiip of God fliould notxxxi. 31. lj
be confined to Jerufalem, but that “ true worlhippers^- n o
ffiould everywhere worftiip the Father in fpirit and in
truth J.” J John ir.
It being the defign of Chrift’s coming into the world
to break down the middle Avail of partition betAveen the
Jews and Gentiles, and to introduce a new difpenfation
of religion which ffiould unite all mankind as brethren
in the worffiip of the true God, and fit them for the
enjoyment of heaven ; he did not content himfelf Avith
merely reftoring the moral part of the Mofaic law to its
primitive purity, difencumbered of the corrupt gloffes of
the Scribes and Pharifees, but added to it many fpiritual
precepts, Avhich, till they Avere taught by him, had
never occurred either to Jew or Gentile. The HebreAV
laAvgiver had prohibited murder under the penalty of
death j but Chrift extended the prohibition to caufelels
anger, and to contemptuous treatment of our brethren,
commanding his followers, as they valued their everlaft-
ing falvation, to forgive their enemies, and to love all
mankind. Adultery was forbidden by the laAV of Mofes
as a crime of the deepeft dye $ but Jefus faid to his dif-
ciples, “ that whofoever looketh on a Avoman to lull
after her, hath committed adultery Avith her already in
his heart,” and is of courfe liable to the Divine ven¬
geance. The lex talionis was in force among the Jews,
fo that the man who had deprived his neighbour of an
eye or a tooth, Avas to fuffer the lofs of an eye or a tooth
himfelf ^ but this mode of puniffiment, which infli&ed
blemifh for blemijh, though fuited to the hardnefs of
JeAviffi hearts, being inconfiftent Avith the mRd fpirit of
Chriftianity, was aboliftied by our bleffed Lord, Avho
feverely prohibited the indulgence of revenge, and com¬
manded his followers to love even their enemies. Per¬
jury has in every civilized nation been juftly confidered
as a crime of the higheft atrocity, and the Mofaic laAV
doomed the falfe Avitnefs to bear the puniffiment, Avhat-
ever it might be, which he intended hy fwearing falfely . lL
to bring on his brother; but the Author of the Chriftian \ ^
religion forbade not only falfe fwearing, but fwearing at
all, except on folemn occafions, and Avhen an oath ffiould
be required by legal authority. See Oath.
By thus reftoring the law to its original purity, and
in
In v ch
: he < cu-
fice
pro] t.
* D :•
svii S'
p:i; II. T H E O
Tk agy in many cafes extending its fenfe, the blefled Jefus exe-
mor 3ecu-cute(l the office of a Prophet to the loft ftieep of the
liarl :hd- 0f Iftael 5 but had he not been more than an ordi-
1 X—j nary prophet, he could not have abrogated the moft tri-
3 vial ceremony of it, nor even extended the fenfe of any
of its moral precepts 5 for their great lawgiver had told
them,, that “ the Lord their God would raife up unto
a° ’ them but one Prophet, like unto him, to whom they
ffiould hearken That Prophet was by themfelves
underftood to be the Mefliah, whom they expedted to
tell them all things. It was neceflary therefore that
Jefus, as he taught fome new dodtrines, and plainly in¬
dicated that greater changes would foon be introduced,
ftiould vindicate his claim to that exalted charadter which
alone could authorife him to propofe innovations. This
he did in the ampleft manner, by fulfilling prophecies and
working miracles (See Miracle and Prophecy) ; fo
that the unprejudiced part of the people readily acknow¬
ledged him to be of a truth “ that prophet which ftiould
come into the world—the Son of God, and the King of
Ifrael.” He did not, however, make any change in the
national worfhip, or affume to himfelf the fmalleft civil
His A authority. He had fubmlkted to the rite of circumcifion,
■ obei jce and ftridtly performed every duty, ceremonial as well as
toe law. which that covenant made incumbent on other
Jews $ thus fulfilling all righteoufnefs. Though the re¬
ligion which he came to propagate was in many refpedts
contrary to the ritual lawr, it could not be eftablilhed,
or that law abrogated, but in confequenee of his death,
which thefyftem offacrifices was appointed to prefigure j
and as his kingdom, which was not of this world, could
not commence till after his refurredtion, he yielded
during the whole courfe of his life a cheerful obedience
to the civil magiftrate, and wrought a miracle to obtain
money to pay the tribute that was exacted of him. Be¬
ing thus circumftanced, he chofe from the loweft and
leaft corrupted of the people certain folhrwers, whom he
treated with the moft endearing familiarity for three
years, and commiflioned at his departure to promulgate
fuch dodtrines as, confidently with the order of the di¬
vine difpenfations, he could not perfonally preach him¬
felf. With thefe men, during the'courfe of his miniftry
on earth, he went about continually doing good, heal¬
ing the fick, calling out devils, railing the dead, reprov¬
ing vice, preaching righteoufnefs, and inftrudling his
•countrymen, by the moft perfedf example which was
ever exhibited in the world, of whatfoever things are
true, or honeft, or juft, or pure, or lovely, or of good re¬
port. The Scribes and Pharifees, however, finding him
not that conqueror whom they vainly expedled, becom¬
ing envious of his reputation among the people, and be¬
ing filled with rancour againft him for detecting their
hypocritical arts, delivered him up to the Roman gover¬
nor, who, though convinced of his innocence, yielded
to the popular clamour, and crucified him between two
thieves, as an enemy to Caefar.
Juft before he expired, he faid, It is finilhed, intima¬
ting that the purpofe was now fulfilled for which he had
come into the world, and which, as he had formerly
told his difciples, “ was not to be miniftered unto, but
xx to minifter, and to give his life a ranfom for many f.”
For his blood, as he allured them at the inftitution of
the Eucharift, “ was to be flied for the remiftion of
fins.” That Chrift died voluntarily for us, the juft for the
unjuft, and that “ there is none other name under hea-
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY. 377
ven given among men whereby we muff; be faved,” is llieotfogy
the uniform dodlrine of the prophets who foretold his ^ ®
coming, of John the Baptift who was his immediate har- i{jan.
binger, and of the apoftles and evangelifts who preached t<
the gofpel after his afeenfion into heaven. Thus Ifaiah 170
fays of the Mefliah *, that “ he was wounded for 0Ur^.;vo||:^
tranfgreflions, and bruifed for our iniquities j that the ^ ^
chaftifcment of our peace was upon him, and that with* :.hap.
his ftripes we are healed •, that we had all like ftieep gone Uii.
aftray, turning every one to his own way, and that the
Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all j that he was
cut off out of the land of the living, and ftricken
for the tranfgreflion of God’s people 5 that his loul or life
was made an offering for fin *, and that he bore the fin
of many, and made interceflion for the tranfgreffors.”
The Baptift, “ when he favv Jefus coming unto him, faid
to the people, Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh
away the fin of the world 3” plainly intimating that his
death was to be a facrifice, fince it was only as a facrifice
that the Jews could form any conception of a lamb ta¬
king away fin. The epiftles of St Paul are fo full of
the doftrine of Chrift’s fatisfaftion, that it is needlefs to
quote particular texts in proof of it. He tells the Ro¬
mans, that Jefus Chrift ivas fet forth to be a propitiation
through faith in his blood ; he ivas delivered for our of¬
fences, and “ raifed again for our juftification 5 that he
died for the ungodly j and that God commendelh his
love towards us, in that while we were yet finners Chrift:
died for us.” He affures the Corinthians that Chrift
died for all •, that “ they who live ftiould not henceforth
live unto themfelves, but to him who died for them and
rofe again 3 and that God made him to be fin for us, who
knew no fin, that eve might be made the righteoufnefs of
God in him.” He informs the Galatians, that Chrift
“ gave himfelf for our fins, that he might deliver us
from this prefent evil world, according to the will of
God and our Father ; and that he redeemed us from the
curfe of the law, being made a curfe for us.” St Peter
and St John fpeak the very fame language j the former
teaching us, that “ Chrift fuffered for us, and bare our
fins in his own bo^ly on the tree f 3 the latter, that the f- 1 Peter
blood of Jefus Chrift cleanfeth us from all fin, and thatii. 21, and
he is the propitiation for our fins ; and not for our fins 24-
only, but alfo for the fins of the whole world J.” That t 1 Johi> i.
he came into the world for the purpofe of fuffering, ap-7- 2*
pears from his own words : for “ no man (faid he j) ta- § 1 John
keth my life from me, but I lay it down of myfelf: I*. iL
have power to lay it down, and I have power to take
it again. This commandment have I received from my'
Father.” And that he voluntarily laid it down for
mankind, is evident from his calling himfelf the Good
Shepherd, and adding, that “ the Good Shepherd giveth '
his life for the flieep||.”
That Chrift died for the benefit of the human race, is Diffen.-nt
a truth fo apparent from thefe texts, that no man profef- opinions
fing Chriftianity has hitherto called it in queftion. Very relpedtiog;
different opinions have been formed indeed concerningtlie,nature
i r.1.1 11 1 aml extent
the nature and extent ot that benefit, and the means by0f t]ie ^
which it is applied 3 but that the paflion and death of the nefit reap-
blefled Jefus were effential parts of his miniftry on earth, ‘‘d horn
has feldom been controverted. That on the erofs he tl!S death,
made fatisfaftion to his Father for the fins of the world,
is the general belief of Chriftians; but prefumptuous
men, aiming at being wife beyond what is written, have
ftai'ted athoufand idle queftions concerning the neceflitv
3 F> " of
Ibid-
ver. ix.
3/8
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri-
ftian.
172
Opinions
of the Cal-
’viniils.
* Body of
Divinity,
vol. ii.
book iii.
chap. v.
§4-
of fuch fatisfa<5Hon, and the manner in which it was
made. Some limiting the power and mercy of the Om¬
nipotent, have dared to affirm that God could not have
^ pardoned man without receiving full fatisfadlion for his
offences ; that nothing but the (bedding of the blood of
Clnift could make that fatisfadtion ^ that Ins death was
indeed fufficient to atone for a thoufand worlds ; that,
however, he did not die for all mankind, but only for a
chofen few, ordained to eternal life by a fecret decree
before the foundation of the world ; and that the reft
of the race are paffed by, and doomed to eternal perdi¬
tion, for the glory of God’s juftice. Others, convinced
by every thing around them that the Creator and Gover¬
nor of the univerfe is a being of infinite benevolence,
whole only end in giving life muft hare been to com¬
municate happinefs, have contended, that no atonement
■whatever could be neceffary to obtain from him the for-
givenefs of fin on fincere repentance 5 that it is con-
tiaiy to all our notions of juftice to puniffi the innocent
for the guilty ; and that therefore the death of Chrift,
though the effential part of his miniftry, could not be
neceffary, but at the moft expedient.
We enter not into thefe debates. The Scriptures have
nowhere (aid what God could or could not do ; and on
this fubjedt we can know nothing but what they have
taught us. That “ we are reconciled to God by the
death of his Son,” is the principal doarine of the New
Teftament j and without prefuming to limit the power,
the mercy, or the wifdora, of him who created and
fuftains the univerfe, we (ball endeavour to (how that it
is a doarine worthy of all acceptation. In doing this,
we (hall ftate impartially the opinions which pious men
have held refpeaing the form or manner in which Chrift
by Ins death made fatisfaaion to God for the fins of the
world ; and we hope that our readers will embrace that
opinion which (hall appear to them moft confonant to
the general fenfe of facred Scripture.
The ftriaeft adherents to the theological fyftem of
Calvin, interpreting literally fuch texts of Scripture as
fpeak of his being tnctde Jin for us, of his hearing our
fins in his own body on the tree, and of the Lord’s lay-
ing on him the iniquity of us all, contend, that the fins
of the eleft were lifted off from them and laid on Chrift
by imputation, much in the fame way as they think the
fin of Adam is imputed to his pofterity. “ By bearing
the fins of his people (fays Dr Gill *) he took them off
from them, and took them upon himfelf, bearing or
carrying them, as a man bears or carries a burderfon
his (boulders. There was no fin in him inherently, for
ii there had, he. would not have been a fit perfon to
make fatisfadfion for it 5 but fin was put upon him by his
Divine Father, as the fins of the Ifraelites were put upon
the fcape goat by Aaron. No creature (continues he)
could have done this ; but the Lord hath laid on him,
or made to meet on him, the iniquity of us all, not a
fingle iniquity, but a whole mafs and lump of fins col-
ledted together ; and laid as a common burden upon
him v even the fins of all the eledt of God. This phrafe
of laying fin on Chrift is expreffive of the imputation of
it to him } for it was the will of God not to impute the
theology.
Part II
tranfgreffions of his eledi to themfelves, but to Chrift iV™
which was done by an adt of his own ; for he hath mademore pecu
him to be fin for us : that is, by imputation, in which i:arl} Jlti'
way we are made the righteoufnefs of God in him ; that 1,ian'
being imputed to us by him as our fins were to Chrift, v ^
The fenfe (fays our author) is, a charge of fin was
brought againft him as the furety of his people. He was
numbered with the tranfgreffors ; for bearing the fins of
many, he was reckoned as if he had oeen a (inner him¬
felf, fin being imputed to him $ and he was dealt w ith
as fuch. Sin being found upon him by imputation, a
demand of fatisfadiion for (in w;as made, and lie anlwered
it to the full. All this was with his ow n confent. He
■ agreed to have fin laid upon him, and imputed to him
and a charge of it brought againft him, to which he en¬
gaged to be refponfible ; yea, he himfelf'took the fins
of his people upon him ; fo the evangelift Matthew has
it, ‘ He himfelf took our infirmities, and bore our fick-
neffes f.’ As he took the nature of men, fo he took f Chap,
their fins, which made his flefti to have the likenefs ojfn- viii. 17.
fulflefh, though it really was not (inful. What Chrift
bore being laid upon him, and imputed to him, were
fns of all forts, original and adtual ; fins of every kind
open and fecret, of heart, lip, and life 5 all ads of fin
committed by his people, for he has redeemed them
from all their iniquities 5 and God, for Chrift’s fake,-
forgives all trefpaffes, his blood cleanfesfrom all fin, and’
his righteoufnefs juftifies from all ; all being imputed to
him as that is to them. Bearing fin fuppofes it to be a
burden ^ and indeed it is a burden too heavy to bear by
a fenfible (inner (e). When fin is charged home upon
the confcience, and a faint groans, being burdent^d with
it, what muft that burden be, and how heavy the load
which Chrift bore, confiding of all the fins of all the
eleft from the beginning of the world to the end of it;
and yet he funk not, but flood up under it; failed not,
nor was he difeouraged, being the mighty God, and the
Man of God’s right hand, made ftrong for himfelf.” i73
To the Arminians or Remonftrants, this doftrine of Objected
the imputation of the fins of men to the Son of God ap-t0-
pears as abfurd as the fimilar doftrine of the imputation
of the fin of Adam to his unborn pofterity ; and it is
certainly attended with confequences which have alarm¬
ed ferious Chriftians of other denominations.
Were it poffible in the nature o( things, fays the Ar-
minian, to transfer the guilt of one perfon to another,
and to lay it upon him as a burden, it could not be done
without violating thofe laws of equity which are efta-
blidled in the feripture and engraven on the human
heart. But this is not poffible. To talk of lifting
lumps of fin, or transferring them like burdens from the
guilty to the innocent, is to ufter jargon, fays he, which
has no meaning ; and we might with as much propriety
fpeak of lifting a fcarlet colour from a piece of cloth and
laying it on the found of a trumpet, as of literally lift-
ing the fins of the eleft from them and laying them on
Chrift. Guilt is feated in the mind ; and no man can
become a finner but by an aft of volition. If Chrift
therefore really took upon him the fins of his people, he
muft have deliberately formed a wifli to have aftually
committed
Siv^othe leamed ^ “**“ * finner "h0 is not t-ft *«%. to to a con.
Text
vhic
ret
ipl;
Le
til.
losy committed all thefe fins but fuel) a with, though it
Pecu-would have made him inherently guilty, and therefore
Clin'incapable of fatisfying for fin, could not have cancelled
. deeds that were done before he was born, or have made
thofe innocent who really had been finners. A deed
once done cannot be undone ; a volition which has been
formed cannot be annihilated. By fincere repentance,
the habitual difpofitions are indeed changed, and thofe
who have been finners become objedls of mercy ; but no
power can recal the hours that are pall, or make thofe
aftions which have been performed to have been not per¬
formed. To remove guilt from the finner and lay it on
the innocent may therefore be fafely pronounced impof-
fible even for Omnipotence itfelf, for it implies that a
thing may be and not be at the fame inftant of time ;
and the dodtrine which teaches that this removal was
made from the eledt to Chrift, is an imagination of yef-
terday, which has no countenance from feripture, and is
contrary to the eftablifhed conftitution of things. Thofe
who imagine that guilt may be propagated from father
to fon, have fomething like an argument to urge for the
imputation of Adam’s fin to his numberlefs pofterity ;
for all the men and women who have by ordinary gene¬
ration been introduced into the world, have undoubtedly
derived their nature from the primeval pair. But Chrift
did not derive his nature from the elecl, that their fins
Ihould be communicated to him ; nor, as he was mira-
culoufly conceived by the Holy Ghoft, can we attribute
to him any degree of that taint which is fuppofed to
havedpeen conveyed from Adam to all the other gene¬
rations of men.
n Nothing more, therefore, can be meant by “ Chrift’s
:hey being made fin for us,” and bearing our fins in his
^ own body on the tree,” or by God’s “ laying upon him
the iniquity of us all,” than that by his fufferings we
are freed from the punifliment of our fins : it being in
feripture a common figure of fpeech, as even Dr Gill
has fomewhere acknowledged, to denote by the word Jin
the confequences of fin. That this figure is ufed in thofe
texts from Avhieh he infers that Chrift took the fins of the
ele61 on himfelf, is evident from theverfe which he quotes
from the gofpel of St Matthew ; in which it is faid,
that “ himfelf took our infirmities and bore our ficknef-
fes.” The ficknelfes and infirmities there alluded to are
the leprofy, the palfy, the fever, and demoniacal pof-
fefiions: but when our bleffed Lord cured thefe difeafes,
furely he did not by his omnipotent word lift them off
from the patients and take them on himfelf, fo as actu¬
ally to become a leper, a paralytic, and a daemonic, or
even to be reckoned as fuch either by the multitude, or
by the priefts, whofe duty it was to take cognizance of
every illegal uncleannefs *. And if his inveterate ene¬
mies did not impute to him the leprofy when he removed
that plague from others, why fhould it be fuppofed that
his own Father, to whom he was at all times well-plea-
fing, imputed to him the fins of which, by his fuffer-
mgs, he removed the puniftiment from thofe who were
guilty ? To impute to a perfon any aftion, whether vir¬
tuous or vicious, which he did not perform, can proceed
only from ignorance or malice, or partiality j but God
is no refpeCler of perfons, and from ignorance and ma¬
lice he is removed to an infinite diftance. It is indeed
an undoubted truth, that “ the Lord Jefus, by his per-
left obedience and facrifice of himfelf, which he through
the eternal fpirit once offered up unto God, hath fully
THEOLOGY.
fatisfied the iuftice of his Father
379
and parch a fed not Theology
only reconciliation, but an everlaffing inheritance in the m()re P^1!'
kingdom of heaven for all thofe whom the Father hath
given him f j” but that he adfually took on himfelf the
fins of mankind, or that thofe fins were imputed to him f ConfeJJlon
by God, who puniftied him as a perfon whom he confi-
dered as guilty, is a dodtrine equally injurious to the vili‘
juftice of the Father and to the immaculate purity oP
the Son. •
"l he earneftnefs with which this doCtrine was inculca- They have
ted by fome of the earlieft reformers, and the impoflibi-Proba.bly
lity of admitting it, which every reflecting and unpre-
judiced mind muft feel, was probably one of the caufes Socinus
which drove Socinus and his followers to the other ex- deny the
treme of denying Chrift’s fatisfaCtion altogether, and doctrine of
confidering his death as nothing more than that of an r?clemP~
ordinary martyr, permitted for the purpofe of attefting 10n’
the truth of his doCtrine, and paving the way for his
refurreCtion, to confirm the great promife of immorta¬
lity. According to thefe men, forgivenefs is freely dif-
penfed to thofe who repent, by the effential goodnefs of
God, Avithout regard to the merit or fufferings of any
other being j and the gofpel is faid to fave from fin, be-
caufe it is the moft perfeCl leffon of righteoufnefs. The
great objection of Crellius to the doCtrine of the fatisfac-
tion is, that it is a hinderance to piety 5 for if Chrift
has paid the whole debt, he thinks that he muft have
nothing to do, as nothing more can be required of
us. And if it Avere indeed true that our fins are impu¬
ted to Chrift, and his righteoufnefs imputed to us, this
objection Avould be infurmountable ; for God could not
juftly exaCt a double punifhment for the fame fin, or in-
fliCt mifery on thofe to xvhom he imputes perfeCt righ¬
teoufnefs. But as to this imaginary transferring of vir¬
tues and vices from one perfon to another, the feriptures
give no countenance ; fo they nowhere call the death of
Chrift a fatisfaBion for the fins of men. The term has
indeed been long in ufe among divines, and Avhen pro¬
perly explained it may be retained Avithout any danger;
but in treating of this fubjeCt, it would perhaps be more
prudent to reftriCt ourfelves to the ufe of feripture lan¬
guage, as the Avord fatisfaBion carries in it the ideas of
a debt paid and accepted ; Avhereas it is faid by St Paul,
that “ eternal life is t\\egift of God through Jefus Chrift
our Lord j and that Ave are juftified freely by his grace
through the redemption that is in Jefus Chrift, Avhom
God hath fet forth to be a propitiation through faith in
his blood.”
To clear up this matter, and attain adequate notions of The death
redemption and juftification, it Avill be neceffary to look of t hrift
back to the fall of our firft parents ; for the great pur-reftorfcl t0
pofe for Avhich Chrift Avas promifed, and for Avhich he
came into the Avorld, Avas, by bruifing the head of thehadloft.C>
ferpent, to reftore mankind to the inheritance Avhich
they had loft through the tranfgreflion of Adam. This
is apparent not only from the original promife made to
the Avoman, but alfo from different paffages in the
epiftles of St Paul, Avho exprefsly calls Chrift the fecond
Adam, and fays, that, “ as by the offence of one, judge¬
ment came upon all men to condemnation ; even fo by
the righteoufnefs of one, the free gift came upon all
men unto juftification of life j” that “ as by one man’s
difobedience many Avere made finners, fo by the obedi¬
ence of one fliall many be made righteous and that,
“ as in Adam all die, even fu in Chrift fliall all be made
3 B 2 alive.”
:8o
V. IO.
f Titus u.
14.
nHr'"0*)(n:u a^vc■,, Hence it was that John tlie Baptift, when he
tiarly Edl Jef*us coming to him, faid to his difciplesf, “ Behold
ftian. the Lamb of God which taketh away, not the fins, bat
-v 1 the>;t of the world,” evidently alluding to Adam’s fin
f Ch. 1. ver.and its confequenees, lince no other fin was ever com¬
mitted of which the confequences extend to the whole
world.
This being the cafe, it is undeniable, that whatever we
loft in the fir ft Adam is reftored to us by the fecondj and
therefore they who believe that the punifnment denounced
again ft eating the forbidden fruit was death corporal, fpi-
ntual, and eternal, muft believe that we are redeemed
from all thefe by Chrift ; who having “ appeared once
in the end of the world to put away fin by the facrifice of
* Hel> ix died for us, that whether we wake or fleep, we
6. 1 i'vu together with him If the image of God
in which man was created was loft by the breach of the
firft covenant, it is more than reftored to us “ by the
Mediator of a better covenant, which is eftablithed upon
better promifes if by the fin of Adam we were utter¬
ly irtdifpofed, difabled,- and made oppofite to all that is
fpiritually good, and wholly inclined to all evil, and
that continually, we are freed from that dreadful curfe
by “ our Saviour Jefus Chrift, who gave himfelf for us,
that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify
to himfelf a peculiar people zealous of good works f
and if for our (hare in the firft tranfgreffion we be juftly
liable to all punifhments in this world and in that which
is to come, the apoftle affures us, that “ when we were
enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of his
oon, becaufe that God was in Chrift reconciling the
world to himfelf, not imputing their trefpafles unto
+ Rom. v. them t.” As Jefus is “ the Lamb flain in the divine
v°’io ^ c*ecree t^ie foundation of the world,” thefe bene¬
ficial confequences of his death have been extended by
a retrofpe&ive view to all in every age whofe names
are written in the book of life, though it is abfurd to
fuppofe that he literally took their fins upon him, and
impious to imagine that he fuffered under the imputation
of fin.
Such is the general doftrine of redemption, as it is
taught by the more moderate Calvinifts and more mode-
monftrants ra.te R^monfirants ; for moderate Chriftians of all deno-
of the fame minations, though they exprefs themfelves differently,
opinion. have nearly the fame views of the fundamental articles
of their common faith. It muft not, however, be con¬
cealed, that many divines of great learning and piety
contend ftrenuoufly againft the do&rine of vicarious
atonement for a&ual tranfgreflions of the moral law.
Thefe are the more zealous Arminians, who deny that
we inherit any mortal taint or intellectual weaknefs from
our fir ft parents, whom they believe never to have been
in a ftate of greater perfection than many of their pofte-
17S rity who are called degenerate. According to them, we
tWiol-e 01 lo^ not^nS' ^7 the fall of Adam but our title to eter-
zeakms'Ar-1131 '‘ft or perpetual exiftence, together with thofe graces
minianf. of the Holy Spirit which were beftowed under the firft
covenant to train mankind for the fociety of heaven 5
and as eternal life and fupernatural grace conftituted
one free gift, not due to the nature of man, or indeed
of any created being, they might, when forfeited, be re¬
ftored by any means or on any condition which ftiould
feem expedient to the all-wife Donor. Thefe means,
and that condition, human reafon cannot indeed difeo-
ver 5 but it feems very fit that they ftiould be different
5
theology.
Parti]
177
Moderate
Calvinifts
and Re-
from the means by which moral agents under the law Theoli
of nature can fecure to themfelves the favour of theirmore pec!
Creator, or recover it when oecalionally loft. The llulUl!
former depends on arbitrary will and pleafure, or at leaft ftl“'
on no other principles difcoverable by us ; while the
latter arifeth out of the eftablifhed and well-known con-
ftitution of things. Thus moral virtue, comprehending
piety, was the condition of that favour and protection
which man, in his original ftate, could claim from his
Maker $ but obedience to a pofitive command was the
condition of the free gift of immortality conferred on,
Adam on his introduction into paradife. The claim
arifing from the relation between the creature and the
Creator is indiflbluble, becaufe that relation cannot be
diffolved : fo that the man who, by a tranfgreffion of
the moral law has forfeited the favour of God, may rea-
fonably hope to recover Tt by fincere repentance and a
return to his duty j and nothing but fuch repentance
and reformation can recover it ; becaufe, in a moral
agent, nothing can be agreeable to God but moral dif-
pofitions, which cannot be transferred from one perfon
to another, and for the want of which nothing can
atone. Our virtues are not required nor our vices pro¬
hibited, as if the one could profit and the other iniure
him who created us ; for “ is it any pleafure to the'Al-
mighty that we are righteous ? or is it gain to him that
Ave make our ways perfeCt ? Will he reprove us for
fear of us ?” No ? He commands us to be virtuous,
and forbids us to be vicious, only becaule virtue is ne-
eeffary to our own happinefs, and vice productive of
everlafting mifery.
Were an immoral man to be introduced into the fo¬
ciety of angels and juft men made perfeCt, he would
not experience in that fociety what we are taught to
expeft from the joys of heaven ; becaufe tv fuch joys
his acquired difpofitions would be wholly repugnant.
Nor could the fufferings of any perfon whatever, or the
imputation of any extrinfic righteoufnefs, make that
mind which had long been immerfed in the groffeftfen-
fuality relifti the intelleftual and refined enjoyments of
heaven ; or the man who had been the habitual Have of
envy, malice, and duplicity, a fit inhabitant of that
place where all are a&uated by mutual love. On the
other hand, fay the divines whofe doftrine we are now
detailing, it is impofiible to fuppofe that the Father of
mercies, who knows whereof we are made, ftiould have
doomed to eternal mifery any moral agent who had la¬
boured through life to ferve him in fincerity and in
truth *, or that any atonement could be neceffary to re¬
deem from the pains of hell the man whofe pious awl
virtuous difpofitions have through penitence and prayer
become fuited to the fociety of heaven. Unfinning per*
fedlion never was nor ever could be expelled in man.
He is brought into the world free indeed from vice, but
equally deftitute of virtue 5 and the great bufinefs of his
life is to guard his mind from being polluted by the
former, and to acquire difpofitions habitually leading to
the practice of the latter. Till thefe habits be fairly
formed, it feems impoflible that he Ihould not fometimes
deviate from the paths of re&itude, and thereby incur a
temporary forfeiture of the divine favour ; but the very
conftitution of his mind, and the purpofe for which he
is placed in a ftate of probation, fhow that the divine
favour thus forfeited can be recovered only by repent¬
ance and reformation.
Widely
Pi
T! 'logy
liar
til. THEO
Widely different, however, is the cafe with refpeft
recu-10 the forfeiture and recovery of a free gift, to which
Chri- man jjas no natural claim. When the condition is
n' , broken on which fuch a gift was beftowed, repentance
9 can be of no avail j it muff be either irrecoverably loft,
<Jhriftor reftored by the mere good pleafure of the giver. Im¬
mortality or perpetual exiftence is a gift which upon
certain terms was freely beftowed upon the human race,
and forfeited by the tranfgreflion of their firft parent
violating thofe terms. It was reftored by the free
grace of God, who was pleafed to ordain, that “ fince
by man came death, by man fhould alfo come the re-
furre&ion of the dead; for as in Adam all die, even fo
in Chrift {hall all be made alive. “ Hence the apoftle,
writing to the Romans of the benefits of being the chil¬
dren of God, and joint-heirs with Chrift, fummeth up
thofe benefits with refurreftion from the dead.” For
the creature, i. e. mankind, was made fubje£I (fays
a.viii he*) to vanity or death, not willingly, but by reafon
24. of him who hath fubje^ed the fame in hope : becaufe
the creature itfelf alfo [hall be delivered from the bon¬
dage of corruption into the glorious liberty of the chil¬
dren of God. For we know that the whole creation
groaneth, and travaileth in pain together until now :
and not only they, but ourfelves alfo, who have the firft:
fruits of the fpirit, even we ourfelves groan within our¬
felves, waiting for the adoption, viz. the redemption of
our body (f). That this the redemption of our body is
the confequence of the facrifice of Chrift, is taught in
the moft explicit terms in the epiftle to the Hebrews }
of which the infpired author informs us, that “ foraf-
much as the children are partakers of fleftr and blood,
he alfo himfelf likewife took part of the fame *, that
through death he might deftroy him that had the power
of death, that is the devil 5 and deliver them, who
through fear of death were all their lifetime fubjeft to
ib. ii. bondage*.” A vicarious atonement made with this
5- view, the divines, whofe theory we are now confider-
ing, acknowledge to be perfectly rational and confiftent
with the ftricteft juftice. “ The law of nature (fay
irlur- they f) allows not of vicarious atonements ; but ordains
that the man who tranfgreffeth fhall himfelf bear the
^punhhment of his iniquity •, a punifhment which no man
ulera- deferves for the faults of another, unlefs he be partaker
r on the°f the guilt by joining in the tranfgreffion.” And in
ryof proof of this their opinion, they appeal to the words of
g’on, God himfelf, declaring to Mofes,—“ Whofoever hath
,0(j finned again!! me, him will I blot out of my book J.”
i.  But when the free gift of immortality was loft, it was
with great wifdom, fay they, that God reftored it
through a Mediator who fhould make atonement by his
blood for the breach of the firft covenant j fince fuch a
mediation implies that the gift reftored is merely of
grace, to the attainment of which man could no further
180 co-operate than by his hopes and wilhes.
objec- 'Pq vievv 0f redemption, and indeed to every view
LOGY. 381
of it which we have yet taken, an objeclion forces itfelf rheology
upon the mind. Throughout the New 1 eftament E Harly Fhri-
AND immortality are confidered afc a FREE gift, and ftian>
called fo in exprefs words by St Paul*, lo the ieheme ^1 *
under confideration it is effential to confider them as * Rom. v.
fuch •, and yet we know that a large price was paid for I5*
them, as St Paul likewife acknowledges, when he
twice tells the Corinthians that they were bought with ^ °r:.
a price f. 181
“ To clear up this matter (fays Bilhop Warburton), Obviated.
and to reconcile the apoftle to himfelf, who certainly
was not defeftive either in natural fenfe or artificial lo¬
gic, let Us once again remind the reader, that life and
immortality beftowed on Adam in paradife was a FREE
gift, as appears from the hiftory of his creation. As a
free gift, it was taken back by the Donor when Adam
fell ; to which refumption our original natural rights
are not fubjedl, fince natural religion teacheth, that fin-
cere repentance alone will reinftate us in the poffeffion
of thofe rights which our crimes had fufpended. So
that when this free gift, forfeited by the frjl Adam,
was recovered by the fecond, its nature continuing the
fame, it muft ftill remain a free gift—a gift to which
man, by and at his creation had no claim ; a gitt which
natural religion did not beftow. But if milled by mea-
furing this revealed mystery of human redemption by
the fcant idea of human tranfa&ions, where a free gift
and pur chafed benefit are commonly oppofed to one an¬
other, yet even here wre may be able to fet ourfelves
right, fince, with regard to man, the charadler of a
free yift remains to immortality refored. For the price
paid by forfeited man was not paid by him, but by a Re¬
deemer of divine extradtion, who was pleafed, by parti¬
cipating of man’s nature, to ftand in his itead. Hence
the facred writers feeing, in this cafe, the perfect agree¬
ment between a FREE GIFT and a PURCHASED POSSES-
SION, call it fometimes by the one and fometimes by 2°° 9' '
the other name J.” 18a
A reftoration to life and immortality from that ftateThe death
of unconfcioufnefs or extinction, to which all mankind
were doomed in confequence of the fall, is that great ment onjy
falvation which we have obtained through the blood of ;ndiredtly
our Redeemer ; and according to the theologians whole for adtual
theory w^e are now' confidering, it w'as the only thing infin»
the divine intention when the promife was given to the
firft mother that the feed of the woman fhould bruife the
head of the ferpent. But though they contend that the
death of Chrift does not operate direSlly as an atonement
for the attual fins of men, they admit that it does fo in-
directly and by neceffary confequence, fince it gives op¬
portunities for repentance and newnefs of life, which un¬
der the firft covenant they did not enjoy. Had a man
under that covenant tranfgreffed any moral precept, he
would have forfeited the favour of his God, and either
been fubjefted to punifhment or to a long courfe of re¬
pentance j but fuppofing the effi'cacy of repentance un¬
der
(f) That by the words creature and creation the apoftle here means all mankind, and by vanity and corruption,
death, the reader will find proved by Dr Whitby, in his note on the place, with a ftrength of argument which
cannot be ftiaken and that the whole creation, the Gentiles as well as the Jews, groaned and travailed in pain
together under the apprehenfion of death, is apparent from the waitings of Cicero, who always feems doubtful whe¬
ther death be a good or an evil •, and from the lamentation of Hezekiah, when defired by the- prophet to fet his
houfe in order becaufe he fhould die and not live.,
382
moreteS fei' laW °f nature to be what tliey fuppofe it to be,
liarly (Jim- [3e "3,§ht btfore it was perfeaed have loft his exiitence
ftian
T H E O L O G Y.
Parti].
1S3
According
to the Cal-
vinifts
by the eating of the forbidden fruit.; and thus his peni
■' or punifhment have ended in everlafting death.
This can never be the iffue of things under the new co¬
venant, which, by the death of Chrift, fecures immor¬
tality to man, and gives to him opportunities, as long
as he fhall be in a ftate of probation, of recovering tire
divine favour when forfeited, whether by a moral tranf-
greffion or a temporary violation of the peculiar condi¬
tion of the covenant. Hence they admit the truth of
the apoftle’s doftrine, that we are gainers by the fall of
Adam and the redemption wrought by Chrift ; which
will appear when we come to confider their notions of
juftification. In the mean time it may be proper toob-
ferve, that they confider it as no fmall confirmation of
their opinion, that it tends to put an end to the long
agitated difputes concerning the extent of redemption,
and to reconcile paffages of fcripture which, oh tue com¬
monly received theories both of Calvinifts and Armini-
ans, feem to be at variance with each other.
. It weM known to be one of the fundamental doc¬
trines of the Calviniftic fchool, that “ none are redeemed
Chrift died by Chrift, effe&ually called, juftified, adopted, fandli-
ew/0rth* fi-ed’ and raVed’ .but the elea only V’ and if the no-
*Co?ife[rion^XO'1X% re<Ierript*on, which, in the end of the 17th cen-
cf Faith of .wer? veiT generally embraced, be admitted as
the Church juft, it wdll not be ealy tp overturn the arguments by
of Scotland, which that dodtrine is fupported. Such of them as are
1I1, ^ 5* connedlcd with the great queftion of eleftion and replo-
bation, and enter into the decifion of it, we have ftated
in another place (fee Predestination, N° 14.) ; but
t Gill's it is farther argued f, that the dodrine of univerfal re-
Body of demption refle&s on the wifdom, the juftice, and the
voTTbool- Power of God’ and robs bim of his glory.
3. ch!^.00 The Scriptures affure us that all men (hall not be
faved ; but how can this be, if Chrift died for all, and
the fcheme of falvation by his death was formed by infi¬
nite wifdom ? The Arminians indeed fay, that thofe w'ho
fail of falvation, fail through their own fault in not per¬
forming the conditions required of them ; but God ei-
thei knew or knew tiot that fuch men would not per¬
form thofe conditions. If he knew it not, his know¬
ledge is limited ; if he did know it, where was his wif¬
dom in providing a fcheme of redemption for men to
whom he was aware that it would be of no benefit ?
God, we are told, is righteous in all his ways, and
holy in all his works but there is no righteoufnefs in
making Chrift bear the fins of all men, and fuffer the
punifhment due to them, if any one of thofe men fhall
be afterwards punifhed everlaftingly. If Chrift has al¬
ready paid the debts of the whole world, it cannot be
juft to caft a fingle inhabitant of the whole world into
the. prifon of hell, there to be detained till he fhall
again have paid the uttermoft farthing. “ The Lord’s
hand is not fhortened that it cannot fave for he is and
always will be the fame Almighty power that he was
from eternity ; but if by the divine decree Chrift died
for all men, and yet all men fhall not be faved, it
would appear that man is mightier than his Maker !
1 he. ultimate end of God in the redemption of man is
admitted to have been his own glory; but if any indivi¬
dual of the human race, who was redeemed by Chrift,
fhall.not be faved, God will fo far lofe his end, and be
deprived of his glory. For, if this were the cafe, where
would be the glory of God the Father in forming a TWw
fcheme which, with pefped to multitudes, does not fuc-morepe,[
' 11UL lUC- pCtll.
ceed t and where would be the glory of the Son nfliaily thri.
IT ^    1 • . . 1 1 ftinr
God, the Redeemer, in working out the redemption of
men who are yet not to be faved by him ? and where ' "
would be the. glory of the fpirit of God, if redemption
were not by him effe&ually applied to every individual
for whom it was wrought ? By fuch arguments as thcfe
do the Calvinifts oppofe the fcheme of univerfal redemp¬
tion, and contend that Chrift died only for the elefl, or
fuch as fhall be placed on his right hand at the day of
judgment. This notion of a limited redemption, as
they think it more worthy of the fovereignty of God,
they believe to be taught by our Saviour himfelf, when
he faith*, “ All that the Father giveth me fhall come * John vi
to me ; and him that cometh to me, I will in nowife 37-40. ’
ca.ft out. For I came down from heaven, not to do
mine own will, but the will of him that fent me. And
this is the Father’s will who hath fent me, that of all
which he hath given me I fhould lofe nothing, but
fhould raife it up again at the laft day.”
. .1 he Arminians, on the other hand, contend, that it According
is impious to limit the effeas of Chrift’s death to a cho-to the Ar°.
fen few, fince it appears from fcripture, that by the de-minian! 116
cree and intention of his Father he tailed death for
died for all
every man, that all, without exception, might through
him obtain remiflion of their fins. Thus our Lord him¬
felf told Nicodemusf, that “as Mofes lifted up thefJohniii.
ferpent in the wildernefs, even fo muft the Son of Man H-13*
be lifted up ; that whofoever believeth in him, fhould
not perifh, but have everlafting life. For God fo loved
the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that
whofoever believeth in him fliould not perifh, but have
everlafting life. For God fent not his Son into the
world to condemn the world, but that the U'orA/through
him might be faved.” In perfedl conformity with the
doflrine of his divine Mafter, St Paul teaches |, that|2CorV)
“ Chrift died for all; that God was in Chrift reconcil-14-10’. ’
ing the world to himfelf, not imputing their trefpafles1 Tim-
unto them;” that “ he will have a//men to be faved,
and to come unto the knowledge of the truth ;” that11'5'
“ Chrift gave himfelf a ranfom foref/;” and that “ Je-
lus was made a little lower than the angels, that by the
giace of God he lluruld tafte death for every manf
The very fame thing is taught by St Peter and St John,
when the former fays J, that “ the Lord is not willingji 2 Peter
that any fliould perifh, but that all fhould come to re-ui-y
11| 1 John iii
pentance;” and the latter ||, that “ Jefus Chrift the,,,
righteous is the propitiation for our fins ; and not for 2.
our’s only, but for the whole world.”
On thefe texts, without any commentary, the Armi¬
nians are willing to reft their doftrine of univerfal re¬
demption; though they think that a very ftrongadditional
argument for its truth arifes from the numberlefs abfi >-
dities which flow from the contrary opinion. Thus,
fay they *, the apoftles were commanded by our
our f to “ go into all the world and preach the gofpeliorrh's
to every creature” and all who hear it preached are Thtohfa
require to believe it : but no man, as the Calvinifls^'^*^.
themfelves confefs, can believe the gofpel as a Chriftian,k00jc4.
without believing that Chrift died for him ; and there-ch. 3.
fore, if it be true that Chrift died only for the elett, atSt Mar^
great part of mankind are required to believe a lie, andXV1, ^
a falfity is made the objedf of divine faith ! Again, if
Chrift did not die for all, then no man can be fure that
he
T
p. II. T H E O
II, ogy he is bound to believe in Chrift when preached to him:
men ecu' nor can any man be juftly condemned for infidelity :
liar; :hr1'-which is not only abfurd in itfelf, but direftly contrary
, to what we are taught by our blelled Lord, who affures
'U St hn us *, that unbelief is the caufe of condemnation. Lail-
i t i9< iy( if Chrift .died not for a//, then is it certain that he
^nd cannot claim dominion over all in confequence. of his
flf.Ro death and refurreBion ; but St Paul fays exprefsiy f,
that “ to this end Chrift both died, and rofe, and revived,
that he might be the Lord of the dead and living.”
The Arminians acknowledge, that though Chrift died
for all, there are many who will not be laved ) for, fay
jy V they f, the death of Chrift did not literally pay the
iws debts incurred by finners, but only obtained for them
,e~ the gracious covenant of the gofpel, by which all who
keiieve in him, and ftneerely endeavour to work out
their own falvation with fear and trembling, are entitled
to forgivenefs of fins and eternal life.
)iffi ties Such is the ftate of this controverfy as it was agitated
emo 1 by between the Calvinifts and Arminians of the 17th cen-
her lerntury . hut the prefent leaders of this latter fchool are
Urn ms. 0£ 0pinionj that it never could have been ftarted, had
not both parties miftaken the purpofe for which Chrift
died. It is not conceivable, fay they, that any thing
for which the eternal Son of God took upon him hu¬
man nature, and in that nature fuffered a cruel and in-
nominious death, ftiall not be fully accomplifhed ; and
therefore, if in the divine intention he died to make
atonement for the fins of man actual as well as original,
we mult of neceftity conclude, that tliofe for whom he
died ihall certainly be faved. Yet wfe learn from ferip-
ture that many Ihall go away into everlafting puniih-
ment, though the fame feripture repeatedly affures us
that Chrift gave his life a ranfom for all, and that he is
the propitiation for the whole world. To reconcile
thefe different paffages of feripture is impoftible, if we
fuppofe that he laid down his life to atone for the aBual
tranfgreftions of men ; but if the diredt purpofe of the
Godhead in forming this ftupendous plan of redemption
was, that the death of Chrift Ihould be the ranfom of
all from the grave or utter extindlion, every difficulty is
removed •, for we know that all, the wicked as well as
the righteous, ihall through him be raifed to life at the
laft day. That this was the purpofe for which he died,
they think apparent, from the very words quoted by the
Calvinifts to prove that redemption was not univerfal j
for he declares that it was his Father’s will, “ that of
all which had been given him he Ihould lofe nothing,”
not that he Ihould fave it all from future punijhment,
but only that he “ ffiould raife it up at the laft day.”
When St John calls him a propitiation for our fins,
which, as we have feen, the divines whofe doflrine we
are now Hating hold him to be indiredlly, he does not
add, as in our tranflation, for the fns of the whole
world, but o\ov tov noa-pav, for the whole rvorld,
which, by his death, he redeemed from that vanity and
corruption under which, according to St Paul, it had
groaned from the fall till the preaching of the gofpel.
Hence it is that our bleffed Lord calls himfelf “ the re-
furre<ftion and the life,” and always promifes to thofe
who (hould believe in him, that though they were dead,
yet {hould they live, and that he would raife them up
at the laft day.
Among thefe various opinions refpefting the deftina-
Lon of the death of Chrift, it belongs not to us to de-
L ° G Y. 383
cide. The ferious reader, diverting himfelf of prejudice Theology
in favour of the fyitem in which he has been educated, j1l0re Pecp-
will fearch the feriptures, and adopt the theory which larJ^a^ l"
he (hall find moft explicitly taught in that facred vo- ' v— >
lume ; but as in every fyftem ic is admitted, that one 186
purpofe for which Chrift died was to redeem mankind ®ne Pur-
from the everlafting power of the grave, and bring toj^fj^01
light lile and immortality, it is of the utmoft importance
to know whether that purpofe has been fully attained, was to
i^eath we fee ftill triumphing over ail the generations bring to
of men •, and as the feriptures give us no hopes of being hfe
refeued from its dominion but through the medium of a ^•tynim°r"
refurreefion, fome fenlible evidence feems neeeffary to
evince that a general refurrettion {hall actually take
place. This'we are promifed as one great benefit pur-
chafed for us by the fufferings of Chrilt facrificed on the
crofs. And fince the price has been paid, and paid thus
vifibly, the nature of the covenant requires that the be¬
nefit ihould be as vijibly enjoyed by the perfon whofe
fufferings obtained it for his brethren. “ If the Re¬
deemer himfelf had not been feen to enjoy the fruits of
the redemption procured, what hopes could have re¬
mained for the reft of mankind ? Would not the natural
conclufion have been, that the expedient of redemption,
by the death and facrifice -of Jefus, had jwoved ineffec¬
tual ?” This is the conclufion which St Paul himfelf
draws : “ If Chrift be not rifen (fays he *), then is our * x Cor.
preaching vain, and your faith is alfo vain ; ye are yetxv. 15—23.
in your fins. Then they aifo, who are fallen alleep in
Chrift, are perilhed—cex-uXoflo—are loft, as if they had
never exifted. But now (adds he) is Chrift rifen from
the dead, and become the firft fruits of them that Jlept.
For fince by man came death, by man came alfo the re-
furreBion of the dead : For as in Adam all die, even fo
in Chrift (hall all be made alivel”—So neceffarily con-
ne£led, in the opinion of the apoftle, is the refurre&ion
of Chrift with the very effence of Chriftianity f. f Warlur-
We have in another place (fee Resurrection, Ser-
N° 30.) ftated fuch arguments for the truth of this fun-j^ on t^e
damental article of our common faith, as muft carry
convitftion to every mind capable of eftiraating the force
of evidence •, we {hall not here refume the fubjeft.
Archbiffiop King has fuppofed J, that the human will! Origin of
is a faculty diftinft from the underftanding and the appe-^T^ 4|h
tites 5 that abfivity is effential to it; and that previously t jub'
to an eleblion formed, it is equally indifferent to all ob-fedt. 3. and
jefts. He thence infers, that a man may choofe, and 4.
even take delight in, what is not naturally agreeable to
any of his appetites; becaufe when the choice is made,
a relation is formed between the will and the objedl of
choice, which, from being originally indifferent, now
becomes a favourite objeft. But neither his Grace,
nor any other afferter of human liberty, has ever affirm¬
ed or fuppofed, that any man or body of men could de¬
liberately choofe evil for its own fake., or enter zealoufly
upon a tedious and difficult enterprife, from which no
good could pqjfibly arife, and from which unmixed mi-
fery was clearly forefeen as the neceffary refill of every
fep of the progrefs. Such, however, muft have been
the choice and the condubt of the apoftles, when they
refolved to preach a new religion founded on the refur-
reblion of Jefus, if they did not certainly know that
Jefus had rifen from the dead. And this condubl muft
have been adopted, and, in oppofition to every motive
which can influence the human mind, have been perfe-
vered
3§4
more0l<-Sy verec^ *n a great number of men and women, without
liar)) coutradidbion having ever appeared in the
ftian various tpfflmnnipc \A/ Viir*Vi ah rlif J Jl 
THEOLOGY.
Part II
■* i Cor.
xv. 3—9.
187
Hence we
various teftimonies, which at different times, and under
the cruelleft tortures, they all gave to a variety of cir-
cumflances, of which not one had its foundation in
truth. He who can admit this fuppofition, will not
furely objeit to the incredibility of miracles. The re-
furrection of a man from the dead is an event, fo differ¬
ent indeed from the common courfe of things, that
nothing but the moil: complete evidence can make it
an objeft of rational belief j but as the refurreftion of
Jefus has always been faid to have had God for its Au¬
thor, it is an effeft which does not exceed the power of
the caufe affigned, and is therefore an event poffible in
itfelf and capable of proof. It is a deviation from the
laws of nature, but it is not contradiflory to any one of
thofe laws.
That a great number of men and women fliould deli¬
berately form a plan of ruin and mifery to themfelves,
■without a profpett of the fmalleft advantage either in
this world or in the next, is as different from the com¬
mon courfe of things as the refurre&ion from the dead ;
and therefore in itfelf at leaft as great a miracle : but
that they Ihould perfift in profecuting this plan in the
midft of torments 5 that they Ihould fpread themfelves
over the whole world, and everywhere publifh a num¬
ber of falfehoods, without any one of them contradi&ing
the reft j that truth flrould never efcape them either in
an unguarded moment, or when lingering on the rack,
and yet that all their lies fhould be in perfefl agreement
with each other; that they ftrould every one of them
court fufferings for a perfon whom they knew to be an
impoftor ; that not one of the number—not even a Angle
woman—fhould have fo much compaffion for a fellow-
creature, as to refeue him from the flames by confeffing
a truth which could injure nobody—not even the fuffer-
ing deceivers themfelves ;—all this is not only different
from the common courfe of things, but diredlly con¬
trary to the moft known laws of nature, and is therefore
not miraculous, but may be pronounced impoftible.
Yet this impoffibility we muft admit, or acknowledge,
that as Chrift died for our fins, according to the Scrip¬
tures, and was buried ; fo he rofe again the third day
according to the Scriptures; that he was feen of Ce¬
phas, then of the twelve; after that of above five hun¬
dred brethren at once ; after that of James ; then of all
the apoftles; and that he was laft of all feen of St
Paul*, who was converted by the vifion to preach the
faith which till then he had perfecuted.
Thus are we affured, that “ thofe who have fallen
ofeoufown afleep In C!irilt are 1101 Ioil> fmcf hc is r5fen ^m the
of our own
refurrec
tion.
dead, and become the firft fruits of them that fiept.
For fince by man came death, by man came alf'o the re-
furredlion of the dead. For as in Adam all die, even
fo in Chrift. ftiall all be made alive. But every man in
his own order : Chrift: the firft-fruits, afterwards they
that are Chrift’s at his coming ; for all that are in the
graves fihall hear his voice, and fhall come forth ; they
that have done good unto the refurre£13on of life, and
they that have done evil to the refurrection of damna-
' 1 Lor‘ tion
xv. 20—24. Llun T*
and St John Our bleffed Lord having converfed familiarly with
5% aS, 29. the eleven apoftles for forty days after his refurre&ion,
Hiflru&ing them in the things pertaining to the king¬
dom of God 5 having extended their authority as his
ininifters, by giving them a commifTion to teach all na- The*,,
tions, and make them his difciples, by baptizing them morep«u
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghoft 5 and having promifed them power from L lt‘£11'
on high to enable them to difeharge the duties of fo
laborious an office—led them out as far as Bethany, that
they might be witneffes of his afeenfion into heaven.
“ When they therefore were come together, they afked
of him, faying, Lord, wilt thou at this time reftore
again the kingdom to Ifrael ? And he faid, it is not for
you to know the times and the fealons, which the Fa¬
ther hath put in his own power. But ye fhall receive
power after that the Holy Ghoft is come upon you;
and ye fhall be witneffes unto me, both in Jerufalem,
and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the utter-
moft: parts of the earth. But tarry ye in the city of Je¬
rufalem, until ye be endued with power from on high;
and he lift up his hands and bleffed them ; and it came
to pafs while he bleffed them, lie was parted from them,
and a cloud received him out of their fight. And
while they looked ftedfaftly towards heaven, as he went
up, behold, two men flood by them in white apparel;
who alfo faid, ye men of Galilee, why ftand ye gazing
up into heaven ? This fame Jefus, who is taken up * St Lli!f
from you into heaven, fhall fo come, in like manner asxxiv.40_
ye have feen him go into heaven. And they wor-53. and
fhipped him, and returned to Jerufalem with greatA<as’■
j°y
^ 188
I hat our bleffed Lord afeended into heaven, willproofs0f
fcarcely be denied in the prefent age by any one w ho Chrift’s at
admits that he rofe from the dead. The afeenfion was cenflun-
indeed the natural confequence of the refurre&ion ; for
we cannot fuppofe that a man would be called back
from the grave to live for ever in a world where all
other men fall in fucceffion a prey to death. The pur-
pofe for which he died rvas to recover for the defeend-
ants of Adam every privilege which they had forfeited
through his tranfgreffion ; and if, as has been generally
believed, mankind were by the terms of the firft cove¬
nant to enjoy eternal life in heaven, fome proof was ne-
ceffary that Chrift by his death and refurredfion had
opened the kingdom of heaven to all faithful obiervers
of the terms of the fecond. Hence it was prophefied f f Pf. IxvE
of the Mefliab, in whom all the nations cf the earthiS.au.
■were to be bleffed, that “ he fhould afeend on high,.^*1-1'1
lead captivity captive, and fit on the right hand of God1,5’
until his enemies fhould be made his foolftool.” It was
therefore of the greateft importance to the apoftles to
have fufficient proof of their Mailer’s exaltation to the
right hand of the Majefty on high ; for otherwife they
could neither have looked for an entrance into heaven
themfelves, by a new and living way, as the author of
the epiftle to the Hebrews exprefles it, nor have preach¬
ed Jefus as the Meffiah promifed to their fathers, fince
they could not have known that in him thefe prophecies
were fulfilled. But the proof vouchfafed them was the
meft complete that the nature of the thing would bear.
The fpeftators of the afeenfion were many ; for, ac¬
cording to the hiftory of St Luke thofe who returned ^ A^s;i
from the Mount of Olives to Jerufaiem, and prepared
themfelves for the coming of the Holy Ghoft, were in
number about fix fcore ; and to fuch a cloud of witneffes
the evangelift would not have appealed, had not the
faft he was recording been very generally known.
Yet thefe were perhaps but part of the witneffes; for
fince
1
fH. is. „c * „
4*
Pr t II. T H E O
T1 iogy fince Chrlft had told to his difciples that he was to af-
ro° ’f^l'cend to his Father and their Father, to his God and
“ar 1 m their God, and that he was going to prepare a place
1 grace to help in time of need.
But it is not the office of a prieft only that our Lord
'jnda ng,
difcharges in heaven •, he is reprefented as fitting on the
right hand of God, to denote that regal authority with
which he is now veiled ; “ angels, aud authorities, and
^ !r powers, being made fubjeft to him f.” Hence it is,
Ma ,. t^iat a^ter hi* refurredlion, he faid of himfelf j;, “ all
wii s. power is given unto me in heaven and in earth $” for,
Phi i. as St Paul informs us §, “ becaufe he humbled himfelf
s’ and became obedient unto death, even the death of the
crofs, therefore God hath highly exalted him, and given
him a name which is above every name : that at the
Vol. XX. Part I.
LOGY.
name of Jefus every knee fhould bow, of things in hea-
   J . I • * .1 i.i- i i .
38s
Theology
1 for them, that where he is there they might be like-
wife •, we can hardly doubt but that all who believed
in him as the Redeemer of the world would take care
to be prefent, not only to view their Mailer’s triumph
over all his enemies, but alfo to have a fight of that
glory which awaited themfelves. It was on this occa-
fion probably that he was feen after his refurreflion by
above five hundred brethren at once, of whom the
greater part were alive at the writing of St Paul’s firil
epiille to the Corinthians.
But though fuch multitudes of people faw Jefus lifted
up from the mount, and gradually vaniffi out of their
fight, fome other evidence feemed neceflary to certify
them of the place to which he had gone. Two angels
therefore appear, and atteft what human eyes could not
fee, but what was indeed the confequence of what they
had feen. They attell that Chrill had afcended to
heaven, not to defcend again till the lall day ; and fure-
ly,. with refpedl to this point, the citizens of heaven
were the moll unexceptionable witnefles. We mull
therefore acknowledge and confefs, againll all the wild
herefies of old (k), that Jefus Chrill the Son of God,
who died and rofe again, did with the fame body and
foul with which he had lived upon earth afcend up “ in¬
to heaven, there to appear in the prefence of God for
Having in the outward tabernacle of this world
once offered up himfelf a pure and perfect facrifice for
n hi en the expiation of our fins, he entered within the veil in-
ur: u to the moll holy place, there to prefent his blood be-
uteslie ^ore in order to obtain mercy for us, and
fSC( a rellore us to the Divine favour. So that, “if any
irief man fin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jefus
Chrill the righteous, who is the propitiation for our fins,
and not for ours only, but alfo for the fins of the whole
world ; and he is able to fave to the uttermoll thofe that
come to God by him, feeing he ever liveth to make in-
terceffion for us.” “ Seeing then that we have a great
high-prielt, who is paffed into the heavens, Jefus the Son
of God, we may through him come boldly unto the
throne of grace, that we may obtain mercy, and find
ven, and things in earth, and things under the earth.” more P«cu'
And this fubmiffion is due to him, becaufe “ God raifed
him from the dead, and fet him at his own right hand ■ y
in the heavenly places, far above all principalities and
powers, and might, and dominion, and every name that
is named, not only in this world, but alfo in that which
is to come j and hath put all things under his feet, and
gave him to be head over all things to the church *.” * EphC
As God, Chrill poffeffed a kingdom, which, as it had*- 2°>
not a beginning, can never have an end : but the do¬
minion, of which the apoltle is here treating, was con¬
ferred upon him as the mediator of the new covenant,
and will no longer continue than till his enemies lhall
be fubdued ; for w’e are told, that “ he mult reign till
he hath put all enemies under his feet ; and that the
lall enemy which lhall be dellroyed is death.” “ He
will ranfom his fubje£ts from the power of the grave;
he will redeem them from death. O death, he will be
thy plague ; O grave, he will be thy dellrudlion f.” f ?ofea '
The trumpet lhall found, the graves lhall be opened, allXU1' I4*
the fons and daughters of Adam {hall return to life, and
death lhall be fwallowed up in victory. “ Then cometh
the end, when the office of mediator ceafing, he lhall
have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Fa¬
ther, when he ffiall have put down all rule and all au¬
thority and pow'er. For when all things lhall be fub¬
dued unto him, then ffiall the Son alio himlelf be fubjedl
unto him that put all things under him, that God may¬
be all in all J.” _ . f 1 Cor.
The firil confpicuous proof which our bleffed Lordxv-24—
gave of being veiled with fupreme power, and made 28,
head over all things to the church, was on the day of 0^^ of
Pentecoft. He had told the apoltles that he would the Holy
pray the Father to give them another comforter, who Ghoft on
Ihould abide with them for ever, even the Spirit ofthe aP°“
truth,_ which ffiould teach them all things, and bringftlM’
all things to their remembrance which he had faid unto
them. He had affured them, that it was expedient for
them that he himfelf ffiould go away; “ for if I go not
away (faid he*), the Comforter will not come unto*Johnxvi
you; but if I depart, I will fend him unto you.” At 7.
his lall interview with them, jull before his afcenfion, he
had defired them to tarry at Jerufalem till they Ihould
be endued with power from on high, before they enter¬
ed upon their great work of converting the nations.
Thefe proraifes were amply fulfilled ; for “ when the
day of Pentecoll was fully come, they were all with one
accord in one place. And fuddenly there came a found
from heaven as of a ruffiing mighty wind, and it filled
all the houfe where they were fitting. And there ap¬
peared unto them cloven tongues, like as of fire, and it
fat upon each of them. And they were all filled with
the Holy Ghoft, and began to fpeak with other tongues,
as the Spirit gave them utterance. And there were
3 C dwelling.
(h) There was one Apelles in the primitive church, who was condemned as a heretic for teaching that Chrill’s
body was diffolved in the air,^ and that he afcended to heaven without it. The opinions of this man and his follow¬
ers are Hated at large and Confuted by Tertullian, Gregory Nazianzen, and Epiphanius ; and the reader who thinks
<uch ridiculous notions worthy his notice, will find enough faid of them in the Notes to the fixth article of Pear-
fon’s Expofition of the Creed. Perhaps it may be from a hint communicated in thefe Notes, that our great mo¬
dern correflor of the evangeljHs has difcovered, if it be indeed true that he pretends to have diffiovered that Jefus
Chrill is Hill upon earth.
386
Theology
more pecu
liarly Chri
ftian.
* Aas ii
i_i3.
19a
Certainty
of that mi¬
racle*.
193
The gift
*>f tongues
permanent
with the
apollles-
T H E O
dwelling at Jerufalem Jews, devout men, out of every
'nation under heaven. Now when this was noifed
abroad, the multitude came together, and were con¬
founded, becaufe that every man heard them fpeak in
his own language. And they were all amazed, and
marvelled, faying one to another, Behold, are not all
thefe who fpeak Galileans ? And how hear we every
man in our own tongue, wherein we were born ? Par¬
tisans, and Modes, and Elamites, and the dwellers in
Mefopotamia, and in Judea, and Cappadocia, in Pontus
and Afia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, in Egypt and in
the parts of Libya about Cyrene, and ftrangers of Rome,
Jews and profelytes, Cretes and Arabians—we do hear
them fpeak in our tongues the wonderful works of God.
And they were all amazed, and were in doubt, faying
one to another, What meaneth this * !”
That thofe -who heard the apoftles fpeak fo many dif¬
ferent languages were amazed, is what we fhould na¬
turally fuppofe ; but that a fingle individual among
them remained unconvinced, is aftonilhing ? for the
gift of tongues on the day of Pentecoft is one of the
molt palpable mmacles that was ever wrought. It is
likewife one of the belt authenticated miracles ; for the
book entitled the ABs of the Apofles was written not
more than 30 years after the event took place (fee
Scripture, N° 168.) ; and it is not conceivable that,
within fo (liort a period, St Luke, or any man of com¬
mon fenfe, would have appealed for the truth of what
he recorded to fo many inveterate enemies of the Chrift-
ian name, had he not been aware that the miraculous
gift of tongues was a faft incontrovertible. We all
know how defirous the Jewifh rulers were to flop the
progrefs of the faith, by whatever means j but if this
miracle was not really performed, they had now an op¬
portunity of doing it effedtually by means to which truth
and honour would give their approbation. Thoufands
muft have been alive in the city of Jerufalem who were
men and -women at the time when the apoftles were faid
to have been thus fuddenly infpired with the tongues of
the Parthian** Modes, and Elamites, &c. j and as thefe
foreigners were themfelves either Jews by defcent, or at
ieaft profelytes to the Jewifti religion, furely the chief-
priefts would have found multitudes ready, both at home
and abroad, to contradict this confident appeal of St
Luke’s if contradiction had been poflible. We read
however of no objection whatever being made to this
miracle. Some of the audience, indeed, when the
apoftles addrefled people of fo many nations in all their
refpeCtive languages, not underftanding what was faid,
and taking it for jargon which had no meaning, con¬
cluded, not unnaturally, that the fpeakers were full
of new wine, and mocked them for being drunk fo
early in the day ; but this is a circumftance which, fo
far from rendering the miracle doubtful, adds much
to the credit of the hiftorian, as it would hardly have
occurred to the Avriter of a narrative Avholly falfe, and
Avould certainly not have been mentioned, had he known
that the apoftles really attempted to impofe on the mul¬
titude unmeaning founds for foreign languages.
As it is thus certain that the apoftles w'ere miraculoufiy
furnifhed with the gift of tongues, fo the elegance and
propriety of that miracle to atteft the real defcent of the
Spirit of truth, who Avas to teach them all things, and
endue them Avith porvcr from on high to convert the
nations, can never be enough admired by thtf pious
3
LOGY. PartlI
Chriftian 5 for Avords being the vehicle of knoAvledge, Theology
an ability to fpeak the different languages of the earth ".‘wepecu.
Avas abfolutely neceffary to enable thofe who had been llariy ^
originally fitliermen to go into all the Avorld and preach ■
the gofpel to every creature. Yet there have been
writers*, Avho, though unable to call in queftion the * .Dr
reality of the gift of tongues on the day of Pentecoft, and .
have contended, that it was a gift “ not lafting, hulLo},dsW
inftantaneous and tranfitory •, not beftoAved upon them ^
for the conftafit work of the miniftry, but as an occa-
fional fign only, that the perfon endowed Avith it was a
chofen minifter of the gofpel j Avhich fign, according to
them, ceafed and totally vanilhed as foon as it had
ferved that particular purpofe.” The chief argumentObjedliow
upon Avhich this opinion is attempted to be built, is
draAvn from the fcripture Greek, Avhich is faid to be
“ utterly rude and barbarous, and abounding with every
fault Avhich can poffibly deform a language ; Avhereas
Ave ftiould naturally expett to find an infpired language
pure, clear, noble, and affecting, even beyond the force
of common fpeech ; fince nothing can come from God
but Avhat is perfeft in its kind. In fhort, Ave fhould ex¬
pert, fays the objedter, the purity of Plato and the elo¬
quence of Cicero f_ j Middle.
In reply to this objedtion, it has been well obferved J, ton'sE/nt
that it fuppofes what is called the purity, elegance, and
fublimity, of language, to be fomething natural and ef- j'
fential to human fpeech, and inherent in the conftitution ton's Du.
of things. “ But the matter is far otherAvife. Thefe trine of
qualities are accidental and arbitrary, and depend on
cuftom and fafhion ; modes of humanity as various as^nf^rc(i
the differing climes of the earth ; and as inconftant as
the tempers, genius, and circumftances, of its inhabi¬
tants. For Avhat is purity, but the ufe of fuch terms
and their combinations as the caprice of a Avriter or
fpeaker of authority hath preferred to their equals ? Avhat
is elegance, but fuch a turn of idiom as a faftiionable
fancy hath brought into credit; and Avhat is fublimity,
but the application of fuch images as arbitrary and
cafual connedtions, rather than their own native gran¬
deur, have dignified and ennobled ? The confequence
of this is, that the mode of compofition Avhich is a model
of perfedtiori to one nation or people, has ahvays appear¬
ed either extravagant or mean to another. Afiatic and
Indian eloquence Avas efteemed hyperbolical and unna¬
tural by the Greeks and Romans, and is fo efteemed by
us ; Avhilft the Greek and Roman eloquence in its turn
appeared cold and infipid to the Avarm inhabitants of
the eaft ; and ours would appear perhaps ftill colder.
But the Ncav Teftament Avas defigned for the rule of
life to all mankind. Such a rule required infpiration 5
and infpiration, fay the objedters, implies the moft per-
fedt eloquence. What human model then Avas the
Holy Ghoft to follow ? for a human model it muft have
been, becaufe there Avas no other ; and if there had, no
other Avould have anfwered the purpofe, which Avas to
make a due impreflion on the mind and affedtions.
Should the eaftern eloquence have been employed ?
But it Avould have been too fwelling and animated for
the Aveft. Should the Aveftern ? This Avould have been
too ftill and inadtive for the eaft. Or fuppofe us only
felicitous for Avhat Ave belt underftand , Avhich fpecies
of this latter genus fhould the facred writers have pre¬
ferred ? The diffolute foftnefs of the Afiatic Greeks,
or the dry concifenefs of the Spartans ? The floiving ex¬
uberances
pi t II.
»jlogy uberances of Attic eloquence, or the grave feverity of
mo! pecu- the Roman ?
i;ar Chri- u £ut are there not feme general principles of elo-
, quence in common to all the fpecies ? There are. Why
then Ihould not thefe have been employed to credit the
apoflolic infpiration ? Becaufe the end even of thefe (re¬
plies our author), is to millead reafon, and inflame the
paffions 5 which being abhorrent to the truth and puri¬
ty of our holy religion, were very fitly rejected by the
infpired penman. Belides, it might eafily be known
to have been the purpofe of Providence, though fuch
purpofe had not been exprefsly declared, that the gofpel
fhould bear all pofiible marks of its divine original, as
well in the courfe of its progrefs as in the circuraftances
of its promulgation. To this end, the human inflru-
ments of its conveyance were mean and illiterate, and
chofen from among the lowed: of the people, that when
the world faw itfelf converted by the foolijhnefs of
preaching, as the only learned apoftle thinks fit to call
it, unbelievers might have no pretence to aferibe its fuc-
cefs to the parts, or Rations, or authority, of the preach-
-ers. Now had the language infpired into thefe illiterate
men been the eloquence of Plato or Tully, Providence
would have appeared to counteract its own meafures,
and to defeat the purpofe belt calculated to advance its
glory. But God is wife, though man is a fool. The
courfe of Providence was uniform and conftant : It not
only chofe the weakeft inftruments, but carefully kept
out of their hands that powerful w'eapon of words
which their adverfaries might fo eafily have w'refted to
the dilhonour of the gofpel. Common fenfe tells us,
that the Ryle of an univerfal law Riould retain what is
common to all languages, and negleft what is peculiar
to each. It firould retain nothing but CLEARNESS and
PRECISION, by which the mind and fentiments of the
writer are intelligibly conveyed to the reader. This
quality is effential, invariably the fame, and independent
of cuRom and falhion. It is the confequence of fyntax,
the very thing in language which is leaR politive, as be¬
ing formed on the principles of philofophy and logic :
whereas all befides, from the very power of the ele¬
ments and lignification of the terms to the tropes and
figures in compofition, are arbitrary •, and, as deviating
from thefe principles, frequently vicious. But this qua¬
lity of clearnefs and precifion eminently diRinguiRies the
writings of the New Teflament •, infomuch that it may
be eafily fhown, that whatever difficulties occur in the
facred books do not arife from any imperfect informa¬
tion caufed by this local or nominal barbarity of Ryle 5
but either from the fublime or obfeure nature of the
things treated of, or from the intentional concifenefs of
the writers •, who, in the cafual mention of any thing
not eflential to the difpenfation, always obferve a Rudied
brevity.”
After much ingenious and found reafoning on the
nature of language in general, our author concludes,
that the style of the New Teflament, even on the
truth of what has been faid to its diferedit, is fo far
from proving the language not to be divinely infpired,
that it bears one certain mark of that original. “ Every
language confiRs of two diflinft parts, the Angle terms,
and the phrafes and idioms. Suppofe now a foreign
language to be inRantaneoufly introduced into the minds
of illiterate men like the apoRles ; the impreffion muR
be made either by fixing in the memory the terms and
387
Angle words only with their fignification, as, for in- Theology
Ranee, Greek words correfponding to fuch or fuch Syriac™1^
or Hebrew words 5 or elfe, together with that Ample ‘ ftian.
impreffion, by enriching the mind with all the phrafes v-—
and idioms of the language fo infpired. But to enrich
the mind with the peculiar phrafes and idiom of a
foreign language, would require a previous impreffion
to be made of the manners, notions, fafliions, and opi- .
nions, of the people to whom that language is native ;
becaufe the idiom and phrafes arife from, and are de¬
pendent on, thefe manners. But this would be a vraflc
of miracles without fufficient caufe or occafion ; for the
Syriac or Hebrew idiom, to which the Jew's were of
themfelves enabled to adapt the Greek or any other
words, abundantly ferved the ufeful purpofes of the
gift of tongues, which all centered in thofe tongues,
being fo fpoken and written as to be CLEARLY UN¬
DERSTOOD. Hence it follows, that if the Ryle of
the New Teflament were indeed derived from that
language which was miraculoufly imprefled upon the
apoRles on the day of Pentecofl, it mufl be juR
fuch a one as in reality we find it to be ; that is, it
mult confifl of Greek words in the Syriac or Hebrew
idiom.”. . . . . t96
The immediate author of this gift, fo neceflary to the Divinity of’
propagation of the gofpel, was the Spirit of truth, orthcTtoly
the Comforter, who is the Holy Ghofl and the third
perfon in the bleffed Trinity. That there are three
perfons in the one Godhead, has been fliewn at large
in a former fetlion of this article •, and that the Holy
Ghofl is one of thefe three, might be fafely concluded
from the form of baptifm inflituted by ChriR himfelf.
But as more plaufible objections have been urged againfl
his divinity than any that we have met w ith againfl the
divinity of Chrift, it may not be improper to conAder
thefe before we proceed to give an account of the graces
which he imparted to the infant church, and of the
apoflles preaching under his influence. By the Arians
the Holy GhoR is conAdered as a creature •, by the So-
cinians and modern Unitarians, as they call themfelves,
the words Ho/y Ghojl are fuppofed to exprefs, not a per¬
fon or fpiritual fubAflence, but merely an energy or ope¬
ration, a quality or power, of the Father, whom alone
they acknowledge to be God. If this doftrine can be
confuted, the Arian hypotheAs will fall to the ground of
itfelf; for it is not conceivable that any infpired teacher
fliould command his followers to be baptized in the
name of the felf-exiftent God and two creatures.
It is admitted by the Socinians themfelves, that in ObjcdUons
the Scriptures many things are fpoken of the Holy
GhoR which can be properly predicated only of a per¬
fon ; but the inference drawn from this conceffion they
endeavour to invalidate by obferving, that in feripture
there are likewflfe expreffions in which things are predi¬
cated of abflraft virtues, which can be literally true
only of fuch perfons as pradife thefe virtues.. Thus
when St Paul fays *, that “ charity fuffereth long and * 1 Cor.
is kind, charity envieth not, charity vaunteth not itfelf,xhi* 4—8.
is not puffed up, &.c.” we cannot fuppofe his meaning
to be, that thefe aftions are performed by charity in the
abflra<R, but that every charitable perfon, in confe¬
quence of that one Chriflian grace, fuffereth long and
is kind, envieth not, vaunteth not himfelf, and is not
puffed up, &c. In like manner, fay they, perfonal
adions are attributed to the Holy GhoR, which itlelf is
.3 C 2 no
THEOLOGY.
588
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri-
ftian.
^ Adts x.
U), 20.
f AAs
xiii. 2.
198
Anfwered.
$ Rom.
viii. 26,
27.
§ St John
xiv 26..
XV. 26.
xvi. 13, 14,
I5-
| Fau/i.
Socinus in
Rtfp. ad
Wickam,
cap. 10.
T H E O
no perfon, but only the virtue, power, or efficacy, of
God the Father ; becaufe God the Father, who is a
perfon, performs fuch aftions by that power, virtue, or
'efficacy, in himfelf, which is denominated the Holy
Ghoft. d. hus when we read * that “ the Spirit faid un¬
to Peter, Behold three men leek, thee j arife therefore
and get thee down, and go with them, doubting nothing,
for I have fent them 5” we muft underftand that God
the Father was the perfon who fpoke thefe words and
fent the three men j but becaufe he did fo by that vir¬
tue in him which is called the Spirit, therefore the
Spirit is faid to have fpoken the wmrdsand fent the men.
Again, when “ the Holy Gjpoft faid f to thofe at An¬
tioch, Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work
whereunto I have called them 5” we are to conceive
that it was God the Father who commanded the two
apoftles to be feparated for the work to which he had
called them 5 but becaufe he had done all this by that
power within him which is called the Holy Ghoft,
therefore his words and aftions are attributed to the
Holy Ghoft, juft as long-fuffering in men is attributed
to charity.
This reafoning has a plaufible appearance, and would
be of much force were all the aftions which in fcripture
are attributed to the Holy Ghoft of fuch a nature as
that they could be fuppofed to have proceeded from the
perfon of God the Father in confequence of any parti¬
cular power or virtue in him ; but this is far from be¬
ing the cafe. Thus “ Spirit is faid X to make intercef-
fion for us •,1’ but with whom can we fuppofe God the
Father, the fountain of divinity, to intercede ? Our Sa¬
viour allured § his difciples, that the Father would, in
his name, fend to them the Holy Ghoft, who is the
Comforter ; that he would himfelf fend the Comforter
unto them from the Father; that the Comforter fhould
not fpeak of himfelf, but fpeak only what he ffiould
hear •, and that he ftiould receive of Chrift’s, and ffiew
it unto them. But we cannot, without blafphemy and
abfurdity, fuppofe that the Father would, in the name
of Chrift, fend himfelf; that the Son would fend the
Father from the Father ; and the Father would not
fpeak of himfelf, but fpeak only w’hat he heard j or
that either the Father in perfon, or a quality of the Fa¬
ther, fhould receive any thing of Chrift: to ftiew unto the
apoftles.
The fagacity of Socinus perceived the force of fuch
obje61ions as thefe to his notion of the Holy Ghoft be¬
ing nothing more than the power of the Father perfoni-
fied *, and therefore he invented another pro/opopeia to
ferve his purpofe in the interpretation of thofe texts to
which this one cannot be applied. “ The Spirit of
God (fays he||) may be confidered either as a property
or power in God, or as the things on which that power
is working. When taken in the former fenfe, the Spi¬
rit, where any perfonal attribute is given to it, means
God the Father ; when taken in the latter fenfe, it
means the man on whom the power of the Father is
working ; who, as long as he is affected by that power,
is therefore called the Spirit of God and he quotes,
we think moft abfurdly, the tenth verfe of the fecond
chapter of the firft epiftle to the Corinthians, as a text
in which by the Spirit is meant an infpired man who
could learch all things, yea, even THE DEEP THINGS OF
God.
How Ixis modern followers, who deny the plenary in-
4
l.°gy. Part]I
fpiration even of Chrift, willrelifh fuch a degree of in- ThcoWy
fpiration as this, which raifes mere men to a temporary raore pecu.
©quality with God, we know not j but leaving them toliarly.Chri-
fettle the difpute with their mafter, we (hall produce one , ft‘an'
or two paffages in which perfonal attributes are given to
the Spirit of God, when it is impoffible to conceive that
Spirit, either as a power inherent in the Divine Father,
or as the perfon on whom that power is operating. We
need not bring new texts into view, as fome of thofe al¬
ready quoted will ferve our purpofe. When our Saviour
promifes that the Ho/p Ghojl, the Comforter, the Spirit of
truth, ffiould be fent by the Father and the Son to the
apoftles, we have feen, that by this Spirit he could not
mean the Father or a property of the Father 5 neither
could he poffibly mean the apoftles themfelves, unlefs we
are to fuppofe that the Father and the Son fent St Peter
to St Peter, and that St Peter, fo fent, came to St Pe¬
ter ! Again, when Chrift faith of the Holy Ghoft, “ he
ffiall receive of mine, and ffiall fliew it unto you,” he
could not, for the reafon already affigned, mean by the
Holy Ghoft the Father or the power of the Father j and
furely his meaning was not, that the apoftles, under the
influence of the power of the Father, ftiould receive
fomething and ftiew it each to himfelf! The Holy
Ghoft therefore is unqueftionably a perfon; for though
there are many paffages of fcripture in which the gifts of
the Holy Ghoft are called the Holy Ghof, they are fo
called by a very common figure of fpeech, in which the
effeft receives the name of its caufe : and fince this per¬
fon is joined with the Father and the Son in the formula *
of Chriftian baptifm ; fince they who lied to the Holy
Ghoft are faid* to have lied unto God; fince blafphemy ^ v
agmnft him is a more heinous oftence than the fame fin 4,
againft even the Father or the Sonf; and fince it wasj* . ...
by the operation of the Holy Ghoft that Jefus Chrift J8) Jp/*
was conceived of the Virgin Mary, and even on that ac¬
count called the J Son of God—it follows that the Holy , Lukei>
Ghoft is God, of the fame fubftance with the Father andL J
O OJ*
It was this Divine Spirit which, on the day of Pente-
coft, infpired the apoftles with the knowledge of dif-(ties mira-
ferent languages ; and as thefe were given only to en-eulogy in-
able them to preach the gofpel to every creature, it can in
admit of no doubt but that he, who fo amply provided^pelePs™fre.
the means of preaching, would take care that the gof-ligion.
pel ffiould be preached in purity. Our Saviour had told
his apoftles, that the Comforter would guide them into
all the truth (s<j 7roi<rct\> rij)' uMbux'i'), and bring all things
to their remembrance, whatfoever he had faid unto
them ; but if they had not comprehended the meaning
of what he faid, the bare remembrance of his fayings
would have been of little importance. That before this
miraculous (bedding abroad of the Spirit they had but a
very imperfeft knowledge of his doftrines, and of the
purpofe for which he had come into the world, is apparent
from that unfeafonable queftion which they put to him
whenaffembled to witnefs his glorious afeenfion; “ Lord,
wilt thou at this time reftore aeain the kingfdom to If-
rael   .200
Their minds flill cheriffied with fondnefs the vain pro-xheir
fpe£l of temporal power ; but after the day of Pente-great need
coft they were directed to nobler objefts. From the°(il^!im'
fame Spirit they received diverfities of gifts befides that tru
of language; for we are affured by St Paul*, when * x Cor.
fpeaking of the early converts to Chriftianity in gene-xii. S—12'
ral,
y
4; II. THEO
! Th ogy ral that “ to one was given by the Spirit the word of
W' ecu- WIsDom •, to another the word of KNOWLEDGE by the
iiar! 'hri- Spirit; to another FAITH by the fame Spirit ; to
•J- another the gifts of healing by the fame Spirit ; to
another the working of miracles ; to another PRO¬
PHECY ; to another discerning of spirits ; to another
DIVERS kinds of tongues ; to another the interpre¬
tation OF TONGUES and thefe gifts, which were fe-
verally divided either among private Chriftians or among
the inferior orders of miniiters in the church, we have
reafon to believe were all beftowed in a greater or lefs
degree upon each of the apoftles.
Men thus endowed were well qualified to declare unto
the world all the council of God. By the word of wif-
dom they communicated to the Gentile nations a pure
fyftem of what is called natural religion; turning them
from the vanity of idols to the worfhip of the living
God: by the word of knowledge, they preached the
great do&rines of revelation both to Jews and Gentiles,
fliewing them that there is none other name under hea¬
ven given unto men whereby they may be faved than
the name of Jefus Chrift (l) *, and by their gifts of
healing and of miracles, &c.; they were enabled to prove
unanfwerably, that their doarines were divine. They
taught everywhere the unity of God, the creation of the
world, the fall of man, the necefiity of redemption, the
divinity of the Redeemer, his facrifice on the crofs to
reftore mankind to their forfeited immortality, and the
terms of the new covenant into which they had through
him been gracioutly admitted by God.
Such a view as our limits would admit of we have gi¬
ven of all thefe doftrines, except that which refpefts _the
terms of the gofpel covenant; but thefe being explicitly
Rated only by St Paul and St James, tve could.noMill
now inveftigate them, without violating the hiltorical
order into which, for the fake of perfpicuity, we have
digefted the feveral parts of this ftiort fyftem. Our Sa¬
viour himfelf has indeed taught with great plainnefs the
neceflity of faith and baptifm to the falvation of thofe
who have an opportunity of hearing the gofpel preached
with power (fee Baptism) : and in his fermon on the
mount, which is fuch a leifture of ethics founded on re¬
ligion as the Son of God only coulci have delivered, we
learn, that “ unlefs our righteoufnefs ftiall exceed the
righteoufnefs of the Scribes and Phanfces, we {hall in no
cafe enter into the kingdom of heaven ; that not every
one who faith unto Chrift, Bord, Lord, (hall enter into
the kingdom of heaven, but he who doth the will of the
Father who is in heaven ; and that many will fay to him
at the day of judgment, Lord, Lord, have we not pro-
phefied in thy name, and in thy name done many won-
LOGY. ' 389
derful works ?” which could not be done without faith ; Theology
to whom he will, notwithftanding, fay, “ Depart Rom ™
mc, ye that work iniquity*.” St Paul, however, feems ftian.
to at tribute our juftification to the bare a£t of believing ; —v *•
for he repeatedly alfures us, “ that a man is juftified by * St
faith without the deeds of the law while St James, on
the other hand, affirms, “ that by works a man is juft.i- 
fied, and not by faith only.” 1 his apparent difference in
the language oi the two apoftles, has produced among
divines opinions really different reipefting the juftifica¬
tion of Chriftians ; and the principal of thefe opinions it
is our duty to ftate. _ 201
' Between pardon of fin and junification there is fo clofe Meaning
a conneftion, that many writers feem to confider the °/Dftlfica’
terms as fynonymous, and to infer, that he who is par¬
doned is ipfojuftified. That every Chriftian, who
{hall be pardoned at the judgment of the great day,
will likewife be juftified, is indeed true ; but in pro¬
priety of fpeech, jujlification is a word of very different
import from pardon, and will entitle the Chriftian to
what mere pardon could not lead him to expert. An
innocent perfon, when falfely accufed and acquitted, is
jujlifed but not pardoned; and a criminal may be par¬
doned, though he cannot be jujlified or declared innocent.
A man whofe fins are pardoned is free from puniftiment;
but the juftified Chriftian is entitled to everlafting life,
happinefs, and glory. If we were only pardoned through
Chrift, wre Ihould indeed efcape the pains of hell, but
could have no claim to the enjoyments of heaven; for
thefe, being more than the moft perfect human virtue
can merit,' mult be, what in the feriptures they are al¬
ways faid to be, 44 the gfft of God through Jefus Chrift
our Lord.” Hence it is that St Paul, diftinguilhing, as
we have done upon his authority, between mere remif-
fion of fins and juftification of life, declares f, that 44 Je- p Romans
fus our Lord was delivered for our offences, and raifediv. 25.
again for our jujlification.'1'1
The word juftification, as ufed both by St Paul and St
James, has been very generally confidered as a forenfic
term exprefling the fentence of a judge. I he moft
eminent reformed divines of all denominations J, and { Lim-
even many of the Romaniits themfelves, have ftrenuouf-
ly contended, that this is its genuine fenfe, when it is di- Warburton,
ftinguifhed from mere remiffion of fins, regeneration, and Beveridge,
fan (ft ifi cation ; and if fo, it will fignify God’s pronoun- Vitringa,
cing a perfon jujl, either as being perfeftly blamelefs, or Glll> &c-
as having fulfilled certain conditions required of him in
the Chriftian covenant. But that 44 there is not a juft
man upon earth, who doth good and finneth not,” is
made known to us by the moft complete evidence pof-
fible, the joint di&ates of our own confciences and. of
divine
(L) It is not perhaps eafy to determine what is here meant by the word of wisdom and the word of KNOW¬
LEDGE, as diftinguiflied from each other. By the former (Asyos V/arburton underftan s he
ereat principles of natural religion. 44 The ancients (fays he) ufed the word m his peculiar fenfe ; it is
ufed in the fame fenfe by St Paul in Col. iv. 5. *, and we can hardly give it any other m the place before us, where
we fee the word of wifdom diftinguiftied from the word of knowledge (Aoyoj y*®^), which evidently means all
the great principles of revelation ; the term yv««5 being as peculiarly applied by Chnftian writers to revealed re¬
ligion as V « bv the Gentiles to the natural. St Paul ufes the word in this fenfe m 2 Con xi. 6 where he
fays, Ei X kxi iXoln to> A«y# aAAot, ru y^« *, and St Peter in his firft epiftle, chap. 111. verfe 7. Hence thofe early
heretics who fo much deformed tire fimplicity and purity of the Chriftian faith by vifionary pretence to luperior
knowledge of revelation, took from this word the name of Gnoftics.” See Warburton s Sermon on the Office util
Operation of the Holy Ghojl. .
1
203
It is a fo
renfic
term.
39° T H E 0
more0l<2u dl'V1*"e reveIatJon 5 and therefore whofoever is pronoun-
liarly airi-ced ju^ ^ t*lc Ju^ge of all the earth, tnuft be fo, either
ttiun. becau.e, though not abloiutely blanielefs, he has per¬
formed the conditions required of him in the covenant
of grace, or bccaufe Chrift has fulfilled all righteoufnefs
in his dead.
If this be the Scripture notion of juftification, it
mult be wholly the act of God, and cannot be the ef¬
fect either of our faith or of our virtue. Accordingly,
-we are laid by the apoltle to be jultified freely by^his
grace through the redemption that is in Jefus Chrilt j
* Rom iii W!1om. ^oc} hath fet forth to be a propitiation through
24, 25. ’ *n l]ls blood *. The aft of juftification therefore
proceeds from the divine philanthropy, and cannot be
performed by the inftrumentality of faith 5 for it is not
God, but man, who believes ; and man is not the jufti-
fier of himfelf. do talk of any kind of inflrutnent of
juftification befides the propitiation fet forth by God, is
indeed to make ufe of very improper language : “ Om-
Caufa inftfume.ntal|s (%s Bilhop Bullf), fuo modo
■cap. ii. ^ p. in. effe^lnni influit, eique effefti produftio proprie at-
tribui poteft. Jam vero, cum juftificatio nihil aliud fit
quam gratiofus Dei aftus, quo peccata noftra nobis con-
donet, ac nos ad falutem acceptet, valde abfurdum eflet
dicere, vel fidem, vel opera noftra, vel quidvis aliud
noftri aut remittere peccata noftra, aut perfonas noftras
acceptare : quod tamen, fi inftrumentalis caufa juftifica-
tionis fides fit, plane dicendum effet.”
In this fentiment of the bilhop of St David’s fome of
the moft eminent divines both among the Calvinifts and
Arminians agree. Many, however, have chofen to treat
of juftification not only in the aftive fenfe, as it is the
aft of God, for all admit that it is he whojuftifies; but
likev ife in a paffive fenfe, as it means our privilege or
pojjejfwn holden of him, when we are faid to be juftified
by his grace. In this view of the fubjeft they may talk,
with fufficient propriety, of an inftrument of juftifica¬
tion, not as the mean by which it is conveyed, but as
the medium through which it is received by the true
Chriftian. And hence it follows, that Waterland and
Warburton ftrenuoufiy maintain the doftrine of the
Weftminfter Cpnfeflion, “ that faith receiving and reft-
ing on Chrift is the alone inftrument of juftification $
though it cannot be alone in the perfon juftified, but
muft ever be accompanied with all other faving graces,
and be a faith which worketh by love.”
But notwithftanding this agreement between thelead-
ers of the rival fefts, they have found abundant matter
of controverfy refpefting faith and works, in deciding
the great queftion, “ Whether, when God juftifies man,
he confiders him as abfolutely righteous on account of
Chrift’s righteoufnefs performed in his ftead j or only as
juft, becaufe he has fulfilled the conditions of the cove¬
nant of grace, which does not require of him perfeft
righteoufnefs ?” The former is the doftrine of the more
rigid Calvinifts, the latter that of the Arminians or Be¬
rn on ft rants.
A notion (fays Dr Gill obtained fome years ago,
ihat a relaxation of the law and the feverities of it has
been obtained by Chrift j and a new law, a remedial
law-, a law of milder terms, been introduced by him,
which is the gofpel ; the terms of which are, faith, re¬
pentance, and new obedience $ and though thefe be im-
perfeft, yet, being fincere, they are accepted by God in
.he room of perfeft righteoufnefs. But every article of
I 0/
Divinity,
vol. ii.
hook iii.
chap. 8.
$ 5*
G . Part II
this fcheme (continues he) is wrong; for the law Is not TheoloJ
relaxed, nor any of its feverities abated ; Chrift camemore peel,
not to deftroy, but to fulfil it j and therefore it requires ^ar'Ahi.
the fame holy, juft, and good things, as ever. Nor is 1
the gofpel a new law. There is nothing in it (he fays)
which looks like a law ; for it has no commands in it, Doftrine
but all promifes, being a pure declaration of grace and°^t'ie Cal*
falvation by Chrift; nor are faith, repentance, and a new j'nnisre‘
obedience, required by it as conditions of man’s accep- ^ m®lt*
tance with God. Faith and repentance are gofpel doc-
trines, and parts of the gofpel miniftry ; they are graces,
and not terms required to be performed by men of them-
felves. faith is the gift of God, and repentance is a
grant from him. It is not true (continues our author)
that God will accept of an imperfeft righteoufnefs in the
room of a perfeft one 5 nor can any thing more highly
refleft upon the juftice and truth of God, who is the
judge of all the earth, than to fuppofe that he can ever
account that as a righteoufnefs which is not one.”
Having thus proved by arguments which were almoft
in the fame words ftated long before by Bilhop Beve¬
ridge *, that the gofpel is no relaxation of the law, he * See
proceeds to lay down his own notions of juftification, of Private
which (he fays) “ the foie matter, or that for the fake oj
of which a finner is juftified before God, is the righte- RelWn'
oufnefs of Chrift—-that which he did and fuffered on
earth, in our nature, in our ftead, and as our reprefen-
tative. Ihis is commonly called his aftive and paflive
obedience j and when the purity and holinefs of his own
nature was added to it, the whole made up the ^nceuufuc
rav vapov, the righteoufnefs of the law, which was ful¬
filled by him as the head and reprefentative of his peo¬
ple f j for whatever the law required is neceflary to a fin-| pom>
ner’s juftification before God, and it required of finners viii. 4.
more than it did of man in innocence. Man wyas crea¬
ted with a pure and holy nature, conformable to the
pure and holy law of God ; and it was incumbent on
him to continue fo, and to yield in it perfeft and finlefs
obedience, in the failure whereof he was threatened with
death. Man did fail, by which his nature wras vitiated
and corrupted, and his obedience became faulty and im-
perfeft. He therefore became liable to the penalty of
the law, and ftill perfeft obedience was required of him.
To the juftification of a finner therefore is required the
moft complete obedience, aftive and paflive; or, in other
words, purity of nature, perfeft obedience, and the fuffer-
ings of death ; all which meet in Chrift, the reprefenta-
tive of his people, in whom they are juftified. There
are indeed fome divines (continues our author) who ex¬
clude the aftive obedience of Chrift from being any j art
of the righteoufnefs by wTich men are juftified. They
allow it to have been a condition requifite in him as a
Mediator, qualifying him for his office ; but deny that it
is the matter of juftification, or reckoned for righteouf¬
nefs to man. But without the aftive obedience of Chrift
the law would not be fatisfied ; the language of which
is, Do and live; and unlefs its precepts be obeyed, as
"'ell as its penalty endured, it cannot be fatisfied ; and
unlefs it be fatisfied there can be no juftification. If
therefore men are juftified by the righteoufnefs of Chrift,
it muft be by his aftive obedience imputed and made
over to them, fo as to become their’s, even as Daviddc-
feribeth the blejfednefs of the man unto whom God impu-
teth righteoufnefs without worhX- That this is really} RomA
the way in which men are juftified, our author thinks d.
evident,
hi II.
The gy evident, becaufe they miift be jaftified either by an inhe-
*U0re ;cu- rent or jjy an imputed righteoufnefs j but they cannot be
larly 'irI'juftified by their own inherent righteoufnefs, for that is
■—/ imperfedt, and therefore not juftifying. Hence the
apoftle ‘ counts all things but dung, that he may win
Chritl and be found in him *, not having his own righ¬
teoufnefs, which is of the law, but that which is through
the faith of Chriji, the righteoufnefs which is of God by
Phi .u\faith But by fuch a righteoufnefs as this a man can-
9- not be juftified in any other way than by an imputation
of it to him. Whence it follows, that ‘ as by one ?nan s
(Ufobedience many were made finners by imputation, fo
by the obedience of one Jhall many be made righteous, by
having that obedience placed to their own account.,,
As this author properly confiders junification as the
adl of God, he does not approve of the language in
which faith is called the inftrument either of conferring
Boe if or receiving it. “ Faith (fays he f) is merely the evi-
r)/w v, dence of juftification to the perfon juftified \ for ‘ faith
' is the evidence of things not feen.1 The righteoufnefs
Roi i. of God, of the God-man and Mediator Jefus Chrift, is
revealed from faith to faith in the everlaftihg gofpel % ;
and therefore muft be before it is revealed, and before
the faith to which it is revealed. Faith is that grace
whereby a foul, having feen its want of righteoufnefs,
beholds in the light of the Divine Spirit a complete
righteoufnefs in Chrift, renounces its own, lays hold on
that, puts it on as a garment, rejoices in it, and glories
of it*, the Spirit of God witnefling to his fpirit that he
is a juftified perfon : and fo he is evidently and declara-
tively ‘ juftified in the name of the Lord Jefus, and by
i C vL the fpirit of our God ||\ Faith adds nothing to the ejfe,
only to the bene ejfe of juftification *, which is a com¬
plete aft in the eternal mind of God, without the being
or confideration of faith, or any forefight of it. In the
account of God, a man is as much juftified before his
faith as after it \ and after he does believe, his juftifica¬
tion depends not on his afts of faith, for though we be¬
lieve not, yet God abides faithful to his covenant-engage¬
ments with his Son, by whofe furetyfhip-righteoufnefs
the eleft are juftified ; but by faith men have a comfort¬
able fenfe, perception, and apprehenfion, of their juftifi¬
cation, and enjoy that peace of foul which refults from
it. It is by that only, under the teftimony of the Di¬
vine Spirit, that they know their intereft in it, and can
claim it, and fo have the comfort of it.”
Though this language differs from that of the Weft-
minfter Confeflion, the author feems not to teach a dif¬
ferent doftrine ; for if faith be that grace by which a
foul renounces its own righteoufnefs, and lays hold of
Chrift’s, which it puts on as a garment, it muft be that
very thing which the compilers of the Confeflion meant
by their definition of faith receiving and refting on
Chrift and his righteoufnefs, when they called it “ the
alone inftrument of juftification.” Accordingly our au-
g0 thor elfewhere * teaches, that “ true faith in fenfible fin-
•rai ii ners affents to Chrift and embraces him, not merely as a
y> Saviour of man in general, but as a fpecial fuitable Sa-
f.Lr viour for them in particular. It proceeds upon Chrift’s
being revealed in them as wTell as to them, by the fpirit
of wifdom and revelation, in the knowledge of him as a
Saviour that becomes them. It comes not merely
through external teachings by the hearing of the word
from men *, for no man, faith our bleffed Lord, can
come to me except the Father draw him j but fuch fouls
as are thus drawn, having heard and learned of the
THEOLOGY. 391
Father, believe not only in the doBnne of Chrift, but Theology
alfo in himfelf trufting in him alone for everlafting life
and falvation.” ftian.
Were it not that this author, in every thing that he v 1
writes, has an eye to the doftrine of eleftion and repro- ^04
bation, which he carries to a greater height than almoft A-11^ 01 t^e
any other divine with whofe works we are acquainted,
he would differ little in his notions of juftification fromminians.
the more moderate Arminians. “ Juftification (fays Lim-
borch) is the merciful and gracious aft of God, where¬
by he fully abfolves from all guilt the truly penitent and
believing foul, through, and for the fake of Chrift appre¬
hended by a true faith : or gratuitoufly remits fins upon
the account of faith in Jefus Chrift, and gracioufly im¬
putes that faith for righteoufnefs.” Here indeed the im¬
putation of Chrift’s righteoufnefs is exprefsly denied 5 but
Dr Waterland, who can hardly be confidered as a Cal-
vinift, feems to contend for the imputation of that righ¬
teoufnefs to the finner, as well as for faith being the in¬
ftrument by which it is received.
“ It cannot be for nothing (fays that able writer *) * Sutnma-
that St Paul fo often and fo emphatically fpeaks of man’s ']}' v[ew of
being juftified by faith, or through faith in Chrift’s blood;
and that he particularly notes it of Abraham, that he be¬
lieved, and that his faith was counted to him for juftifi¬
cation, when he might as eafily have faid that Abraham,
to whom the gofpel w'as preached, -was juftified by gofpel-
faith and obedience, had he thought faith and obedience
equally inftruments of juftification. Befides, it is on all
hands allowed, that though St Paul did not direftly op-
pofe faith to evangelical works, yet he comprehended the 20(-
works of the moral law under thofe which he excluded Faith the
from the office of jujlifying, in his fenfe of the word ju- inftrument
ftification. He even ufed ftich arguments as extended^ °^*t’
all kinds of tvorks ; for Abraham’s works were exclud¬
ed, though they were undoubtedly evangelical. To prove
that he interprets the apoftle’s doftrine fairly, our author
quotes, from the genuine epiftle of Clemens of Home, a
paffage, in which it appears beyond a doubt that this
fellow-labourer of St Paul fo underftood the doftrine of
juftifying faith as to oppofe it even to evangelical works,,
however exalted. It is true (continues our author), Cle¬
mens elfewhere, and St Paul almoft everywhere, infills
upon true holinefs of heart and obedience of life as in-
difpenfable conditions of falvation or juftifieation ; and
of that, one would think, there could be no queftion
among men of any judgment or probity. But the
queftion about conditions is very diftinft from the other
queftion about inftruments ; and therefore both parts-
may be true, viz. that faith and obedience are equally
conditions, and equally indifpenfable where opportuni¬
ties permit; and yet faith over and above is emphati¬
cally the inftrument both of receiving and holding jufti¬
fication, or a title to falvation*
“ To explain this matter more diftinftly, let it be re¬
membered, that God may be confidered either as a party
contrafting with man on very gracious terms, or as a
Judge to pronounce fentence on him. Man can enter
into the covenant, fuppofing him adult, only by affent-
ing to it, and accepting it, to have and to hold it on
fuch kind of tenure as God propofes : that is to fay,
upon a felf-denying tenure, confidering himfelf as a
guilty man Handing in need of pardon, and of borrowed
merits, and at length refting upon mercy. So here, tire
previous queftion is, Whether a perfon lhall confent to
hold a privilege upon this fubmiffive kind of tenure or
not ?
392
Theology
ijiore pecu¬
liarly Chri-
ftian.
205
Faith and
obedience
its condi¬
tions.
not ? Such aflent or confent, if he comes into it, is the
very thing which St Paul and St Clemens call faith.
And this previous and general queftion is the queltion
which both of them determine againft any proud claim¬
ants who would hold by a more felf-admiring tenure.
“ Or if we next confider God as fitting in judgment,
and man before the tribunal going to plead his caufe 5
here the queftion is, What kind of plea lhall a man re-
folve to truft his falvation upon ? Shall he ftand upon
his innocence, and reft upon ftriift law ? or ftiall he plead
;uilty, and reft in an aft of grace ? If he choofes the
he is proud, and fure to be caft : if he choofes
THEOLOGY. partlI
precifely the fame queftion before him which St James Theolo/
happened to have, he would have decided juft as Stmore perl.
I Q m o /"i 1 Ti • n n d r «■« 1-* « J  ? JA "I (* llUflv PL..'
lormer.
the latter, he is fafe fo far in throwing himfelf upon an
ad! of grace. Now this queftion alfo, which St Paul
has decided, is previous to the queftion, What condi¬
tions even the aft of grace itfelf finally infifts upon ? A
queftion which St James in particular, and the general
tenure of the whole Scripture, has abundantly fatisfied ;
and which could never have been made a queftion by
any confiderate or impartial Chriftian. None of our
works are good enough to ftand by themfelves before
him who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity. Chrift
only is pure enough for it at firft hand, and they that
are Chrift’s at fecond hand in and through him. Now
becaufe it is by faith that we thus interpofe, as it were,
Chrift between God and us, in order to gain acceptance
by him; and therefore faith is emphatically the inftrument
whereby we receive the grant of juftification. Obedi¬
ence is equally a condition or qualification, but not an
inftrument, not being that aft of the mind whereby we
look up to God and Chrift, and whereby we embrace
the promifes.”
But though our author contends that faith is the in¬
ftrument of juftification, he does not, like the Antino-
mians, teach that it will fave men without works. “ The
covenant of grace (fays he) has conditions annexed to it
of great importance, for without them no inftrnments
can avail. 1 hefe are faith and obedience, as St James
hath particularly maintained. St Paul had before de¬
termined the general and previous queftion refpefting
the plea by which we ought to abide ; and when fome
libertines, as is probable, had perverted his doftrine of
faith and grace, St James fhowed that the very faith
which refts in a covenant of grace implies a cordial fub-
miflion to the conditions of that covenant, other wife it
would be nothing but an empty ceremony. The per-
feft ag cement between St Paul and St James in the ar¬
ticle oijuflif cation, appears very clear and certain. St
I aul declares, that in order to come at juftification, it is
neceflary to ftand upon grace, not upon merit; which
St James does not deny, but rather confirms, in what
he fays of the perfeft law of liberty (James i. 25. ii. 12.).
St Paul makes faith the inftrument of receiving that
grace ; which St James does not difpute, but approves
by what he fays of Abraham (ii. 23.) ; only he main¬
tains alfo, that in the conditionate fenfe, juftification
depends equally upon faith and good works ; which St
Paul alfo teaches and inculcates in effeft, or, in other
words, through all his writings. If St Paul had had
rr   *.ww**v* juii as 01“/lc pecu,
James did ; and if St James had had precifely the fame *'arty ®ri’
queftion before him which St Paul had, he would have uiiiV
determined juft as St Paul did. Their principles were 'r*‘*
exaftly the fame, but the queftions were diverfe ; and
they had different adverfaries to deal with, and oppofite
extremes to encounter, which is a common cafe.
“ It may be noted, that that faith which is here call¬
ed a condition, is of much wider compafs than that par¬
ticular kind of faith which is precifely the inftrument of
juftification. For faith as a condition means the whole
complex of Chriftian belief, as exprefled in the creeds;
while faith as an inftrument means only the laying hold
on grace, and refting in Chrift’s merits in oppofition to
our own defervings : though this alfo, if it is a vital and
operative principle (anc} if it is not, it is nothing worth),
muft of courfe draw after it an hearty fubmiffion to, and
obfervance of, all the neceflary conditions of that cove¬
nant of grace wherein we qepofe our whole truft and
confidence. So that St Paul might well fay, “ Do we
then make void the law (the moral law) through faith ?
God forbid : Yea, we eftablilh the law*.” We ex-* Bora, iii.
empt no man from religious duties; which are duties 51,
ftill, though they do not merit nor are praflicable to
fuch a degree as to be above the need of pardon : they
are neceflary conditions in their meafure of juftification,
though not fufficient in themfelves to juftify, nor perfedt
enough to ftand before God or to abide trial: therefore
Chrift’s merits muft be taken in to fupply their defedls:
and fo our refting in Chrift’s atonement by an humble
felf-denying faith is our laft refort, our anchor of falva¬
tion both fure and ftedfaft, after we have otherwife
done our utmoft towards the fulfilling of God’s facred
laws, toAvards the performing of all the conditions re¬
quired.
“ I hat good works, internal and external, are ac¬
cording as opportunities offer and circumftances permit,
conditions properly fo called, is clear from the whole
tenor of Scripture, as hath been often and abundantly
proved by our own divines (m), and is admitted by the
moft judicious among the foreign Reformed (n). Yet
fome have been very fcrupulous as to this innocent name,
even while they allow the abfolute neceflxty of good
works as indifpenfable qualifications for future blefled-
nefs. Why not conditions therefore as well as qualifi¬
cations ? Perhaps becaufe that name might appear to
ftrike at abfolute predeftination, or unconditional elec¬
tion ; and there may lie the fcruple : otherwife the dif¬
ference appears to lie rather in words than in things.
“ Some will have them called not conditions, but
fruits or cotfequents of juftification. If they mean by
juftification the fame as the grace of the Holy Spirit,
and the firft grace of faith fpringing from it, they fay
true ; and then there is nothing more in it than an im¬
proper ufe of the word jufif cation, except that from
abufe of words very frequently arifes fome corruption of
doftrine. If they mean only, that outward afts of
righteoufnefs are fruits of inward habits or difpofitions;
that
■
will LntT Po412’ 4I4’ i1*’43°, 434’ H4, 516, 544, S83, 645, 668. Edit. ult.—Stillingfket’s
Works vol. in. p. 367, 380, 393, 398.—Tillotfon’s Pofthumous Sermons, vok ii. p. 484, 487.
(n) V oftius de Boms Operibus, Thef. x. p. 370.—Op. tom. vi—Frid. Spanhem.fi. Op. tom. Hi. p, 141, 159.
I
?a IT.
' T| 0?y that alirt is undoubtedly true : but that is noreafon why
: mo' >ecu-internal afts, virtues, graces (good works of the mind),
biari ^“-fhould not be called conditions of juftilication j or why
, the outward afts Ihould not be juftly thought conditions
of preferving it. But if they mean that juftification is
ordinarily given to adults, without any preparative or
previous conditions of faith and repentance, that indeed
is very new doftrine and dangerous, and opens a wide
door to earnal fecurity and to all ungodlinefs.”
Such is the doctrine of Chriftian juftification as it has
been taught by the followers of Calvin, and by fome of
the moft eminent Arminians who flouriihed in the end
of the 17th and beginning of the i8th century. They
appear not, from this view of their opinions, to differ
fo widely as fome of them have wilhed the world to be¬
lieve. It is evident that Dr Waterland, though he re¬
jects fome of the diftinguilhing tenets of Calvinifm, lays
greater ftrefs upon faith in his fcheme of juftification
than Dr Gill himfelf •, and that they both conlider it as
1: J the injlrument by which the adult Chriftian muft receive
jt jbje sns the imputed righteoufnefs of Chrift. The greater part
' f th of modern Arminians, however, exclaim againft the im-
lore al- putation of Chrift’s righteoufnefs, as a dodtrine falfe in
LV ‘to itfelf, and fraught with the moft pernicious confequences j
tfiis ( e. and they would be ready to tell Dr Gill, in his own
"bent the words, that of his fcheme every article is Wrong. It is
0&1 not true (fay they) that God exadta of man, or ever did
exadft of him, an obedience abfolutely perfedl; for under
every difpenfation man was in a ftate of difeipline, and
had habits of virtue and piety to acquire \ and it is pro¬
bable that his progrefs in piety, virtue, and wifdom, will
continue for ever, as none but God is perfedf and fta-
tionary, and incapable of deviating from the line of rec¬
titude. Moft of them, after Bilhop Bull, dillike the
ufe of fuch unfcriptural phrafes as the injlrument of jujli-
f cation, applied either to faith or to works; and think,
that by confidering God as the foie juftifier of man,
upon certain conditions, they can more precifely afeer-
tain the diftindt provinces of faith and obedience in the
fcheme of juftification, than either their brethren of the
old fchool of Arminius, or their rivals of the fchool of
1! j 2( Calvin.
i,heii vn By the very conftitution of man, piety and Virtue are
:,lteE it duties which, if he do not fincerely perform, he muft
1 ’ of courfe forfeit the favour of his Maker; but the moft:
perfedl performance of his natural duties would not en¬
title him to a fupernatural and eternal reward. Eternal
life is the gift of God through Jefus Chrift 5 and it is
furely reafonable that we fhould acknowledge it to be
io, and not claim it as a debt due to our merits. The
pious and virtuous man has a natural claim to more hap-
pinefs than mifery during the period of his exiftence, a
claim founded on the attributes of that God who called
him into being \ but he has no natural claim to a future
life, and ftill lefs to a perpetuity of exiftence. This is
a truth not more clearly taught in the holy feripture
than confonant to the foundeft philofophy i and yet, by
not attending to it, have St Paul and St James been fet
at variance, and the rnoft oppolite dodtrines taught re-
fpedling the juftification of Chriftians.
Becaufe faith in Chrift cannot entitle a wicked man
to eternal huppinefs, one clafs of divines feem to infer
that fuch faith is not neceffary to Chriftian juflif cation,
and that “ his faith cannot be wrong whole life is in the
right.” They proceed upon the fuppofition that man is
Vol. XX. Part I.
39
naturally immoral; that piety and virtue are entitled Theology
to reward; and that therefore the pious and virtuous™0™ bV71!"
man, whatever be his belief, muft undoubtedly inherit in
an eternal reward. But this is very fallacious reafoning. ■ M ^
I hat piety and virtue are through the divine juftice and
benevolence entitled to reward, is indeed a truth incon¬
trovertible 5 but that man who is of yefterday is natu¬
rally immortal 5 that a being who began toexift by the
mere good will of his Maker, has in himfelf a principle
of perpetual exiftence independent of that will—is a di-
redt contradidtion. Whatever began to be, can be con¬
tinued in being only by the power, and according to
the pleafure, of the infinite Creator \ but it pleafed the
Creator of his free grace at firft to promife mankind
eternal life, on the {ingle condition of their firft father’s
obferving one pofitive precept. That precept was vio¬
lated, and the free gift loft : but the covenant was re¬
newed in Chrift, who “ by his death hath abolilhed 50(?
death, and by his refurredtion hath brought to light life Faith the
and immortality.” The condition annexed to the gift foie con-
thus reftored Was faith ; for “being juftified by faith *,ditlCn of
we have peace with God through our Lord jeius Chrift
by whom alfo we have accefs by faith into this grace culiaTiy
wherein we Hand, and rejoice in the hope of the Glory Chiiftian,
OF God.” Faith therefore in the So . of God and Sa- * ^om- v‘
viour of the world, is not only a condition, but the foie r’3’
condition, of that juftification which is peculiarly Chri-
ftian j for fince Chrift, without any co-operation of ours,
hath purchafed for us the free gift of eternal life, we
fhall be guilty of the groffelt ingratitude to our Divine
Benefadtor, and impioufly claim an independence on
God, if we look upon that gift either as a right in¬
herent in our nature, or as a debt due to our meritorious
deeds. 2IO
But though faith be the condition of juftification, asbut not of
that implies the inheritance of eternal life, there are obtainin2
other conditions to be performed before a man can be h^’irifs
put in polTeflion of eternalfelicity. By a law long prior
to the promulgation of the gofpel—a law interwoven
with our very being—no man can enjoy the favour of
his Maker, who does not make it his conftant endea¬
vour “ to do juftly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly
with his God.”. This law was in force before man fell";
it continues to be in force now that he is redeemed;
and it will not be abrogated even at that period when 2II
faith fltall give place to vifion, and hope to enjoyment. The dif-
By the grace of the Chriftian covenant, all mankind are con-
rendered immortal in confequence of the death and re-
furreclion ol Chrift, who is the Lamb llain, in the divine vou'r and of
decree, from the foundation of the world ; but to obtain eternal life,
immortal happinefs, they muft obferve the conditions
both of nature and of revealed religion, which are re ¬
pentance from dead works, and faith in Chrift the Re
deemer. The former is that condition upon which alone
we can retain the Divine favour, and of courfe enjoy
either prefent or future happinefs; the latter is a moft
equitable acknowledgement required of us, that perpe¬
tual confcious exiftence is neither a right inherent in
our nature, nor a debt due to our virtuous obedience,
but merely the gift of God through Jefus Chrift our
Lord.
“ To make the diftinfl provinces of faith and wrorks
in the bufinefs of juftification clear, let us fuppofe (fays ,
Bifhop Warburtonf), that, at the publication of the boolTi;/^’
gofpel, all to whom the glad tidings of immortality chan. V
/ 3 ^ were
theology.
rr
394-
Theology
more pecu¬
liarly Chri-
ftian.
212
Illuftrated
by a fami¬
liar exam¬
ple.
213
Sum of
Chriftiani-
*y-
* Gal. v. 6.
} Chr.p. iii.
8.
T H E O
were offered on the condition of faith in Jefus had been
'moral or virtuous men, and on that account entitled (as
natural religion teacheth} to the favour of God and an
abundant reward 5 is it not felf-evident that FAITH
ALONE, exclufive of the condition of good works, would,
in that cafe, have been the very thing Wn\c\\ htjlifed or
entitled them to life everlajh'ng ? But are good woris,
therefore, of no ufe in the Chriffian fyftem ? So far
from it, that thofe only who ferve God in fmcerity and
in truth are capable of the juftification which faith alone
embraces ; for, to illuflrate this matter by a familiar in-
ftance, fuppofe a Britifh monarch to bellow, in free gift,
a certain portion of his own domains, to which immor¬
tality may well be compared, upon fueh of his fubjedls
as fhould perform a certain fervice to which they were
not obliged by the laws of the kingdom ; it is evident
that the performance of this laft fervice ONLY -would be
the thing which entitled them to the free gift. Yet it
is obvious that obedience to the laws, which gave them
a claim to protection as fubjeCts, in the enjoyment OF
THEIR OWN property (to which the reward offered by
natural religion may be compared), would be a previous
and neeeflary qualification to their enjoyment of their
new pofleflion ; finee it is abfurd to fuppofe that fuch a
gift could be iniynded for rebels and traitors, or indeed
for any but good and faithful fervants of their king and
country.” Well therefore might the apoifle reprove the
ignorance or licentioufnefs of certain of his converts at
Rome, in his queflion—Do we then make void the
law through faith ? God forbid! yea, we establish
THE law 5” obedience to it being the previous qualifi¬
cation of all who are entitled to the fruits of juftifying
faith—LIFE AND IMMORTALITY.
Had proper attention been paid to this diftinction,
which St Paul everywhere makes between fuch duties as
are common to all religions that are true, and thofe
which are peculiar to the Chriflian revelation, many
ufelefs controverfies might have been avoided refpeiffing
the inftrument of juftification and the conditions of the
Chriftian covenant. By not attending to it, the divines
of one fchool, who perceive that the mere belief of any
truth whatever cannot entitle a man to eternal felicity,
have almoft dropt faith from their fyftem of Chriftianity,
and taught moral duties like Pagan philofophers; whilft
another party, who err almoft as far in their interpre¬
tations of feripture, finding eternal life reprefented as
the gift of God, and faith in Chrift as the inftrument or
means by which that gift muft be accepted, have ex¬
punged from their fyftem the neceflity of good works,
forgetting furely that wicked believers, like believing
devils, may be doomed to an eternity of torments. But
the fum of Chriftianity, as we are taught by the beloved
difciple, is comprehended in this one commandment of
God, “ that we fhould believe on the name of his Son
Jefus Chrift, and love one another as he gave us com¬
mandment.” In perfect harmony with him, the great
apoftle of the Gentiles affures us*, that “in Chrift Je-
fus nothing can avail to our eternal happinefs but faith
which WORKETH BY LOVE j” and he informs Titus f,
that it “ is a true faying, and what he wills to be con-
ftantly affirmed, that they who have believed in God
be careful to maintain good works.”
Indeed no man can have complete faith in Chrift
who believes not the promifes of the gofpel j but all
thofe promifes, except the fingle one of refurreflion
5
LOGY. _ partl,
from the dead to perpetual confcious exiftence, are made Theoiof,
to us upon the exprefs condition that we obey the law P10repeti
of the gofpel ; “ for God will render to every man ac■ ilari-v ^
cording to his deeds : to them that are contentious and > ^
do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteoufnefs, indig¬
nation and wrath ; tribulation and anguifh upon every
foul of man that doth evil, of the Jew firft and alfo of
the Gentile ; but glory, honour, and peace to everv
man that worketh good, to the Jew firft and alfo to the
Gentile *.” * Ronui
Such are the notions of juftification entertained by ^
thofe who in the prefent age have been confidered as
the leaders f of the fe£t of Arminians. How far they f fVark
are juft, the reader muff decide for himfelf; but underton ^
every view of this do&rine which we have taken, the^&c
Chriftian covenant appears much more gracious than
that into which Adam was admitted in paradife : fince The Chri
it affords room for repentance, even to that man, whofti“cov«
may be fo unhappy as to be drawn for a time into apof-Eant“
tafy from the terms of the covenant. Whether thef^“e
death of Chrift therefore was a direfi atonement for the pandiiai.
aflual fins of men, or only operated as fuch indiretlly^
by procuring for them repeated opportunities of repent¬
ance, it is an undoubted truth, that “ if through the
offence of one many be dead, much more the grace of
God, and the gift by grace, which is by one man, Jefus
Chrift, hath abounded unto many. And not as it was
by one that finned, fo is the gift: for the judgment
was of one offence to condemnation, but the free gift is
of many offence \ojuf if cation J.” JRoh.v
Thus gracioufty has the divine goodnefs difplayed it-16!1?-
felf in the reftoration of our loft inheritance. But it
ftopt not here. The fame bountiful Lord of life, for its
further fecurity, imparts to every true believer the
ftrength and light of his holy fpirit to fupport faith in
working out our own falvation. Our bleffed Saviour
promifed, before he left this world, to fend to his
followers the Holy Ghoft or Comforter to abide
with them for ever, to guide them into all truth,
to bring all things to their remembrance whatfo-
ever he had faid unto them, and, as we learn from
other paffages of feripture, to “ work in them both
to will and to do of his good pleafure.” How amply
this promife was fulfilled to the apoftles, we have al¬
ready feen j but we are not to fuppofe that it was re- 215
ftri&ed to them. As man is defigned for a fupernatural (’hrito®
ftate in heaven, he ftands in need of fupernatural direc-
tion to guide him to that ftate. “ No man (fays our
Saviour) can come to me except the Father draw him;
for as no man knoweth the things of a man fave the
fpirit of a man which is in him, even fo none knoweth
the things of God but the Spirit of God.” This om-
nifeient Spirit indeed “ fearcheth all tilings, yea even
the deep things of God,” and revealeth them to the
fons of men, to enlighten their underftandings and pu¬
rify their hearts. The grace which he ftieds abroad is
either external and general, or internal and particular.
The former has been extended to the whole church of
God under the patriarchal, Mofaic, and Chriftian dif-
penfations, in fuch a revelation of the divine will as was
fufficient to inftru£t men unto eternal life, whether they
had a clear view or not of that ftupendous plan of re¬
demption, by which the kingdom of heaven was opened
to them after the forfeiture of the terreftrial paradife;
for there have been “ holy prophets ever fince the world
began;
I Pa II. T H E O
1 Th ogy began ; and prophecy came not at any time by the will
' nor ecu- 0f manj tmt holy men of God fpake as they were moved
i:ari .hri- tjie Ghoft*.” Hence it is that all fcripture
was given by infpiration of God to teach us every thing
‘i#L 3 i- which it is necellary for us to know and believe j and
"■‘-jo. I, the fcripture is that work of the Spirit which is extended
, 3 ft '■ to the univerfal church.
But the fame fpirit which thus generally reveals the
obje£t of faith to the church, does likewife particularly
illuminate the minds of individual believers, working in
them an afient to that which is taught them from the
written word. It was thus that “ the Lord opened the
1 j-Ai xvi. heart of Lydia f; that fire attended to the things which
■ t4- were fpoken by Paul;” it is thus that “ the word preach¬
ed doth not profit if it be not mixed with faith in them
; {He iv. 2. who hear it j and it is thus that “ God deals to every
liRo Xli- man the meaf ire of faith § for “ by grace are we
faved through faith, which is not of ourielves ; it is the
f i Ef ii. S. gift 0f God j|.” This illumination of the Spirit was
conveyed to the apoftles “ in a found from heaven as
of a rulhing mighty wind,” becaufe it was meant totef-
tify to the world that they were chofen minifters of the
gofpel; but the ordinary Chriltian receives it “ in the
ftill fmall voice,” becaufe it is conveyed to him only to
“ open his underftanding that he may underhand the
LH . fcriptures.”
''•cge ates . Another operation of the Spirit on the minds of be-
: hen lievers is that which in fcripture is called Regenera¬
tion ; for “ according to his mercy God faveth us by
, _ _ the walking of regeneration and renewing of the Holy
I* *» which he Iheds on us abundantly through Jefus
Chrill our Lord.” To thofe who believe that we de¬
rive from Adam a corrupted nature, this particular
grace mull appear fo abfolutely neceflary, that without
it we could have no relilh for heaven or heavenly things.”
“ The natural man (we are told) receiveth not the
things of the fpirit of God ; for they are foolilhnefs to
him *, neither can he know them, becaufe they are fpi-
ritually difcerned.” Indeed whatever be the powers of
our moral faculties, when compared with thofe of our
firll father, it is fo long before they be completely de¬
veloped, that we Ihould infallibly be loft, if we were
not bleffed by a fupernatural guide, when reafon is in¬
capable of direfling our condufl. Our paftinns and ap¬
petites are in their full ftrength before experience has
furnilhed the mind with materials, by means of which
motives may be weighed ; and therefore it would be
impoffible, during the giddy period of youth, to keep
them in due.fubjedlion, or to prevent vicious habits from
being formed, were we not influenced by divine grace.
So true is it, that “ except a man be born again of wa-
teL and of the Holy Ghoft, he cannot enter into the
kingdom of God.” This change in our difpofitions,
from an immoderate attachment to earth to a relifh for
the things of heaven, is in fcripture called “ a renewing
of our minds, a new creation, a new man in oppofi-
tion to our natural difpofition, which is called “ the old
man, corrupted according to the deceitful lufts.” The
'kCia anc3ent fathers of the church, as well as fume very emi-
tili; „r_!*nt modern divinesf, generally fpeak of baptifm as the
nd. mftrument in God’s hand of man’s regeneration ; and for
the truth of their opinion they appeal to John iii. 3, 5.
Ephef. v. 2j, 26. and I Cor. vi. 11. in which great
ftrefs is certainly laid on the walking of water, as well
as on fanflification by the word.
LOGY. 395
A third office of the Holy Spirit is to lead, direfl, Theology
and govern us through all the periods of our lives. e Pe*b~
Without fuch a leader and guide, the temptations with ‘ fthn
which we are furrounded would certainly overcome us,
and we fhould faint long before we arrive at the end of 217
our journey. By the very conftitution of our nature wek^eS
are fubjedled in fome degree to the influence of fenfe,
of which the objects are prefent, whilft the enjoymentsi;fe 0
of heaven are future, and feen, as at a diftance, only by
the eye of faith; but “ the law of the Spirit of life, in
Chrift Jefus, hath made us free from the law of fin and
death ;” for God worketh in us both to will and to do
of his good pleafure; and as many as are thus led by the
fpirit of God, they are the fons of God; and while they
walk in the Spirit, they do not fulfil the lufts ot the
flelh.” Without the aid of the fame Spirit, we could
not even make our prayers acceptable ; for fince “ our
confidence in God is, that he heareth us only when we
afk any thing according to his will; and fince we know
not what we fhould pray for as we ought, the Spirit itfelf
maketh interceffion for us with groanings which cannot
be uttered *. * Rom. via,
A fourth operation of the Holy Ghoft, as he is the 26.
fandlifier of Chriftians, is to join them to Chrift, and
make them members of that one body of which he is
the head. “ For by one Spirit are we all baptized into
one body f ; and as the body is one and hath manyf .I^'or-
members, and all the members of that one body being KU' I^r^*
many are one body, fo alfo is Chrift.” “ Hereby we un;t^ tlK^
know that God abideth in us, by the Spirit which he to Chrift,
hath given us ;” and as, in the ordinary courfe of his
dealings with Chriftians, this Spirit isfirft given in bap¬
tifm, fo is it continued to the faithful by the inftrumen-
tality of the Lord’s fupper. That ordinance we have
elfewhere (fee SUPPER of the Lord) proved to be a
federal rite; and furely no time can be fuppofed fo
highly fandlified for the reception of the graces of the
Holy Spirit, as that in which we renew our federal
union with our Lord and Matter in the communion of
his body and blood.
It is likewife the office of the Holy Ghoft to give us
an earneft of our everlafting inheritance, to create in us
a fenle of the paternal love of God, and thereby to af-
fure us of the adoption of fons. “ As many as are led
by the Spirit of God, they are the SONS of God ; and
becaufe we are fons, God hath fent forth the fpirit of
his Son into our hearts. For we have not received the
fpirit of bondage again to fear ; but we have received
the Spirit of adoption, whereby we cry Abba Father ;
the Spirit itfelf bearing witnefs with our fpirit, that we
are the children of God J.” t GaL f 6
As the gifts of grace are generally annexed to means, x ,°™6V1U'
to the proper ufe of the word and facraments, it is a
fixth office of the fame Spirit to fandlify fuch perfons as
are regularly fet apart for the work of the miniflry, and 2I
ordained to offer up the public prayers of the people ; to and fandH-
blefs them in the name of God ; to teach the dodlrinesfies the ad-
of the gofpel; to adminifter the facraments inftituted by
Chrift ; and to perform all things neceffary “ for the
perfedling of the faints, for the work of the miniftry^i't’he gof¬
fer the edifying of the body of Chrift The fame pel.
Spirit which illuminated the apoftles, and endowed I iv‘
them with power from above to perform perfonally their 1S"
apoftolic fundtions, fitted them alfo for fending others,
as they were fent by their Divine Maftery and for efta-
3-0 2 blifhing
* &<5ls xx.
tS. and
Jude ver. 3.
24©
Controver.
fles occa-
ijoned by
this doc¬
trine
396 T H E O
Theology biilhing fueli a conflitutlon of the church as was beft
adapted for pieferving Chriftians in the unity of the
ldlftiariiri" Spirit and bond of peace. They committed a Handing
t-  .pnivpr to a fueceflive miniftry to be conveyed down to
tiie end of the world; and thofe who are veiled with
that power are obliged to “ take heed unto themfelves,
and to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath
made them overfeers, to feed the church of God, and
to contend earneflly for the faith which wras once deli¬
vered unto the faints*.” See Episcopacy, Indepen¬
dents, Presbyterians, Pope, and Quakers.
By thefe, and the like means, doth the Spirit of God
fan&ify the fons of men $ and in confequence of this
fanftification proceeding immediately from his oftice, he
is called the Holy Spirit and the Comforter. This
is fuch a provifion “ for renewing us in the fpirit of our
minds, and enabling us to put on the new man, which,
after God, is created in righteoufnefs and true holinefs,”
as, when made known by revelation, appears to have
been expedient, may be conceived to have been even
neceffary, and, though reafon could hardly have hoped
for it, is contradicted by none of our natural notions
either of God or of man. Many, however, are the con-
troverfies to which it has given rife in the church of
God; fome contending that it is given only unto the
eleCt, upon whom it operates with refiftlefs efficacy ;
others affirming that it is offered to all, but in fuch a
manner as that, by the abufe of their free will, it may
be “ refilled, grieved, and quenched and fome few,
ftill intoxicated with the pride of PELAGIUS, think it
is not neceiTary, and of courfe is not bellowed.
The queftions concerning election, the efficacy of
grace, and the final perfeverance of the faints, we have
Hated elfewhere, and given a fummary view of the ar¬
guments by which the contending parties maintain their
refpeftive opinions (fee Predestination) ; and the
texts of Scripture which we have juft quoted, under the
different heads of fanClification, fhow fufficiently that
the opinion of Pelagius is direClly contrary to the doc¬
trine of the apoftles. It may not be improper to en¬
quire whether it be as agreeable to reafon and experi¬
ence as its patrons feem to imagine.
If it be unreafonable to expefl any afliftance from
the Spirit of God in carrying on the work of our own
lalvation, how came fo many of the wifeft and beft of
men in all ages to believe, that he who fincerely endea¬
vours to difcharge his duty is fupported in that endea¬
vour by afliftance from heaven ? That fuch was the po¬
pular belief of the early Greeks, is evident from the
poems of Homer } in which we everywhere find fome
god calming the paflions of the heroes, altering their
determinations when improper, and infpiring them with
wifclom. Nor was this the fentiment of the poets only.
Socrates, it is well known, profeffed to believe that his
%,2 own conduCl was under the direction of a fuperior fpirit,
Opinions of which he called a deemon ; and Plutarch, as we find
the hea- quoted by Wollafton, fpeaks of the gods aflifting
men, by “ exciting the powers or faculties of the foul j
by fuggefting fecret principles,imaginations,or thoughts;
or, on the contrary, by diverting or flopping them.”
Of the fame opinion mull Cicero have been, when he
faid, “ Habit illud quidem, quod locum bunc continet,
de quo agimus, effe Deos, et eorum providentia mun-
1. Xeft. eofdemque confulere rebus humanis,
nee folum univerjis, verum etiam singulis f;” for it is
I
221
di (cuffed
elfewhere.
■*hens con-
cerning it.
f De Db
lib.
5G
LOGY. Part II,
not conceivable that a particular providence can be ad- Theology
miniftered without the influence of the Deity on the mo|epecii.
minds of men. That the poets and philofophers of theiiiir*l^r‘-
heathen world derived theie notions from primeval tra- ■
dition, cannot, we think, be queftioned : but if they
were abfurd in themfelves, or apparently contradiClory
to the laws of nature, they would not furely have been
fo univerfally embraced ; for it will fcarcely be denied,
that Socrates and Cicero were men of as great natural
fagacity as Pelagius or any of his followers. It is in¬
deed fo far from being incredible that the Father of
fpirits occafionally direfts the thoughts and aCtions of
men, that we believe there are very few who have made
obfervations on themfelves and their own affairs, who
have not found, on refleClion, many inftances in which
their ufual judgment and fenfe of things were over¬
ruled, they know not how or why ; and that the aClions
which they performed in thofe circumftances have had
confequences very remarkable in their general hiftory.
See Providence, N° 18, 19.
This being the cafe, why fliould the pride of Chri-
llians make them hefitate to admit, on the authority of
divine revelation, what Socrates, and Plutarch, and Ci¬
cero, and all the virtuous and wife men of antiquity,
admitted in effedl, on no better evidence than that of
oral tradition, fupported by their own meditations 011
their own thoughts, and the principles of their own
condudl ? Is it that they fee not fuch beneficial effefts
of Chriftianity as to induce them to believe the, profef-
fors of that religion to be indeed “ chofen to falvation
through the fanftification of the Spirit J ?” Let them 1 Theff.k
ftudy the praflical precepts of the gofpel, confider the3-
confequences which they have had on the peace and
happinefs of fociety, and compare the general conduft
of Chriftians with that of the Jews, Pagans, and Maho¬
metans (fee Religion), and they will doubtlefs find
reafon to alter their opinion ; and let thofe who em¬
brace the truth, remember, that as they are the temple
of God, if the Spirit of God dwell in them, “ it is their
indifpenfable duty to cleanfe themfelves from all filthi-
nefs of the flefh and fpirit; to follow peace with all men,
and holinefs, without which, »o man lhall fee the Lord ;
and to work out their own falvation with fear and trem¬
bling, fince it is God who worketh in them both to will
and to do of his good pleafure.” 52.
From this (hort view of the feveral difpenfations of The gofpel
revealed religion, it is evident that the gofpel is not on-the
ly the bell but the laft gift of the kind which man has'^atIon’
to expe£l from his Maker ; that the fcheme of revela¬
tion is completed ; and that the pretences of Mahomet
and of more modern enthufiafts to divine infpiration are
not only falfe, but fraught with contradidHons. All
thefe men admit the divine origin of the Mofaic and
Chriftian religions ; but it appears from the feriptures,
in which thofe religions are taught, that the fyftem of
revealed truths which conftitute the Patriarchal, Mo¬
faic, and Chriftian revelations, commenced w ith thefali
of man, and that it muff therefore neceffarily end with
his reftoration to life and immortality by the facrifice of
Chrift upon the crofs. A new revelation therefore like
that of Mahomet cannot be admitted without reje£ling
the whole Bible, though the impoflor himfelf every¬
where acknowledges the infpiration of Abraham, 01
Mofes, and of Chrift. Nor is greater regard due to
the claims of Chriftian enthufiafts. Such as pretend to
x hays
n.
Th' Jgy
non ecu-
iarl) h"*
ft i-
__
Be, ien,
'[facet
jour, i
ithe
^Ga .3.
T H E O
have been in heaven*, and thence to have brought
fpiritual difeoveries to the earth, have either forgotten
or never underftood, that in the feriptures of the Old
and New Teftaments the great feene o" Providence ap¬
pears to be clofed in the full completion of its one regu¬
lar, entire, and eternal purpofe •, that St Paul has pro¬
nounced f a curfe on any man or angel from heaven
who fhall preach another gofpti than what has been al¬
ready preached by the apoif ies and evangeliils; that in
LOGY, 397
their writings we are taught every thing which it is our Theology
duty to believe or to praftife in order to our own falva-more Pecn-
tion j and that we have the promife of our bleffed *iarjtyjan
Lord himfelf, that the Spirit of truth fhall remain ■
with us to guide us into all neceflary truth, till that
great day when he fhail come again to judge the world
in righteoufnefs, and render to every man according to
his works.
1:' rhec raf-
ti
em.
'njit t
l'! iiflc of
Phil bhy.
THE
THEOPHRASTA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs pentandria. See Botany Index.
THEOPHRASTUS, the philofopher, was born
, about 371 years before Chrift, and was fucceflively the
difciple of Plato and of Ariitotle. He fucceeded Ari-
ftotle in the Peripatetic fchool, and conduced the
charge with fuch high reputation that he had about
2000 fcholars. He is highly celebrated for his indullry,
learning, and eloquence 5 and for his generofity and pub¬
lic fpirit. He is faid to have twice freed his country
from the oppreffion of tyrants. He contributed libe¬
rally towards defraying the expence attending the pub¬
lic meetings of philofophers j which were held, not for
the fake of fliow, but for learned and ingenious conver-
Etion. In the public fchools he commonly appeared, as
Ariftotle had done, in an elegant drefs, and was very
attentive to the graces of elocution. He lived to the
advanced age of 85: fomefayof 107. Towards the clofe
of his life, he grew exceedingly infirm, and was carried
to the fchool on a couch. He exprefled great regret on
account of the fhortnefs of life j and complained that
nature had given long life to flags and crows, to whom
it is of fo little value, and had denied it to man, who, in
a longer duration, might have been able to attain the
fummit of feience ; but. now', as foon as he arrives with¬
in fight of it, is taken away. His laft advice to his
difciples was, that, fince it is the lot of man to die as
foon as he begins to live, they would take more pains
to enjoy life as it paffes, than to acquire pofthumous
fame His funeral was attended by a large body of
Athenians. He. wrote many valuable works, of which
all that remain are, feveral treatifes on the Natural Hi-
ftorv of Plants and Foffilsj Of Winds, Of Fire, &c.
a rhetorical w-ork entitled “ Characters,” and a few
Metaphyfical Fragments.
To Theophraftus we are indebted for preferving the
works of Ariftotle. See Aristotle.
THEOPOMPUS, a celebrated Greek orator and
hiftorian, was born in the ifland Chios, and flourifhed
in the reign of Alexander the Great. He was one of
the moft famous of all the difciples of liberates, and
Won the prize from all the panegyrifts whom Artemifia
invited to praife Maufolus. He w'rote feveral works,
which are loft.
THEOREM, a propofition which terminates in
theory, and which confiders the properties of things
already made or done ; or it is a fpeculative propofition
deduced from comparing together feveral definitions.
A theorem is fomething to be proved, and a problem
fomething to be done.
THE
THEORETIC, fomething relating to theory, or Theoretic
that terminates in fpeculation. ||
THEORY, in general, denotes any doftrine which Thermae,
terminates in fpeculation, without confidering the prac- » ^
tical ufes or application thereof.
THEOSOPHISTS, a fefl: of men who pretend to
derive all their knowledge from divine illumination.
They boaft that, by means of this celeftial light, they
are not only admitted to the intimate knowledge of
God, and of all divine truth, but have accefs to the
moft fubiime fecrets of nature. They aferibe it to the
fingular manifeftation of divine benevolence, that they
are able to make fuch a ufe of the element of fire, in
the chemical art, as enables them to difeover the effen-
tial principles of bodies, and to difclofe ftupendous my-
fteries in the phyfical world. They even pretend to an
acquaintance with thole celeftial beings which form the
medium of intercourfe between God and man, and to a
power of obtaining from them, by the aid of magic,
aftrology, and other fimilar arts, various kinds of infor¬
mation and afliftance.
To this clafs belonged Paracelfus, Robert Fludd, Ja¬
cob Boehmen, Van Helmont, Peter Poiret, and the Ro-
ficrucians. They are alfo called FlRE-Phi/ofophers.
THERAPEUTAB, a term applied to thofe that are
■wholly in the fervice of religion. This general term
has been applied to particular fe£ts of men, concern¬
ing whom there have been great difputes among the
learned.
THERAPEUTICS, that part of medicine which
acquaints us with the rules that are to be obferved,
and the medicines to be employed, in the cure of dif-
eafes.
THERMAB, hot baths or bagnios. Luxury7 and
extravagance were in nothing carried to fuch heights as
in the thermae of the Roman emperors. Ammian com¬
plains, that they were built to fuch an extent as to equal
whole provinces; from which Valefius would abate, by7
reading pifeince inftead of provincice. And yet after all,
the remains of fome ftill Handing are fufficient teftimo¬
nies for Ammian’s cenfure ; and the accounts tranfmit-
ted of their ornaments and furniture, fuch as being laid
with precious ftones (Seneca), fet round with feats of
folid filver (Pliny), with pipes and citterns of the fame
metal (Statius), add to, rather than take from, the cen¬
fure. The moft remarkable bagnios were thofe of Dio-
elefian and Caracalla at Rome, great part of which re¬
mains at this day ; the lofty arches, ftately pillars, varie¬
ty of foreign marble, curious vaulting of the roofs, great
number of fpacious apartments, all attract the euriofity
Therm a,
Thermo¬
meter.
Invention
of the ther¬
mometer.
Marline's
EJpiys.
* Chem. I.
P- IS2, I5<>
t Life F.
Paul,
p. 158.
+ Vit. Ga-
lil. p. 67.
!) Corn, in
Galen, p.
736—S42.
§ P>e Mot.
Animal. If.
prop. 175.
* Opera
Poflh. p. 30.
2
The air-
hermome-
ter deicri-
bed.
Plate
DXXXIII.
%• I*
of tlie traveller. They had alfo their furnmer and win¬
ter baths.
IHERMOMET ER, an inftrument for raeafuring
the degree of heat or cold in any bodv.
The thermometer was invented about the beginning
'of the 17th century j but, like many other ufeful in¬
ventions, it has been found impoffible to afcertain to
whom the honour of it belongs. Boerhaave * afcribes
it to Cornelius Drebbel of Alcmar, his own country-
' man. Fulgenzio f attributes it to his mailer Paul Sarpi,
the great oracle of the Venetian republic ; and Viviani
gives the honour of it to Galileo J. But all thefe are
poll humous claims. Sandloriojj claims this honour to
himfelf; and his allertion is corroborated by Borelli §
and^ Malpighi * of the Florentine academy, whofe par¬
tiality is not to be fufpedted in favour of a member of
the Patavinian fchool.
Perhaps the belt way to reconcile thefe different
claims would be, to fuppofe that the thermometer was
really invented by different perfons about the fame time.
\ v e know that there are certain periods in the progrefs
of the arts when the Itream of human genius runs in
the fame direction, and moves towards the fame ob¬
ject. That part of the current which reaches the ob-
je£l frit may poffefs the title j but the other parts fol¬
low fo rapidly and-arrive fo foon after, that it is impof¬
fible for a ipedlator to decide which is firll in point of
time.
1 he firll form of this inftrument for meafuring the
degrees of heat and cold, was the air-thermometer. It
is a well known fa£t that air expands with heat fo as to
occupy more fpace than it does when cold, and that it is
condenfed by cold fo as to occupy lefs fpace than when
warmed, and that this expanfionandcondenfation is great¬
er or lefs according to the degree of heat or cold applied.
.1 he principle then on which the air-thermometer was
conllrufled is very fimple. The air was confined in a
tube by means of fome coloured liquor; the liquor rofe or
fell according as the air became expanded or condenfed.
What the firll form of the tube was, cannot now per¬
haps be well known j but the following defcription of
the air-thermometer will fully explain its nature.
The air-thermometer confills of a glafs tube BE, fig. 1.
connefted at one end with a large glafs ball A, and at
the other end immerfed in an open veffel, or terminat¬
ing in a ball DE, with a narrow orifice at D ; which
veffel, or ball, contains any coloured liquor that will
not eafily freeze. Aquafortis tinged of a fine blue co¬
lour with a folution of vitriol or copper, or fpirit of wine
tinged with cochineal, will anfwer this purpofe. But
the ball A muff be firft moderately warmed fo that a
part of the air contained in it may be expelled through
the orifice D ; and then the liquor preffed by the weight
of the atmofphere will enter the ball DE, and rife^for
example, to the middle of the tube at C, at a mean
temperature of the weather ; and in this ftate the liquor
by its weight, and the air included in the ball A, &c.
by its elafticity, will counterbalance the weight of the
atmofphere. As the furrounding air becomes warmer
the air in the ball and upper part of the tube, expand¬
ing by heat, will drive the liquor into the lower ball,
and confequently its furface will defcend j on the con¬
trary, as the ambient air becomes colder, that in the
ball is condenfed, and the liquor preffed by the weight
of the atmofphere wMl afcend 3 fo that the liquor in th«
tube will afcend or defcend more or lefs according to Tl
the ffate of the air contiguous to the inftrument. To me'f
the tube is affixed a fcale of the fame length, divided
upwards and downwards from the middle C into ico
equal parts, by means of which the afcent and defcent
of the liquor in the tube, and confequently the varia¬
tions in the cold or heat of the atmofphere, may be ob-
ferved.
rI his inftrument was extremely defedlive ; for the airr 3
'Its de
in the tube was not only affecled by the heat and cold
of the atmofphere, but alfo by its weight.
The air being found improper for meafuring with ac-Th 4
curacy the variations of heat and cold according to theofwirf
form of the thermometer which was firft adopted, ano-‘heim
ther fluid was propofed about the middle of the i7thmctt;r
century by the Florentine academy. This fluid was
fpiiit of wine, or alcohol, as it is now generally named.
1 he alcohol being coloured, was inclofed in a very fine
cylindrical glafs tube previoufly exhaufted of its air, ha¬
ving a hollow ball at one end A, fig. 2. and hermetically r
fealed at the other end D. The ball.and tube are filled 1
with redlified fpirit of wine to a convenient height, as to
C, when the weather is of a mean temperature, which
may be done by ^inverting the tube into a veffel of flag-
nant coloured fpirit, under a receiver of the air-pump,
or in any other vray. W hen the thermometer is proper¬
ly filled, the end D is heated red hot by a lamp, and
then hermetically fealed, leaving the included air of
about one-third of its natural denfity, to prevent the air
which is in the fpirit from dividing it in its expanfion.
To the -tube is applied a fcale, divided from the middle,
into loo equal parts, upwards and downv'ards.
As fpirit of vdne is capable of a very confiderable de¬
gree of rarefadlion and condenfation by heat and cold,
when the heat of the atmofphere increafes the fpirit di¬
lates, and confequently rifes in the tube 3 and when the
heat decreafes, the. Ipirit delcends, and the degree or
quantity of the motion is ftiown by a fcale.
rI he fpirit of wine thermometer was not fubjefl to. ,'sf{l
fome of the inconveniences which attended the air ther-1 S e<*
mometer. In particular, it was not affedled by varia¬
tions in the Weight of the atmofphere : accordingly it
foon came into general ufe among philofophers. It was, f
at an early period, introduced into Britain by Mr Boyle, m'"
To this inftrument, as then ufed, there are, however,
many objeftions. The liquor was of different degrees
of llrength, and therefore different tubes filled with it,
when expofed to the fame degree of heat, would not
correfpond. There was alfo another defedl : The fcale
which was adjufted to the thermometer did not com¬
mence at any fixed point. The higheft term was ad¬
jufted to the great funfhine heats of Florence, which are
too variable and undetermined 5 and frequently the
v'orkman formed the fcale according to his own fancy.
While the thermometer laboured under fuch difadvan-
tages it could not be of general ufe.
To obtain fome fixed Unalterable point by which a p^rei
determined fcale might be difcovered, to which all ther-fixed po!
mometers might be accurately' adjufted, was the fubjeflpropoie1?'
which next drew the attention of philofophers. MrPhilofc‘
Boyle, who feems at an early period to have ftudied P^er *
this fubjedt with much anxiety, propofed the freezing of
the eflential oil of anifeeds as a convenient point for
graduating thermometers 3 but this opinion he foon laid
afide. Dr Halley next propofed that thermometers
fhould
THE
[ 399 3
THE
X :nt>-
, er.
u —
*. '•
jr, Air.
II.
ISirt a*
NJ on’s
oil rmo-
IDS
til.
Tr :n°
J? or _
Al ol. iv.
f Per-
« ns,
^ mur s
fF of
ther-
“ :ter.
(hould bo graduated in a deep pit under ground, where
the temperature both in winter and fummer is pretty
uniform and that the point to which the fpirit of wine
fhould rife in fuch a fubterraneous place (hould be the
point from which the fcale (hould commence. But this
propofal was evidently attended with fuch inconve¬
niences that it was foon abandoned. He made experi¬
ments on the boiling point of water, of mercury, and of
fpirit of wyae *, and he feems rather to give a preference
to the fpirit of wine *. He objected to the freezing of
water as a fixed point, becaufe he thought that it ad¬
mitted confiderable latitude.
It feems to have been referved to the all-conquering
genius of Sir Ifaac Newton to determine this important
point, on which the accuracy and value of the thermo¬
meter depends. He chofe, as fixed, thofe points at
which water freezes and boils j the very points which
the experiments of fucceeding philofophers have deter¬
mined to be the mod; fixed and convenient. Senfible of
the difadvantages of fpirit of wine, he tried another
liquor which was homogeneous enough, capable of a
confiderable rarefaction, about 15 times greater than
fpirit of wine. This was linfeed oil. It has not been
obferved to freeze even in very great colds, and it bears
a heat about four times that of water before it boils.
With thefe advantages it was made ufe of by Sir Ifaac
Newton, who difcovered by it the comparative degree
«f heat for boiling water, melting wax, boiling fpirit of
wine, and melting tin $ beyond which it does not ap¬
pear that this thermometer was applied. The method he
ufed for adjufting the fcale of this oil thermometer was
as follows: Suppofing the bulb, when immerged in
thawing fnow, to contain 10,000 parts, he found the
oil expand by the heat of the human body fo as to take
up -fg-th more fpace, or 10,256 fuch parts ; and by the
heat of water boiling ftrongly 10,725 5 and by the heat
of melting tin 11,516, So that reckoning the freezing
point as a common limit between heat and cold, he be¬
gan his fcale there, marking it o, and the heat of the
human body he made 12°; and confequently, the de¬
grees of heat being proportional to the degrees of rare-
fatlion, or 256 : 725 : : 12 : 34, this number 34 will
exprefs the heat of boiling wrnter 5 and by the fame
rule, 72 that of melting tin f. This thermometer was
conftru&ed in 1701.
To the application of oil as a meafure of heat and
cold, there are infuperable objections. It is fo vifcid,
that it adheres too (Irongly to the fides of the tube.
On this account it afcends and defcends too (lowly in
cafe of a fudden heat or cold. In a fudden cold, fo
great a portion remains adhering to the fides of the
tube after the reft has fubfided, that the furface appears
lower than the correfponding temperature of the air re¬
quires. An oil thermometer is therefore not a proper
meafure of heat and cold.
All the thermometers hitherto propofed were liable to
many inconveniences, and could not be confidered as
exaft ftandards for pointing out the various degrees of
temperature. This led Reaumur to attempt a new one,
an account of which was publifhed in the year 1730 in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. This ther¬
mometer was made with fpirit of wine. He took a
large ball and tube, the dimenfions and capacities of
which were known ; he then graduated the tube, fo
that the fpace from one divifion to another might con¬
tain 1000th part of the liquor j the liquor containing Thermo-
1000 parts when it ftood at the freezing point. He ad- ; m^tei- <
jufted the thermometer to the freezing point by an ar- j\jartjne's
tificial congelation of water : then putting the ball of EJayi on
his thermometer and part of the tube into boiling water, ibe Con-
he obferved whether it rofe 80 divifions : if it exceeded
thefe, he changed his liquor, and by adding water
lowered it, till upon trial it (hould juft rife 80 divi¬
fions 5 or if the liquor, being too low, fell (hort of 80
divifions, he raifed it by adding rectified fpirit to it.
The liquor thus prepared fuited his purpofe, and ferved
for making a thermometer of any fize, whofe fcale
wmuld agree with his ftandard. l6
This thermometer was far from being perfeCt. As its defeats*
the bulbs were three or four inches in diameter, the fur¬
rounding ice would be melted before its temperature
could be propagated to the whole fpirits in the bulb,
and confequently the freezing point w’ould be marked
higher than it (hould be. Dr Martine accordingly
found, that inilead of coinciding with the 3 2d degree
of Fahrenheit, it correfponded with the 34th, or a
point a little above it. Reaumur committed a miftake
alfo refpeCling the boiling point ; for he thought that
the fpirit of wine, whether weak or ttrong, when im¬
merged in boiling water, received the fame degree oi
heat with the boiling water. But it is well known that
highly redified fpirit of wine cannot be heated much
beyond the 175th degree of Fahrenheit, while boiling-
water raifes the quickfilver 37 degrees higher. I here
is another thermometer that goes by the name of Reau->
mur's, which (hall be afterwards defcribed, tI
At length a different fluid was propofed, by which Mercurial"
thermometers- could be made free from moft of the de- thermome-
feCts hitherto mentioned. This fluid was mercury,ten”
and feems firft to have occurred to Dr Halley in the
laft century 5 but it was not adopted by him on account
of its having a fmaller degree of expanfibility than the \
other fluids ufed at that time*. Boerhaave fays that * Phil.
the mercurial thermometer was firft conftruCled
Olaus Roemer j but the honour of this invention is ge- vol< ^
nerally given to Fahrenheit of Amfterdam, who prefent-
ed an account of it to the Royal Society of London in
17 24* „ r ,
That we may judge the more accurately of the pro¬
priety of employing mercury, we will compare its qua¬
lities with thofe of the fluids already mentioned, air, al¬
cohol, and oil. I2
Air is the moft expanfible fluid, but it does not re- Properties
ceive nor part with its heat fo quickly as mercury. Al- °1 air, al¬
cohol does not expand much by heat. In its ordinary ™ 0 > ar'-'i
ftate it does not bear a much greater heat than i'75°
of Fahrenheit 5 but when highly redtified it can bear a
greater degree of cold than any other liquor hitherto
employed as a meafure of temperature. At Hudlon’s
Bay, Mr Maenab, by a mixture of vitriolic acid and
fnow, made it to defcend to 69. below o of Fahrenheit.
This is an inconvenience, however, attending the ufe
of this liquor 5 it is not poflible to get it always of the
fame degree of ftrength. As to oil, its expanfion is
about 15 times greater than that of alcohol j it fuftains
a heat of 6oo°, and its freezing point is fo low that it
has not been determined ; but its vifcofity renders it ufe- 13
lefs. Thermo-
Mercury is fuperior to alcohol and oil, and is much
more manageable than air. £. As far as the experi- ^1^^
ments
T HE t 4oo ] THE
•rcier°" nieuts ali:'ea'iy made can determine, it is of ail the fluids
« ^ hitherto employed in the con/fruclion of thermometers,
Recherches lhat which meafures moft exactly equal differences of
fur Us heat by equal differences of its balk : its dilatations are
de in fhft very nearly proportional to the augmentations of
fphere. ^eat aPP^ed to it (a), 2* Of all liquids it is the moft
eafily freed from air. 3. It is fitted to meafure high de¬
grees of heat and cold. It fuftains a heat of 6oo° of
Fahrenheit’s fcale, and does not congeal till it fall 39 or
^ 40 degrees below c. 4. It is the moft fenfible of any
Tranf'iox heat and cold, even air not excepted. Count
17S6. Rum ford found that mercury was heated from the free¬
zing to the boiling point in 58 feconds, while water took
two minutes 13 feconds, and common air 10 minutes and
17 feconds. 3. Mercury is a homogeneous fluid, and
every portion of it is equally dilated or contracted by
equal variations of heat. Any one thermometer made
of pure mercury is, ex ter is paribus, pofleffed of the fame
properties with every other thermometer made of pure
mercury. Its power of expanfion is indeed about fix
times lefs than that of fpirit of wine, but it is great
enough to anfwer moft of the purpofes for which a ther-
mometer is wanted.
Fixed I he fixed points which are nowuniverfally chofen for
points. adjufting thermometers to a fcale, and to one another,
are the boiling and freezing points of water. The boil¬
ing Water point, it is well known, is not an invariable
point, but varies fome degrees according to the weight
and temperature of the atmofphere. In an exhaufted
receiver, water will boil with a heat of 98° or ioo° j
whereas in Papin’s digefter it will require a heat of 412.
Hence it appears that water w ill boil at a lower point,
according to its height in the atmofphere, or to the weight
of the column of air which preffes upon it. In order to
enfure uniformity therefore in the conftru&ion of ther¬
mometers, it is now agreed that the bulb of the tube be
plunged in the water when it boils violently, the barorae- Ther
ter ftandingat30 Englifh inches (which is its mean height metj
round London,andthe temperatureof the atmofphere 5 5 °.'—\ ^
.A. thermometer made in this way, with its boiling point
at 212°, is called by Dr Horfley Bird's Fahrenheit, be-
eaufe Mr Bird was the firft perfon who attended to the
ftate of the barometer in conftrudting thermometers. j .
As artifts may be often obliged to adjuft thermometers Rule I!
under very different preffures of the atmofphere, philo-a(iM| j
fophers have been at pains to difeover a general ruletherm
which might be applied on all occafions. M. de Luc, in [her*
his Recherches fur les Med. de f Atmofphere, from a feries e
of experiments, has given an equation for the allowance
on account of this difference, in Paris meafure, which
has been verified by Sir George Shuckburgh * ; alfo *
Dr Horfley, Dr Mafkelyne, and Sir George Shuck-
burgh, have adapted the equation and rules to EnglilhJ77^
meafures, and have reduced the allowances into tables177"’
for the life of the artift. Dr Horfley’s rule, deduced
from De Luc’s, is this:
99
%9oooo Iog- % 92-804—
where h denotes the height of a thermometer plunged in
boiling water, above the point of melting ice, in de¬
grees of Bird’s Fahrenheit, and 55 the height of the ba¬
rometer in loths of an inch. From this rule he has
computed the following table, for finding the heights, to
which a good Bird’s Fahrenheit will rife when plunged
in boiling water, in all ftates of the barometer, from 27
to 31 Englilh inches j which will ferve, among other
ufes, to direfl inftrument-makers in making a true al¬
lowance for the effett of the variation of the barometer,
if they fhould be obliged to finilh a thermometer at a
time when the barometer is above or below 30 inches j
though it is beft to fix the boiling point when the baro¬
meter is at that height.
Equation
(a) We have affirmed that the expanfions of the bulk of quickfilver by heat are nearly (for they are not ftridtly
To) in a regular arithmetical progreffion, according to the quantity of heat it is expofed to j and fuch feems to be
the cafe according to the Table publiflied by M. de Luc, at page 309 of his firft volume on the Modifications of
1 uu Atmofphere. The following extraft of this table fhows thefe variations : and the firft and fecond differences zxtCmps
added, in order to render thefe irregularities more fenfible. They are fuch as can hardly be conceived from the Minerk
nature of any fubftance, without the influence of extraneous and accidental caufes, which may have efcaped the£bvo^
attention of the obferver j neither have they been found exactly true by Dr Crawford. M. de Luc fuppofes the
u- u n1 fronLlne^ng ice to that of boiling water to be divided into 80 parts; by the fractional fubdivifions of
which he expreffes the abfolute quantities^of heat, anfwering to each 5 or 10 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer
(—22^5 of Fahrenheit’s fcale) j fo that the whole fum of thefe fractions amounts exaCtly to the affumed number
80. JLhey are as follow :
Reaumur's Fahrenheit's
Thermometer. Thermometer.
Degrees 80 212
70 189.5
60 . .   167
5° 144-5
40 122
3°  99-5
54-5
32
Quantities
oj heat.
-9.44
9.60
9.70
9.86
10.08
10.20
10.3 8
10.74
Firjl
differences.
.16
.TO
A 6
.22
.12
.18
•56
Second
differences.
+ -06
— .06
—- .06
-{- .10
—- .06
— .18
THERMOMETER S
FLATE BXXXni.
Fig-2-
2 ~by Wi £cJ)J[tzar. rEdin V
I
THE
t 4oi ]
THE
Til '°-
n: r-
fab1 ’™>*
It' the
Equation of the Boiling Point.
Tit irge
,5hu
|urj ob-
ftrvi ms
pm ed
pitl e
Luc ules.
Height of
the Baro¬
meter redu¬
ced to the
fame tern
perature ol
5°°
Inch.
26.498
27.241
27*954
28.377
28.699
28.898
28.999
29.447
29.805
Mean
Boiling
mint by
ibferva
207.07
208.64
209.87
210.50
211.27
211.50
2II.6o
212.55
212.95
Boiling
Point b)
De Luc’s
Rules.
208.54
208.84
210.03
2I0.8l
2II.34
211.67
2H.85
212.74
2I3*I5
Height
of Baro
meter.
Inch.
30.008
30.207
30.489
3°-763
30.847
30-937
Boiling
Point by
Ibferva-
tion.
213.22
2I3-58
214.15
214.37
214.83
214.96
Boiling
Point by
De Luc’s
Rules.
213.47
213.79
214.23
214.66
214.79
214.96
Sir George Shuckburgh has alfo fubjoined the follow¬
ing general table for the ufe of artifts in conftrufting
the thermometer, both according to his own obferva-
tions and thofe of M. de Luc.
The numbers in the firft column of this table exprefs
heights of the quickfilver in the barometer in Englifh
inches and decimal parts : the fecond column (hows the
equation to be applied, according to the fign prefixed,
to 2120 of Bird’s Fahrenheit, to find the true boiling
point for every fuch ftate of the barometer. The boil¬
ing point for all intermediate ftates of the barometer
may be had with fufficient accuracy, by taking propor¬
tional parts, by means of the third column of differences
of the equations. See Philofophical Tranfa6Hons, vol.
Ixiv. art. 30. j alfo Dr Mafkelyne’s Paper, vol. Ixiv.
art. 20.
In the following table we have the refult of fif¬
teen different obfervations made by Sir George Shuck¬
burgh compared with the refult of M. de Luc’s
rules.
Height of tht
Barometer.
26.0
26.5
27.O
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.O
29-5
3°.°
3°-5
31-0
Correct, ofthe
Boiling Point
— 7-09
— 6.18
— 5-27
— 4-37
— 3.48
— 2.59
— 1.72
— 0.85
0.00
+ 0.85
+ j-69
Differ¬
ence.
.91
.91
.90
.89
.89
•87
•87
.85
.85
.84
Uorredt. ac¬
cording ro
Vt. de Luc.
-6.83
~ 5-93
— 5-°4
— 4.16
--3-31
— 2.45
— 1.62
— 0.80
0.00
+ o-79
-f
Differ¬
ence.
.90
.89
.88
.87
.86
•83
.82
.So
•79
.78
iS
The Royal Society, fully apprifed of the importance Dbferva-
of adjufting the fixed points of thermometers, appointed':lons
a committee of feven gentlemen to confider of the beft
method for this purpofe ; and their report is publifhedthe RcyaJ
in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37. Society for
They obferved, that though the boiling point be pla-ac!Jufting
ced fo much higher on fome of the thermometers now11
made than on others, yet this does not produce any con-
fiderable error in the obfervations of the weather, at
leaf! in this climate for an error of if0 in the pofition
of the boiling point, will make an error only of half a
degree in the pofition of 920, and of not more than a
quarter of a degree in the point of 62°. It is only in
nice experiments, or in trying the heat of hot liquors,
that this error in the boiling point can be of much im¬
portance.
In adjufting the freezing as well as the boiling point,
the quicklilver in the tube ought to be kept of the fame
heat as that in the ball. When the freezing point is
placed at a confiderable diftance from the ball, the
pounded ice ftiould be piled to fuch a height above the
ball, that the error which can arife from the quickfilver
in the remaining part of the tube not being heated
equally with that in the ball, {hall be very fmall, or the
obferved point muft be correfted on that account ac¬
cording to the following table :
. .. ^ 19
Table for
correcting
Heat of the
Air,
42*
52
62
72
82
Corre£Hon.
.00087
.00174
.00261
.00348
•00435
the freezing
point.
The corre&ion in this table is expreffed in 1000th
parts of the diftance between the freezing point and the
furface of the ice : e. gr. if the freezing point ftands
feven inches above the furface of the ice, and the heat
of the room is 62, the point of 320 ftiould be placed
7X00261, or .018 of an inch lower than the obfer¬
ved point. A diagonal fcale will facilitate this correc¬
tion.
3E
Vol. XX. Part II.
The
THE
Thermo¬
meter.
tom. iv,
P- 375
The committee obferve, that in trying the heat of
_ liquors, care fhould be taken that the quickfilver in the
2Q tube of the thermometer be heated to the fame degree as
The quick- that in the ball; or if this cannot be done conveniently,
CIver m the obferved heat (hould be corrected on that account 5
ought*to be ^°r tllf rnanner d°ing which, and a table calculated
heated to for ^i* purpofe, we mult refer to their excellent report
the fame in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.
degree as With regard to the choice of tubes, they ought to be
balL *n the exa^]y cylindrical. But though the diameter fliould
21 vary a little, it is eafy to manage that matter in the
The tubes manner propofed by the Abb£ Nollet *, by making a
ought to fmall portion of the quickfilver, e. gr. as much as fills
cal "^P an °r an ‘nc^’ bac^ward andforward
pillary. ^ ^ie j and thus to find the proportions of all its
*Lecons de inequalities, and from thence to adjuft the divifions to a
Phy/ Exp. fcale of the mod perfeft equality. The capillary tubes
are preferable to others, becaufe they require fmaller
bulbs, and they are alfo more fenfible, and lefs brittle.
I he molt convenient fize for common experiments has
the internal diameter about the 40th or 50th of an
inch, about nine inches long, and made of thin glafs,
that the rife and fall of the mercury may be better
^ 2:1 feen.
kerVf de*- ^ nex* to be confidered, is of what number
gree:> into degrees or divifions the fcale ought to confift, and
which the from what point it ought to commence. As the number
*0^ ^ie c^T^lcms is an arbitrary matter, the
A1" ^cales which have been employed differ much from one
another in this circumftance. Fahrenheit has made 180
degrees between the freezing and boiling water point.
Amontons made 73, and Sir Ifaac Newton only 34.
There is, however, one general maxim, which ought to
be obferved : That fuch an arithmetical number Jljould
be chnfen as can eafilij be divided andfubdivided, and
that the number of divifions Jbould be fo great that
there Jhallfeldom be occajion for fraElions. The num¬
ber 80 chofen by Reaumur anfwers extremely well in
this refpeft, becaufe it can be divided by feveral figures
without leaving a remainder j but it is too fmall a num¬
ber : the confequence of which is, that the degrees are
placed at too great a diftance from one another, and
fra£Hons muft therefore be often employed. We think,
therefore, that 160 would have been a more convenient
number. Fahrenheit’s number 180 is large enough,
but when divided its quotient foon becomes an odd num¬
ber.
As to the point at which the fcale ought to com¬
mence, various opinions have been entertained. If we
knew the beginning or loweft degree of beat, all phi-
lofophers would agree, that the loweft point of the ther¬
mometer ought to be fixed there ; but we know neither
the loweft nor the higheft degrees of heat ; we obferve
only the intermediate parts. All that we can do, then,
is to begin it at fome invariable point, to which thermo¬
meters made in different places may eafily be adjufted.
If poffible too, it ought to be a point at which a natural
well-known body receives fome remarkable change from
the effefts of beat or cold. Fahrenheit began his fcale
at the point at which fnow and fait congeal. Kirwan
propofes the freezing point of mercury. Sir Ifaac
Newton, Hales, and Reaumur adopted the freezing
point of water. The objeftion to Fahrenheit’s loweft
point is, that it commences at an artificial cold never
known in nature, and to which we cannot refer our
[ 402 ]
THE
23
At what
point the
fcale ought
to com¬
mence.
feelings, for it is what few can ever experience. There He
would be feveral great advantages gained, we allow, by
adopting the freezing point of mercury. It is the low- ^ ^
eft degree of cold to which mercury can be applied as a
meafure $ and it would render unnecefiary the ufe of the
figns plus and minus, and the extenfion of the fcale be¬
low o. But we objeft to it, that it is not a point well
known ; for few, comparatively fpeaking, who ufe ther¬
mometers, can have an opportunity of ieeing mercury
congealed. As to the other advantage to be gained by
adopting the freezing point of mercury, namely, the
abolition of negative numbers, we do not think it would
counterbalance the advantage, to be enjoyed by ufino-
a well-known point. Befides, it may be aficed, Is there
not a propriety in ufing negative numbers to exprefs the
degree of cold, which is a negative thing ? Heat and
cold we can only judge of by our feelings : the point
then at which the fcale ftiould commence, ought to be
a point which can form to us a ftandard of beat and
cold ; a point familiar to us from being one of the moft
remarkable that occurs in nature, and therefore a point
to which we can with moft clearnefs and precifion refer
to in our minds on all occafions. This is the freezing
point of water chofen by Sir Ifaac Newton, which of all
the general changes produced in nature by cold is the
moft remarkable. It is, therefore, the moft convenient
point, for the thermometers to be ufed in the tempe¬
rate and frigid zones; we may fay over the globe,
for even in the hotteft countries of the torrid zone
many of the mountains are perpetually covered with
fnow.
The thermometers which are at prefent in moft ge- , 2
neral ufe, are Fahrenheit’s, De ITfle’s, Reaumur’s, and ™err
Celfius’s. Fahrenheit’s is ufed in Britain, De Rifle’s rally li*
in Ruflia, Reaumur’s and the thermometre centigrade
in France, and Celfius’s, the fame as the laft named, in
Sweden. They are all mercurial thermometers. For
their defcription and the method of comparing them to¬
gether, fee Chemistry, N° 198—201. See alfo Plate
DXXXIV.
As in meteorological obfervations it is neceffary foAcc(*
attend to the greateft rife and fall of the thermometer, 0f felfqr-
attempts have been made to conftruft a thermometer ft«nnger'
which might regifter the greateft degree of heat, ormome"‘
greateft degree of cold, which took place during the ab-
fence of the obferver. In 1757 Lord Charles CavendiftiLo,./
prefented to the Royal Society of London a therraome-Charle
ter in two different forms ; the one contrived to mark Cavent |,?
tliernx ■■
ter.
the greateft degree of heat, and the other the greatell
degree of cold. pJal
The fir ft eonfifts of a glafs tube AB, fig. 3. with a ey- DXX3 U
lindrical bulb B at the lower end, and capillary at the, fig-.
top,over which there is fixed a glafs ball C. The bulb and
part of the tube are filled with mercury, the top of which
fhows the degrees of beat as ufual. The upper part of
the tube above the mercury is filled with fpirit of wine y
the ball C is alfo filled with the fame liquor almoft to
the top of the capillary tube. When the mercury rifes
the fpirit of wine is alfo raifed, and falls into the ball C,
which is fo made that the liquor cannot return into the
tube when the mercury finks y confequently the height
of the fpirit of wine in the ball, added to that in the
tube, will give the greateft degree of heat to w hich the
thermometer has pointed fince laft obfervation. When
a new obfervation is to be made, the inftxument muft be
inclined
THE r 403 ] THE
ermo- inclined till the liquor in the ball cover the end of the
‘iter• capillary tuoe. . ^
■v*—'' In this thermometer it is evident that the mercury
mud be affefted by the weight and elafticity of the fpi-
rit of wine, and therefore it will not correfpond to any
of the common mercurial thermometers,
i 4. The thermometer for (bowing the greateft degree of
cold is reprefented in fig. 4. by the crooked tube
ABCD. This inftrument is filled with fpirit of wine,
with the addition of as much mercury as is fufficient to
fill both le^s of the fyphon, and about a fourth or fifth
part of the" hollow ball C. We are not told what die
proportion of mercury was to that of fpirit of wine.
The degrees of heat are (liown by the rife or fall of the
mercury in the leg AB. The thermometer marks the
greateft fall by means of the hollow ball C. When the
mercury in the longer leg finks by cold, that in the
(horter will rife and run over into the ball C, from
which it cannot return when the mercury fubfides in the
(horter and rifes in the longer leg. The upper part of
the {horter leg will therefore be filled with a column of
fpirits of a length proportional to the increafe of heat ;
the bottom or lower furface of which, by means of a
proper fcale, will (bow how much the mercury has been
lower than it is •, which being fubtrafted from the pre-
fent height will give the lowed point to which the mer¬
cury has1fallen. That the thermometer may be fitted for
a new obfervation, the mercury muft be made to run
back from the ball into the (borter leg, by inclining
the tube and heating the ball.
S2;j.s In 1782 Mr Six propofed another felf-regiftering
rraome- thermometer. It is properly a fpirit of wine thermome¬
ter, though mercury is alfo employed for fupporting an
■, £, index. ci fig. 5* ^ ^ thin tube of gjafs 16 inches long,
and tVhs of an mch caliber : cde and/f h are fmaller
tubes about an ’nc^ ca^^er* Tbefe three tabes
are filled with highly re&ified fpirit of wine, except the
fpace between d and g, which is filled with mercury.
As the fpirit of wine contra&s or expands in the mid¬
dle tube, the mercury falls or rifes in the outfide tubes.
>.(, An index, fuch as that reprefented in fig. 6. is placed
on the furface, within each of thefe tubes, fo light as to
float upon it. £ is a fmall glafs tube |ths of an inch
long, hermetically fealed at each end, and inclofing a
piece of fteel wire nearly of its own length. At eacli
end /, m, of this finall tube, a (bort tube of black glafs
is fixed, of fuch a diameter as to pafs freely up and down
within either of the outfide tubes of the thermometer
e e or//*. From the upper end of the index is drawn a
fprmg of glafs to the finenels of a hair, and about yths
of an inch long ; which being placed a little oblique,
prefles lightly againft the inner furface of the tube, and
prevents the index from defcending when the mercury
defcends. Thefe indexes being inferted one into each
of the outfide tubes, it is eafy to underftand how they
point out the greateft heat or cold that has happened in
the obferver’s abfence. When the fpirit of wine in the
middle tube expands, it preffes down the mercury in the
tube k f and confequently raifes it in the tube e c $ con-
fequently the index on the left hand tube; is left behind
and marks the greateft cold, and the index in the right
tl hand tube rifes and marks the greateft heat.
1'|,er* In 1790 a paper was given in to the Royal Society of
>ii!her* Edinburgh, defcribing two thermometers, newly invent¬
ed, by Dr John Rutherford of Middle Bailifti j the one
for regiftering the higheft and the other for regiftering Thermo-,
the lowed degree of heat to which the thermometer tnc^tgr‘ „
has rifen or fallen during the abfence of the obferver.
An account of them may be found in the third volume
of the Tranfaftions of the Society. 29
A new fdf-regiftering thermometer has been in- jvq Keith’s
vented by Mr Keith of Ravelftone, which we confider thermome-
as the moft ingenious, fimple, and perfeft, of any whichter*
has hitherto appeared. Its fimplicity is fo great, that it
requires only a Very (hort defcription to make it intelli¬
gible.
AB, fig. 7. is a thin glafs tube about 14 inches long
and ^ths of an inch caliber, clofe or hermetically fealed
at top. To the lower end, which is open, there is join¬
ed the crooked glafs tube BE, feven inches long, and
T45ths of an inch caliber, and open at top. The tube
AB is filled with the ftrongeft fpirit of wine, and the
tube BE with mercury. This is properly a fpirit of
wine thermometer, and the mercury is ufed merely to
fupport a piece of ivory or glafs, to which is affixed a
wire for raifing one index or deprefling another, accord¬
ing as the mercury rifes or falls. E is a fmail conical
piece of ivory or glad, of fuch a weight as to float on
the furface of the mercury. To the float is joined a
wire called the Jloat-wire, which reaches upwards to H,
where it terminates in a knee bent at right angles. The
float-wire, by means of an eye at a, moves eafily along
the fmall harpfichord wire GK. LL are two indexes
made of thin black oiled filk, which Aide upwards or
downwards with a force not more than two grains. The
one placed above the knee points out the greateft rife,
and the one placed below it points out the greateft fall,
of the thermometer.
When the inftrument is to be prepared for an obfer¬
vation, both indexes are to be brought clofe to the knee
H. It is evident, that when the mercury rifes, the float
and float-wire, which can be moved with the fmalleft
force, will be puftied upwards till the mercury become
ftationary. As the knee of the float-wire movos up¬
wards, it will carry along with it the upper index L.
When the mercury again fubfides, it leaves the index
at the higheft point at which it was raifed, for it will
not defeend by its own weight : As the mercury falls
the float-wire does the fame ; it therefore brings along
with it the lower index L, and continues to deprefs it
till it again becomes ftationary or afeend in the tube j
in which cafe it leaves the lower index behind it as it
had formerly left the upper. The fcale to which the
indexes point is placed parallel to the (lender harpfi¬
chord wire. It may be feen more diftimftly in fig. 8. Fig. (k.
That the fcale and indexes may not be injured by
the wind and rain, a cylindrical glafs cover, clofe at
top, and made fo as exaftly to fit the part GF, is placed
over it.
The ingenious inventor has another improvement in
contemplation, which, if upon trial it be found to an-
fwer, will make this thermometer as perfefl as can be
defired, provided there do not arife fome errors from the
variable preffure of the atmofphere. He propofes to
adapt clock-work to this thermometer, in fiich a way
as to regifter with the utmoft precifion the degrees of
heat and cold for every month, day, and minute in the
year. The principles on which this clockwork is to be
formed we (hall forbear to deferibe, hoping that the au¬
thor himfelf, after his experiment has met with the fuccefs
3 E a which
THE [ 404 ]
wh_,dl we -"denlly wi(h, will favour the world with his adopted ;
meter. , . r . ■
i own accotint or it.
. ^ fame ingenious gentleman has invented a felf-re-
giftering barometer, upon the fame principles with the
felf-regiftering thermometer. We have had the plea-
lure of feeing both ; and are convinced that they will
fully gratify the wilhes of all who are engaged in meteo¬
rological lludies. He is alfo in expe61ation of being
foon able to pioduce an air-thermometer free from the
defeats of thofe which were formerly made, as he has
found out a way of preventing it from being affbaed by
30 the preffure of the atmofphere.
de Luc has defcribed tbe beft method of con-
improve- “ru^ing a thermometer, fit for determining the tempe-
ments. rature of the air, in the menfuration of heights by the
baiomettr. He has alio Ihown how to divide the fcale
of a thermometer, lo as to adapt it for altronomical pur-
pofes in the obfervation of refraaions.
Mr Cavallo, in 1781, propofed the conftruaion of a
the rmometrical barometer, which, by means of boiling
water, might indicate the various gravity of the atmo-
T H E
namely, that the decrements of heat were Then
32
The ther-
naometers
deter ibed
above too
limited.
3i
Mr Cavallo
has pro¬
pofed a
thermome- _ , • «-> _ —     t,-j amtu-
trkal baro-‘Pherej or the height of the barometer. But as he does
meter. not fay that the inftrument has been tried with the de¬
fined fuccefs, we forbear to deferibe it. l liofe who tvifh
to know his ideas refpeaing it may confult the Philofo-
phical Tranfabtions, vol. Ixxi. p. 524.
1 he thermometers hitherto deferibed are very limited
in their extent; they indeed point out to us the lowed:
degrees of heat which are commonly obferved even in
cold climates, but they by no means reach to thofe de¬
grees of heat which are very familiar to us. The mer¬
curial thermometer extends no farther than to 600 of
Fahrenheit’s fcale, the heat of boiling mercury ; but we
are fure that the heat of folid bodies, when heated to
ignition, or till they emit light, far exceeds the heat of
boiling mercury.
In order to remedy this defeft, Sir Ifaac Newton,
whofe genius overcame thofe obftacles which ordinary
.wvlcuu.uj; .minu» could not approach, attempted by an ingenious
the fcale ofcxpcHrnent to extend the fcale to any degree required,
the thermo- Having heated a mafs of iron red hot, and expofed it
meter. to the cold air, he obferved the time which elapfed till
it became cold, or of the fame temperature with the
aii ; and when the heat fo far decreafed that he could
apply fome known meafure (as a thermometer) to it,
he obferved the degrees of heat loft in given times 5 and
thence drew the general conclufion, that the quantities
of heat loft in given fmall fpaces are always proportional
to the heat remaining in the body, reckoning the heat
to be the excefs by which it is warmer than the ambient
air. So that taking the number of minutes which it
took to cool after it came to a determined point in an
arithmetical progreftion, the decrements of the heat of
the iron would be continually proportional. Havino-
by this proportion found out the decrements of heat in a
given time after it came to a known point, it was eafy,
by carrying upwards the fame proportion to the begin¬
ning of its cooling, to determine the greateft heat which
' the body had acquired. This proportion of Sir Ifaac’s
was found by Dr Martine to be fomewhat inaccurate.
The heat of a cooling body does not decreafe exactly in
proportion to that which the body retains. As the re¬
mit of many obfervations, he found that two kinds of
proportion took place, an arithmetical as well as the
geometrical proportion which Sir Ifaac Newton had
33
Sir liaac
INV/wton’s
method of
extending
Martin:'s
Efays.
partly proportional to the times (that is, that quantities met,
ot neat, are loft in equal times), as well as partly inTiiemi
proportion to the remaining heat 5 and that if thefe two l!e
are added together the rule will bVluffidenth accurate! ^ '
By the geometrical proportion which Sir Ifaac Newtoii
adopted he difeovered the heat of metals red hot or in
fufion.
This method, fo fuccefsfully purfued by Sir Ifaac, Mr#|
was fufhcient to form a fcale of high degrees of heat Si
but was not convenient for praftical purpofes. Ac-thermc|
cordingly the late Mr Wedgwood invented a veryterf°rB
fimple thermometer which marks with much precifion I
the d^erent degrees of ignition from a dull red heat-SI
vifible m the dark to the heat of an air-furnace. It heat 1
confifts of two rulers fixed upon a fmooth flat plate a
little farther afunder at the one end than at the other,
leaving , an open longitudinal fpace between them!
Small pieces of alum and clay mixed together are made
of fuch a fize as juft to enter at the wide end ; and are
heated along with the body whofe heat we wilh to de¬
termine. The earthy body contrafts according to the
degree of heat,, fo that when applied to the wide end of
the gage, it will Aide on towards the narrow end, lefs
or more according to the degree of heat to which it has
been expofed.
ABC'D fig. 9. is a fmooth flat plate; and EFand.J’J
GH two rulers or flat pieces, a quarter of an inch thick, |
fixed flat upon the plate, with the fides that are towards^5' >
one another made perfectly true, a little farther afun¬
der at one end EG than at the other end FH : thus
they include between them a long converging canal,
which is divided on one fide into a number of fmall
equal parts, and which may be confidered as perform¬
ing the offices both of the tube and feale of the com¬
mon thermometer. It is obvious, that if a body, fo m, , 1
adjufted as to fit exactly at the wider end of this canal, 2^1
be afterwards diminiffied in its bulk by fire, as the ther atlim,
mometer pieces are, it will then pafs further in the ca-™l.lmb j
nal, and more and more fo according as the diminution
is greater 5 and converfely, that if a body, fo adjufted
as to pafs on to the narrow end, be afterwards expanded
by fire, as is the cafe with metals, and applied in that
expanded ft.ate to the fcale, it will not pafs fo far ; and
that the divifions on the fide will be the meafures of
the expanfions of the one, as of the contradions of the
othei, leckoning in both cafes from that point to which
the body was adjufted at firft.
I is the body whofe alteration of bulk is thus to be
meafured. This is to be gently puffied or Hid along to¬
wards the end FH, till it is flopped by the converging
fides of the canal. See Chemistry, N° 1412.
A veiy ingenious application of Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer has been made by Mrs Lovi, glafs-blower in
Edinburgh, for afeertaining the temperature of compoft
dunghills, for regulating the temperature of hot-beds,,
and obferving the changes of temperature in corn and
hayftacks when they are put up damp. This may be
called an agricultural thermometer, and has been found
of great ufe for the above purpofes.
I HERMOPYLiE, in Ancient Geography, a nar¬
row pafs or defile, between the waffi of the Sinus Mali-
acus on the eaft, and fteep mountains, reaching to Oeta,
made dreadful by unpaffable woods, on the weft ; lead¬
ing from Thefialy to Locris and Beeotia. Thcfe moun¬
tains
THE [ 405 1 THE
Thi opy- tains divide Greece in the middle, in the fame manner
as the Apennine does Italy ; forming one continued
ridge from Leucate on the weft to the fea on the eaft,
with thickets and rocks interfperfed ; that perfons even
prepared for travelling, much lefs an army encumbered
with baggage, cannot eafily find a commodious paffage.
In the valley verging towards the Sinus Maliacus, the
road is only fixty paces broad ; the only military way
for an army to pafs, if not obftrufted by an enemy ; and
therefore the place is called Pylce, and by others, on ac¬
count of its hot water, Tkermopylce. Ennobled by the
brave ftand made by Leonidas and 300 Spartans againft
the whole army of Perfia 5 and by the bold refolution
of blind Euthycus, choofing rather to fall there in
fight, than return to Sparta, and efcape the common
danger. Famous alfo for the Amphidtyones, the com¬
mon council or ftates general of Greece, aflembling
there twice a-year, fpring and autumn. For an account
of the battle of Thermopylae at which Leonidas with
a handful of men engaged the Perfian army, fee
Sparta.
THESE A, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the A-
thenians in honour of Thefeus, confifting of fports and
games, with mirth and banquets. Such as were poor
and unable to contribute to them were entertained at
the public expence.
THESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity, ranked
among the demigods, whofe hiftory is fabulous. He
was the reputed fon of iTlgeus king of Athens. He
threw Sciron, a cruel robber, down a precipice ; faften-
ed Procruftes tyrant of Attica to a bending pine, which
being let loofe tore him afunder; killed the Minotaur
kept in the labyrinth by King Minos, in Crete 5 and
by the affiftance of that prince’s daughter, Ariadne,
who gave him a clue, efcaped out of that labyrinth,
and failed with his deliverer to the ifle of Naxos, where
he had the ingratitude to leave her.
Thefeus afterwards overcame the Centaurs, fubdued
the Thebans, and defeated the Amazons. He aflifted
his friend Pirithous in his expedition to the infernal re¬
gions to carry off Proferpine 5 but was imprifoned by
Pluto, till he was releafed by Hercules. He is alfo faid
to have eftabliftied the Ifthmian games, in honour of
Neptune ; to have united the twelve cities of Attica ;
and to have founded a republic there, 1236 B. C. Some
time after, taking a voyage into Epirus, he was feized
by Aidonius king of the Moloftians ; meanwhile Me-
neftheus rendered himfelf mafter of Athens. But at
length Thefeus being releafed from prifon, retired to
Scyros, where King Lycomedes caufed him to be
thrown from the top of a rock. Thefeus had feveral
wives •, the firft of whom was Helena the daughter of
Tyndarus 5 the fecond, Hypolita queen of the Ama¬
zons •, and the laft, Phedra fifter to Ariadne, who pu-
nifhed him for his infidelity to her fifter, by her inceftu-
ous paflion for his fon Hippolitus.
THESIS, a general pofition which a perfon advan¬
ces, and offers to maintain. In taking degrees in uni-
verfities, the candidates are generally obliged to write a
thefis, which they muft afterwards defend.
THESIUM, Base Fluellin •, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of mo-
nogynia. See Botany Index.
THESPIS, a famous Greek tragic poet, and the
firft reprefenter of tragedy at Athens. He carried his
l
troop from village to village in a waggon, from which ’’Uespis
they performed their pieces. Alceitis was the full ^ i' _
tragedy they performed at Athens, 536 B. C. See . i
Theatre.
THESSALIAN chair, fo called from Theffaly,
where chairs of this figure were moft in ule ; it is re¬
commended by Hippocrates * in place of a machine for * i_;b.
reducing a recent luxation of the {boulder bone. The Art.
back of this chair is perpendicular to the feat, as Galen
tells us; by which conftruflion it is diftinguilhed and
accommodated to the operation.
THESSALY, a country of Greece, whofe bounda¬
ries have been different at different periods. Properly
fpeaking, Theffaly was bounded on the foutb by the
fouthern parts of Greece, or Graecia Propria ; eaft, by
the yEgean ; north, by Macedonia and Mygdonia •, and
weft, by Ulyricum and Epirus. It was generally di¬
vided into four feparate provinces, Theffaliotis, Pelafgi-
otis, Iftiaeotis, and Phthiotis, to which fome add Mag-
nefia. It has been feverally called JEmonia, Pe/afgi-
enm, Argos, Hellas, Argent, Dryopis, Pelafgia, Pyr-
rhcea, &c. The name of Theffaly is derived from Lempri-
Theffalus, one of its monarchs. Theffaly is famous tor ere’s Die-
a deluge which happened there in the age of Deucalion. tl*nary’
Its mountains and cities are alfo celebrated, fuch as
Olympus, Pelion, Offa, Lariffa, &c. The Argonauts
were partly natives of Theffaly. The inhabitants of the
country paffed for a treacherous nation, fo that falfe mo¬
ney was called Thejfalian coin, and a perfidious action a
TheJJalian deceit. Theffaly was originally governed by
kings, till it became fubjeft to the Macedonian mo¬
narchs. The cavalry was univerfally efteemed, and the
people were fuperftitious and addifted to the ftudy of
magic and incantations. See Lucan, lib. vi. ver. 438,
&c. ; Dionyf. 2195 Car/, lib. iii. cap. 2. •, JE/ian,Var.
Hi/l. lib. iii. cap. I.; Paa/] lib iv. cap. 36. lib. x. cap. 1. j
Mela, lib. ii. cap. 3. ; Jujlin, lib. vii. cap. 6. ; Diod. iv.
Theffaly is now called Janna, a province of European
Turkey, bounded by Macedonia on the north, by the
Archipelago on the eaft, by Achaia or Livadia on the
fouth, and by Epirus on the weft.
THETIS, in Pagan mythology, the wife of Ocea-
nus, and the mother of Nereus and Doris, who were
married to each other ; and from this marriage fprung
the nymphs of the earth and fea. Among the fea
nymphs there was one named Thetis the Younger, who
excelled all the reft in beauty, and for whom Jupiter
conceived fuch a paflion, that he refolved to efpoufe
her : but being informed by the Deftinies that ftie
ivould bring forth a fon who would rife above his father,
he married her to Peleus. To their nuptials all the
gods and goddeffes were invited except Difcord, who,
to be revenged for this contempt, threw ^ golden apple
into the affembly, on which was engraven, For the Fair-
ejl. Juno, Pallas, and Venus, dilputed for this apple ;
but Paris being chofen to decide the difference, adjudged
it to Venus. From this marriage of Thetis and Peleus
fprung Achilles.
THEURGY, a name which the ancients
gave to that facred part of magic which we fometimes
call white magic, or the white art.
The word is formed from Giog, “ God,” and
“ work j” q. d. the art of doing divine things, or things
which God alone can do : or the power of working ex¬
traordinary and fupernatural things, by invoking the
ftamea-
1
T H I [ 406
names of God, flints, angels, &c. Accordingly, thofe
who have written of magic in general, divide it into
three parts: the firft whereof is called theurgy, as ope¬
rating by divine or celeftial means; the fecond, natural
magic, performed by the powers of nature ; and the
third, comprehending necromancy, forcery, and witch¬
craft or magic, performed by the alfidance of demons or
departed men. See Magic.
THIBET. See Tibet.
THIGH. See Anatomy, N° 58.
THINKING, a general name for any afl or opera¬
tion of the mind. See Metaphysics.
THIRL AGE. See Law, N° clxx. 12—18.
THIRST, an uneafy fenfation dirifing from a defici¬
ency of the faliva to moiften the inward parts of the
mouth. Hence arifes a ftrong defire for drink 5 and
'third is a fymptom generally attending fevers of all
kinds.—Thirft is bed allayed by acids; water kept a
while in the mouth, then fpit out, and repeated as re¬
quired ; a bit of bread chewed with a little water,
which latter may be gradually fwallowed ; if the perfon
is very hot, brandy is the bed for holding in the mouth,
but Ihould be fpit out again: except in fevers, large
draughts of cold water are hurtful.
PrefervatWi againjl Hunger and THIRST. See
Hunger.
I HIS RLE, a name applied to different genera and
fpecies of plants belonging chiefly to the fyngenefia
clafs. See Carduus, Onopordum, Serratula, Son-
CHUS, and alfo Dipsacus, Botany Index.
Order of the THISTLR, or of St Andrew, a military
Order of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and inditution
of which is varioufly related by different authors. Lef-
ley bifhop of Rofs reports, that the night before the
battle between Athelffan king of Northumberland and
Hungus king of the Pifts, a bright crofs, in form of
that whereon St Andrew (the tutelar faint of Scotland)
fuffered martyrdom, appeared to Hungus j who having
gained the vitdory, ever after bore the figure of that
crofs on his banners. Others affert, that Achaius king
of Scotland fird indituted this order, after having made
the famous league offenfive and defenfive with Charle¬
magne king of France. But although the thifile had
been acknowledged as the fymbol of the kingdom of
Scotland from the reign of Achaius, yet fome refer the
beginning of this order to Charles VII. of France.
Others place the foundation of it as lovir as the year
1500.
The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar com-
pofed of thiflles and fprigs of rue interlinked with amu¬
lets of gold, having pendent thereto the image of St
Andrew with his crofs, and the motto, Nemo ME ikt-
pune LACEf 7ET. “ No body fliall provoke me with
“impunity.”
The ordinary or common enfign worn by the knights
is a dar of four filver points, and over them a green cir¬
cle, bordered and lettered with gold, containing the
faid motto, and in the centre is a thiflle •, all which is
embroidered on their left bread, and worn with the col¬
lar, with a green ribband over the left flioulder, and
brought under the right arm *, pendent thereto is the
image of St Andrew, with his crofs, in a purple robe,
within an oval of gold enamelled vert, with the former
motto ; but fometimes they wear, encircled in the fame
•fanner, a thidle crownod.
1
About tht
T H O
time of^the^ Reformation, this order was Thift!,
dropped, till James II. of Great Britain refumed it by
creating eight knights. The Revolution unfettled it ^t)ir,a
again ; and it lay negle&ed, till Queen Anne, in i7oq '
reflored it to the- primitive defign, of twelve knights of
St Andrew'.
THLAPSI, Bastard-Cress, or Mithridate-Mu-
Jlartf a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of tetra-
dynamia. See Botany Index.
THOLOUSE. See Toulouse.
THOMyEANS, Thomists. See Christians of
St Thomas.
THOMAS Aquinas, See Aquinas.
St Thomas'1 S Day, a fedival of the Chridian church
obferved on Dec. 21. in commemoration of St Thomas
the apodle.
St Thomas of Canterbury's Day, a feflival of the
Romifli church, obferved on Dec. 29. in memory of
Thomas Becket archbifliop of Canterbury, who was
murdered, or, as the Romanids fay, martyred, in the
reign of King Henry II.
THOMAS the Reytnour, called alfo Thomas Lermont,
and Thomas of Erceldon, was born at Erceklon, a vil-
lage near Melrofe in Tweeddale, in what year is uncer*
tain , but he was an old man when Edward I. was car¬
rying on war in Scotland.
The character of Lermont as a prophet, and which
was common to him with Linus, Orpheus, and other
early poets in many countries, arofe, if we may believe
Mackenyie in his Lives of Scottith Writers, from his
having conferences with Eliza, a nun and prophetefsat
Haddington. Lermont put her predictions into verfe,
and thus came in for bis lhare of the prophetic fpirit.
None of thele ancient prophecies now remain ; but the Pinlertt.
following, which pretends to be one of them, is given Accmt
from a manufcript of the time of Edward I. or ILTbepC^f
countefs of Dunbar is the lady famous for the defence ™
of her cadle againft the Englidi. Her proper title was
Countefs of March ; but it wTas common in thefe times
to dyle a nobleman from his chief refidenee. Thus Gil¬
bert Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, is called Earl of
Striguil, from his refidence at Striguil cadle, near Chep-
dow, Monmouthdiire, &c.
La Countejfe de Donbar demande a Thomas de Efje-
doune, quant la guere d'Efcoce prendreit fyn. E ijlla
repoumly, et dyt—
When man as mad a kyng of a capped mon.
When mon is levere other mons tbyng than is owen.
When londe tbouys fored, and fored ys felde.
When h ares kendles othe herdon.
When Wyt andWille werres togedere.
When mon makes dables of kyrkesj and deles caftles
wyth dyes.
When Rokeibourh nys no burgh j ant market is at
Forwyleye.
W hen the aide is gan, and the newe is come that
doue noht.
When Bambourne ys donged with dede men.
When men ledes men in ropes to buyen ant to fellen.
When a quarter of whaty whete is chaunged for a colt
of ten markes.
When prude prikes, ant pees is leyd in prifoun.
When a Scot ne may hym hude afe hare in forme,
that the Englylh ne fhall hym fynde.
When
T H O [407
ft as When ryht ant wrong aftente the togedere.
When laddes weddeth lovedies.
Sn>( ^ When Scottes flen fo fade, that for faute of fhip, hy
■*' drouneth hemfelve.
When dial this be ?
Nouther in thyne tyme, ne in myne.
Ah comen, ant gone,
Withinne twenty wynter ant on.
In faft, the prophecies of Lermont appear to have
been merely traditional j nay, it feems doubtful if he
ever pretended to fuch folly, notwlthftanding Mac-
kenyie’s dory of Eliza. The reverence of the people
for a learned and refpe&able character feems to have
been the foie foundation of Thomas’s claim to prophecy.
But, in the 16th century, prophecies were made, and
afcribed to him, as well as others given to Bede, Mer¬
lin, &c. (a). They were printed at Edinburgh, 161 yt
jeprinted 1680, and I742*
THOMISM. See Aquinas.
THOMSON, James, an excellent Britidi poet, the
&n of a Scotch divine, was born in the {hire of Rox¬
burgh in 1700, and was educated in the univerlity of
Edinburgh with a view to the miniftry. But his ge¬
nius inclining him to the ftudy of poetry, which he
foon found would be incompatible with that of theology,
or at lead might prevent his being provided for in
that way in his own country, he relinquidied his views
of engaging in the facred funftion, and repaired to
London in confequence of fome encouragement which
he had received from a lady of quality there, a friend
of his mother.
The reception he met with wherever he was intro¬
duced, emboldened him to rilk the publication of his
excellent poem on Winter.—This piece was publidied
in 1726 ; and from the univerfal applaufe it met with,
Mr Tbomfon’s acquaintance was courted by people of
the fird tade and faftiion. But the chief advantage
which it procured him was the acquaintance of Dr
Bundle, afterward bifhop of Derry, who introduced
him to the late lord chancellor Talbot; and fome years
after, when the elded fun of that nobleman was to make
his tour on the continent, Mr Thomfon was chofen as
a proper companion for him. The expeftations which
his Winter had railed, were fully fatisfied by the fuc-
ceffive publications of the other feafons ; of Summer, iu
the year 1727 j of Spring, in the following year ; and
of Autumn, in a quarto edition of his works, in 1730.
Befide the Seafons, and his tragedy of Sophonilba,
written and a£ted with applaufe in the year 1729, he
had, in 1727, publidied his poem to the memory of
Sir Ifaac Newton, with an account of his chief dif-
coveriesj in which he was adided by his friend Mr
Gray, a gentleman well verfed in tlie Newtonian philo-
fophy. That fame year the refentment of our merchants,
for the interruption of their trade by the Spaniards in
America, running very high, Mr Thomfon zealoudy
took part in it, and wrote his Britannia, to roufe the
Ration to revenge.
J T H O
With the honourable Charles Talbot, our author vi- I lionifom,.
filed mod of the courts in Europe, and returned with J
his views greatly enlarged j not only of exterior nature
and the works of art, but of human life and manners,
and of the conditution and policy of the feveral dates,
their connections, and their religious inditutions. How
particulafUnd judicious his obfervations were, we fee in
his poem of Liberty, begun foon after his return to
England. We fee at the fame time to what a high
pitch his care of his country was raifed, by the com¬
panions he had all along been making of our happy go¬
vernment with thofe of other nations. To inipire his
fellow-fubjeCts with the like fentiments, and (how them
by what means the precious freedom we enjoy may be
preferved, and how it may be abufed or lod, he employ¬
ed two years in compofing that noble work, upon which
he valued himfelf more than upon all his other writings.
On his return to England with Mr Talbot (who foon
after died), the chancellor made him his fecretary of
briefs; a place of little attendance, fuiting his retired
indolent way of life, and equal to all his wants. From
this office he was removed, when death, not long after,
deprived him of his noble patron. He then found him*
felf reduced to a ftate of a precarious dependence. In
this fituation, having created fome few debts, and his cre¬
ditors finding that he had no longer any certain fupport,
became inexorable j and imagined by confinement to
force that from his friends, which his modefty would
not permit him to afk. One of thefe occafions furniffi-
ed Quin, the celebrated aftor, with an opportunity of,
difplaying the natural goodnefc of his heart, and the dif-
intereftednefs of his friendffiip. Hearing that i hom-
fon was confined in a fpunging houfe tor a debt ot
about 70I. he repaired to the place j and, having inqui¬
red for him, was introduced t© the bard. Ihomlon was ■
a good deal difconcerted at feeing Quin, as he had al¬
ways taken pains to conceal his wants j and the more
fo, as Quin told him he was come to fup with him.
His anxiety upon this head was however removed, upon
Quin’s informing him, that, as he fuppofed it would
have been inconvenient to have had the fupper drefled
in the place they were in, he had ordered it from an
adjacent tavern j and, as a prelude, half a dozen of.
claret was introduced. Supper being over, and the
bottle circulating pretty brifkly-, Quin laid, “ It is time
now we ffiould balance accounts.” This aftonilhed
Thomfon, who imagined he had fome demand upon him j
but Quin perceiving it, continued, “ Mr Thomfon, the
pleafure I have had in perufing your works I cannot
eftimate at lefs than a hundred pounds, and I infill up¬
on now acquitting the debt.” On faying this, he put
down a note of that value, and took his leave, without
waiting for a reply.
The profits'arifing from his works were not inconfider-
ablej his tragedy of Agamemnon, afted in 1738, yield¬
ed a good fum. But his chief dependence was upon
the prince of Wales, who fettled on him a handfome
allowance, and honoured him with many marks of par¬
ticular favour. Notwithftanding this, however, he
•was
(a) Sibilla and Banifter Anglicus are mentioned in the time of Edward IV. (MSS. Got. Dorn. A. IX.) A
long Latin prophecy of Bridlington is there given. Waldhave and Eltraine feem alfo Englifh prophets. In the
>#hole collection, therefore, Thomas is the only Scottilh one,
T H O
fhornfon. refufed a licence for his tragedy of Edward and
v"Eleonora, which he had prepared for the ftage in the
year 1736, for fome political reafons. Mr Thomfon’s
next performance was the Mafque of Alfred, written
in the year 1740 jointly with Mr Mallet, by the com¬
mand of the prince of Wales, for the entertainment of
his royal highnefs’s court at Clifden, his fummer reii-
dence.
Mr Thomfon’s poem, entitled the Caftle of Indo¬
lence, was his laid work publifhed by himfelt; his tragedy
of Coriolanus being only prepared for the theatre, when
a fatal accident robbed the world of one of the bed of
men and belt of poets. He would commonly walk the
diftance between London and Richmond (where he
lived) with any acquaintance that offered, with whom
he might chat and rtrft himfelf, or perhaps dine by the
way. One fummer evening being alone in his walk
from town to Hammerfmith, he had over-heated him*
felf, and in that condition imprudently took a boat to
carry him to Kew j apprehending no bad confequence
from the chill air on the river, which his walk to his
boufe, towards the upper end of Kew-lane, had always
hitherto prevented. But now the cold had fo feized
him, that the next day he was in a high fever. This,
however, by the ufe of proper medicines, was removed,
fo that he was thought out of danger ; till the fine
weather having tempted him to expofe himfelf once
more to the evening dews, his fever returned with
violence, and with fuch fymptoms as left no hopes of
a cure. His death happened on the 27th of Auguit
1748.
Mr Thomfon had improved his tafte upon the fineft
originals, ancient and modern. The autumn was his
favourite feafon for poetical compofition, and the deep
filence of the night he commonly chofe for his fludies.
1 he amufement of his leifure hours were civil and natu¬
ral hiftory, voyages, and the belt relations of travellers.
Though he performed on no inflrument, he was paffion-
ately fond of mufic, and would fometimes liflen a full
hour at his window to the nightingales in Richmond
gardens ; nor was his tafte lefs exquifite in the arts of
painting, fculpture, and archite&ure. As for the more
diftinguiftung qualities of his mind and heart, they beft
appear in his writings. There his devotion to the Su¬
preme Being, his love of mankind, of his country, and
friends, ftiine out in every page j his tendernefs of heart
was fo unbounded, that it took in even the brute crea¬
tion. It is not known, that through his whole life he
evem gave any perfon a moment’s pain, either by his
writings or otherwife. He took no part in the political
fquabbles of his time, and was therefore refpe&ed and
left undifturbed by both fides. Thefe amiable virtues
did not fail of their due reward ; the applaufe of the
public attended all his productions, and his friends loved
him with an enthufiaftic ardour.
“ As a writer (fays Dr Johnfon), he is entitled to
■one praife of the higheft kind ; his mode of thinking,
and of exprefling his thoughts, is original. His blank
verfe is no more the blank verfe of Milton, or of any
other poet, than the rhymes of Prior are the rhymes of
Cowley. His numbers, his paufes, his diction, are of
his own growth, without tranfcription, without imita-
Johnfan's tion. He thinks in a peculiar train, and thinks always
ibTpSu a" 3 nian °f gen!uS ; lie lo"ks round on Nature and on
life with the eye which Nature bellows only on a poet j
T H G
the eye that diftinguifhes, in every thing reprefented to Thomf*
its view, whatever there is on which imagination can de- II
light to be detained, and with a mind that at once com- Thornlli
prehends the vail, and attends to the minute. The
reader of the Seafons wonders that he never faw before
what Thomfon fnews him, and that he never yet has felt
what Thomfon imprefles.”
His teftamentary executors were the lord Lyttelton,
whofe care of our poet’s fortune and fame ceafed not
with his life •, and Mr Mitchell, a gentleman equally
noted for the truth and conitancy of his private friend-
fhip, and for his addrefs and fpirit as a public minifter.
By their united interefts, the orphan play of Coriolanus
was brought on the ftage to the beft advantage ; from
the profits of which, and the fale of manuferipts and
other effedts, a handfome fum was remitted to his fillers.
His remains were depofited in the church of Richmond,
under a plain ftone, without any infeription. A hand¬
fome monument was erefted to him in Weftminfter
abbey in the year 1762, the charge of which was de¬
frayed by the profits arifing from a fplendid edition of
all his works in 4*° i Mr Millar the bookfeller, who
had purchafed all Mr Thomfon’s copies, giving up his
property on this grateful occafion. A monument has
alfo been erefted to him at the place of his birth.
THOR, the eldeft and braveft of the fons of Odin
and Frea, was, after his parents, the greateft god of the
Saxons and Danes while they continued heathens. They Henris
believed, that 1 hor reigned over all the aerial regions, tfe/wye
which compofed his immenfe palace, conlifting of 540 Great
halls ; that he launched the thunder, pointed the light-
ning, and directed the meteors, winds, and ftorms. ToP
him they addreifed their prayers for favourable winds,
refreftiing rains, and fruitful feafons ; and to him the
fifth day of the week, which ftill bears his name, was
confecrated.
THORAX. See Anatomy.
White or THORN. See Cratjegus, Bo¬
tany Index.
Thorn, a town of Poland, in Regal Pruffia, and in
the palatinate of Culm. It was formerly a Hanfeatic
town, and ftill enjoys great privileges j is large and
well fortified ; but part of the fortifications, and a great
number of houfes, were ruined by the Swedes, in 1703.
It is feated on the Viflula, and contains 10,000 inhabi¬
tants. E. Long. 18. 30. N. Lat. 52. 55.
THORNBACK. See Raia, Ichthyology Index.
THORNHILL, Sir James, an eminent EngliftiD/to*
painter, was born in Dorfetlhire in 1676, of an ancient
family ; but was conftrained to apply to fome profeffion
by the diftrefles of his father, who had been reduced to
the neceflity of felling his family eftate. His inclina¬
tion diredled him to the art of painting j and on his
arrival at London he applied to his uncle, the famous
Dr Sydenham, wlk> enabled him to proceed in the ftudy
of the art under the direflion of a painter who was not
very eminent. However, the genius of Thornhill made
ample amends for the infufficiency of his inftru&or, and
by a happy application of his talents he made fo great
a progrefs, that he gradually rofe to the higheft reputa¬
tion.
His genius was well adapted to hiftorical and allego¬
rical compofitions ; he poffeffed a fertile and fine inven¬
tion ; and he Iketched his thoughts with great eafe,
freedom, and fpirit. He excelled alfo equally in por¬
trait,
[ 408 ]
THE.
1 -nhlll trait, perfpeftive, and architefture
* il lent tafte for defign, and had a free and firm pencil.
Had he been fo fortunate as to have ftudied at Rome
and Venice, to acquire greater correftnefs at the one,
and a more exaft knowledge of the perfe&ion of colour¬
ing at the other, no artift among the moderns might
perhaps have been his fuperior. Neverthelefs, he was
fo eminent in many parts of his profeffion, that he mull
for ever be ranked among the belt painters of his time ;
and his performances in the dome of St Paul’s church
at London, in the hofpital at Greenwich, and at Hamp-
ton-court, are fuch public proofs of his merit as will con¬
vey his name to pofterity with great honour;
This painter lived in general efteem ; he enriched
himfelf by the excellence of his works ; was appointed
ftate-painter to Queen Anne, from whom he received
the honour of knighthood *, had the Angular fatisfaHion
to repur chafe his family ellate j and was fo much di-
ftinguUhed as to be elefted one of the members of par¬
liament. He died in 173 2.
THOROUGH-wax, in Botany. See Bupleurum.
THOTH, or Theut, (called by the Phoenicians
'faaat, by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Romans Mer-
tury), was a Phoenician of very fuperior talents, and
one of the civilizers of mankind. He was prime mini-
fter to Ofiris, whom, after his death, he deified} and
he was himfelf deified by his countrymen the Egyptians,
for the benefits that he had rendered to the human race.
See Mercury, Mythology, N° 34. and Polythe¬
ism, N° 18.
THOUGHT, a general name for all the ideas con-
fequent on the operations of the mind, and even on the
operations themfelves. See Metaphysics.
Thought, in compofition. See Oratory, Part I.
and II.
THOUINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of diandria, and order of monogynia. See Botany
Index.
THRACE, a country very frequently mentioned by
the Greek and Latin writers, deriving its name, ac¬
cording to Jofephus, from Tiras one of the fons of Ja-
phet. It was bounded on the north by Mount Haemus ;
en the fouth, by the Aegean fea } on the weft, by Ma-
cedon and the river Strymon} and on the eaft, by the
Euxine fea, the Hellefpont, and the Propontis.—'The
Thracian Cherfonefus is a peninfula inclofed on the
fouth by the Aegean fea, on the weft by the gulf of
Melas, and on the eaft by the Hellefpont} being join¬
ed on the north to the continent by a neck of land
about 37 furlongs broad. The inland parts of Thrace
are very cold and barren, the fnow lying on the moun¬
tains the greateft part of the year } but the maritime
provinces are produffive of all forts of grain and necef-
faries for life } and withal fo pleafant, that Mela com¬
pares them to the moft fruitful and agreeable countries
wf Alia.
The ancient Thracians were deemed a brave and
warlike nation, but of a cruel and favage temper ; be¬
ing, according to the Greek writers, ftrangers to all hu¬
manity and good nature. It ivas to the Thracians,
however, that the Greeks were chiefly indebted for the
polite arts that fiourifhed among them } for Orphseus,
Linus, Mufaeus, Thamyris, and Eumolpus, ^11 Thra¬
cians, were the firft, as Euftathius informs us, who
charmed the inhabitants of Greece with their eloquence
Vol. XX. Part II.
Th race,
Thrafhing.
[ 409 ] T H R
the wed an excel- and melody, and perfuaded them to exchange then
fiercenefs for a fociable life and peaceful manners } nay,
great part of Greece was anciently peopled by i hra-
cians. Tereus, a Thracian, governed at Daulis in Pho-
cis, where the tragical ftory of Philomela and Progne
was a£ted. From thence a body of 1 hracians pafled
over to Euboea, and poffeffed themfelves of that iiland*
Of the fame nation were the Aones, Tembices, and
Hyanthians, who made themlelves mailers of Boeotia :
and great part of Attica itfelf was inhabited by I hra¬
cians, under the command of the celebrated Eumolpus.
It is not, therefore, without the utmofi ingratitude and
injuftice that the Greeks ftyle them Barbarians, fince
to them chiefly they were indebted both for the peo¬
pling and polifhing of their country.
Thrace was anciently divided into a number of petty
ftates, which were firft fubdued by Philip of Macedon.
On the decline of the Macedonian empire, the country
fell under the power of the Romans. It continued un¬
der fubje&ion to them till the irruption of the Turks,
in whofe hands it ftill remains.
THRASHING, in Agriculture, the operation by
which corn is feparated from the ftraw. This opera¬
tion is performed in a variety of ways, fometimes by the
feet of animals, fometimes by a flail, and fometimes by
a machine.
The moft ancient method of feparating the corn from
the ftraw was by the hoofs of cattle or horfes. This
was praAifed by the Ifraelites, as we find from the
books of Mofes} it was alfo common among the Greeks
and Romans *. Flails and thralhing machines were al- *
fo not uncommon among thefe nationsf. The flail™11, 3®'
which was ufed by the Romans, called baculus, fuJUs, jjj,
or pertica, was probably nothing more than a cudgel or ^2. col. ii»
pole. The thraftiing machine, which was called tribula%\- TibulU
or tribulum, and fometimes traha, was a kind of Hedge
made of boards joined together, and loaded with ftone
iron. Horfes were yoked to this machine, and a man was ftQmer>i\.
feated upon it to drive them over the (heaves of corn. xx. 495.
Different methods are employed in different countries
for feparating the corn from the ftalk. In the greateft
part of France the flail is ufed } but in the fouthern
diftri&s it is generally performed by the feet of animals.
Animals are alfo ufed for the fame purpofe in Spain, in
Italy, in the Morea, in the Canaries, in China, and in the
vicinity of Canton, where the flail is alfo fometimes ufed.
It appears that in hot climates the grains do not adhere
fo firmly to the ftalk as in cold countries, and therefore
may be more eafily feparated. This will explain the
reafon why animals are fo frequently employed in hot
countries for treading out the corn } whereas in cold
climates we know they are feldom tried, and have no
reafon to fuppofe that they would anfwer the purpofe.
In the Itle of France in Africa, rice and wheat are
thrafhed with poles, and maize with flicks ;
not been pofiible to teach the negroes the
flail.
The animals ufed for treading out corn are, oxen,
cows, horfes, mules, and even affes when the quantity
is not great. The operation is performed in this man¬
ner ; The (heaves, after being opened, are fpread in
fuch a manner that the ears of the corn are laid as
much uppermoft as poflible, and a man, (landing in the
centre, holds the halters of the cattle, which are made
to trot round as in a manege 5 whilft other men with
3 F * forks'
for it has
ufe of the
T H R [4
Thrafhing.^ forks Hiake the ftraw up from time to time, and thecat-
v 11 tls are trotted over it again and again till they have
beaten out all the grain. 1 his method is expeditious
enough ; but befides bruifing a confiderable quantity of
corn, it requires a great many cattle, and injures the legs
of the horfes and mules, which are preferred before cows
and oxen for this work.
i he flail is undoubtedly a much better inftrument for
thrafliing corn than the feet of animals, for it feparates
the grain from the draw and hulks both more effectual¬
ly and more expeditioufly ; yet it is liable to many ob¬
jections. It is a very laborious employment, too fevere
indeed even for a ftrong man j and as it is ufually the
intereft of the thraiher rather to thralh much than to
thralh clean, a good deal of corn will generally be left
upon the ftraw. It is therefore an objeCl of great im¬
portance in hufbandry to procure a proper machine for
feparating the corn from the ftraw.
The fir ft thralhing machine attempted in modern
times, of which we have received any account, was in¬
vented in Edinburgh by Mr Michael Menzies about the
year 173 ^ ^ confifted of a number of inftruments like
flails, fixed in a moveable beam, and inclined to it at an
angle of ten degrees. On each fide of the beam in
which the flails were fixed, floors or benches were pla¬
ced for fpreading the (heaves on. The flails were mo¬
ved backwards and forwards upon the benches by means
of a crank fixed on the end of an axle, which made
about 30 revolutions in a minute.
The fecond thralhing machine was invented by Mr
Michael Stirling, a farmer in the parilh of Dunblane,
Perthftiire. Of this difcovery we have received a very
accurate and authentic account from his fon, the reve¬
rend Mr Robert Stirling minifter of Crieff.
It is an old proverb, that neceflity is the mother of in¬
vention. This was verified on the prefent occafion. Be¬
fides his ordinary domeftic fervants, Mr M. Stirling had
occafion fometimes to hire an additional number to
thrafh out his grain, and frequently found it difficult to
procure fo many as he needed. This naturally led him
to refledl whether the operation of thrafhing could not
eafily be performed by machinery. Accordingly, fo
early as the year 1753’ under the pretence of joining in
the amufements of his children, he formed in miniature a
water mill, in which two iron fprings, made to rife and
fall alternately, reprefented the motion of two flails, by
which a few ftalks of corn put under them might be
fpeedily thrafhed. T. his plan he executed on a fcale
Efficiently large within two years after, making the
fprings about ten feet long, each of which had one end
firmly fcrewed into a folid plank, and the other termi¬
nated in a round batoon of folid iron, two feet long and
above an inch in diameter. Under thefe the (heaves
were conveyed gradually forward in a narrow channel
or trough, by palling between two indented horizontal
cylinders, fimilar to thofe now ufed in the molt of the
ihraffiing mills in that part of the country, and called
feeders. In this manner the thraffiing was executed
completely, and with confiderable rapidity j but as the
operation was performed on a low floor, and no me¬
thod contrived for carrying off the ftraw, the accumu¬
lation of it produced fuch confufion, and the removal
of it was attended with fuch danger, that this fcheme
was very foon entirely abandoned. The mortification
arifing from difappointment, and efpecially the feoffs of
10 ] T H R
his neighbours, for what was univerfally acacunted an Thrift;,,
abfurd and ridiculous attempt, ferved only to ftimulate WV-
the exertions of the inventor to accomplifti his defigns
on another plan.
Laying afide therefore the iron fprings with the feed¬
ers, and all the apparatus adapted to them, he retained
only an outer or water wheel, with an inner or cog¬
wheel moving on the fame axle : to this inner wheel,
which had 48 teeth or cogs, he applied a vertical trun¬
dle or pinion, with (even notches, the axle of which
paffed through a floor above the wheel, and having its
upper pivot fecured in a beam fix feet above that floor.
At the diftance of three feet three inches above the
floor two ftraight pieces of fquared wood, each four feet
long, paffed through the axle of the trundle at right
angles, forming four arms, to be moved round hori¬
zontally. Io the extremities of thefe arms were fixed
four iron plates, each 20 inches long, and eight broad
at the end next the arms, but tapering towards a point
at the other end. This large horizontal fly, conftitu-
ting four thrafliers, was inclofed within a wooden cylin¬
drical box three feet and a half high and eight in dia¬
meter. On the top of the box was an opening or port
(two or three ports were made at firft, but one was
found fufficient) eight inches widp, and extending from
the circumference a foot and a half towards its centre,
through which the corn (heaves defeended, being firft
opened and laid one by one on a board with two ledges
gently declining towards the port; on which board
they were moderately preffed down wfith a boy’s hand,
to prevent them from being too haftily drawn in by the
repeated ftrokes of the thrafliers. Within the box was
an inclined plane, along which the ftraw and grain fell
down into a wide wire riddle two feet fquare, placed
immediately under a hole of nearly the fame fize. The
riddle received a jerk at every revolution of the fpindle
from a knob placed on the fide of it, and was inftantly
thruft backward by a fmall fpring preffing it in the op-
polite dire&ion. The ftiort ftraw, with the grain and
chaft which paffed through the wide riddle, fell imme¬
diately into an oblong ftrait riddle, which hung with
one end raifed and the other depreffed, and was moved
by a contrivance equally Ample as the other; and ha¬
ving no ledge at the lower end, the long chaff which
could not pafs through the riddle dropped from thence
to the ground ; while the grain and mod of the chaff
falling through the riddle into a pair of common barn-
fanners that flood under it on the ground floor, the
ftrong grain, the weak, and the chaff, were all fepa-
rated with great exaflnefs. The fanners were moved
by a rope or band running circuitoufly in a (hallow
niche cut on the circumference of the cog-wheel. The
ftraw collefted gradually in the bottom of the box over
the wide riddle, and through an opening two and a
half feet wide, and as much in height, left in that fide
of the box neareft the brink of the upper floor, was
drawn down to the ground with a rake by the perfon or
perfons employed to form it into (heaves or rolls.
Such was the thraffiing mill invented by Mr Michael
Stirling, which, after various alterations and improve¬
ments he completed in the form now deferibed, A. D.
1758. By experiment it was found that four bolls of
oats, Linlithgow meafure, could be thraffied by it in 25
minutes. From that period he never ufed a common
flail in thrafliing, except for humbling or bearding bar¬
ley.
PLATE nxxxi:
W 3
THRASHING MACHINE.
mi
T H R [ 41
1 ifliing. ley. In every other kind of grain he performed the
u v—' whole operation of thrafliing with the mill; and con¬
tinued always to ufe it till 1772, when he retired from
bufinefs, and his thrafhing mill became the property
of his fecond fon, who continued to ufe it with equal
advantage and fatisfa&ion. Several machines were con-
ftru&ed on the fame plan, particularly one near Stir¬
ling, under Mr Stirling’s dire&ion, for Mr Moir of
Leckie, in 1765, which, we underfland, has been ufed
ever fince, and gives complete fatisfa&ion to the pro¬
prietor. There was another erefted in 1778 by Mr
Thomas Keir (in the parilh of Muthil and county of
Perth), who has contrived a method of bearding barley
with it: and by the addition of a fmall fpindle with
fhort arms contiguous to the front of the box, and moved
by a band common to it and the great fpindle to which
it is parallel, the flraw is lhaken and whirled out of the
box to the ground. That this machine did not come
immediately into general ufe, was owing partly to the
fmallnefs of the farms in that part of the country, whofe
crops could eafily be thrafhed by the few hands necef-
farily retained on them for other purpofes ; and chiefly
to an apprehenfion that the machine could only be
moved by water *, an apprehenfion which experience
proves to be entirely groundlefs. The machine, how¬
ever, was ingenious, and did great credit to the worthy
inventor, and certainly deferved a better fate than it was
deftined to undergo.
A third thraftiing mill was invented in 1772, by tvro
perfons nearly about the fame time, and upon the fame
principles. The inventors were, Mr Alderton who
lived near Alnwick, and Mr Smart at Wark in North¬
umberland. The operation was performed by rubbing.
The (heaves were carried round between an indented
drum of about fix feet diameter, and a number of in¬
dented rollers arranged round the circumference of the
drum, and attached to it by means of fprings •, fo that
while the drum revolved, the fluted rollers rubbed the
corn off from the draw by rubbing againft the (lutings
of the drum. But as a confiderable quantity of the
grain was bruifed in pafling between the rollers, the
machine was foon laid afide.
In 1776 an attempt was made by Mr Andrew Mei-
kle, an ingenious millwright in the parifti of Tyning-
ham, Eafl: Lothian, to conftrudl a new machine upon
the principles which had been adopted by Mr Menzies
already mentioned. This confided in making joints in
the flails, which Mr Menzies had formed without any.
But this machine, after much labour and expence, was
foon laid afide, on account of the difficulty of keeping
it in repair, and the fmall quantity of work performed,
which did not exceed one boll or fix Wincheder bufhels
of barley per hour.
Some time after this, Mr Francis Kinloch, then junior
of Gilmerton, having vifited the machine invented in
Northumberland, attempted an improvement upon it.
He inclofed the drum in a fluted cover ; and indead of
making the drum itfelf fluted, he fixed upon the outfide
of it four fluted pieces of wood, which by means of
fprings could be raifed a little above the circumference
of the drum, fo as to prefs againd the fluted covering,
and thus rub off the ears of corn as the (heaves paffed
round between the drum and the fluted covering. But
not finding this machine to anfrver his expeftatinn (for it
hruifed the grain in the fame manner as the Northum-
1 ] THE
berland machine did), he fent it to Mr Mdikle, that Thrafluivg.
he might, if poffible, re&ify its errors. *
Mr Meikle, who had long dire&ed his thoughts to
this fubje£l, applied himfelf with much ardour and per-
feverance to the improvement and corredlion of this ma¬
chine j and after (pending a good deal of time upon it,
found it was conflrudted upon principles fo erroneous,
that to improve it was impradlicable.
At length, however, Mr Meikle’s own genius invent¬
ed a model, different in principle from the machines
which had already been condrudted. This model was
made in the year 1785 *, and in the following year the
firil: thrafhing machine on the fame principles was ereft-
ed in the neighbourhood of Alloa, in the county of
Stirling, by Mr George Meikle the fon of the inven¬
tor. This machine anfwered completely the wifhes of
Mr Stein, the gentleman for whom it was eredted, who
gave the moft ample teflimony of his fatisfadlion both
to the inventor and to the public. The fame of this
difeovery foon fpread over the whole country, and a
great many farmers immediately applied to Mr Meikle,
clefiring to have thralhing-mills eredted on their farms.
The difeovery, it appeared, would be profitable, and it
was reafonable that the inventor ftlould enjoy the profits
of his invention, fie accordingly applied for a patent)
which, after confiderable expence, arifing from the op-
pofition of fome perfons, who claimed a (hare in the dif¬
eovery, was granted.—-Thefe machines are now becom¬
ing very common in many parts of Scotland, and are
increafing very confiderably in number every year over
all the united kingdom.
We will now endeavour to deferibe this macVine in
its mod improved (late } which is fo fimple, that with
the affiftance of a plate, exhibiting the plan of eleva¬
tion, fig. I. the ground plan, fig. 2. and the 3d (bowing Plate
its effential parts in a diftindt manner, we hope it will DXXX\»
be eafily underftood by all our readers who have not
had an opportunity of feeing it. The power employed
for turning that part of the machine which feparates the
corn from the draw is produced by four wheels (when
moved by horfes), the teeth of which move in one an¬
other and turn the drum, on which four fcutchers are
fixed. The (heaves are introduced between two fluted
rollers, which hold them firm, and draw them in gra¬
dually, while the fcutchers flrike off the grain from the
flraw as it paffes through. This will fuffice for a ge¬
neral idea of this machine. We will now be more
particular.
The large fpur-wheel A, fig. I. and 2. which has Gg. r. anA;
276 cogs, is horizontal, and moves the pinion B, which3,
has 14 teeth. The pinion B mo%res the crown-wheel
C, which has 84 teeth ; the wheel C moves a fecond
pinion D, which has 16 teeth •, and the pinion D moves
the drum HIKL. The drum is a hollow cylinder three
feet and a half diameter, and placed horizontally 5 on
the outfide of which the fcutchers are fixed by flrong
ferew bolts. The fcutchers confifl of four pieces of v •
wood, faced on one fide with a thin plate of iron, placed
at an equal diflance from each other, and at right angles
to the axis of the drum.
The (heaves are fpread on an inclined board F, fig. 3» Fig. 3,
from which they are introduced between two fluted rol¬
lers GG made of cad iron, about three inches and a
half in diameter, and making about 35 revolutions in a
minute. As thefe rollers are only about three quarters
3 F 2 of
T H R [ 412 ] T H R
Tlirailung. 0f an incti diftant from tlie fcotohers or leaves of the is necefiary to riddle the corn as it falls from the fan. Thni
*r drum HIKL, they ferve to hold the (heaves faft, while ners, and a fixth to remove the ftraw (a). |j
the fcutchers a, b, c, d% moving wdth prodigious veloci- This machine can be moved equally well by water ^'ro
ty, feparate the grain completely from the ilraw, and wind, or horfes. Mr Meikle has made fuch improve-U“Y
at the fame time throw out both grain and ilraw upon ments on the wind-mill as to render it much more ma-
the concave rack M, lying horizontally with (lender nageable and convenient than formerly j and we are in-
parallel ribs, (o that the corn palfes through them formed many wind-mills are now eredling in different
into a hopper N placed below. From the hopper it parts of the country. As to the comparative expence
paiies through a harp or riddle O into a pair ot fanners of thefe different machines, the eredtion of the horfe
P, from which, in the mod improved machines, it comes machine is lead $ but then the expence of employing
out clean and fit for the market. The draw, after be- horfes mud be taken into conlideration. One of this
ing thrown by the fcutchers c, Z>, r, «/, into the rack, is kind may be eredled for 70I. A water-mill will coft
removed from it by a rake QRST into a place contigu- lol. more on account of the expence of the water-wheel,
ous V. Lire rake confids o( four thin pieces of wood A wind-mill will cod from 200I. to 300I. derling.
or leaves ; on the end of each of thefe leaves is ranged THRAVE of COKN, an expredion denoting 24
a row of teeth e,f g, k, five inches long. The rake (heaves or four (hocks of fix (heaves to the (hock j though
moves in a circular manner in the concave rack, while in fome countries they only reckon 12 (heaves to the
the teeth catch hold of the draw, and throw it out of thrave.
the rack. Thefe are all the effential parts of the ma- THRASYBULUS, a renowned Athenian general
chine 5 the red may be eafily underdood by the refer- and patriot, the deliverer of his country from the yoke
ences to the Plate. W is the horfe-courfe, N° 1, which of the 30 tyrants, lived about 294 B. C *. *See^
is 27 feet diameter. X is the pillar for fupporting the THRASYMENUS LACUS, in Ancient Geography fca,W
beams on which the axle of the fpur-wheel is fixed, a lake of Etruria, near Perufia, and not far from the55””1?
YYY are three fpindles for moving the two duted rol- Tiber, fatal to the Romans in the Punic war. Now//
lers, the rake, and fanners. To the defcription now Logo de Perugia in the Ecclefiadical State,
given we have only to add, that the drum has a cover- THREAD, a fmall line made up of a number of fine
ing of wood Z at a fmall didance above it, for the pur- fibres of any vegetable or animal fubdance, fuch as flax,
pofe of keeping the (heaves clofe to the fcutchers. cotton, or filk 5 from which it takes its name of linen,
I he advantages of this machine are many. As the cotton, or filk thread,
drum makes 300 revolutions in a minute, the four THREATENING LETTERS. Knowingly to fend
feutchers together make 200 drokes in the fame fpace any letter without a name, or with a fictitious name,
of time. From fuch power and velocity, it is evident demanding money, or any other valuable thing, or "
that much work mud be performed. When the horfes threatening (without any demand) to kill or fire the
go at the rate of two and one-third miles per hour, from houfe of any perfon, is made felony without benefit of
three to fix bolls will be thrafhed \ but as the quantity clergy. And fending letters, threatening to accufe any
thradied will be lets when the draw is long than when perfon of a crime punilhable with death, tranfportation,
it is diort, we (hall take the average at four bolls. One pillory, or other infamous punidiment, with a view to
gentleman, whofe veracity and accuracy we can depend extort from him any money or other valuable chattels,
on, affures us, that his mill thradied 63 bolls in a day ; is punidiable by datute 30 Geo. IE cap. 24. at the dif-
by which, we fuppofe, he meant 10 hours. To prove cretion of the court, with fine, imprifonment, pillory,,
the fuperior advantage of this machine to the common whipping, or tranfportation for feven years,
method of thrafhing with flails, a gentleman ordered THRESHING. See Thrashing.
two equal quantities of oats to be thraflied by the mill THRIFT. See StatICE, Botany Index.
and by flails. When the corn was cleaned and meafur- THRINAX, Small Jamaica Fan-Palm, a genus
ed, he obtained one-fixteenth more from the (heaves of plants belonging to the clafs of palaue. See BoTANY
thradied by the mill than from thofe thradied by the Index.
flail. \\ e are alfo informed by another gentleman who THRIPS, a genus of infefls belonging to the order
has dudied this machine with much attention, and cal- of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
culated its advantages with care, that, independently of THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between
liaving the corn much cleaner feparated from the draw the head and the (boulders.
than is ufually done by flails, there is a faving of 30 or THROAT-WORT. See Campanula, Botany In-
40 per cent, in the expence of thrafhing. dex.
1 he number of perfons requifite for attending the THRONE, a royal feat or chair of date, enriched
mill when working is fix : One perfim drives the horfes $ with ornaments of arcbitcvture and fcuipture, raifed on
a fecond hands the (heaves to a third, who unties them, one or more fleps, and covered with a kind of canopy,
while a fourth fpreads them on the inclined boards and Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings
preffes them gently between the rollers ; a fifth perfon and other fevereigns.
THROSTLE.
(A) We add, on the authority of an experienced farmer, that of the fix perfons neceffary to attend the thrafliing
machine, only two can in judice be charged to the account of the machine j namely, the perfon who manages
the horfes, and the one who feeds the machine : For in the ufual mode of thradiing by the flail, it requires ths
fame number of perfons as the thrafliing machine does to clear an equal quantity of corn from the chaff in the
fame time..
THU [ 413 1 THU
tie THROSTLE. See Turdus,! Ornithology/«-
THRUSH. See Turdus, 3 ^ex-
r Thrush, or See Medicine/Wear.
L, THRYALLIS, a genus of plants belonging to tlie
clafs decandria, and order of monogynia •, and in the
natural fyftem ranging under the 38th order, Tricocctz.
See Botany Index.
THU ANUS, Jacobus Augustus, youngeft fon of
the prefident de Thou, was famous for his erudition.
He was born in 1553 5 and having finifned his Rudies
and travels, was made prefident a-mortier, and took
poffelfion thereof in 1595. He was employed in feveral
important offices of Rate, and in reforming the univer-
fity of Paris. He wrote the hifiory of his own time in
Latin, from the year 1543 to 1608, in 138 books j a
work, both for fubjedl and Ryle, worthy of the ancients.
He alfo left memoirs of his own life, befides poems j
and died at Paris, 1617.
THUCYDIDES, a celebrated Greek hiflorian, was
born at Athens 471 B. C. He was the fon of Olorus,
and grandfon of Miltiades, who is thought to have been
defcended from Miltiades the famous Athenian general,
and to have married the king of Thrace’s daughter.
He was educated in a manner fuitable to his quality,
that is, in the Rudy of philofophy and eloquence. His
mafier in the former was Anaxagoras, in the latter An¬
tiphon ; one, by his defcription in the eighth book of his
Hiltory, for power of fpeech almoR a miracle, and
feared by the people on that account. Suidas and Pho-
tius relate, that when Herodotus recited his hiflory in
public, a faRRon in ufe then and many ages after, Thu¬
cydides felt fo great a Ring of emulation, that it drew
tears from him •, infomuch that Herodotus himfelf took
notice of it, and congratulated his father on having a
.fon who Riowed fo wonderful an affuftion to the Mules.
Herodotus was then 29 years of age, Thucydides a-
bout 16.
When the Peloponnefian war began to break out,
Thucydides conjeftured truly, that it would prove a
fubiefl worthy of his labour ; and it no fooner com¬
menced than he began to keep a journal. This explains
the reafon why he has attended more to chronological
order than to unity of defign. During the fame war he
was commiffioned by his countrymen to relieve Amphi-
polis •, but the quick march of Brafidas the Lacedaemo¬
nian general defeated his operations 5 and Thucydides,
unfuccefsful in his expedition, was baniflied from A-
thens. This happened in the eighth year of this cele¬
brated war*, and in the place of his baniRiment the ge-
c. neral began to write an impartial hiRory of the import¬
ant events which had happened during his adtniniRra-
tion, and which Rill continued to agitate the feveral
Rates of Greece. This famous hiflory is continued only
to the 21A year of the war, and the remaining part of
the time till the demolition of the walls of Athens was
defcribed by the pen of Theopompus and Xenophon.
Thucydides wrote in the Attic dialed, as being poflef-
fed of mofl vigour, purity, elegance, and energy. He
fpared neither time nor money to procure authentic ma¬
terials ; and the Athenians, as well as their enemies,
furnilhed him with many valuable communications,
which contributed to throw great light on the different
tranfaftions of the war. His hiflory has been divided
into eight books *, the lafl of which is imperfect, and
%>pofed to have been written by his daughtero.
4
The hiflorian of Halicarnaflus has often been com¬
pared with the fon of Olorus, but each has his peculiar
excellence. Sweetnefs of Ryle, grace and elegance of
expreffion, may be called the charafteriflics of the for¬
mer j while Thucydides Rands unequalled for the fire of
his defcriptions, the concifenefs, and at the fame time
the flrong and energetic manner of his narratives. His
relations are authentic, as he himfelf was interefled in
the events he mentions j his impartiality is indubitable,
as he nowhere betrays the leafl refentment againfl his
countrymen, and the factious partizans of Cleon, who
had baniflied him from Athens. The hifiory of Thu¬
cydides was fo admired by Demoflhenes, that he tranf-
cribed it eight different times, and read it with fuch at¬
tention, that he could almofi repeat it by heart. Thu¬
cydides died at Athens, where he had been recalled
from his exile about 411 years B. C.
The befl edition of Thucydides is that of Oxford,
publiflied in 1696, folio, and that of Duker, publiflied
at Amflerdam in 1731, folio.
THUJA, the Arbor Vit^ij a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of monadelphia, and order of mo-
noecia 5 and in the natural fyflem ranging under the 31R.
order, Coniferce. Seo Botany Index.
THULE, or Thylje, in Ancient Geography, an
ifland in the moff northern parts of the German ocean*.
Itsfituation was never accurately afeertained by the an¬
cients, hence its prefent name is unknown by modern
hiftorians. Some fuppofe that it is the ifland now called
Iceland, or part of Greenland, and others that it wast
Foula. See FoULA.
THUMB, in Anatomy, one of the extremities of the
hand.
THUMB-Cap, an uninhabited ifland in the South fea,
lies about feven leagues north-wefl of Lagoon ifland ; it
is low, woody, of a circular form, and not much abovs
a mile in compafs.
THUMMIM. See Urim.
THUNBERGIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of didynamia. See Botany Index.
THUNDER, the noife occafioned by the explofion
of a fiafli of lightning echoed back from the inequalities
on the furface of the earth, in like manner as the noife
of a cannon is echoed, and in particular circumRances
forms a rolling lengthened found. See Electricity':
THUNDERBOLT. When lightning a61s with ex¬
traordinary violence, and breaks or flutters any thing?
it is called a thunderbolt; which the vulgar, to fit it for
fuch effefts, fuppofe to be a hard body, and even a
Rone. But that we need not have recourft to a hard
folid body to account for the effedls commonly attribu¬
ted' to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one who
confidcrs thofe of the pulvis fulminans and of gunpow¬
der ; and more efpecially the aRonilhing powers of elec¬
tricity. It has been fuppofed that meteoric Rones may-
have given rife to the notion of a thunderbolt.
THUNDER-Houfe. See ELECTRICITY.
THURINGIA, a divifion of the circle of Upper
Saxony in Germany. It is a fruitful tra<R, abounding
in corn, efpecially wheat; in black cattle, flieep, and
horfes. It is about 73 miles in length, and as much in
breadth. It contains 47 towns, 14 boroughs, betwixt
700 and 800 villages, 300 noble eRates, 7 faperinten-
dencies, and 5 under-confiflories. Thuringia, the coun¬
try vf the ancient Thuringi, or Catti, a branch of the
Vandals^
TIB [ 4H ] TIB
Thuringia Vandals, mentioned by Tacitus, was formerly a king-
dom, afterwards a county, then a landgravate, and was
r.. ‘ governed by its own princes for many ages, till 11 24,
when it devolved to the marquis of Mifnia, and, with
that country, afterwards to the duke of Saxony. But
the modern Thuringia is only a part of the ancient, nay,
but a part of the ancient South Thuringia, which com¬
prehends befides, a large fhare of the modern Franconia,
Helfe, &c. On the extinftion of the male line of the
ancient landgraves in 1247, it came to the margraves
of Meiffen, anceltors to the prefent eledtoral family.
The elector has no voice in the diet, on account of his
fhare in the landgravate or circle of Thuringia. Erfurt
is the capital.
THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftian week,
but the fixth of that of the Jews.
THUS, Frankincense, a folid brittle refin, brought
to us in little globes or mafles, of a brownilh or yellow-
ifti colour on the outfide, internally whitifh or variega¬
ted with whitifh fpecks. It is fuppofed to be the pro¬
duce of the pine that yields the common turpentine,
and to concrete upon the furface of the terebinthinate
juice foon after it has iffued from the tree. See In¬
cense.
THUYA. See Thuja.
THYMUS, Thyme •, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of didynamia, and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 42d order, Verticillatcc. See Bo¬
tany Index.
Thymus. See Anatomy Index.
THYRSUS, in antiquity, the fceptre which the
poets put into the hand of Bacchus, and wherewith
they furnilhed the menades in their Bacchanalia.
THYRSUS, a mode of flowering refembling the cone
of a pine. It is, fays Linnaeus, a panicle contrafted in¬
to an oval or egg-fhaped form. The lower footftalks,
which are longer, extend horizontally, whilft the upper
ones are fhorter and mount vertically. Lilac and but¬
ter-bur furnifh examples.
TIARA, an ornament or habit wherewith the an¬
cient Perfians covered their head ; and with which the
Armenians and kings of Pontus are reprefented on me¬
dals ; thefe laft, becaufe they were defcended from the
Perfians. Latin authors call it indifferently tiara and
cidaris. Strabo fays the tiara was in form of a tower ;
and the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy,
a& i. fcene 2. affirms that it was adorned with pea¬
cocks feathers.
Tiara is alfo the name of the pope’s triple crown.
The tiara and keys are the badge of the papal dignity j
the tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdic-
tion: for as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are re¬
prefented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The
ancient tiara was a round high cap. John XXIII. fir ft
encompaffed it with a crown. Boniface VIII. added a
fecond crown ; and Benedi6l XII. a third.
TIARELLA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
■clafs of decandria ; and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 13th order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
TIBER, a great river of Italy which runs through
the pope’s territories, palling by Perugia and Orvietto;
and having vifited Rome, falls into the Tufcan fea at
Oftia, 1 q miles below that city.
TIBET, called by the Tartars Baranto/a, Bootan,
»r Tangooty and by the Chinefe Tfang, is fituateu be-
3
tween 270 and 35* north latitude; and is reckoned to Tib
be 1350 miles from eaft to weft, and 480 from north to w\
fouth. It is bounded on the north by the country of
the Mongols and the defert of Kobi; on the eaft by
China ; on the weft by Hindoftan, and on the fouth by
the fame country and the kingdom of Ava. In the
valleys lying between the lower mountains are many
tribes of Indian people ; and a difpute happening be¬
tween the heirs of one of the rajahs or petty princes,
one party called to their affiftance the Boutaners, and
the other the Britifh. The latter prevailed ; and the
fame of Britifh valour being carried to the court of Ti¬
bet, the Teefhoo Lama,‘ who ruled the ftate under the
Delai-Lama, at that time in his minority, fent a depu¬
tation to Bengal, defiring peace for the prince who had
been engaged in war with the Britifh. This was rea¬
dily granted by the governor ; and Mr Bogle was fent
ambaffador to the court of Tibet, where he refided fe-
veral months ; and after an abfence of a year and a
quarter, returned to Calcutta. The account of this
gentleman’s expedition hath not been publifhed byhim-
felf; but from Mr Stewart’s letter to Sir John Pringle,
publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, vol. Ixvii.
we learn the following particulars, colledted from his
papers.
“ Mr Bogle divides the territories of the Delai-Lama
into two different parts. That which lies immediately
contiguous to Bengal, and which is called by the inha¬
bitants Doopo, he diftinguifhes by the name of Bootan;
and the other, which extends to the northward as far as
the frontiers of Tartary, called by the natives Pu, he
ftyles Tibet. Bootan is ruled by the Dah Terriah, or
Deb Rajah. It is a country of fteep and inacceffible
mountains, whofe fummits are crowned with eternal
fnow ; they are interfered with deep valleys, through
which pour numberlefs torrents that increafe in their
courfe, and at laft, gaining the plains, lofe themfelves
in the great rivers of Bengal. Thefe mountains are co¬
vered down their fides with forefis of ftately trees of va¬
rious forts; fome (fuch as pines, &c.) which are known
in Europe ; others, fuch as are peculiar to the country
and climate. The valleys and fides of the hills which
admit of cultivation are not unfruitful, but produce
crops of wheat, barley, and rice. The inhabitants are
a flout and warlike people, of a copper complexion, in
fize rather above the middle European ftature, hafly
and quarrelfome in their temper, and addidted to the
ufe of fpirituous liquors ; but honeft in their dealings,
robbery by violence being almoft unknown among
them. The chief city is Taffey Seddein, fituated on the
Patchoo. Tibet begins properly from the top of the
great ridge of the Caucafu^, and extends from thence in
breadth to the confines of Great Tartary, and perhaps
to fome of the dominions of the Ruffian empire. The
woods, which everywhere cover the mountains in Bou-
tan, are here totally unknown ; and, except a few
ftraggling trees near the villages, nothing of the fort is to
be feen. The climate is extremely fevere and rude.
At Chamnanning, where he wintered, although it be
in latitude 310 39', only 8° to the northward of Cal¬
cutta, he often found the thermometer in his room at
290 by Fahrenheit’s fcale; and in the middle of April
the Handing waters were all frozen, and heavy {bowers
of fnow perpetually fell. This, no doubt, mull be
owing to the great elevation of the country, and to the
TIB [ 4t5 ] TIB
vail frozen fpace over which the north wind blows un-
1 interruoted from the pole, through the vaft deferts of
Siberia and Tartary, till it is flopped by this formidable
wall.
“ The Tibetians are of a fmaller fize than their
fouthern neighbours, and of a lefs robuft make. Their
complexions are alfo fairer, and many of them have even
a ruddinefs in their countenances unknown to the other
climates of the eaft. Thofe whom Mr Bogle faw at
Calcutta appeared to have quite the Tartar face. They
are of a mild and cheerful temper; the higher ranks are
polite and entertaining in converfation, in which they
never mix either drained compliments or flattery. The
common people, both in Bootan and Tibet are clothed
in coarfe woollen iluffs of their own manufacture, lined
with fuch fkins as they can procure: but the better or¬
ders of men are dreffed in European cloth, or China
filk, lined with the fineft Siberian furs. The ufe of
linen is totally unknown among them. The chief food
of the inhabitants is the milk of their cattle, prepared
into cheefe, butter, or mixed with the flour of a coarfe
barley or of peafe, the only grain which their foil pro¬
duces; and even thefe articles are in a fcanty propor¬
tion : but they are furniflied with rice and wheat from
Bengal and other countries in their neighbourhood.
They alfo are fupplied with fifh from the rivers in their
own and the neighbouring provinces, failed andfent in¬
to the interior parts. They have no want of animal
food from the cattle, fheep, and hogs, which are raifed
on their hills; and are not deftitute of game. They
have a lingular method of preparing their mutton, by
expofing the carcafe entire, after the bowels are ta¬
ken out, to the fun and bleak northern winds which
blow in the months of Auguft and September, without
froft, and fo dry up the juices and parch the fkin, that
the meat will keep uncorrupted for the year round.
This they generally eat raw, without any other prepara¬
tion.
“ The religion and political conftitution of this coun¬
try, which are intimately blended together, would make
a confiderable chapter in its hiftory. It fuffices to fay,
that at prefent, and ever flnce the expulfion of the Eluth
Tartars, the kingdom of Tibet is regarded as depending
on the empire of China, which they call Cathay; and
there aftually reflde two mandarins, with a garrifon of
a thoufand Chinefe, at Lahaffa the capital, to fupport
the government ; but their power does not extend far:
and in fa£t the Lama, whofe empire is founded on the
fureft grounds, perfonal affeflion and religious reverence,
governs every thing internally with unbounded au¬
thority. Every body knows that the Delai Lama is
the great object of adoration for the various tribes of
heathen Tartars, who roam through the vaft tra£l of
continent which ftretches from the banks of the Volga
to Correa on the fea of Japan, the moft extenfive reli¬
gious dominion, perhaps, on the face of the globe. See
Lama.
“ It is an old notion, that the religion of Tibet is a
corrupted Chriftianity : and even Father Difederii, a Je-
fuit (but not of the Chinefe million) who vifited the
country about the beginning of this century, thinks he
can refolve all their myfteries into ours; and afferts,
With a truly myftical penetration, that they have cer-
laioly a good notion of the Trinity, lince in their ad-
drefs to the Deity, they fay as often koncioh-oik in the Tibet,
plural as konciok in the lingular, and with their rofaries v ' 'F
pronounce thefe words om, ha, hum. The truth is,
that the religion of Tibet, from whatever fource it
fprung, is pure and limple in its fource, conveying very
exalted notions of the Deity, with no contemptible fy-
ftem of morality: but in its progrefs it has been greatly
altered and corrupted by the inventions of worldly men;
a fate we can hardly regret in a fyftem of error, lince we
know that that of truth has been fubjedt to the fame.
Polygamy, at leaft in the fenfe we commonly receive
the word, is not in practice among them; but it exifts-
in a manner ftill more repugnant to European ideas;
for there is a plurality of hufbands, which is firmly efta-
blilhed and highly refpedted there. In a country where
the means of lubfifting a family are not eafily found, it
feems not impolitic to allow a let of brothers to agree in
railing one, which is to be maintained by their joint ef¬
forts. In Ihort, it is ufual in Tibet for the brothers in
the family to have a wife in common, and they general¬
ly live in great harmony and comfort with her; not but
fometimes little diffenlions will arife (as may happen in
families conftituted upon different principles), an in-
ftance of which Mr Bogle mentions in the cafe of a mo-
deft and virtuous lady, the wife of half a dozen of the
Teelhoo Lama’s nephews, who complained to the uncle
that the two youngeft of her hulbands did not furnilh
that lhare of love and benevolence to the common ftock
which duty and religion required of them. In Ihort,
however ftrange this cuftom may appear to us, it is an
undoubted fadt that it prevails in Tibet.
“ The dead are expofed on the pinnacle of fome neigh¬
bouring mountain, to be devoured by wild beafts and
birds of prey, or wafted away by time and the vicifli-
tudes of the weather in which they lie. The mangled
carcafes and bleached bones lie fcattered about; and
amidft this fcene of horror, fome miferable old wretch,
man or woman, loft to all feelings but thofe of fu-
perftition, generally fets up an abode, to perform the
difmal office of receiving the bodies, afligning each a
place, and gathering up the remains when too widely
difperfed.”
To the account of Tibet which we have given from
the communications of Mr Bogle, we may add the in¬
formation which we have obtained from a later traveller,
Mr Saunders * furgeon at Boglepoer in Bengal, who «paper fa
made a journey into Tibet in the year 1783. His oh-the Phil.
fervations chiefly refpedt the natural produdlions and dif- Tranf. _
eafes of the country. vo^ lx^s’
The plants which Mr Saunders found were almoft all
European plants, a great number of them being natives
of Britain. From the appearance of the hills he con¬
cludes that they muft contain many ores of metal and
pyrites. There are inexhaultible quantities of tincal
or borax, and rock-falt is plentiful; gold-duft is found
in great quantities in the beds of rivers, and fometimes
in large maffes, lumps, and irregular veins; lead, cinna¬
bar containing a large proportion of quickfilver, copper,
and iron, he thinks might eafily be procured. But the
inhabitants of Tibet have no better fuel than the dung
of animals. A coal mine would be a valuable difco-
very. We are told, that in fome parts of China border¬
ing on Tibet coal is found and ufed as fuel.
It is remarkable that the fame difeafe prevails at the
foot
T 1 C [4
Tibet foot of the mountains of Tibet as in Switzerland at the
Tickell. *°0t °f the A1PS* a glandular fwelling in the throat
' commonly called goitre.
The language Ipoken in Tibet is different from that
of the Tartars. The aftronomers are acquainted with
the motion of the heavenly bodies, and able to cal¬
culate eclipfes j but the lamas are generally ignorant $
few of them can read, much lefs underftand their an¬
cient books.
TIBULLUS, Aulus Albius, a Roman knight, and
a celebrated Latin poet, wTas born at Rome 43 B. C.
He was the friend of Horace, Ovid, Macer, and other
■great men in the reign of Auguftus. He accompanied
Meffala Corvinus in his expedition againft the ifland of
Corcyra : but falling fick, and being unable to fupport
the fatigues of war on account of the weaknefs of his
conftitution, he quitted the profeflion of arms, and re¬
turned to Rome, where he died before the year 17 j
'when Ovid fhowed his grief for his death by writing a
fine elegy upon him. Tibullus wrote four books of ele¬
gies, which are ftill extant: they are written in a ten¬
der and agreeable ftyle, and in very elegant Latin. Mu-
ret and Jofeph Scaliger have written learned and curi¬
ous commentaries on the works of this poet. The belt
edition of Tibullus is that of Janus Bronckhufius, pu-
blifhed at Amfterdam in 1708, in one volume quarto.
We have an Englifh poetical verfion by Mr Grainger.
TIB UR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
pleafantly fituated on the Anio. Here Horace had his
villa and houfe j and here he wilhed to end his days.
Here Adrian built an extraordinary villa called Tibur-
tina, inferibed with the names of the provinces and of
the moft confiderable places, (Spartian) j near which
Zenobia had a houfe called Zenobia, (Trebellius, Pollio).
Hither Auguftus often retreated on account of its falu-
brity, (Suetonius) : for which it is greatly recommend-
ed, (Martial). Anciently, when the Romans had far
extended their territory, it was the utmoft place of ba-
nifhment, (Ovid). It had a temple of Hercules j and
therefore called Herculeum. In the temple was a li-
brary, (A. Gellius). Now Tivoli in the Campagna di
Roma, on the Teverone.
TICINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river in Infubria,
riling m IVIount Adula, traverfing the Lacus Verbanus
fouthwards, and falling into the Po near Ticinum. Be¬
tween this river and the Po Hannibal gained his firft
victory over the Romans under P, Scipio. The general
himfelf efcaped with the utmoft difficulty, and that by
the bravery of his fon the firft Scipio Africanus. Now
the Tejino, rifing in Mount Godard, running fouth
through the Lago Maggiore and Milan, by Pavia, into
the Po.
TICK. See Acarus, Ektomology Index.
TICKELL, Thomas, an excellent Englifti poet,
was the fon of the Reverend Richard Tickell, and was
born in 1686, at Bridekirk in Cumberland. He was
educated at Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he was
made fellow j and while he continued at that univerfity,
he addrefled to Mr Addifon a complimentary copy of
verfes on his Opera of Rofamond, which introduced him
•to an acquaintance with that gentleman, who difeover-
ing his merit, became his fincere friend. On Mr Ad¬
difon being made fecretary of ftate, he appointed Mr
Tickell his undersecretaryand on his being obliged
■to refign that office on account of his ill health, he re-
16 ] T I D
commended him fo effeaually to Mr Craggs his fuccef- Tih [
for, that he was continued in his poll till that gentle¬
man’s death. In 1724, Mr Tickell was appointed fe- T]
c ret ary to the lords juftices in Ireland, and enjoyed that ^ ^
place as long as he lived. He wrote fome poems,
which, when feparately publiffied, met with a favourable
reception, and paffed through feverai editions : they are
now printed in the fecond volume of the Minor Poets.
After Mr Addifon’s death Mr Tickell had the care
of the edition of his works printed in 4 vols. 410 j to
which he prefixed an account of Mr Addifon’s life
and a poem on his death. Mr Tickell died in tke
year 1740.
TICKER A, a confiderable article of merchandife in
Fezzan in Africa , it is valued by travellers as a porta¬
ble and highly falubrious food. It is a preparation of
pounded dates, and the meal of Indian corn, formed int#
a pafte, and highly dried in an oven.
IICKSEED, Sun-flower. See Coreopsis, Bo<!
TANY Index.
TIC UNAS. See Poison.
TIDE, is a word which expreffes that rifing and
falling of the waters which are obferved on all maritime
coafts.
There is a certain depth of the waters of the ocean
which would obtain if all were at reft : but obfervation
fhow’s that they are continually varying from this level,
and that fome of thefe variations are regular and perio¬
dical.
y?, It is obferved, that on the ftiores of the ocean, and
in bays, creeks, and harbours, which communicate freely
with the ocean, the waters rile up above this mean height
twice a-day, and as often fink below it, forming what
is called a FLOOD and an EBB, a HIGH and LOW WATER.
1 he whole interval between high and low water is call¬
ed a tide j the water is faid to FLOW and to EBB ; and
the rifing is called the FLOOD-TIDE, and the falling is
called the EBB TIDE.
2d, It is obferved, that this rife and fall of the wa¬
ters is variable in quantity. At Plymouth, for inftance,
it is fometimes 21 feet between the greateft and leaft
depth of the water in one day, and fometimes only 12
feet.
I hefe different heights of tide are obferved to fuc-
ceed each other in a regular feries, diminifhing from the
greateft to the leaft, and then increafing from the leaft
to the greateft. The greateft is called a SPRING TIDE,
and the leaft is called a NEAP TIDE.
3d, This feries is completed in about 15 days. More
careful obfervation fhows that two feries are completed
in the exa6t time of a lunation. For the fpring tide in
any place is obferved to happen precifely at a certain
interval of time (generally between two and three days)
after new or full moon 5 and the neap tide at a certain
interval after half moon : or, more accurately (peaking,
it is obferved that the fpring tide always happens when
the moon has got a certain number of degrees eaftward
of the line of conjuruftion and oppofition, and the neap
tide happens when fhe is a certain number of degrees
from her firft or laft quadrature. Thus the whole ieries
of tides appears to be regulated by the moon.
4///, It is obferved that high w-ater happens at new
and full moon, when the moon has a certain deter¬
mined pofition with refpeft to the meridian of the
place of obfervation, preceding or following the moon’s
fouthing
'/
T I D
foutliing a certain interval of time ; which is conftant
wit;h refpedl to that place, but very different in differ¬
ent places.
yh, The time of high water in any place appears to
be regulated by the moon j for the interval between the
time of high water and the moon’s fouthing never
changes above three quarters of an hour, whereas the
interval between the time of high water and noon
changes fix hours in the courfe of a fortnight.
6M, The interval between two fucceeding high wa¬
ters is variable. It is leaf! of all about new and full
moon, and greateft when the moon is in her quadra¬
tures. As two high waters happen every day, we may
call the double of their interval a TIDE DAY, as we call
the diurnal revolution of the moon a lunar day. The tide
is fhorteft about new and full moon, being then about
241* 37'; about the time of the moon’s quadratures
it is 2jb 27'. Thefe values are taken from a mean
of many obfervations made at Barbadoes by Dr Malke-
lyne.
7//;, The tides in fimilar circumftances are greateft
when the moon is at her fmalleft diftance from the earth,
or in her perigee, artd, gradually diminiftiing, are fmall¬
eft when llie is in her apogee.
8//£, The fame remark is made with refpeft to the
fun’s diftance, and the greateft tides are obferved dur¬
ing the winter months of Europe.
9//1, The tides in any part of the ocean increafe as the
moon, by changing her declination, approaches the ze*
nith of that place.
The tides which happen while the moon is
above the horizon are greater than the tides of the fame
day when the moon is below the horizon.
Such are the regular phenomena of the tides. They
are important to all commercial nations, and have there¬
fore been much attended to. It is of the tides, in all
probability, that the Bible fpeaks, when God is faid to
fet bounds to the fea, and to fay, “ thus far (hall it go,
and no farther.”
Homer is the earlieft profane author who fpeaks of
the tides. Indeed it is not very clear that it is of them
that he fpeaks (in the I2th book of the Odyffey) when
he fpeaks of Charybdis, which rifes and retires thrice in
every day. Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus fpeak more
diftinftly of the tides in the Red fea. Pytheas of Mar-
ieilles is the firft who fays any thing of their caufe. Ac¬
cording to Strabo he had been in Britain, where he muft
have obferved the tides of the ocean. Plutarch fays ex-
prefsly that Pytheas afcribed them to the moon. It is
fomevvhat wonderful that Ariftotle fays fo little about the
tides. The army of Alexander, his pupil, were ftartled
at their firft appearance to them near the Perfian gulf;
and we ftiould have thought that Ariftotle would be
well informed of all that had been obferved there. But
there are only three paffages concerning them in all
Ariftotle’s writings, and they are very trivial. In one
place he fpeaks of great tides obferved in the north of
Europe ; in another, he mentions their having been
afcribed by fome to the moon ; and in a third, he fays,
that the tide in a great fea exceeds that in a fraall one.
The Greeks had little opportunity of obferving the
tides. The conquefts and the commerce of the Romans
gave them more acquaintance with them. Csefar fpeaks
°f them in the 4th book of his Gallic War. Strabo,
after Pofidonius, claffes the phenomena into daily, month-
Vol. XX. Part. II.
T I D
ly, and annual. He obferves, that the fea rifes as the Tide
moon gets near the meridian, whether above or below '-"■"■■v*"'
the horizon, and falls again as fhe rifes or falls; alfo, that
the tides increafe at the time of new and full moon, and
are greateft at the fummer folftice. Pliny explains the
phenomena at fome length ; and fays, that both the fun
and moon are their caufe, dragging the waters along
with them (B. II. c. 97.). Seneca (AW.III. 28.)
fpeaks of the tide with correftnefs ; and Macrobius
(Somn. Scip. I. 6.) gives a very accurate defcription of
their motions.
It is impoflible that fuch phenomena fhould not exer-
cife human curiofity as to their caufe. Plutarch (P/aut.
Phil. III. 17.), Galileo (%/?. Mund. Dial. 4.), Ric-
cioli in his Almage/l, ii. p. 374, and Gaffendi, ii. p. 27.
have colle6led moft of the notions of their predeceffors 01%
the fubjeft ; but they are of fo little importance, that
they do not deferve our notice. Kepler fpeaks more like
a philofopher (Z)e Stella Martis, and Epit. AJlron. p.
555.). He fays that all bodies attraft each other, and
that the waters of the ocean would all go to the moon
Were they not retained by the attraction of the earth f
and then goes on to explain their elevation under the
moon and on the oppofite fide, becaufe the earth is lefs
attracted by the moon than the nearer waters, but more
than the waters which are more remote.
The honour of a complete explanation of the tides
was referved for Sir Ifaac Newton. He laid hold of this
clafs of phenomena as the moft inconteftable proof of
univerfal gravitation, and has given a moft beautiful and
fynoptical view of the whole fubjeCt ; contenting him-
felf, however, with therely exhibiting the chief confe-
quences of the general principle, and applying it to the
phenomena with lingular addrefs. But the wide fleps
taken by this great philofopher in his inveftigation leave
ordinary readers frequently at fault : many of his af-
fumptions require the greateft mathematical knowledge
to fatisfy us of their truth. The academy of Paris there¬
fore propofed to illuftrate this among other parts of the
principles of natural philofophy, and publilhed the the¬
ory of the tides as a prize problem. This produced three
excellent differtations by M‘Laurin, Daniel Bernoulli,
and Euler. Aided by thefe, and chiefly by the fecond,
we (hall here give a phyfical theory, and accommodate
it to the purpofes of navigation by giving the rules of
calculation. We have demonftrated in our diflerta-
tions on the phyfical principles of the celeftial mo¬
tions, that it is an unexcepted faCl, that every particle of
matter in the folar fyftem is aCtually defleCled toward
every other particle; and that the defleCfion of a parti¬
cle of matter toward any diftant fphere is proportional
to the quantity of matter in that fphere direCtly, and to
the fquare of the diftance of the particle from the centre
of that fphere inverfely : and having found that the bea-
vinefs of a piece of terreftrial matter is nothing but the
fuppofed opponent to the force which we exert in car¬
rying this piece of matter, we conceive it as pofftfling a
property, that is, diftinguiftiing quality, manifefted by
its being gravis or heavy. This is heavinefs, gravitast
gravity ; and the manifeftation of this quality, or the
event in which it is feen, whether it be directly falling,
or deflefting in a parabolic curve, or ftretching a coiled
fpring, or breaking a rope, or {imply preffing on its fup-
port, is gravitatioy gravitation ; and the body is faid to
gravitate. When all obftacles are removed from the
3 H body,
[ 417 1
*rk'le.
T I D [41
body, as when we cut the firing by which a ftone is
hung, it moves dir eft ly downwards, tendit ad terrain.
Si difcindatur funis tenderet lapis ad terrain. Dum vero
funis integer pcrftct, lapis terrain verfus niti cenfetur.
By fome metaphyfical procefs, which it is needlefs at
prefent to trace, this nifus ad motum lias been called
a tendency in our language. Indeed the word has
now come to lignify the energy of any aftive quality in
thofe cafes where its limpleft and moft immediate mani-
feftation is prevented by fome obftacle. The ftone is
now faid to tend towards the earth, though it does not
aftually approach it, being withheld by the firing. The
firetching the firing in a direftion perpendicular to the
horizon is conceived as a full manifeflation of this ten¬
dency. I his tendency, this energy of its heavinefs, is
therefore named by the word which diflinguifbes the
quality ; and it is called gravitation, and it is faid to
gravitate.
But Sir Ifaac Newton difcovered that this defleftion
of a heavy body differs in no refpeft from that general
defleftion obferved in all the bodies of the folar fyflem.
For 16 feet, which is the defleftion of a flone in one
fecond,. has the very fame proportion to ^th of an inch,
which is the fimultaneoas defleftion of the moon, that
the fquare of the moon’s diflance from the centre of the
earth has to the fquare of the Hone’s diflance from it,
namely, that of 3600 to 1.
'I hus we are enabled to compare all the effefts of the
mutual tendencies of the heavenly bodies with the ten¬
dency of gravity, whofe effefts and meafures are fami¬
liar to us.
If the earth were a fphere covered to a great depth
with water, the water would form a concentric fpherical
fliell ; for the gravitation of every particle of its furface
would then be direfted to the centre, and would be
equal. T he curvature of its furface therefore would be
every where the fame, that is, it would be the uniform
curvature of a fphere.
It has been demonflrated in former articles, after Sir
  Ifaac Newton, that the gravitation of a particle C
DXXXVI. (fig. 1.) to the centre O, is to that of a particle E at
%• l- the furface as CO to EO. In like manner the gravita¬
tion of 0 is to that of /? as 0 to jo O. If therefore EO
and Op are two communicating canals, of equal lengths,
the water in both would be in equilibrio, becaufe each
column would exert the fame total preffure at O. But
if the gravitation of each particle in O be diminilhed
by a certain proportion, fuch as T~th of its whole
weight, it is plain that the total preliure of the column
p O will be T^rjth part lefs than that of the column
EO. Therefore they will no longer be in equilibrio.
The weight of the column EO will prevail ; and if a
hollow tower P p be built at the mouth of the pit p 0,
the water will fink in EOand rife in O^, till both are
again in equilibrio, exerting equal total preflures at O.
Or we may prevent the finking at E by pouring in
more water into the tower Vp. The fame thing muft
happen in the canal /V perpendicular to EO, if the gra¬
vitation of every particle be diminifhed by a force afting
in the direftion CF, and proportional to the dillance of
the particle from C, and fuch, that when c C is equal
to 0 O, the force afting on c is equal to the force afting
on 0 In order that the former equilibrium may be re-
jlored after this diminution of the gravitation of the co¬
lumn/C, it is plain that more water m».(l be poured in-
Plate
8 ] T I D
to the oblique tower/F. All this is evident when we Tide
confider the matter hydroftatically. The gravitation of 1
the particle c may be reprefented by 0 O j but the di¬
minution of the preffure occafioned by this at O is re¬
prefented by C c.
Hence we can colleft this much, that the whole di¬
minution of preffure at C is to the whole diminution of
preffure at O as the fum of all the lines c C to the fum
of all the lines 0 O, that is, as /C* to PO\ But the
weight of the fmall quantity of water added in each
tower is diminithed in the fame proportion ; therefore
the quantity added at F/muft be to the quantity added
at P^? as fC to p O. Therefore we muft have ¥f\
¥p—fC : p O, and the points E, F, P, muft be in the
circumference of an ellipfe, of which PO and EO are
the tranfverfe and conjugate femi-axes.
What we have here fuppofed concerning the diminu¬
tion of gravity in thefe canals is a thing which really
obtains in nature. It was demonflrated," when treating
of the PRECESSION of the Equinoxes, that if the fun or
moon lie in the direftion OP, at a very great diflance,
there refults from the unequal gravitation of the differ¬
ent particles of the earth a diminution of the gravity of
each particle ; which diminution is in a direftion paral¬
lel to OP, and proportional to the diflance of the par¬
ticle from a plane palling through the centre of the earth
at right angles to the line OP.
Thus it happens that the waters of the ocean have
their equilibrium diflurbed by the unequal gravitation
of their different particles to the fun or to the moon}
and this equilibrium cannot be reftored till the waters
come in from all hands, and rife up around the line
joining the centres of the earth and of the luminary.
The fpherical ocean mufl acquire the form of a pro¬
late fpheroid generated by the revolution of an ellipfe
round its tranfverfe axis. The waters will be highefl
in that place which has the luminary in its zenith, and
in the antipodes to that place j and they will be mofl
depreffed in all thofe places which have the luminary in
their horizon. P and P' will be the poles, and EOQ
will be the equator of this prolate fpheroid.
Mr Fergufon, in his Aftronomy, affigns another caufe
of this arrangement, viz. the difference of the centrifu¬
gal forces of the different particles of water, while the
earth is turning round the common centre of gravity of
the earth and moon. This, however, is a millake. It
would be juft if the earth and moon were attached to
the ends of a rod, and the earth kept always the fame
face toward the moon.
It is evident that the accumulation at P and P', and
the depreflion at the equator, mufl augment and diminifh
in the fame proportion with the difturbing force. It is
alio evident that its abfolute quantity may be difcover¬
ed by our knowledge of the proportion of the diflurbing
force to the force of gravity.—Now this proportion is
known j for the proportion of the gravitation of tha
earth’s centre to the fun or moon, to the force of gravi¬
ty at the earth’s furface, is known ; and the proportion
of the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the luminary,
to the difference of the gravitations of the centre and of
the furface, is alfo known, being very nearly the propor¬
tion of the diflance of the luminary to twice the radius
of the earth.
Although this reafoning, by which we have afcertain-
ed the elliptical form of the watery fpheroid, be fuffi-
ciently
T I D
[ 4r9 ]
T I D
ciently convincing, it is very in.Tperfe<3:, being accom-
^ rnodate to one condition only of equilibrium, viz. the
equilibrium of the canals fc and c o* There are feveral
other conditions equally neceffary to which this lax rea-
foning will not apply, fuch as the direction of the whole
remaining gravitation in any point F. This mult be
perpendicular to the furface, Stc. &c. Nor will this
mode of inveftigation afcertain the eccentricity of the
fpheroid without a molt intricate procefs. We mult
therefore take the fubje£t more generally, and Ihow the
proportion and diredtions of gravity in every point of
the fpheroid. We need not, however, again demon-
Itrate that the gravitation of a particle placed any where
without a perfedt fpherical Ihell, or a fphere confilting
of concentric fpherical Ihells, either of uniform denfity,
or of denlities varying according to feme function of the
radius, is the fame as if the whole m-tter of the Ihell
or fphere were eolledted in the centre. This has been
demonltrated in the article Astronomy. We need
only remind the reader of fome confequences of this
theorem which are of continual ufe in the prefent invef¬
tigation.
1. The gravitation to a fphere is proportional to
its quantity of matter diredtly, and to the fquare of the
diftance of its centre from the gravitating particle in-
verfely.
2. If the fpheres be homogeneous and of the fame den¬
fity, the gravitations of particles placed on their furfaces,
or at dillances which are proportional to their diame¬
ters, are as the radii $ for the quantities of matter are
as the cubes of the radii, and the attradlions ara inverfe-
ly as the fquares of the radii; and therefore the whole
r3
gravitations are as —or as r.
r*
3. A particle placed within a fphere has no tendency
to the matter of the fhell which lies without it, becaufe
its tendency to any part is balanced by an oppofite ten¬
dency to the oppolite part. Therefore,
4. A particle placed any where within a homogene¬
ous fphere gravitates to its centre with a force propor¬
tional to its diftance from it.
It is a much more difficult problem to determine the
gravitation of particles to a fpheroid. To do this in ge¬
neral terms, and for every fituation of the particle,
would require a train of propolitions which our limits
will by no means admit *, we muft content ourfelves with
as much as is neceflary for merely afcertaining the ratio
of the axes. This will be obtained by knowing the ra¬
tio of the gravitation at the pole to that at the equator.
Therefore,
LetNraS^N (fig. 2.) be a fe&ion through the axis
of an oblate homogeneous fpheroid, which differs very
little from a fphere. NS is the axis, mq is the equato¬
rial diameter, O is the centre, and NMS£) is the lec¬
tion of the infcribed fphere. Let P be a particle fi-
tuated at any diftance without the fphere in its axis
produced; it is required to determine the gravitation
of this particle to the whole matter of the fpheroid ?
Draw two lines PAC, PBD, very near to each other,
cutting off two fmall arches AB, CD 3 draw GA rt,
IC c, KD r/, perpendicular to the axis; alfo draw
OE and AL perpendicular to PAC, and OF perpen¬
dicular to PD, cutting PC in f. Join OA.
Let 0 A, the radius of the infcribed fphere, be r, and
OP the diftance of the gravitating particle be d, and
M m, the elevation of the equator of the fpheroid,
or the ellipticity, be e. Alfo make AE zz x, and
OE—z/, r1—x1. Then AE—BF=.v and Ff~y,
tjr*—#*’
Suppofe the whole figure to turn round the axis OP„
The little fpace AB b a will generate a ring of the re¬
dundant matter 3 fo will CD dc. This ring may be
confidered as confifting of a number of thin rings gene¬
rated by the revolution of A a. The ring generated by
A a is equal to a parallelogram whole bafe is the cir¬
cumference deferibed by A, and whofe height is A a.
Therefore let c be the circumference of a circle whofe
radius is 1. The ring will be A cX^X AG. But be¬
caufe wz a N is an arch of an ellipfe, we have Mm: Aa
“MO : AG—r : AG, and A a—M m X , ——
r r
AG. Therefore the furface of this ring is “ c — AG*.
We have fuppofed the fpheroid to be very nearly
fpherical, that is, e exceedingly fmall in comparifon of
r. This beiim the cafe, all the particles in A a, and
confequently all the particles in the ring generated by
the revolution of A a, will attraft the remote particle P
with the fame force that A does very nearly. WTe may
fay the fame thing of the whole matter of the ring gene¬
rated by the revolution of AB&a. This attraction is
exerted in the dire&ion PA by each individual particle.
But every aftion of a particle A is accompanied by the
aftion of a particle A! in the direction PA'. Thefe two
compofe an attraction in the direction PO. The whole
attraction in the directions fimilar to PA is — rX~
r
AG*
X GH, for GH meafures the number of parallel
plates of which the folid ring is compofed. This
being decompofed in the direction PGisrzcX-X
AG* • PG _ AG* OE* , PG PE
PA3 X ' But PA* — PO*’ and PA~PO*
Therefore the attraction of the ring, eftimated in the di-
OE*. PE
reCtion PO, is = c X~X
X GH.
Further, by the nature of the circle, we have HG •
AB=AG : AO 3 alfo AB : BL=AO : OE. But PA:
AGzzPO : OE, and OE—   . Therefore
AB:BL“AO
PA
=AO.PA:PO.AG
AG . PO
PA
Alfo BL : LA=EO : EA,
And LA : F/zr PA : P f ~ ultimately PA : PE.
Therefore, by equality, HG : Fy—rAG . AO . PA .
KO . PA : AO . PO . AG . EA . PE.
Or HG : F/z=EO . PA*: PO . EA . PE.
^EO.PA*
ahd HG_ F/ x po PE # EA-
Now fubftitute this value of HG in the formula ex-
prefling the attraction of the ring. This changes it to
* OE* .PE OE. PA* ^ ^ <=
cr* PO3 XPO.PE.EAXF^°r rrX
OE3. PA*
■ X Fyfi In like manner, the attraction of
Tllii
PO4 . EA
3G2
the
T I D
L 4
• c
the ring generated by the revolution of CD dchc- x
r
X Fyi Therefore the attraflion of both is
PO . EA
^ OEJ
C r X PO4. EA
t
X PA*-{-PC1, z=zc - x F/
X PA1-{-PC*. Eut PA1 + PC*= 2 PE* +
tt • i/V
2EA*, = 2 PE*-j-2 **. Therefore the attra6lion is
But F/=ry, =-x.
y
2c-—X^f— X PE1-}-^.
r a4 «
^3 pg # 2/3 • . 4
Therefore F/—= -# X — , =?/*«, r=r*—x*x.
x y x J
Therefore the attraflion of the two rings is 2 c X
r*—^* xPE*-{-ar* X But PE*=r PO1—OE1, =
d1—(r1—x1)—d11—r* -{- x*. Therefore the attradlion
of the two rings is
2'C7d*y' r ^—r* + 2«1*, =2c
r d*
7* d1 x—r4x-{-2 r*x2x-
-dix1 x-\~rtxzx—2 x4 x ~ 2 c
 *
r d4 r* d1 x/ * x2x — r4 x—d1 x*x—2x4 x.
1 he attraction of the whole fhell of redundant mat¬
ter will be had by taking the fluent of this formula,
which is
2c~7*'X
r d4
/’* d2 x -{
3 r1 x*
-r4 x-
d2 x*
2 X5\
Tr
and then make x~r.
This gives 2 c—- (</* r3_j_r5_
rd4
rs—f d% r3—1 rS), which is = 2c^ (| d2 r*— 1 r^),
To this add the attraction of the
c e r% 4 r4
“ Jd4'
infcribed fphere^ which is -^r, and we have the at¬
traction of the whole fpheroid
, cr3
-t-jt+t
cr* .cer*
4 
d2
c e r4
~d4~'
Cor. 1. If the particle P is fituated precifely in N,
the pole of the fpheroid, the attradion of the fpheroid
is 4 c r-j-Ty c e.
If the fpheroid is not oblate, but oblong, and if the
greater femiaxis be r, and the deprtflion at the equator
be e, the analyfis is the fame, taking c negatively.
Therefore the attraction for a particle in the pole, or
the gravitation of a particle in the pole, is 'cr—^ce.
But if the polar femiaxis be r-f-e, and the equatorial
radius be r, fo that this oblong fpheroid has the fame
axis with the former oblate one, the gravitation of a
particle in the pole is 4 c r-{- TV c e.
Cor. 2. If a number of parallel planes are drawn per¬
pendicular to the equator of an oblong fpheroid, whofe
longer femiaxis is r-\-e, and equatorial radius r, they
will divide the fpheroid into a number of fimilar ellipfes j
and fince the ellipfe through the axis hasr-j-e and r for
its two femiaxis, and the radius of a circle of equal area
with this ellipfe is a mean proportional between r and
r+e, and therefore very nearly «?, when f is very
20 J TIB
fmall in comparifon of r, a particle on the equator of Tit
the oblong fpheroid will be as much attraded by thefe' y J
circles of equal areas, with their correfponding ellipfe?
as by the ellipfes. Now the attradion at the pole of an
oblate fpheroid was 4 <?. Therefore putting
4 e in place of e, the attradion on the equator of the
oblong fpheroid will be equal to jcr+^-ce.
Thus we have afcertained the gravitations of a parti¬
cle fituated in the pole, and of one fituated in the equa¬
tor, of a homogeneous oblong fpheroid. This will en¬
able us to folve the following problem :
If the particles of a homogeneous oblong fluid fpheroid
attfad each other with a force inverfely as the fquares
of their diflances, and if they are attraded by a very
diftant body by the fame law, and if the ratio of the
equatorial gravity to this external force be given; to
find what muft be the proportion of the femiaxis, fo
that all may be in equilibrio, and the fpheroid preferve
its form ?
Let r be the equatorial radius, and r-f-e be the polar
femiaxis. Then the gravitation at the pole misjcr
-f--rV c e, and the gravitation at the equator is 4<rr-f
-r-fCe. Now by the gravitation towards the diftant
body placed in Hie diredion of the polar axis, the polar
gravitation is diminifhed, and the equatorial gravitation
is increafed; and the increafe of the equatorial gravita¬
tion is to the diminution of the polar gravitation as NO
to 2 /n O. Therefore if the whole attradion of the ob¬
long fpheroid for a particle on its equator be to the force
which the diftant body exerts there, as G to P, and if
the fpheroid is very nearly fpherical, the abfolute weight
P
at the equator will be 4 c r +c e+4 cr —. And
G
the abfolute weight at the pole will be 4 c r +4^ c e 
T cr -^7-. Their difference is 4s c e-^lcr
Now if we fuppofe this fpheroid to be compofed of
fimilar concentric fhells, all the forces will decreafe in
the fame ratio, iherefore the weight of a particle in a
column reaching from the equator to the centre will be
to the weight of a fimilarly fituated particle of a column
reaching from the pole to the centre, as the weight of a
particle at the equator to the weight of a particle at the
pc.e. But the whole weights of the two columns muft
be equal, that they may balance each other at the cen¬
tre. Their lengths muft therefore be reciprocally as the
weights of fimilarly fituated particles; that is, the polar
femiaxis muft be to the equatorial radius, as the weight
of a particle at the equator to the weight of a particle at
P
the pole. Therefore we muft have -x^ce -^-2cr^:j
cr-fTVce—$cr~= e : r.
p
Hence we derive 2 r— = Tsx<?, or 4G : 15 P= r : e.
This determines the form of the fluid fpheroid when the
ratio of G to P is given.
It is well known that the gravitation of the moon to
the earth is to the difturbing force of the fun as 178,725
to 1 very nearly. 1 he lunar gravitation is increafed as
fhe approaches the earth in the reciprocal duplicate ratio
of the diftances. The difturbing force of the fun dimi-
nifhes in the fimple ratio of the diftances; therefore the
weight of a body on the furface of the earth is to the
difturbing
TIE) [ 421 ] TIB
de. dlfturbing force of the fun on the fame body, In a ratio
r—'compounded of the ratio of 178,725 to 1, the ratio of
3600 to 1, and the ratio of 60 to I ; that is, in the
ratio of 38604600 to 1. If the mean radius of the earth
be 20934500 feet, the difference of the axis, or the ele¬
vation of the pole of the watery fpheroid produced by
the gravitation to the fun, will be hp feet>
or very nearly 244- inches. This is the tide produced
by the fun on a homogeneous fluid fphere.
It is plain, that if the earth confifls of a folid nucleus
of the fame denfity with the water, the form of the folar
tide will be the fame. But if the denfity of the nucleus
be different, the form of the tide will be different, and
will depend both on the denfity and on the figure of the
nucleus.
If the nucleus be of the fame form as the furrounding
fluid, the whole will ftill maintain its form with the
fame proportion of the axis. If the nucleus be fpherical,
its action on the furrounding fluid will be the fame as if
all the matter of the nucleus by which it exceeds an
equal bulk of the fluid were collefted at the centre. In
this cafe, the ocean cannot maintain the fame form : for
the a&ion of this central body being proportional to the
fquare of the diftance inverfely, will augment the gravity
of the equatorial fluid more than it augments that of the
circumpolar fluid ; and the ocean, whicli was in equi-
librio (by fuppofition), muft now become more protu¬
berant at the poles. It may, however, be again ba¬
lanced in an elliptical form, when it has acquired a
juft proportion of the axes. The procefs for deter¬
mining this is tedious, but precifely fimilar to the pre¬
ceding.
If the denfity of the nucleus exceed that of the fluid
about —, we (hall have r : e=G : 3 P, which is nearly
54
the form which has been determined for the earth, by
the menfuration of degrees of the meridian, and by the
vibration of pendulums. The curious reader will do
well to confult the excellent diflertations by Clairaut
and Bofcovich on the Figure of the Earth, where this
eurious problem is treated in the moft complete manner.
Mr Bernoulli, in his differtation on the Tides, has com¬
mitted a great miftake in this particular. On the other
hand, if the nucleus be lefs denfe than the waters, or if
there be a great central hollow, the elevation produced
by the fun will exceed 244 inches.
It is needlefs to examine this any farther. We have
collected enough for explaining the chief afteflions of
the tides.
It is known that the earth is not a fphere, but fwelled
out at the equator by the diurnal rotation. But the
change of form is fo very fmall in proportion to the
whole bulk, that it cannot fenfibly affedt the change of
form afterwards induced by the fun on the waters of the
ocean. For the difturbing force of the fun would pro¬
duce a certain protuberance on a fluid fphere ; and this
protuberance depends on the ratio of the difturbing force
to the force of gravity at the furface of this fphere. If
the gravity be changed in any proportion, the protube¬
rance will change in the fame proportion. Therefore if
the body be a fpheroid, the protuberance produced at
any point by the fun will increafe or diminifti in the
fame proportion that the gravity at this point has been
changed by the change of form. Now the change of
gravity, even at the pole of the terreftrial fpheroid, is
l
extremely fmall in comparifon with the whole gravity. Tub
Therefore the change produced on the fpheroid will not "
fenfibly differ from that produced on the fphere } and
the elevations of the waters above the furface, which
they would have affumed independent of the fun’s adlion,
will be the fame on the fpheroid as on the fphere. For
the fame reafon, the moon will change the furface al¬
ready changed by the fun, in the fame manner as ftie
would have changed the furface of the undifturbed
ocean. Therefore the change produced by both thefe
luminaries in any place will be the fame when ailing to¬
gether as when ailing feparately ; and it will be equal
to the fum, or the difference of their feparate changes,
according as thefe would have been in the fame or in
oppofite direilions.
Let us now confider the moft interefting circumftances
of the form of an elliptical tide, which differs very little
from a fphere.
Let T (fig. 2.) be a point in the furface of the in- Fig. z.
fcribed fphere, and let Z exprefs the angular diftance
TOQ^ from the longer axis of the furrounding fpheroid
S N y. Let TR, T W be perpendicular to the equa¬
torial diameter and to the axis, fo that they are the co¬
fine and the fine of TO£) to the radius TO or QO.
Let S'yN' be a Tedlion of the circumfcribed fphere.
Draw OT cutting the fpheroid in Z and the circum¬
fcribed fphere in t. Alfo let j 0 « be a feftion of a fphere
which has the fame capacity with the fpheroid, and let
it cut the radius in r. Then,
1. The elevation TZ of the point Z of the fpheroid
above the inferibed fphere is —Qq X cof.* Z, and the
depreffion t Z below the circumfcribed fphere is =£) y
X fine* Z. Produce RT till it meet the furface of the
fpheroid in V. The minute triangle VTZ may be con-
fidered as rectilineal, right-angled at Z, and therefore
fimilar to OTR. Therefore OT : TRz=TV : TZ. But
in the ellipfe 0£), or OT : TR=Q^y : TV. There-
fore OT» : TI(‘=Q y : TZ, and TZ=
=&? : X™-’-, X cot* Z.
And in the very fame manner it may be ftiown, that
t Z=Q y X fin.* Z.
2. The elevation of the point T above another point
T', whofe angular diftance TOT' from the point T is
90°, is =£) y X cof.*Z—fin.* Z. Call the angle QOT'
Z'. Then T'Z'=Qy X cof.* Z', and TZ—T', Z',
rrQ^y x ccf*1 Z—cof.* Z'. But the arch QT' is the
complement of QT, and therefore cof.2 Z' — fin.* Z.
Therefore TZ—T', Z'-Qy X cof.1 Z—fin.* Z.
3. Q orrf Q^y. For the inferibed fphere is to the
fpheroid as OQ to O y. But the inferibed fphere is to
the fphere s 0 n as OQ3 to O 0J. Therefore becaufe the
fpbere j1 0 « is equal to the fpheroid S y N, we have
OQ^: O yrrOQ3: O 03, and O 0 is the firit of two mean
proportionals between OQ and O y. But Qy is very
fmall in comparifon with OQ. Therefore Q^o is very
nearly f of Q y.
Since s 0 n\s the fphere of equal capacity, it is the
form of the undifturbed ocean. The beft way therefore,
of conceiving the changes of form produced by the fun
or moon, or by both together, is to confider the eleva¬
tions or depreffions which they produce above or below
this furface. Therefore,
4. The
Tide.
TIB [42
r 4. The elevation rZ of the point 2 above the equi-
capacious fphere is evidently =QyXcof.*Z—fQy.
Alfo the depreffion r1 L' of the point Z' is
fin.* 7J—\Qq.
N. B. Either of thefe formulae will anfvver for either
the elevation above, or the depreffion below, the natural
ocean : For if cof.*Z is lefs than f, the elevation given
by the formula will be negative j that is, the point is
below the natural furface. In like manner, when
iin/Z' is lefs than -y, the deprelliori is negative, and
the point is above the furface. But if cof.’Z be =rf, or
fin.*Z' be =r|, the point is in the natural furface. This
marks the place w'here the fpheroxd and the equal fphere
interfeft each other, viz. in P', the arch P' o being
540 44' very nearly, and PS = 35° 16'.
Let S reprefent the whole elevation of the pole of the
folar tide above its equator, or the difference between
high and low water produced by the fun ; and let M
reprefent the whole elevation produced by the moon.
Let * and y reprefent the zenith diftances of the fun
and moon with refpedl to any point whatever on the
ocean. Then x and y will be the arches intercepted
between that point and the fummits of the folar and
lunar tides. Then the elevation produced by both lu.
minaries in that plane is S 'cof.*.v—*- S-f-M • eof.* y
—f M ; or, more concifely, S • cof.» «-f M • cof.* y f
S-fM
T I B
S-fM, and the depreffion is S • fin.* • fin*v \
Sff-M.
Let the fun and moon be in the fame point of the
heavens. The folar and lunar tides will have the fame
axis ; the cofines of x and y will each be 1, and the
elevation at the compound pole will be S-fM 
S-j-M—^S-fM. The depreffion at any point qo°
from this pole will be f S -f M, and the whole tide is
S-fM.
Let the moon be in quadrature, as in a (fig. 3.). The
appearance at s will be known, by confidering that in this
place the cofine of * is 1, and the cofine oiy is o. There¬
fore the elevation at r = S — f S-fM, S * M.
The depreffion at c == S — f S-f M =] S fM.
The difference or whole tide = y  ]\4.
In like manner, the whole elevation at a above the in-
feribed fphere is M—S.
Hence we fee that the whole tide, when the moon is
in quadrature is the difference of S and M. We alfo
lee, that if M exceeds S, the water will be higher at a
i.nan at s. Now it is a matter of obfervation, that in
the quadratures it is high water under the moon, and
low water under the fun. It is alfo a matter of obfer¬
vation, that m the free ocean, the ebb tide, or the water
at s, immediately under the fun, is below the natural
furface of tne ocean. Hence we muft conclude, that
•f S is lefs than f M, or that M is more than double of
S. This agrees with the phenomena of nutation and
preceffion, which feem to make S=|- of M.
In all other pofitions of the fun and moon, the place
of high water will be different. It is high water where
the fum of the elevations produced by both luminaries
above the natural ocean is greateft ; and the place of
low water is where the depreffion below the natural
ocean is greateft. Therefore, in order that it may be
high water, we muft have S • cof.* .r+M • cof.* ?/ f
S4.M a maximum} or, neglefling the conftant quan¬
tity —-—, we muft have S -cof.^+M • cof.* y a
maximum.
In like manner, to have low water in a place where
the zenith diftances of the fun and moon are v and u>
we muft have S " fin.* M * fin.* m a maximum.
Lemma 1. If we confider the fines and cofines of
angles as numeral fradtions of the radius 1, then we
have cof.* Z=f-f-f- cof.* Z, and fin.* Z=f—f cof.* Z.
Let ams (fig. 3.) be a quadrant of a circle of which y
Ois the centre, and Oj- is the radius. On Oj- deferibe 3
the femicircle QMS, cutting O w in M. Draw j- M
and produce it till it cut the quadrant in n. Alfo draw
MC to the centre of the femicircle, and MD and n d
perpendicular to O s.
It is plain that j M is perpendicular to OM ; and if
O x be radius, x M is the fine of the angle x OM, which
we may call Z •, OM is its cofine : and becaufe Ox*
OM=OM : OD, and Ox : OD = Ox* : OM*, and
OD may reprefent cof.* Z. Now OD=OC+CD
If Ox=i, then OC=f. CD~CM • cof. MCD
CM • cof. 2 MOD, =f • cof. 2 Z. Therefore, cof.*Z
= i-f i cof. 2Z.
In like manner, becaufe Ox:xM = xM:xD xD
is =; fin.*Z. This is evidently = •§—x coft 2 2. *
Lemmci 2. Cof.*Z— fin.*Z= cof. 2 Z. For, becaufe
x M 1S perpendicular to OM, the arch x« is double of
the arch x tn, and becaufe MD is parallel to « </, sd is
2 x D, and d D=: fin.*Z. Therefore O d z= cof.*Z
Z. But O ^ is the cofine of n x, ~cof. 2Z and
cof.*Z—fin^Zrrcof. 2 Z.
By the firft Lemma we fee, that in order that there
may be high water at any place, when the zenith di-
ftances^ of the fun and moon are x and y, we muft have
S * col. 2 v-|-M * cof. 2y a maximum.
That this may be the cafe, the fluxion of this for¬
mula muft be rr o. Now we know that the fluxions of
the cofines of tsvo arches are as the fines of thofe arches.
I iierefore w’e muft have S * fin. 2 V4-M! * fin. 2 y~o, or
o • fin. 2 x— —M • fin. 2y, which gives us fin. 2*:
fin. 2y— M : S.
In like manner, the place of low water requires fin.
2v fin. 2 w = M : S.
From this laft circumftance we learn, that the place
oflow water is o, removed 90° from the place of high
water; whereas we might have expefted,that thefphe-
roid would have been moft protuberant on that fide on
w hich the moon is : For the fines of 2 v and of 2 have
the fame proportion with the fines of 2x and of 2y.
Now we know that the fine of the double of any arch is
the fame with the fine of the double of its complement.
Therefore if low water be really diftant 90° from high
water, we {hall have fin. 2x : fin. fin. 2v : fin. 2ii\
But if it is at any other place, the fines cannot have this
proportion.
Now let x be the point of the earth’s furface which
has the fun in the zenith, and m the point which has
the moon in the zenith. Let h be any other point.
Draw O h cutting the femicircle OMx in H. Make
CM to CS as the difturbing force of the moon to that
of the fun; and draw S parallel, and S/, Mr per-?
pendicular to HH'. Join MH and MH'. The angle
HCx is double of the angle HOx, and MCH is double
of MH'H, or of its equal MOH. Becaufe HMH is
a femicircle, HM is perpendicular to MO. There¬
fore
T I I> r 4*3 ] T 1 D
le. fore if HH' be confidered as radius, HM is the fine,
U ——' and H'M is the cofine of MH'H. And C r is =rMC •
cof. 2 y, = M • cof. 2y. And C t is SC • cof. 2 x.
Therefore ^ r or S' is S * cof. 2 A? M • cof. 2 y.
Therefore f r or S “u will exprefs the whole difference of
elevation between h and the points that are 90 degrees
from it on either fide (by Lemma 2.).; and if h be the
place of high water, it will exprefs the whole tide, be-
caufe the high and low waters were (hown to be 90°
afunder. But when h is the place of high water, S v is
a maximum. Becaufe the place of the moon, and
therefore the point M, is given, S v will be a maxi¬
mum when it coincides with SM, and CH is parallel
to SM.
This fuggefted to us the following newr, and not in¬
elegant, folution of the problem for determining the
place of high water.
ft, , Let s Qoq s (fig. 4. and 5.) be a feflion of the ter-
m! raqueous globe, by a plane paffxng through the fun and
moon, and let O be its centre. Let s be the point
which is immediately under the fun, and m the place
immediately under the moon. Bifeff O 4 in C, and
defcribe round C the circle OM s LO, cutting O m in
M. Take C s to reprefent the difturbing force of the
moon, and make C 4 to CS as the force of the moon to
that of the fun (fuppofing this ratio to be known). Join
MS, and draw CH parallel to it. Draw OH 4* and
/ OL l' perpendicular to it. And laftly, draw Cl per¬
pendicular to SM. Then we fay that m and its oppo-
fite m! are the places of high water, / and /' are the
places of low water, MS is the height of the tide, and
MI, SI are the portions of this tide produced by the
moon and fun.
For it is plain, that in this cafe the line S of the
laft propofition coincides with MS, and is a maximum.
We may alfo obferve, that MC : CS~fin. MSC : fin.
SMC, - fin. HCS : fin. MCH, =: fin. 2 /; O J : fin.
O m,~ fin. 2x : fin. 2y, or M : S — fin. 2x :
fin. 2 y, agreeably to what was required for the maxi¬
mum.
It is alfo evident, that MI MC • cof. CMI, rz:
M • cof. 2y, and SI = SC • cof. ISP, = S • cof. 2 *;
and therefore MS is the difference of elevation between
h and the points / and l', which are 90® from it, and is
therefore the place of low watet j that is, MS.is the
whole tide.
The elevation of every other point may be determine
ed in the fame way, and thus may the form of the fphe-
roid be completely determined.
If we fuppofe the figure to reprefent a fe&ion through
the earth’s equator (which is the cafe when the fun and
moon are in the equator), and farther fupppfe the two
luminaries to be in conjunction, the ocean is an oblong
fpheroid, whofe axis is in the line-of the fyzigies, and
whofe equator coincides with the fix hour circle. But
if the moon be in any other point of the equator, the
figure of the ocean will be very complicated. It will
not be any figure of revolution ; becaufe neither its
equator (or moft’depreffed part) nor its meridians are
circles. The moft depreffed part of its equator will be
in that feClion through the axis which is perpendicular
to the plane in which the luminaries are fituated. And
this greateft deprefliqn, and its fhorteffvequatorial dia¬
meter, will be conftant, while its other dimenfions vary
with the moon’s place. We need not inquire more mi-
.5,
nutely into its form ; and it is fufficient to know that
all the feClions perpendicular to the plane paffing through 11
the fun and moon are ellipfes.
This conftruCHon will afford us a very fimple, and,
we hope, a very perfpicuous explanation of the chief
phenomena of the tides. The well informed reader will
be pleafed with obferving its coincidence with the alge¬
braic folution of the problem given by Daniel Bernoulli,
in his excellent differtation on the Tides, which (hared
with M‘Laurin and Euler the prize given by the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, and with the eafe and per-
fpieuity with which the phenomena are deducible from
it, being in feme fort exhibited to the eye.
In our application, we (hall begin with the fimpleff
cafes, and gradually introduce the complicating circum-
ftances w'hich accommodate the theory to the true ffatc *
of things.
We begin, therefore, by fuppofing the earth covered,
to a proper depth, with water, forming an ocean con¬
centric with its folid nucleus.
In the next place, we fuppofe that this ocean adopts
in an infiant the form which is confident with the equi¬
librium of gravity and the didurbing forces.
Thirdly, We fupppfe the fun dationary, and the moon
to move eadward from him above 12^-° every day.
Fourthly, We fuppofe that the folid nucleus turns
round its proper axis to the eadward, making a rotation
in 24 folar hours. Thus any place of obfervation will
fucceffively experience all the different depths of water..
Thus we dxall obtain a certain Succlssjon of pheno¬
mena, precifely fimilar to the fuccedion obferved in na¬
ture, with this foie difference, that they do not cor-
refpond to the contemporaneous fituations of the fun and
moon. When we (hall have accounted for this differ¬
ence, we (hall prefume to think, that we have given a
jud theory of the tides.
We begin with the fimpled cafe, fupppfing the fun
and moon to be always in the equator. Let the
feries begin with the fun and moon in conjunction in
the line O s. In this cafe the points s, m, and h coin¬
cide, and we have high water at 12 o’clock noon and
midnight.
While the moon moves from j to ^), O wz cuts the
upper femicircle in M •, and therefore CH, which is al-
Avays parallel to MS, lies between MC and C s. There¬
fore ^ is between m and j-, and we have high water,
after 12 o’clock, but before the moon’s fouthing,. The
fame thing happens Avhxle the moon moves from 0 to y,
during her third quarter.
But while the moon moves from her fird. quadrature
in to pppofitiqn in 0 (as. in fig. 5.), the line m O
drawn from the moon’s place, cuts the lower femicircle
in M and CH, parallel to SM, again lies between. M
and j, and therefore h lies between to and a. The place
of high Avater is to the eadward of the moon, and avc
have high Avater after the moon’s fouthing. The fame
thing happens Avhile the moon is moving from her
lad quadrature in q to the next fyzigy. In ftiort, the
point H is always betxveen M and s, and the place of
high water is always between the moon and the nearejl
fyzigv. The place of high water overtakes the moon
in each quadrature, and is overtaken bv the moon in
each fyzigy. Therefore during the fird and third quar¬
ters, tlxe place of high Avater gradually falls behind the
moon fox feme time, and then gains upon her again, fo
3*- -
Tide.
T I D
as to overtake her in the next quadrature,  
~ the fecond and fourth quarters, the place of high wa¬
ter advances before the moon to a certain diitance, and
then the moon gains upon it, and overtakes it in the next
fyzigy.
If therefore we fuppofe the moon to advance uniform¬
ly along the equator, the place of high water moves un¬
equally, flowed in the times of new and full moon, and
fwiftefl: in the time of the quadratures. There muft
be fome intermediate fituations where the place of
high water neither gains nor lofes upon the moon, but
moves with the fame velocity.
The rate of motion of the point h may be determined
as follows : Draw C «, S /?, making very fmall and equal
angles with HC and MS. Draw n C, and about S,
with the diftance S », defcribe the arch n v, which may
be confidered as a flraight line perpendicular to n S. or
to MS.
^ Then, becaufe SM and S n are parallel to CH and
C z, the points n and i are contemporaneous fituations
of M and H, and the arches n M, i H, are in the ratio
of the angular motions of m and h. Alfo, becaufe n v
and n M are perpendicular to « S and n C, the angle
vn M Is equal to the angle'S n C, or SMC. Alfo, be¬
caufe the angles nvM and MIC are right angles, and
the angles v n M, CMI, are alfo equal, the triangles
V«M, CMI, are fimilar. Therefore
« M : rz “urrMC : MI. And
n v : i H— zz S : z C, or rrr MS : MC 5 therefore
zz M : z HrrMS : ML Therefore the angular mo¬
tion of the moon is to the angular motion of the place
of high water as MS to MI.
Therefore,^ when M'S is perpendicular to SC, and the
point I coincides with S, the motion of high water is
equal to that of the moon. But when M'S is perpen¬
dicular to SC, H'C is alfp perpendicular to C r, and the
angle h' O j is 450, and the high water is in the o61ant.
While the moon paffes'from j to m\ or the high water
from s to h!, the point I falls between M and S, and
the motion of high water is flower than that of the
moon. The contrary obtains while the moon moves
from vi to £), or the high water from the o&ant to the
quadrature.'
It is evident, that the motion of Ji in the third quar¬
ter ^of the lunation, that is, in palling from 0 to y, is
fimilar to its motion from s to £). Alfo, that its mo¬
tion from ^ to 0 mull retard by the fame degrees as it
accelerated in palling from r to £, and that its motion
in the lall quarter from <7 to r is fimilar to its motion
from £) to 0.
At new and full moon the point I coincides with C,
and the point M coincides with s. Therefore the mo¬
tion of the high water at full and change is to the mo¬
tion of the moon as r C to r S. But when the moon is
m quadrature, I coincides with C, and M with 0.
therefore the motion of the moon is to that of high
water as OS to OC or r C. Therefore the motion of
high water at full and change is to its motion in the
quadratures as OS to S j1, or as the difference of the
difturbing forces to their fum. The motion of the tide
is therefore floweft in the fyzigies and fwifteft in the
quadratures ; yet even in the fyzigies it paffes the fun
..along with the moon, but more Howdy.
Let the interval between the morning tide of one
-day and that of the next day be called a tide-day.
[ 424 1 TIC
But during This is always greater than a folar day, or 24 hours, Tide,
becaufe the place of high water is moving falter to
the call ward than the fun. It is lefs than a lunar day
or 24b. 50', w’hile the high water paffes from the fel
cond to the third odtant, or from the fourth to the lirlt.
It is equal to a lunar day when high water is in the odtants*
and it exceeds a lunar day while high waterpaffes from the
firlt to the fecohd oftant, or from the third to the fourth.
The difference between a folar day and a tide day is
Called the priming or the retardation of the tides.
T his is evidently equal to the time of the earth’s de-
feribing in its rotation an angle equal to the motion of
the high water in a day from the fun. The fmalleft of
thefe retardations is to the greatell as the difference of
tbe difturbing forces to their fum. Of all the pheno¬
mena of the tides, this feems liable to the feweft and
moft inconfiderable derangements from local and acci¬
dental circumftances. It therefore affords the bell
means for determining the proportion of the difturbing
forces. By a Comparifon of a great number of obferva-
tions made by Dr Malkelyne at St Helena, and atBar-
badoes (places fttuated in the open fea), it appears that
the Ihorteft tide-day is 24 b. 37', and the longeft is 25 k.
27'. This gives M—S : M-f S=37 : 87, and S : M
— 2 : 4.96; Which differs only I part in 124 from the
proportion of 2 to 5, which Daniel Bernoulli colleaed
from a variety of different obfervations. We fhall there¬
fore adopt the proportion of 2 to 3 as abundantly exa6L
It alfo agrees exaftly with the phenomena of the nuta¬
tion of the earth’s axis and the preccflion of the equi¬
noxes ; and the aftronomers affed: to have deduced this
proportion from thefe phenomena. But an intelligent
reader of their writings will perceive more fineffe than
juftice in this affertion. The nutation and precef-
fion do not afford phenomena of which we can aflign the
fhare. to each luminary with fufficient precifion for de¬
termining the proportion of their difturbing forces j and
it is by means of many arbitrary combinations, and
without neceflity, that D’Alembert has made out this
ratio. We cannot help being of opinion, that D’Alem¬
bert has accommodated his diftribution of the pheno¬
mena to this tatio of 2 to 3, which Daniel Bernoulli
(the beft philofopher and the moft candid man of that
illuftrious family of mathematicians) had, with fo much
lagacity and juftnefs of inference, deduced from the phe¬
nomena of the tides. D’Alembert could not but fee
the value of this inference •, but be wanted to {how his
own addrefs in deducing it proprw marte forfooth from
the nutation and preceffion. His procedure in this re-
fembles that of his no lefs vain countryman De la Place,
who affedts to be highly pleafed with finding that Mr
Bode s difeovery that Meyer had feen the Georgium
Sidus in I75^» perfectly agreed with the theory of its
motions which he (De la Place) had deduced from his
own doflrines. Any well informed mathematician will
fee, that De la Place’s data afforded no fuch precifion j
and the Book on the Elliptical Motions of the Planets,
to which he alludes, contains no grounds for his infe¬
rence. This obfervation we owe to the author of a pa¬
per on that fubjedf in the Tranfa6tions of the Royal So¬
ciety of Edinburgh. We hope that our readers will ex-
cufe this occafional obfervation, by which we wifti to do
juftice to the merit of a modeft man, and one of the
greateft philofophers of his time. Our only claim in
the prefent differtation is the making his excellent per¬
formance
/
u
T ID t 425
de. formance on tlie tides acceffible to an Englifli reader
r—' not much verfant in mathematical refearches ; and -we
are furry that our limits do not admit any thing more
than a iketch of it. But to proceed.
Ailuming 2 : 5 as the ratio of SC to CM', we have
the angle CM'S:=230 34' nearly, and ^ 0 4[']' '>
and this is the greateft difference between the moon’s
place and the place of high water. And when this ob¬
tains, the moon’s elongation rri 0 s h 56° 47' from the
neareft fyzigy. Hence it follows, that while the moon
moves uniformly from 56° 47' weft elongation to 56°
47'eaft, or from 1230 13' eaft to 1230 13' weft, the
tide day is fhorter than the lunar day j and while (he
moves from 56° 47' caft to 1230 13', or from 123° 13'
weft to 56° 47', the tide day is longer than the lunar
day.
We now fee the reafon why
——•The fweliing tides obey the moon.
The time of high water, when the fun and moon are
in the equator, is never more than 47 minutes different
from that of the moon’s fouthing (-}- or — a certain
fixed quantity, to be determined once for all by obfer-
vation).
It is now an eafy matter to determine the hour of
high water correfponding to any pofition of the fun and
mroon in the equator. Suppofe that on the noon of a
certain day the moon’s diftance from the fun is m s.
The eonftru6lion of this problem gives us s and the
length of the tide day. Call this T. Then fay 360° :
s m—T : /, and / is the hour of high water.
Or, if we choofe to refer the time of high water to
the moon’s fouthing, we muft find the value oi m h at
the time of the moon’s fouthing, and the difference d
between the tide day and a mean lunar day L, and fay
360 : m h~d: S, the time of high water before the
moon’s fouthing in the firft and third quarters, but after
it in the fecond and fourth. The following table by
Daniel Bernoulli exhibits thefe times for every 10th de¬
gree of the moon’s elongation from the fun. The firft
or leading column is the moon’s elongation from the fun
or from the point of oppofition. The fecond column is
the minutes of time between the moon’s fouthing and
the place of high wrater. The marks — and -f- diftin-
guifti whether the high water is before or after the
moon’s fouthing. The third column is the hour and
minute of high water. But we muft remark, that the
firft column exhibits the elongation, not on the noon of
any day, but at the very time of high water. The two
remaining columns exprefs the heights of the tides and
their daily variations.
\ci.. XX. Part II.
] T I D
The height of high water above the low water confti-
tutes what is ufually called the tide. This is the inte-
refting circumftance in pra&ice. Many circumftances
render it almoft impoflible to fay what is the elevation
of high water above the natural fur face of the ocean.
In many places the furface at low water is above the na¬
tural furface of the ocean. This is the cafe in rivers at
a great diftance from their mouths. This may appear
abfurd, and is certainly very paradoxical; but it is a
fa£t eftablHhed on the raoft unexceptionable authority.
One inftance fell under our own obfervation. The low-
water mark at fpring tide in the harbour of Alloa was
found by accurate levelling to be three feet higher than,
the top of the (tone pier at Leith, which is feveral feet
above the high-water mark of this harbour. A little
attention to the motion of running waters will explain
this completely. Whatever checks the motion of water
in a canal muft raife its furface. Water in a canal runs
only in confequence of the declivity of this furface:
(See River). Therefore a flood tide coming to the
mouth of a river checks the current of its waters, and
they accumulate at the mouth. This checks the cur¬
rent farther up, and therefore the waters accumulate
there alfo ; and this checking of the ftream, and confe-
quent rifing of the waters, is gradually communicated
up the river to a great diftance. The water rifes every¬
where, though its furface ftill has a flope. In the
mean time, the flood tide at the mouth pafies by, and
an ebb fucceeds. This muft accelerate even the ordi¬
nary courfe of the river. It will more remarkably ac¬
celerate the river now raifed above its ordinary level,
becaufe the declivity at the mouth will be fo much
greater. Therefore the waters near the mouth, by ac¬
celerating, will fink in their channel, and increafe the
defclivity of the canal beyond them. This will accele¬
rate the waters beyond them ; and thus a ftream more
rapid than ordinary will be produced along the whole
3 H river,
'i'idfi.
T I I> [ 426
river, and the waters will fink below their ordinary le-
' vel. Thus there will be an ebb below the ordinary fur-
face as well as a flood above it, however Hoping that
furface may be.
Hence it follows, that we cannot tell what is the na¬
tural furface of the ocean by any obfervations made in a
river, even though near its mouth. Yet even in rivers
we have regular tides, fubje&ed to all the varieties de¬
duced from this theory.
We have feen that the tide is always proportional to
MS. It is greateft therefore when the moon is in con-
junftion or oppofition, being then S j', the fum of the
feparate tides produced by the fun and moon. It gra¬
dually decreafes as the moon approaches to quadrature ;
and when Hie is at O or <7, it is SO, or th. difference
of the feparate tides. Suppofing S j- divided into 1000
equal parts, the length of MS is expreffed in thefe parts
in the fourth column of the foregoing table, and their
differences are expreffed in the fifth column.
We may here obferve, that the variations of the tides
in equal fmall times are proportional to the fine of twice
the ditlance of the place of high water, from the moon.
For fince M « is a conftant quantity, on the fuppofi-
tion of the moon’s uniform motion, M v is proportion¬
al to the variation of MS. Now M « : M ■yrrzMC :
Cl—1 : fin. 2y, and Mn and MC are conftant quan¬
tities.
Thus we have feen with what eafe the geometrical
conftrudtion of this problem not only explains all the in-
terefting circumftances of the tides, but alfo points them
out, almoft without employing the judgment, and ex¬
hibits to the eye the gradual progrefs of each phenome¬
non. In thefe refpedts it has great advantages over the
very elegant algebraic analyfis of Mr Bernoulli. In
that procefs we advance almoft without ideas, and ob¬
tain our folutions as detached fa£ts, without pierceiving
their regular feries. This is the ufual pre-eminence of
geometrical analyfis j and we regret that Mr Bernoulli,
who was eminent in this branch, did not rather employ
it. We doubt not but that he would have fhown ftill
more clearly the connexion and gradual progrefs of
every particular. His aim, however, being to inftruft
thofe who were to calculate tables of the different affec¬
tions of the tides, he adhered to the algebraic method.
Unfortunately it did not prefent him with the eafieft
formulae for pra&ice. But the geometrical conftrmftion
which we have given fuggefts feveral formulae which
are exceedingly fimple, and afford a very ready mode of
calculation.
The fundamental problems are to determine the
angle sO h or m O //, having tuQ s given y and to
determine MS.
Let the given angle mO s be oalled a; and, to
avoid the ambiguity of algebraic figns, let it always be
reckoned from the neareft fyzigy, fo that we may al¬
ways have a equal to the fum of x and y. Alfo rqake
j, Saxfin.* 2 a
a _;■ . —    , which reprefents the
Sc2
Mz-f-S2-}-2 M x S Xcof. 2«’
of fig. 4. or fin.* 2y, and make pz
S X fin- 2 a
M-f-S Xcof. 2 «’
S c
which is the expreflion °f of that figure, or of tan.
g y. Then we fhall have,
]
1. Sin. y
T I B
 /1—y/i—r/*
2y:
J1
Jl—d'
and fin. y
But fin.*y
For we fhall have cofi
— cof. 2 y~i—..
2 J
2. T
an. yz
 >---■• For becaufe p isrrtan,
 i+nA+T*
2 y, sj 1 +^2 is the fecant of 2y, and I -f ^/i -\-pi ; 1
—p : tan. y.
Fhefe proceffes for obtaining y dire£lly are abundantly
fimple. But it will be much more expeditious and eafy
to content ourfeives with obtaining 2^ by means of the
i r . . S • fin. 2 a „
value of its tangent, viz. Or, we may
find x by means of the fimilar value of its tano-ent
Mr/
There is ftill an eafier method of finding both 2a?
and 2 ?/, as follows.
Make M + S : M—S~tan. a : tan. b. Then b is
the difference of x and y, as a is their fum. For this
analogy evidently gives the tangent of half the differ¬
ence of the angles CSM and CMS of fig. 4. or of 2x
and 2y. Therefore to rr, which is half the fum of 2x
, a-\-b
2 x—a~\-h, or x——,
2
-\-2-y, add and we have
. a—b
and ?/— .
J 2
By either of thefe methods a table may be readily
computed of the value of a? or y for every value of a.
But we muft recoiled! that the values of S and M
are by no means conftant, but vary in the inverfe tripli¬
cate ratio of the earth’s diftance from the fun and moon ;
and the ratio of 2 to 5 obtains only when thefe lumina¬
ries are at their mean diftances from the earth. The
forces correfponding to the perigean, medium, and apo-
gean diftanees are as follow.
Apogean
Medium
Perigean
Sun.
1. poi
2.
2.105
Moon.
4.258
5-
5-925
Hence we fee that the ratio of S to M may vary front
I-9°I • 5-925 to 2-I05 • 4-2S^t that is, nearly from
1 : 3 to 1 : 2, or from 2 : 6 to 2 : 4. The folar force
does not vary much, and may be retained as conftanfc.
without any great error. But the change of the moon’s
force has great effedls on the tides both as to their time
and their quantity.
I. In refpedl of their Time.
1. The tide day following a fpring tide is 24 b. 2'],
when the moon is in perigee, but 24 h. 33'' when flie is-
in apogee.
2. The tide day following neap tide is 25 h. 15', and
25 h. 40' in thefe two fituations of the moon.
3. The greateft interval of time between high wa¬
ter and the moon’s fouthing is 39' and 6i'j the angle
If
Tide.
T I D [ 427 ] T I D
Ide. ij being ■9° 43' in the firft cafe, and 150 15' in the fe-
cond.
II. In refpefl of their Heights.
x. If the moon is in perigee when new or full, the
fpring tide will be 8 feet inflead of which correfponds
to her mean diftance. The very next fpring tide hap¬
pens when ilie is near her apogee, and will be 6 feet in-
ftead of 7. The neap tides happen wrhen (lie is at her
mean dittance, and will therefore be 3 feet.
But if the moon be at her mean diftance when new
or full, the two fucceeding fpring tides will be regular
or 7 feet, and one of the neap tides will be 4 feet and
the other only 2 feet.
Mr Bernoulli has given us the following table of the
time of high water for thefe three chief fituations of the
moon, namely, her perigee, mean diftance, and apo¬
gee. It may be had by interpolation for all interme¬
diate pofitions with as great accuracy as can be hoped
for in phenomena which are fubjedt to fueh a complica¬
tion of difturbances. The firft column contains the
moon’s elongation from the fun. The columns P, M,
A, contain the minutes of time which elapfe between
the moon’s fouthing and high water, according as (he is
in perigee, at her mean diftance, or in apogee. The
ftgn — indicates the priority, and the pofteriority,
of high water to the moon’s fouthing.
The reader will undoubtedly be making fome cornpa-
rifon in his own mind of the dedu&ions from this theory
with the aftual ftate of things. He will find fome con-
fiderable refemblances j but he will alfo find fuch great
differences as will make him very doubtful of its juftnefs.
In very few places does the high water happen within
three-fourths of an hour of the tnoon’s fouthing, as the
theory leads him to expeft ; and in no place whatever
does the fpring tide fall on the day of new and full
nioon, nor the neap tide on the day of her quadrature.
Thefe always happen two or three days later. By com¬
paring the difference of high water and the moon’s
fouthing in different places, he will hardly find any
conneifting principle. This fliows evidently that the
caufe of this irregularity is local, and that the juftnefs
of the theory is not affedled by it. By confidering the
phenomena in a navigable river, he will learn the real
caufe of the deviation. A flood tide arrives at the
mouth of a river. The true theoretical tide differs in
no refpeft from a wave. Suppofe a fpring tide adlually
formed on a fluid fphere, and the fun and moon then
annihilated. The elevation muft fink, prefling the un¬
der waters afide, and caufing them to rife where they
were depreffed. The motion will not flop when the
furface comes to a level ; for the waters arrived at that
pofition with a motion continually accelerated. They
will therefore pafs this pofition as a pendulum paffes the
perpendicular, and will rife as far on the other fide,
forming a high water where it was low water, and a
low water where it was high water ; and this tvould go
on for ever, ofcillating in a time which mathematicians
can determine, il it were not for the vifeidity, or fome-
thiog like friflion, of the waters. If the fphere is not
fluid to the centre, the motion of this wave will be dif¬
ferent. The elevated vTaters cannot fink without diffu-
fing themfelves fidewife, and occafioning a great hori¬
zontal motion, in order to fill up the hollow at the
place of low water. This motion will be greateft about
half way between the places of high and low water.
The ftrallower we fuppofe the ocean, the greater muft
this horizontal motion be. The refiftance of the bot¬
tom (though perfeflly fmooth and even) will greatly
retard it all the way to the furface. Still, however, it
will move till all be level, and will even move a little
farther, and produce a fmall flood and ebb where the
ebb and flood had been. Then a contrary motion will
obtain ; and after a few ofcillations, which can be cal¬
culated, it will be infenfible. If the bottom of the
ocean (which we ftill fuppofe to cover the whole earth)
be uneven, with long extended valleys running in va¬
rious direftions, and with elevations reaching near the
furface, it is evident that this muft occafion great irre¬
gularities in the motion of the undermoft waters, both
in refpeft of velocity and direflion, and even occafion
fmall inequalities on the furface, as we fee in a river
with a rugged bottom and rapid current. The devia¬
tions of the under currents will drag with them the con¬
tiguous incumbent waters, and thus occafion greater fu-
perficial irregularities.
Now a flood arriving at the mouth of a river, muft
aft precifely as this great wave does. It muft be pro¬
pagated up the river (or along it, even though perfeft-
ly level) in a certain time, and we ftiall hare high wa¬
ter at all the different places in fucceflion. This is di-
ftinftly feen in all rivers. It is high water at the mouth
of the Thames at three o’clock, and later as we go up
the river, till at London bridge we have not high water
till three o’clock in the morning, at which time it is
again high water at the Nore. But, in the meantime,
there has been low water at the Nore, and high water
about half way to London ; and while the high water
is proceeding to London, it is ebbing at this interme¬
diate place, and is low water there when it is high wa¬
ter at London and at the Nore. Did the tide extend
as far beyond London as London is from the Nore, we
3 H 2 fttould
T I D
fhould liaVe three high waters with two low waters in-
terpofed. The moft remarkable inftance of this kind is
the Maragnon or Amazon river in South America. It
appears by the obfervations of Condamine and others,
that between Para, at the mouth of the river, and the
conflux of the Madera and Maragnon, there are feven
coexiftent high waters, with fix low waters between
them. Nothing can more evidently fliow that the tides
in thefe places are nothing but the propagation of a
wave. The velocity of its fuperficial motion, and the
diftance to which it will fenfibly go, muft depend on
many circumflances. A deep channel and gentle ac¬
clivity will allow it to proceed much farther up the ri¬
ver, and the diftance between the fucceflive fummits
will be greater than when the channel is fhallow and
fteep. If we apply the ingenious theory of Chevalier
Buat delivered in the article River, we may tell both
the velocity of the motion and the interval of the fuc-
ceftive high waters. It may be imitated in artificial
canals, and experiments of this kind would be very in-
ftruftive. We have faid enough at prefent for our pur-
pofe of explaining the irregularity of the times of high
water in different places, with refped to the moon’s
fouthing. For we now fee clearly that fomething of
the fame kind muft happen in all great arms of the fea
which are of an oblong ftiape, and communicate by one
end with the open ocean. The general tide in this
ocean muft proceed along this channel, and the high
water will Jiappen on its (bores in fucceffion. This alfo
is diftinftly feen. The tide in the Atlantic ocean pro¬
duces high water at new and full moon at a later and
later hour along the fouth coaft of Great Britain in pro¬
portion as we proceed from Scilly iflands to Dover. In
the fame manner it is later and later as we come along
the eaft coaft from Orkney to Dover. Yet even in this
progrefs there are confiderable irregularities, owing to
the finuofities of the (hores, deep indented bays, promi¬
nent capes, and extenfive ridges and valleys in the chan¬
nel. A (imilar progrefs is obferved along the coafts of
Spain and France, the tide advancing gradually from
the fouth, turning round Cape Finifterre, ranging along
the north coaft of Spain, and along the weft and north
coafts of France.
The attentive oonfideration of thefe fa£ts wip not
only fatisfy us with refpeft to this difficulty, but will
enable us to trace a principle of connexion amidft all
the irregularities that we obferve.
We now add, that if we note the difference between
the time of high water of fpring tide, as given by the¬
ory, for any place, and the obferved time of high water,
we (hall find this interval to be very nearly conftant
through the whole feries of tides during a lunation.
Suppofe this interval to be 40 hours. We (hall find
every other phenomenon fucceed after the fame inter¬
val. And if we fuppofe the moon to be in the place
where (he was 40 hours before, the obfervation will
agree pretty well with the theory, as to the fucceffion
of tides, the length of tide day, the retardations of the
tides, and their gradual diminution from fpring to neap
tide. We fay pretty well 5 for there ftill remain feve-
ral fmall irregularities, different in different places, and
not following any obfervable law. Thefe are therefore
local, and owing to local caufes. Some of thefe we
fhall afterwards point out. There is alfo a general de¬
viation of the theory from the real feries of tides, The
5
T I D
neap tides, and thole adjoining, happen a little earlier fide
than the corroded theory points out. Thus at Breft '—y.
(where more numerous and accurate obfervations have
been made than at any other place in Europe), when
the moon changes precifely at noon, it is high water at
3 h. 28'. ^ When the moon enters her fecond quarter at
noon, it is high water at 8 h. 40', inftead of 9 h. 48'^
which theory affigns.
Something fimilar, and within a very few minutes
equal, to this is obferved in every place on the fea-coaft.
I his is therefore fomething general, and indicates a real
defed in the theory.
But this arifes from the fame caufe with the other ge¬
neral deviation, viz. that the greateft and leaft tides do
not happen on the days of full and half moon, but 3
certain time after. We (hall attempt to explain this.
We (et out with the fuppofition, that the water ac-
quired in an inftant the elevation competent to its equi¬
librium. But this is not true. No motion is inftanta-
neous, however great the force ; and every motion and
change of motion produced by a fenfible or finite force
increafe^i from nothing to a fenfible quantity by infinitely
fmall degrees. Time elapfes before the body can ac¬
quire any fenfible velocity ; and in order to acquire the
fame fenfible velocity by the adion of different forces
ading fimilarly, a time muft elapfe inverfely propor¬
tional to the force. An infinitely Imall force requires a
finite, time for communicating even an infinitely fmall
velocity j and a finite force, in an infinitely fmali time,
communicates only an infinitely fmall velocity 5 and if
there be any kind of motion which changes by inlenfi-
ble degrees, it requires a finite force to prevent this
change. T-hus a bucket of water, hanging by a cord
lapped round a light and eafily moveable cylinder, will
run down with a motion uniformly accelerated j but
this motion will be prevented by banging an equal
bucket on the other fide, fo as to ad with a finite
force. This force prevents only infinitely fmall accele¬
rations.
Now let ALKF (fig. 6.) be the folid nucleus of thepjV &
earth, furrounded by the fpherical ocean b h dg. Let 6'
this be raifed to a fpheroid BHDG by the adion of the
moon at M, or in the diredion of the axis CM. If all
be at reft, this fpheroid may have the form precifely
competent to its equilibrium. But let the nucleus, with
its (pheroidal ocean, have a motion round C in the di-
ledion AFKL from weft to eaft. When the line of
water BA is carried into the (ituation sq infinitely near
to BA, it is no longer in equilibrioj for s is too eleva¬
ted, and the part now come to B is too much depreffed.
1 here is a force tending to deprefs the waters at s, and
to raife thofe now at B ; but this force is infinitely
fmall. It cannot therefore reftore the fhape competent
to equilibrium till a fenfible time has elapfed ; therefore
the difturbing force of the moon cannot keep the fum-
rait of the ocean in the line MC. The force muft be
of a certain determinate magnitude before it can in an
inhant undo the inftantaneous effed of the rotation of
the waters and keep the fummit of the ocean in the
fame place. But this effed is poffible } for the depref-
lion at j- neceffary for this purpofe is nearly as the di¬
ftance from B, being a depreffion, not from a ftraighl
line, but from a circle deferibed with the radius CB.
It is therefore an infinitefimal of the firft order, and may
be reftored in an inftant, or the continuation of the de-
C 428 ]
T I D
^ prellion prevented by a certain finite force. Therefore
1 there is fome diftance, fuch as B ?/, where the difturb-
ing force of the moon may have the tieceflary intenfity.
Therefore the fpherical ocean, inftead of being kept
continually accumulated at B and D, as the waters turn
round, will be kept accumulated at y and ij\ but at a
height fomewhat fmaller. It is much in this way that
we keep melted pitch or other clammy matter from run¬
ning off from a bruih, by continually turning it round,
and it hangs protuberant, not from the loweft point,
but from a point beyond it, in the diredfion of its mo¬
tion. The fadts are very fimilar. The following expe¬
riment will illuftrate this completely, and is quite a
parallel fadt. Conceive GDH, the lower half of the
ellipfe, to be a fupple heavy rope or chain hanging from
a roller with a handle. The weight of the rope makes
it hang in an oblong curve, juft as the force of the
moon raifes the waters of the ocean. Turn the roller
very {lowly, and the rope, unwinding at one fide and
winding up on the other fide of the roller, will continue
to form the fame curve : but turn the roller very brilkly
in the diredtion FKL, and the rope will now hang like
the curve u y1 v, confiderably advanced from the per¬
pendicular, fo far, to wit, that the force of gravity may
be able in an inftant to undo the infinitely fmall eleva¬
tion produced by the turning.
We are very anxious to have this circumftance clear¬
ly conceived, and its truth firmly eftabliftred ; becaufe
we have obferved it to puzzle many perfons not unac-
cuftomed to fuch difcuflions : we therefore hope that our
readers, who have got over the difficulty, will indulge
us w:hile we give yet another view of this matter, which
leads us to the fame conclufion.
It is certain that the interval between high and low
water is not fufhcient for producing all the accumulation
neceflary for equilibrium in an ocean fo very {hallow.
The horizontal motion neceflary for gathering together
fo much water along a {hallow fea would be prodigious.
Therefore it never attains its full height; and when the
waters, already raifed to a certain degree, have pafled
the fituation immediately under the moon, they areftill
under the a£Hon of accumulating forces, although thefe
forces are now diminilhed. They will continue riling,
till they have fo far paft the moon, that their fituation
fubjesfts them to deprefling forces. If they have acqui¬
red this fituation with an accelerated motion, they will
rife ftill farther by their inherent motion, till the depref-
fing forces have deftroyed all their acceleration, and
then they will begin to fink again. It is in this way
that the nutation of the earth’s axis produces the greateft
inclination, not when the inclining forces are greateft,
but three months after. It is thus that the warmeft
time of the day is a confiderable while after noon, and
that the warmeft feafon is confiderably after midfummer.
The warmth increafes till the momentary wafte of heat
exceeds the momentary fupply. We conclude by fay¬
ing, that it may be demonftrated, that, in a fphere fluid
to the centre, the time of high water cannot be lefs, and
may be mere, than three lunar hours after the moon’s
fouthing. As the depth of the ocean diminifhes, this
interval alfo di mi nifties.
It is perhaps impoffible to aflign the diftance Bz/ at
"which the fummit of the ocean may be kept while the
sarth turns round its axis. We can only fee, that it
[ 429 ] t I D
muft be lefs when the accumulating force is greater, and
therefore lefs in fpring tides than in neap tides $ but the
difference may be infenfible. All this depends on cir-
cumftances which we are little acquainted with : many
of thefe circumftances are local; and the fituation of the
fummit of the ocean, with refpeft to the moon, may be
different in different places.
Nor have we been able to determine theoretically
what will be the height of the fummit. It will certainly
be lefs than the height neceffary for perfeft equilibrium.
Daniel Bernoulli fays, that, after very attentive confi-
deration, he is convinced that the height at new or full
moon will be to the theoretical height as the cofine of
the angle BCy to radius, or that the height at y will
beB*X-g.
The refult of all this reafoning is, that we muft
always fuppofe the fummit of the tide is at a certain
diftance eaftward from the place afligned by the theory.
Mr Bernoulli concludes, from a very copious compari-
fon of obfervations at different places, that the place of
high water is about 20 degrees to the eaftward of the
place afligned by the theory. Therefore the table for¬
merly given will correfpond with obfervation, if the
leading column of the moon’s elongation from the fun
be altered accordingly. We have inferted it again in
this place, with this alteration, and added three columns
for the times of high water. Thus changed it will be
of great ufe.
We have now an explanation of the acceleration of
the neap tides, which ftiould happen 6 hours later than
the fpring tides. They are in fa6t tides correfponding to
pofitions of the moon, which are 20° more, and not the
real fpring and neap tides. Thefe do not happen till two
days after j and if the really greateft and leaft tides be ob¬
ferved, the leaft will be found 6 hours later than the firft.
. c
Jg
W
High Water before or after
Moon’s Southing.
Perigee.
018 after
1 Oi o f do.
20 o do.
3°j 9
qo.tS
5026
6oi33
bef.
do.
M. Dirt.
70
8o38x
90
100
no
120
I30
I40
*5°
16033
170
180
37i
33'»
22
o
22 after
33f after 40i
38i
37i
26
8
22 after
ni
o
1 it bef.
22
3Ii
40
45
46f
4°i
25
o
25
after 3
46*
45
40
3li
22
Apogee.
27f after
M
o
14 bef.
27i
39i
5°
56
58
5°i
31
o
1 after
5°i
58
56
50
29i
2yf
Time of High Water
Perigee. M. Dift. Apogee
0.l8
0.49t
1.20
I*5°i
2.22
2- 54
3- 27
4- 02i
4- 41
5- 26i
6.19
7.20
8.21
9-13i
9.58*
io-37?
11.13
11.46
0.18
0.22
o.?ii
1.20
1.48
2.18
2.48
3.20
3- 55
4- 33
5.19
6.15
7.20
8.25
9.20
10.06
10.45
11.20
11.51
0.22
0.274
°-54
1.20
1.46
2.12
2.40
3.10
3-44
4.22
5-09
6.09
7.20
8.31
9-3°
10.18
10.56
n.30
”•59
0.27
This table is general, and exhibits the time of high
■water.
Tide.
Tide.
T I D
water, and their difference from thofe of the moon’s
fouthing, in the open fea, from all local obftruftions. If
therefore the time of high water in any place on the
earth’s equator (for we have hitherto confidered no
other) be different from this table (fuppofed correft),
-we muff attribute the difference to the dittinguithing
circumftances of the fituation. Thus every place on the
’equator Ihould have high water on the day that the
moon, lituated at her mean diftance, changes precifely
at noon, at 22 minutes part noon ; becaufe the moon
paffes the meridian along with the fun by fuppofition.
Therefore, to make ufe of this table, we muff take the
difference between the firft number of the column, in-
tilled time of high water, from the time of high water
at full and change peculiar to any place, and add this to
all the numbers of that column. This adapts the table
to the given place. Thus, to know the time of high
water at Leith, when the moon is 5o°eaft of the fun, at
her mean diftance from the earth, take 22' from 4b. 30',
there remains 4.08. Add this to 2h. 48' and we have 6°
56' for the hour of high water. The hour of high wa¬
ter at new and full moon for Edinburgh is marked 4b
30' in Malkelyne’s tables, but we do not pretend to give
it as the exaft determination. This would require a
feries of accurate obfervations.
It is by no means an eafy matter to afcertain the time
of high water with precifion. It changes fo very flowly,
that we may eafily miftake the exaft minute. The belt
method is to have a pipe with a frnall hole near its bot¬
tom, and a float with a long graduated rod. The water
gets in by the fmall hole, and raifes the float, and the
Imallnefs of the hole prevents the fudden and irregular
Harts which waves would occafion. Inftead of obferving
the moment of high water, obferve the height of the rod
about half an hour before, and wait after high water till
the rod comes again to that height. Take the middle
between them. The water rifes fenfibly half an hour
before the top of the tide, and quickly changes the height
of the rod, fo that we cannot make a great miftake -in
the time.
Mr Bernoulli has made a very careful comparifon of
the theory thus corrected, with the great collection of
obfervations preferved in the Depot dc la Marine at Breft
and Rochefort * ; and finds the coincidence very great,
and far exceeding any rule which he had ever feen. In-
Par. 1734.” deed we have no rules but what are purely empirical, or
which fuppofe a uniform progreflion of the tides.
The heights of the tides are much more affected by
local circumftances than the regular feries of their times.
The regular fpring tide ftiould be to the neap tide in the
fame proportion in all places y but nothing is more dif¬
ferent than this proportion. In fome places the fpring
tide is not double of the neap tide, and in other places it
is more than quadruple. This prevented Bernoulli from
attempting to fix the proportion of M to S by means of
the heights of the tides. Newton had, however, done
it by the tides at Briftol, and made the lunar force al-
moft five times greater than the folar force. But this
was very ill-founded, for the reafon now given.
Yet Bernoulli law, that in all places the tides gra¬
dually decreafed from the fyzigies to the quadratures.
He there'ore prefumed, that they decreafed by a fimi-
lar Jaw with the theoretical tides, and has given a
very ingenious method of accommodating the theory
to any tides which may be obferved. Let A be the
2
f 430 1
T I D
* See Mr
(Jailini,
fpring tide, and B the neap tide in any place. Then t
form an M and an S from thefe, by making M———
and S — —-—5 fo that M-j-S may be = A, and M—
S=B agreeable to the theory. Then with this M and
S compofe the general tide T, agreeable to the con-
ftruelion of the problem. We may be perfuaded that
the re fill t cannot be far from the truth. The following
table is calculated for the three chief diftances of the
moon from the earth.
be 0
■5 d$
O
I °j
:.o! (
Height of the Tide.
vto-j.i in iVI £)j!t
O.99A + O.I 5Bh.88A-fo.i2B
i. i c A 4-o 04B 0.97 A + o.03 B
3
40
5°
60
70
80
90
100
xio
120
I3°
140
IS°
160
170,
180
4 A -f o.coB
i.ioA-f 0.04B
0.99A4-0.15B
0.85 A-f 0.3 2B
p.67A4-o.53B
o.46A-f 0.75B
0.28A4-0.96B
0.13 A-f 1.13B
0.Q3A4-1.24B
0.00 A-f- 1.28B
0.03 A4-1.24B
o.i3A~f 1.13B
0.28A4-0.96B
0.46A4-G.75B
0.67 A-f 0.53 B
0.85A4-0.32B
0.99A4-0.15B
i.eo A-f c. \
2.97 A-f 0.03 B
0.88A -f o.xsB
°-75A-f 0.25B
0.59 A4-0.41B
0.41 A-f 0.59B
0.25A-J-0.75B
X2A-f 0.88B
0.03 A 4-0.97R
0.00 A -fo.ooB
0.03A4-0.97R
o.ipA-fe.SSB
o^jA-fo.yjB
0.41 A4-0.59B
. Iom in A
.79 A-f 0.08B
0.87A-f 0.02B
0.90 A-f 0.00B
0.87 A -f 0.02B
0.79 A-f 0.08B
o.68A-f 0.18B
0.53 A-f 0.29B
0.37 A4-0.41B
0.23A + 0.53B
0.11 A-f 0.62B
0.03 A-f 0.68 B
o.ooA-fo.7oB
o.o3A-fo.68B
0.11 A-f 0.62B
0.23A4-0.53B
0.37A 4-o-41B
0.59 A 4-0.41 Bjo. 53 A-f 0.29B
0.75 A-4-o.25B|o.68A-fo,i8B
0.88 A-f 0.12B 0.79A-l-o.08B
Obferve that this table is corrected for the retardation
arifing from the inertia of the waters. Thus when the
moon is 20 degrees from the fun, the mean diftance tide
is i.ooA-fo.ooB, which is the theoretical tide corre-
fponding to conjunction or oppofition.
We have now given in fufficient detail the phenomena
of the tides along the equator, when the fun and moon
are both in the equator, {hewing both their times and
their magnitude. When we recollet that all the fec-
tions of an oblong fpheroid by a plane palling through
an equatorial diameter are cllipfes, and that the com¬
pound tide is a combination of two fuch fphetoids, we
perceive that every fetion of it through the centre’ and
perpendicular to the plane in which the fun and moon
are fituated, is alio an ellipfe, whole Ihorter axis is the
equatorial diameter of a fpring tide. This is the great-
eft depreflion in all lituations of the luminaries • and the
points of greateft depreflion are the lower poles of every
compound tide. When the luminaries are in the equa¬
tor, thefe lower poles coincide with the poles of the
earth. 1 he equator, therefore, of every compound tide
is alfo an ellipfe : the whole circumference of which is
lower than any other feeftion of this tide, and gives the
place of low water in every part of the earth. In like
manner, the fedfion through the. four poles, upper and
lower, gives the place of high'water. Thefe two fec-
tions are terreftrial meridians or hour circles, when the
luminaries are in the equator.
Hence
T I D [ 431 ] T 1 D
e. Hence it follows, that all we have already faid as to
—’ the times of high and low water may be applied to every
place on the furface of the earth, when the fun and moon
are in the equator. But the heights of tide will diminilh
as we recede from the equator. The heights mull be re-
duced in the proportion of radius to the cofine of the la¬
titude of the place. But in every other fituation of the
fun and moon all the circumftances vary exceedingly. It
is very true, that the determination of the elevation of
the waters in anyplace whatever is equally eafy. The
difficulty is, to exhibit for that place a connefted view
of the whole tide, with the hours of flood and ebb, and
the difference between high and low water. This is not
indeed difficult 5 but the procefs by the ordinary rules of
fpherical trigonometry is tedious. When the fun and
moon are not near conjunction or oppofition, the flrape
of the ocean refembles a turnip, which is flat and not
round in its broadeft part. Before we can determine
with precifion the different phenomena in connection, we
mult afeertain the pofition or attitude of this turnip j
marki'/. on the furface of the earth both its elliptical
equators. One of thefe is the plane palling through the
fun and moon, and the other is perpendicular to it, and
marks the place of low water. And we mult mark in
like manner its firlt meridian, which paffes through al 1
the four poles, and marks on the furface of the earth the
place of high water. The pofition of the greatelt fec-
tion of this compound fpheroid is frequently much incli¬
ned to the earth’s equator 5 nay fometimes it is at right
angles to it, when the moon has the fame right afeenfion
with the fun, but a different declination. In thefe cafes
the ebb tide on the equator is the greateft poffible ; for
the lower poles of the compound fpheroid are in the
equator. Such fituations occafion a very complicated
calculus. We mull therefore content ourfelves with a
good approximation.
And firft, with refpeCt to the times of high water. It
will be fufficientto conceive the fun and moon as always
in one plane, viz. the ecliptic. The orbits of the fun
and moon are never more inclined than 5! degrees.
This will make very little difference ; for when the lu¬
minaries are fo fituated that the great circle through
them is much inclined to the equator, they are then
very near to each other, and the form of the fpheroid is
little different from what it would be ii: they were really
in conjunftion or oppofition. It will therefore be fuffi-
cient to confider the moon in three different fituations.
1. In the equator. The point of higheft water is ne¬
ver farther from the moon than 150, when (he is in apo¬
gee, and the fun in perigee. Therefore if a meridian
be drawn through the point of higheft water to the
equator, the arch m h of fig. 4. will be reprefented on
the equator by another arch about -v^ of this by reafon
of the inclination of the equator and ecliptic. 1 here-
fore to have the time of high water, multiply the num¬
bers of the columns which exprefs the difference of high
water and the moon’s fouthing by an<^ ^ie pr0^11^5
give the real difference.
2. Let the moon be in her greateft declination. The
arch of right afeenfion correfponding to m h will be had
by multiplying tn h, or the time correfponding to it in
the table, by
3. When the moon is in a middle fituation between
thefe two extremes, the numbers of the table will give
the right afeenfion correfponding to nth without any
corre&ion, the diftance from the equator compenfating 'Tide,
for the obliquity of the ecliptic arch /« h. v~“
The time of low water is not fo eafily found ; and
we muft either go through the whole trigonometricaf
procefs, or content ourfelves with a lefs perfect appro¬
ximation. The trigonometrical procefs is not indeed dif¬
ficult : we muft find the pofition of the plane through
the fun and moon. A great circle through the moon
perpendicular to this is the line of high water 5 and an¬
other perpendicular circle cutting this at right angles is
the circle of low water.
But it will be abundantly exa£t to confider the tide as
accompanying the moon only.
Let NQSE (fig. 7.) be a fe&ion of the terraqueous Fig. 7*
globe, of which N and S are the north and fouth poles
and EOQ^ the equator. Let the moon be in the direc¬
tion OM, having the declination B^>. Let D be any¬
place on the earth’s furface. Draw the parallel LDC
of latitude. Let B'F Z>/be the ocean, formed into a
fpheroid, of which B b is the axis and/F the equator.
As the place D is carried along the parallel CDL by
the rotation of the earth, it will pafs in fucceflion through
different depths of the watery fpheroid. It will have
high water when at C and L, and low water when it
croffes the circle /OF. Draw the meridian N 1/ G, and
the great circle B The arch G(l, when converted
into lunar hours (each about 62 minutes), gives the du¬
ration of the flood dc and of the fubfequent ebb c d,
which happen while the moon is above the horizon : and
the arch EG will give the durations of the flood and of
the ebb which happen when the moon is below’ the hori¬
zon. It is evident, that thefe two floods and two ebbs
have unequal durations. When D is at C it has high
water, and the height of the tide is CC'. For, the fphe¬
roid is fuppofed to touch the fphere on the equator/OF,
fo that of CC' is the difference between high and low
water. At L the height of the tide is LL 5 and if
we deferibe the circle LN y, C 7 is the difference of
thefe high wmters, or of thefe tides.
Hence it appears, that the two tides of one lunar day
may be confiderably different, and it is proper to diftin-
guifti them by different names. We {hall call that aju
perior tide which happens when the moon is above the'
horizon during high water. The other may be called
the inferior tide. The duration of the fuperior tide is-
mcafured by 2GQ, and that of the inferior tide by
2EG ; and 4GO meafures the difference between the-
whole duration of a fuperior and of an inferior tide.
From this conftruftion we may learn in general,
1. When the moon has no declination, the durations ana’
alfo the heights of the fuperior and inferior tides are
equal in all parts of the world. For in this cafe the tide-
equator fY coincides with the meridian NOb, and the
poles Wb1 of the watery fpheroid are on the earth’s equa¬
tor.
2. When the moon has declination, the duration and
alfo the height of a fuperior tide at any place is greater
than that of the inferior 5 or is lefs than it, according as
the moon’s declination and the latitude of the place are
of the fame or oppofite names.
This is an important circumftance. It frequently’
happens that the inferior tide is found the greateft when
it ffiould be the leaft ; which is particularly the cafe at
the Nore. This {hows, without further reafoning, that
the tide at the Nore is only a branch of the regular
tide.
Tide,
rig. s.
T ID [ 432 ] T I
tide. The regular tide conies in between Scotland and fupplements of the angle ICB.
the continent 5 and after travelling along the coaft ’ ” ~ '  
reaches the Thames, while the regular tide is juft com-
ing in again between Scotland and the continent.
3. If the moon’s declination is equal to the colati¬
tude of the place, or exceeds it, there will be only one
tide in a lunar day. It will be a fuperior or an inferior
tide, according as the declination of the moon and the
latitude of the place are of the fame or oppofite kinds. DK-L'n'R
lor the equator of the tide cuts the meridian in^ and H, and DH ~  ' ;
F. Therefore a place which moves in the parallel cf 2
has high water when at c, and 12 lunar hours after
D
^ , - Therefore, if BD be Tide
made radius, DA and DI are the fines of the zenith and u~v
nadir diftances of the moon.
But BD : DA ~ DA : DF. Therefore DF~
M X cof.* =: the height Z 2; of the Inferior tide.
Aifo DKrrM • cof.11/', ~ the height n n! of the inferior
tide.
Alfo, becaufe IA is bife&ed in G, KF is hMed in
the medium tide.
c
wards has low water when at f., And any place k
which is ftill nearer to the pole N has high water when
at and 12 lunar hours afterwards has low water at
m. Therefore, as the moon’s declination extends to
30°, all places farther north or fouth than the lati¬
tude 6o° will fometimes have only one tide in a lunar
day.
4. The fine of the arch GO, which meafures ^th of
the difference between the duration of a fuperior and
inferior tide, is tan. lat. X tan. deck For in the
ipherical triangle dOQt
Rad. : cotan. </OG = tan. </G : fin. GO, and
Sin. GO ~tan. i/OQ^xtan. i/G, rrtan, decl. xtan.lat.
Hence we fee, that the difference of the durations of
the fuperior and inferior tides of the fame day increafe
both with the moon’s declination and with the latitude
of the place.
The different fituations of the moon and of the place
of obfervation affe& the heights of the tides no lefs re¬
markably. When the point D comes under the meri¬
dian NBQ^in which the moon is fituated, there is a
fuperior high water, and the height of the tide above
the low water of that day is CC'. When D is at L,
the height of the inferior tide is LL/. The elevation
above the inferibed fphere is M X cof. * y,y being the
zenith diftance of the moon at the place of obfervation.
Therefore at high water, which by the theory is in the
place direaiy under the moon, the height of the tide is
as the fquare of the cofine of the moon’s zenith or nadir
diftance.
_ Hence we derive a conftru61ion which folves all que-
ftions relating to the height of the tides with great fa-
cility, free from all the intricacy and ambiguities of the
algebraic analyfis employed by Bernoulli.
With the radius CQirM (the elevation produced
by the moon above the inferibed fphere) deferibe the
circle ^jQ^PE (fig, 8.) to reprefent a meridian, of which
P and p are the poles, and EO the equator. Bifeift
CP in Oj and round O deferibe the circle PBCD.
Eet M be the place over which the moon is vertical, and
Z be the place of obfervation. M£) is the moon’s de¬
clination, and Z£> is the latitude of the place. Draw
MC ?«, ZCN, cutting the fmall circle in A and B.
Draw AGI perpendicular to CP, and draw CI^, which
will cut off an arch E ^rr QM. MZ and p N are the
Tuoon s zenith and nadir diftances. Draw the diameter
BD, and the perpendiculars IK, GH, and AF. Alfo
draw OA, PA, AB, ID.
I hen DF is the fuperior tide, DK is the inferior tide
and DH is the arithmetical mean tide.
For the angles BCA, EDA, Handing on BA, are
equal. Alfo the angles IDE, pCN, are equal, being
Let us trace the relation of the confequences of the
various pofitions of Z and M, as we formerly confider-
ed the refults of the various fituations of the fun and
moon.
Firft, then, let Z retain its place, and let IM gradual¬
ly approach it from the equator. When M is in the
equator, A and I coincide with C, and the three points
F, K, and H, coincide in i.
As M approaches to Z, A and I approach to B and
H j DF mcreafes, and DK dimimfties. The fi-perior
or inferior time is greateft when the moon is ift M or
in N; and DF is then =: M. As the moon paffes to
the northward of the place, the fuperior and inferior
tides both diminifli till I comes to D; at which time
MQ is equal to ZP, and there is no inferior tide. This
however cannot happen if ss P is greater than 30°, be¬
caufe the moon never goes farther from the equator. M
ftill going north, we have again a perpendicular from X
on BD, but below I, indicating that the inferior tide,
now meafured by DK, belongs to the hemifpheroid
next the moon. Alfo, as M advances from the equator
northward, DH diminifhes continually. Firft, while
H lies between O and B, becaule G approaches 0}
and afterwards, when G is above O and H lies between
O and D. It is otherwife, however, if ZQ_ is greater
than 45// j for then DB is inclined to E(^ the other
way, and DH increafes as the point G rifes.
In the next place, let M retain its pofition, and Z
proceed along the meridian.
Let us begin at the equator, or fuppofe the place
of obfervation. BD then coincides with CP, and the
three lines DF, DK, and DH, all coincide with PG,
denoting the two equal tides £)y and E<? and their me¬
dium, equal to either. As Z goes northward from Q,
BOD detaches itfelf from COPj the lineDF increales,
while DK and DH diminifh. W hen Z has come to
M, F and B coincide with A, and DK and DH are ftill
more diminilhed. When Z paffes M, all the three
lines DF, DK, and DH, continue to diminifh. When
Z comes to latitude 450, DB is parallel to IA and
EQ, and the point H coincides with O. This fitua-
tion of Z has the peculiar property that DH (now DO)
is the fame, whatever be the declination of the moon.
For IA being always parallel to DB, OK and OF will
be equal, and DO will be half of DK and DF, how-
ever. they may vary. When Z gets fo far north that
ZP is — M£) , the diameter b d falls on I; fo that dh
vanilhes, and we have only df And when Z goes
ftill farther north, dh appears on the other fide of I.
When Z arrives at the pole, BD again coincides with
PC, D with C, and DF, DK, and DH, coincide with
CG.
Thefe variations of the points F, K, and H, indicate
the following phenomena.
J. The
W. T/YZf/i Jc7tiyr> f
T I D
e. i. The greateft tides happen when the moon is in the
mmJ zenith or nadir of the place of obfervation : for then
the point B coincides with A, and DF becomes DB j
tnat is, = M, indicating the full tide BB'.
2. When the moon is in the equator, the fuperior^nd
inferior tides have equal heights, = M • cof.* lat. For
then A and I coincide with C, and the points F and K
coincide in ?, and DfisrrDB • cof.* BDC, irM -cof.*
lat. ...
3. If the' place of obfervation is in the equator, the
inferior and iuperior tides are again equal, whatever is
the moon’s declination t For then B coincides with C,
and the points F, K, and H, coincide with G ; and PG
X PC * cof.2 APG, =r M * cof.* decl. moon.
4. The fuperior tides are greater or lefs than the in¬
ferior tides according as the latitude and declination are
of the fame or of oppofite names. For by making
rzQZ, and drawing £ C «, cutting the fmall circle in £,
we fee that the figure is reverfed. The difference be¬
tween the fuperior and inferior tides is KF, or IAx
cofin. of the angle formed by IA and DB ; that is, of
the angle BD^, which is the complement of twice
ZQ; becaufe BOCrrlZC^). Now IA is 2GA,
=: 2OA • fin. 2 MQ= PC • fin. 2 MQ, = M • fin.
2 decl. Therefore the difference of the fuperior and in*
ferior tides is M • fin. 2 declin. fin. 2 lat.
5. If the colatitude be equal to the declination, or lefs
than it, there will be no inferior tide, or no fuperior tide,
according as the latitude of the place and declination of
the moon are of the fame or oppofite names.
For when PZrr M(^, D coincides with I, and IK
vanKhes. When PZ is lefs than MQ^, the point D is
between C and I, and the point Z never paffes through
the equator of the watery fpheroid ; and the low water
of its only tide is really the fummit of the inferior tide.
6. At the pole there is no daily tide : but there are
two monthly tides =M • fin.* declin. and it is low wa¬
ter when the moon is in the equator.
7. The medium tide, reprefented by DH, is =Mx
»+cof. 2fat. xc°r. Sdeclin, For DH_DO + OH.
2
Now OH is equal to OG Xco^ GOHrrOG * cof. 2ZQ.
And OGzrOA • cof. GOA, =0A • cof. 2MQ. There,
fore OH=OA 'cof. 2ZQ/ cof. 2M£). Therefore DH
rrOA-j-OA * cof. 2ZQ/ cof. 2M(^=
M x 2Z&*c<,f- Let this for the fu.
2
ture be called tn.
N. B, The moon’s declination never exceeds 300.
Therefore cof. 2M£) is always a pofitive quantity, and
never lefs than 4-> which is the cofine of 6o°. While
the latitude is lefs than 450, cof. 2 lat. is alfo a pofi¬
tive quantity. When it is precifely 450, the cofine of
its double is 0; and when it is greater than 45, the co¬
fine of its double is negative. Hence we fee,
1. That the medium tides are equally affe&ed by the
northern and fouthern declinations of the moon.
2. If the latitude of the place is 45®, the medium tide
is always T M. This is the reafon why the tides along
the coafts of France and Spain are fo little affefted by
the declination of the moon.
3. If the latitude is lefs than 450, the mean tides in-
Creafe as the moon’s declination dimihifhes. The con¬
trary happens if ZQ^ is greater than 450. For DH in-
Vol. XX. Part II.
t 433 1 T I D
creafes or diminilhes while the point G feparates from C
according as the angle COD is greater or lets than
COB *, that is, according as PCZ is greater or lefs than
4. When Z is in the equator, H coincides with G, and
the effect of the moon’s declination on the height of the
tides is the moft fenfible. The mean tide is then = M
1 4-cof. 2 Mf)
Tide.
All that we have now faid may be faid of the folar
tide, putting S in place of M.
Alfo the fame things hold true of fpring tides, nutting
M + S in place of M.
But in order to afcertain theeffeftsof declination and
latitude on other tides, we muff make a much more
complicated conftru&ion, even though we fuppofe both
luminaries in the ecliptic. For in this cafe the two de-
prefled poles of the watery fpheroid are not in the poles
of the earth •, and therefore the feftions of the ocean,
made by meridians, are by no means ellipfes.
In a neap tide, the moon is vertical at B (fig. 7. or 8.), F-
and the fun at fome point ofy'F, 90° from B. If O be * °r
this point, the conftru&ion for the heights of the tides
may be made by adding to both the fuperior and inferior
tides for any point D, the quantity M-f-S^—D'F or DlC
fin.*
coi.* Mfr
, as is evx-
X fin.2 d O, =r M-j-S — tide X
dent.
But if the fun be vertical at d, d will be the higheft
part of the circky'OF, and no correftion is necefiary.
But in this cafe the circle of high water will be inclined
to the meridian in an angle equal to d BO (fig. 7.), and
neither the times nor elevations of high water v\ ill be
properly afcertained, and the error in time may be con-
fiderable in high latitudes.
The inaccuracies are not fo great in intermediate tides,
and refpeft chiefly the time of high water and the height
of low water.
The exacl computation is very tedious and peculiar,
fo that it is hardly poflible to give any account of a re¬
gular progrefs of phenomena 5 and all we can do is,
afcertain the precife heights of detached points, ^or
which reafons, we muft content ourfelves with the con-
ftru&ion already given. It is the exa£l geometrical ex-
preffion of Bernoulli’s analyfis, and its confequences now
related contain all that he has invefligated. We may
accommodate it very nearly to the real ftate of things,
by fuppofing PC equal, not to CO of fig. 4. but to MS,
exhibiting the whole compound tide. And the point B,
inftead of re-prefenting the moon’s place, muft reprefent
the place of high water.
Thus have we obtained a general, though not very
accurate, view of the phenomena which muft take place
in different latitudes and in different declinations of the
fun and moon, provided that the phyfical theory which
determines the form and pofition of the watery fpheroid
be juft. We have only to Compute, by a very fimple
ptacefs of fpherical trigonometry, the place of the pole
of this fpheroid. The fecond conftru&ion, in fig. 8.
(hows us all the circumftances of the time and height of,
high Water at any point. It will be recoiled, d, that in
computing this place of the pole, the anticipation of 20
degrees, arifing from the inertia of the waters, muft be
attended to.
3l
Were
T 1 D [ 4
Were we to inftitute acomparifon of this theory with
obfervation, without farther coniideration, we ftiould
ftiil find it unfavourable, partly in refpeft of the heights
of the tides, and more remarkably in refpedt of the time
of low water. We mult again confider the effefts of
the inertia of the waters, and recolledf, that a regular
theoretical tide differs very little in its progrefs from the
motion of a wave. Even along the free ocean, its mo¬
tion much refembles that of any other wave. All waves
are propagated by an ofcillatory motion of the waters,
precifely fimilar to that of a pendulum. It is well
known, that if a pendulum receive a fmall impulfe in
the time of every defcent, its vibrations may be increaf-
ed to infinity. Did the fucceffive actions of the fun or
moon jult keep time wdth the natural propagation of the
tides, or the natural ofcillations of the waters, the tides
would alfo augment to infinity : But there is an infinite
edds againft this exaft adjuftment. It is much more
probable that the aftion of to-day interrupts or checks
the ofcillation produced by yefterday’s a61ion, and that
the motion which we perceive in this day’s tide is what
remains, and is compounded with the adtion of to-day.
This being the cafe, we fhould expedt that the nature
of any tide will depend much on the nature of the pre¬
ceding tide. Therefore we fhould expedl that the fupe-
rior and inferior tides of the fame day will be more near¬
ly equal than the theory determines. The whole courfe
of obfervation confirms this. In latitude 450, the fupe-
rior and inferior tides of one day may differ in the pro¬
portion of to 1, and the tides correfponding to the
greateft and leaft declinations of the moon may differ
nearly as much. But the difference of the fuperior and
inferior tides, as they occur in the lift of Obfervations
at Rochefort, is not the third part of this, and the
changes made by the moon’s declination is not above
one-half. Therefore wfe fhall come much nearer the
true meafure of a fpring tide, by taking the arithme¬
tical mean, than by taking either the fuperior or in¬
ferior.
We fhould expeff lefs deviation from the theory in
the gradual diminution of the tides from fpring tide to
neap tide, and in the gradual changes of the medium
tide by the declination of the moon ; beeaufe the fuc-
ceffiye changes are very fmall ; and when they change
in kind, that is, diminifh after having for fome time
augmented, the change is by infenfible degrees. This
is moft accurately confirmed by obfervation. The vaft
colle&ion made by Caffmi of the Obfervations at Breft
being examined by Bernoulli, and the medium of the
two tides in one day being taken for the tide’ of that
day, he found fuch an agreement between the pro-
greflion of thefe medium tides and the progreflion of
the lines MS of fig. 4. that the one feemed to be
calculated by the other. He found no lefs agreement
*n the changes of the medium tides by the moon’s de¬
clination.
In like manner, the changes produced by the differ¬
ent diftances of the moon from the earth, were found
abundantly conformable to the theory, although not fo
exac^ as the other. This d'fference or inferiority is eafily
accounted for : When the moon changes in her mean
diftance, one of the neap tides is uncommonly fmall,
and therefore the fucceflive diminutions are very great
and one tide fenfibly affedts another. The fame circum-
Itence operates when ftie changes in apogee, by reafon
34 ] T I m
of a very large fpring tide. And the changes corre-
[Ponding both to the fun’s diftance.from the earth and
his declination agreed almoft exactly.
, A11 llJ.efe tIlings confidered together, we have abun
dant reafon to conclude, that not only the theory itfflf
is juft in principle (a thing which no intelligent natura
lift can doubt), but alfo that the data which are affumed
in the application are properly chofen 3 that is, that the
proportion of two to five is very nearly the true propor¬
tion of the mean folar and lunar forces. If u’e now
compute the medium tide for any place in fucceffion
from fpring tide to neap tide, and ftiil more, if we
compute the feries of times of their occurrence, we
ftiall find as great an agreement as can be defired.
Not but that there are many irregularities 3 but thefe
are evidently fo anomalous, that we can afcribe them
to nothing but circumftances which are purely local.
This general rule of computation muft be formed in
the following manner :
The fpring tide, according to theory, being called A
and the neap tide B, recoiled that the fpring tide, ac¬
cording to the regular theory, is meafured by M-j-S.
Recoiled alfo, that when the lunar tide only is confider¬
ed the fuperior fpring tide is M x fin.*, ZM (fig. 8.).
But when we confider the adion of two adjoining tides
on each other, we find it fafer to take the medium of
the luperior and inferior tides for the meafure; and this
;c n/r v 1 2 ZQ x cof. 2 MO ,
IS M X   Let this be call-
ed m. _ This being totally the effed of M as modified
by latitude and declination, may be taken as its pro¬
per meafure, by which we are to calculate the other
tides of the monthly feries from fpring tide to neap
tide. 1 45 F
In like manner, we muft compute a value for S, as;
modified by declination and latitude; call this 4. Then
fay,
M-f-S : Azr/zz-j-.r : A
M-f-S
This fourth proportional will give the fpring tide as
modified foi the given declination ot the luminaries, and
the latitude of the place.
Now recoiled, that the medium tide, when the lumi¬
naries are in the equator, is Axcof.Mat. Therefore
let F be the fpring tide obferved %X. any place when the
luminaries are in. the equator; and let this be the me¬
dium of a great many obfervations made in thefe cir¬
cumftances. This gives A • cof.* lat. (as modified by
the peculiar circumftances of the place) r=F. There¬
fore the fourth proportional now given changes to Fx
wz-j-j
M-f-S * cof.3lat.
m i»
+
And a fimilar fubftitute for B is G
M—S • cof.3 lat.
Laftly, To accommodate our formulae to every di¬
ftance of the earth from the fun and moon, let D and A
be the mean diftances of the fun and moon, and d and ^
their diftances at the given time; and then the twofub-
ftitutes become
M-J-S1 D3 S
d' j3, (M-jlsy-*
A3 01 M—23 D3 S
d' J3 (M—~S)~
XFx
X G x
m-\-s
(M-f-S) cof.3 lat.
(M — S) cof.* lat.
The
T I D. [ 43S ] T I D
df. The half fum of thefe tu’o quantities •wull be the MC,
v—-^and their half difference will be the SC, of fig. 4. with
which we may now-operate, in order to find the tide for
any other day of the menffrual feries, by means of the
el on fa lion a of the moon from the fun 5 that is, we muff
fay MC-J-CS : MC—CS=tan. a : tan. b ; then xzH
and —-• And MS, the height of the tide,
2 ^
is MC X cof. 2 ^-HCS X cof. 2 x.
Such is the general theory of the tides, deduced from
the principle of univerfal gravitation, and adjufted to
that proportion of the folar and lunar forces which is
nioft confiftent with other celeftial phenomenai The
comparifon of the greateft and leaft daily retardations of
the tides was with great judgment preferred to the pro¬
portion of fpring and neap tides, fele&ed by Sir Ifaac
Newton for this purpofe. This proportion mult depend
on many local circumftances. When a wave or tide
comes to the mouths of two rivers, and fends a tide up
each, and another tide of half the magnitude comes a
fortnight after; the proportion of tides fent up to any
given places of thefe rivers may be extremely different.
Nay, the proportion of tides fent up to two diftant
places of the fame river can hardly be the fame 5 nor
are they the fame in any river that we know. It can
be demonllrated, in the ftri&eft manner, that the farther
we go up the river, where the declivity is greater, the
neap tide will be fmaller in proportion to the fpring
tide. But it does not appear that the time of fucceffion
of the ditferent tides will be much affe&ed by local cir-
cumftances. The tide of the fecond day of the moon
being very little lefs than that of the firft, will be near¬
ly as much retarded, and the intervals between their
arrivals cannot be very different from the real intervals
of the undifturbed tides; accordingly, the fuccelfion of
the higheft to the higheft but one is found to be the
fame in all places, when not difturbed by different winds.
In like manner, the fucceflion of the loweff and the
lowed but one is found equally invariable ; and the
highed and the lowed tides obferved in any place mujl
be accounted the fpring and neap tides of that place,
whether they happen on the day of full and half moon
or not. Nay, we can fee here the explanation of a ge¬
neral deviation of the theory which we formerly no¬
ticed. A low tide, being lefs able to overcome ob-
dru£lions, will be fooner dopped, and the neap tides
Ihould happen a little earlier than by the undidurbed
theory.
With all thefe correftions, the theory now delivered
will be found to correfpond with obfervation, with all
the exa&nefs that we can reafonably expe£h We had
an opportunity of comparing it with the phenomena in
a place where they are very lingular, viz. in the harbour
of Biffededt in Iceland. The equator of the watery
fpheroid frequently paffes through the neighbourhood of
this place, in a variety of pofitions with refpedt to its
parallel of diurnal revolution, and the differences of fu-
perior and inferior tides are mod remarkable and va¬
rious, We found a wonderful conformity to the mod
diverfified circumdances of the theory.
There is a period of 18 years, refpe&ing the tides in
Iceland, taken notice of by the ancient Saxons ; but
it is not didindlly defcribed. Now this is the period
'of the moon’s nod«s, and of the greateft and leaft incli¬
nation of her orbit to the equator. It is therefore the
period of the pofitions of the equator of the tides
which ranges round this idand, and very fenfibly affe6b
them.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the tides to be formed on
an ocean completely covering the earth. Let us fee
how thofe may be determined which happen in a fmalt
and confined fea, fuch as the Cafpian or the Black fea.
The determination in this cafe is very fimple. As no
filpply of water is fuppofed to come into the bafon, it is
fufceptible of a tide only by finking at one end and ri-
fing at the other. This may be illuftrated by fig. 6.
where C s, C y, are two perpendicular planes bounding
a fmall portion of the natural ocean. The water will
fink at 2; and rife at x, and form a furface otr parallel
to the equilibrated furface y s. It is evident that there
will be high water, or the greateft poffible rife, at r,
when the bafon comes to that petition where the tan-*
gent is moft of all inclined to the diameter. This will
be when the angle/CB is 450 nearly, and therefore
three lunar hours after the moon’s fouthing ; at the fame
time, it will be low water at the other end. It is plain
that the rife and fall muft be exceedingly fmall, and that
there will be no change in the middle. The tides of
this kind in the Cafpian fea, in latitude 450, whole ex¬
tent in longitude does not exceed eight degrees, are not
above feven inches ; a quantity fo fmall, that a flight
breeze of wind is fufficient to check it, and even to pro¬
duce a rife of the waters in the oppofite dire&ion. We
have not met with any accounts of a tide being obferved
in this fea.
It Ihould be much greater, though ftill very fmall, in
the Mediterranean fea. Accordingly, tides are obferved
there, but ftill more remarkably in the Adriatic, for a
reafon which will be given by and by. We do not
know that tides have been obferved in the great lakes
of North America. Thefe tides, though fmall, ftiould
be very regular.
Should there be another great bafon in the neigh¬
bourhood of 25 x, lying ealt or weft of it, we Ihould ob-
ferve a curious phenomenon. It would be low water on
one fide of the Ihore 2; when it is high water on the
other fide of this partition. If the tides in the Euxine
and Cafpian feas, or in the American lakes which are
near each other, could be obferved, this phenomenon
ftiould appear, and would be one of the prettieft exam¬
ples of univerfal gravitation that can be conceived.
Something like it is to be feen at Gibraltar. It is high
water on the eaft fide of the rock about 10 o’clock at
full and change, and it is high water on the weft fide,
not a mile diftant, at x 2. This difference is perhaps
the chief caufe of the Angular current which is obferved
in the Straits mouth. There are three currents obferv¬
ed at the fame time, which change their diredtions
every 12 hours. The fmall tide of the Mediterranean,
proceeds along the Barbary ftiore, which is very uni¬
form all the way from Egypt, with tolerable regularity.
But along the northern fide, where it is greatly ob-
ftrufted by Italy, the iflands, and the eaft; coaft of
Spain, it fets very irregularly ; and the perceptible high
water on the Spaniftx coaft differs four hours from that
of the fouthern coaft. Thus it happens, that one tide
ranges round Europa point, and another along the ftiore
near Ceuta, and there is a third current in the middle
different from both. Its general diredlion is from the
3 I 2 Atlantic
Tide.
T I D [436
Atlantic ocean into the Mediterranean lea, but it fotne-
"*■ times comes out when the ebb tide in the Atlantic is
confiderable.
Suppofe the moon over the middle of the Mediter¬
ranean. The furface of the lea will be level, and it will
be half tide at both ends, and therefore within the
Straits of Gibraltar. But without the Straits it is with¬
in half an hour of high water. Therefore there will be
a current letting in from the Atlantic. About three
and a half hours after, it is high water within and half
ebb without. The current now fets out from the Me¬
diterranean. Three hours later, it is low water with¬
out the Straits and half ebb within j therefore the cur¬
rent has been felting out all this while. Three hours
latei, it is half flood without the Straits and low water
within, and the current is again fettjng in, &c.
Were the earth fluid to the centre/the only fenfible
motion of the waters would be up and down, like the
waves on the open ocean, which are not brufhed along
by strong gales. But the fhallownefs of the channel
makes a horizontal motion neceffary, that water may be
fupplied to form the accumulation of the tide. When
this is formed on a flat fhelving coafl, the water mufl
flow in and out, on the flats and fands, while it rifes
and falls. I hefe horizontal motions mult be greatly
modified by the channel or bed along which they move.
When the channel contrails along the line of flowing
water, the wave, as it moves up the channel, and is
checked by the narrowing fliores, mufl be reflefled
back, and keep a-top of the waters flill flowing in un¬
derneath. Thus it may rife higher in thefe narrow feas
than in the open ocean. This may ferve to explain a
little the great tides which happen on feme coafts, fuch
as the coafl; of Normandy. At St Malo the flood fre¬
quently rifes 50 feet. But we cannot give any thing
like a full or fatisfaflory account of thefe Angularities.
In the bay of Fundy, and particularly at Annapolis
Royal, the water fometimes rifes above 100 feet. This
feems quite inexplicable by any force of the fun and
moon, which cannot raife the waters of the free ocean
more than eight feet. Fhefe great floods are unqueflion-
ably owing to the proper timing of certain ofcillations
or currents adjoining, by which they unite, and form
one of great force. Such violent motions of water are
frequently feen on a fmall fcale in the motions of brooks
and rivers j but we are too little acquainted with hy-
drauhes to explain them with any precifion.
]
t i r>
We have feen that there is an ofeillation of waters
.ormed under the fun and moon j and that in confe-
quence of the rotation of the earth, the inertia and the
want of perfeft fluidity of the waters, and obftruaiens
xn the channel, this accumulation never reaches the
place where it wojjld finally fettle if the earth did not
turn round its axis. The confequence of this mult be a
general current of the waters from eaft to weft. This
may be feen in another way. The moon in her orbit
round the earth has her gravity to the earth diminifhed
by, .th.e /u.n 3 dlfturbmg force, and therefore moves in an
orbit lefs incurvated than fhe would defcribe independent
of the fun s adion. She therefore employs a longer
tune. . If the moon were fo near the earth as almoft to
touch xt, the fame thing would happen. Therefore fup-
pofe the moon turning round the earth, almoft in con¬
tact with the equator, with her natural undifturbed pe¬
riodic time, and that the earth is revolving round its
axis in the fame time, the moon would remain continu-
ally above the fame fpot of the earth’s furface (feppofe
the city of Quito), and a fpe&ator in. another planet
would fee the moon always covering the fame fpot. Now
let the fun a£f. This will not affecl the rotation of the
earth, becaufe the action on one part is exadly balanced
by the a&ion on another. But it will afft£ the moon.
It will move more flowly round the earth’s centre and
at a greater diftance. It will be left behind by the city
of Quito, which it formerly covered. And as the earth
moves round from weft to eaft, the moon, moving more
flowly, will have a motion to the weft with refped to
Quito. In like manner, every particle of water has its
gravity diminifhed, and its diurnal motion retarded;
and hence arifes a general motion or current from eaft
to weft. This is very diftin&ly perceived in the At¬
lantic and Pacific oceans. It comes round the Cape of
Good Hope, ranges along the coaft of Africa, and then
fets directly over to America, where it meets a fimilar
ftream which comes in by the north of Europe. Meet¬
ing the fliores of America, it is defledted both to the
fouth along the coaft of Brazil, and to the north along
the North American ftiores, where it forms what is call¬
ed the Gu/f Stream, becaufe it comes from the gulf of
Mexico. This motion is indeed very flow, this being
fufficient for the accumulation of feven or eight feet on
the deep ocean j but it is not altogether infenfible.
We may expedt diftbrences in the appearances on the
weftern ftiores of Europe and Africa, and on the weftern
ftiore of America, from the appearances on the eafiern
coafts of America and of Alia, for the general current
obftrudls the waters from the weftern ftiores, and fends
them to the eaftern fliores. Alfo when we compare the
wide opening of the northern extremity of the Atlantic
ocean with the narrow opening between Kamtfthatka
and America, we ftiould expedl differences between the
appearances on tliQ weft coafts of Europe and of Ame¬
rica. I he obfervations made during the circumnaviga¬
tions of Captain Cook and others (how a remarkable
difference. All along the weft coaft of North America
the inferior tide is very trifling, and frequently is not
perceived.
In the very fame manner, the difturbing forces of the
fun and moon form a tide in the fluid air which fur-
rounds this globe, confiding of an elevation and de-
preflion, which move gradually from eaft to weft. Nei¬
ther does this tide ever attain that pofition with rtfpedt
to the difturbing planets -which it would do were the
earth at reft on its axis. Hence arifes a motion of the
whole air from eaft to weft ; and this is the principal
caufe of the trade-winds. They are a little accelerated
by being heated, and therefore expanding. They ex¬
pand more to the weft ward than in the oppofite direc¬
tion, becaufe the air expands on that fide into air which
is now cooling and contradling. Thefe winds very evi¬
dently follow the fun’s motion, tending more to the
fouth or north as he goes fouth or north. Were this
motion confiderably affedted by the expanfion of heated
air, we ftiould find the air rather coming northward and
fouthward from the torrid zone, in confequence of its
expanfion in that climate. We repeat it, it is almoft
folely produced by the aerial tide, and is neceffary for
the very formation of this tide. We cannot perceive
the accumulation. It cannot affedl the barometer, as
many
Til
y J
Tide
TIT) [ 437 ] TI L
life, many think, becaufe, though the air becomes deeper, it
i -Y—' becomes deeper only when it is made lighter by the
gravitation to the fun. Inftead of preffing more on the
ciftern of the barometer, we imagine that it preffeslefsj
becaufe, like the ocean, it never attains the height to
which it tends. It remains always too low for equili¬
brium, and therefore it fhould prefs with lefs force on
the cittern of a barometer.
There is an appearance precifely fimilar to this in the
planet Jupiter. He is furrounded by an atmofphere
which is arranged in zones or belts, probably owing to
climate differences of the different latitudes, by which
each feems to have a different kind of Iky. Something
like this will appear to a fpe&ator in the moon looking
at this earth. The general weather and appearance of
the fky is confiderably different in the torrid and tem¬
perate zones. Jupiter’s belts are not of a conflant fhape
and colour -r but there often appear large fpots or trafls
of cloud, which retain their ihape during feveral revo¬
lutions of Jupiter round his axis. To judge of his rota¬
tion by one of thefe, we (hould fay that he turns round
in 9.55. There is alfo a brighter fpot which is fre¬
quently feen, occupying one certain fituation on the
body of Jupiter. This is furely adherent to his body,
and is either a bright-coloured country, or perhaps a
trad of clouds hovering over feme volcano. This fpot
turns round in 9.51^. And thus there is a general cur¬
rent in his atmofphere from eaft to Weft.
Both the motion of the air and of the water tend to
diminiPn the rotation of the earth round its axis •, for
they move flower than the earth, becaufe they are re¬
tarded by the luminaries. They muft communicate this
retardation to the earth, and muft take from it a quan¬
tity of motion precifely equal to what they want, in or¬
der to make up the equilibrated tide. In all probability
this retardation is compenfated by ether caufes •, for no
retardation can be obferved. This would ha/e altered
the length of the year fince the time ef Hipparchus,
giving it a fmaller number of days. We fee caufes of
eompenfation. The continual wafhing down of foil from
the elevated parts of the earth muft; produce this effeft,
by communicating fo the valley on which it is brought
to reft the excefs of diurnal velocity which it hatl on the
mountain top.
While we Were employed 6n this article, a book was
put into our hands called- Studies of Nature, by a Mr
Saint Pierre. This author fcouts the Newtonian theory1
of the tide<t, as erroneous in principle, and as quite in-
fufficient for explaining tire phenomena ; and he afcribes
all phenomenal of the tides to tire liquefaiclion of the ices
and fnows of the circumpolar regions, and the greater
length of the polar than of the equatorial axis of the
earth. He is a man of whom we with to fpeak with re-
fpe£t, for his conftant attention to final eaufes, and the
proof thence refulting of the wifdom and goodnefs of
God. For this he is entitled to the greater praife, that
it required no fmall degree of fortitude to refill the in¬
fluence of national example, and to retain his piety in
the midft of a people who have drunk the very dregs of
the atheifm of ancient Greece. This is a fpecies of merit
I'arely to be met with in a Frenchman of the prefent
day; but as a philofopher, M. de St Pierre can lay
claim to no other merit except that, of having collected
many important fads. The argument Which he em¬
ploys to prove that the earth is a prolate fpheroid, is a
5
dired demonftration of the truth of the contrary opi¬
nion } and the melting of the ice and fnows at the poles .. II .
cannot produce the fmalleft motion in the waters. Were . 0c on‘
there even ten times more ice and fnow floating on the
northern lea than there is, and were it all to melt in
one minute, there would be no flux from it 5 for it
would only fill up the fpace which it formerly occupied
in the water. Of this any perfon will be convinced,
who lhall put a handful of fnow fqueezed hard into a
jar of water, and note the exad height of the water.
Let the fnow melt, and he will find the water of the
fame height as before.
TlDE-lVaiters, or Tidefmen, are inferior officers be¬
longing to the cuftomhoufe, whofe employment is to
watch or attend upon (hips until the cuftoms be paid 5
they get this name from their going on board fhips on
their arrival in the mouth of the Thames or other ports,
and fo come up with the tide.
TIEND, in Scots Law. See Teind.
TIERCE, or Teirce, a meafure of liquid things, as
wine, oil, &c. containing the third part of a pipe, or 42
gallons.
TIERCED, in. Heraldry, denotes the Ihield to be
divided by any part of the partition-lines, as party,
coupy, tranchy, or tailly, into three equal parts of dif¬
ferent colours or metals.
TIGER. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
TlGER-Wo/f the name of the hyaena at the Cape of
Good Hope. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
TIGRIS, a river of Afia, which has its fource near
that of the Euphrates in the mountain Tchildir in Tur¬
koman ia : afterwards it feparates Diarbeck from Erze-
rum, and Khufiftan from Irac-Arabia ■, and uniting with
the Euphrates at Gorno, it falls into the gulf of Eaf-
forah, under the name of Schat el-Arab. This river
paffes by Diarbekir, Gezira, Mauffil, Bagdad, Gorno,
and Bafforah.
TILIA, Lime, or Linden-tree, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of polyandria } and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the Columnifercs. See Botany
Index.
TILLEMONT, Sebastian le Nain de. See
Nain.
TILLER o/*a Ship, a ftrong piece of Wood faften-
ed in the head of the rudder, and in fmall ftiips and
boats called the he/m.
TILLOEA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafi,
of tetrandria-, .and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 13th order, Succulentce. See BbTANY Index.
TILLOTSON, John, a celebrated archbifhop of
Canterbury, was the ion of Robert lillotfon of Sower-
by, .in the parifh of Halifax in Yorkfhire, clothier j
and was born there in the year 1630. He Audit'd in
Clare-hall, Cambridge'; and in 1656 left this college,
in order to become tutor to the fon of Edmund Pri-
deaux, Efq. of Ford abbey in Devonftiire. He was
afterwards curate to Dr Hacket, vicar of Chefhunt, in
Hertfdrdftiire. In 1663 he was prefe'r.ted by Sir Tho¬
mas Barnardifton to the re&ory of Kettcn or Kedding-
ton in the county of Suffolk ; but was the next year
chofen preacher to Lincoln’s Inn, when he procured
Ketton to be beftowed on his curate. Fie was greatly
admired in London for his fermons ; and in the fame
year was chofen Tuefday-le&urer at St Lawrence’s
church, London, where his le&ures were frequented by
.11
Time.
^ ^ lv^ [ 43^ ] Tim
ail the divines of the city, and by many perfons of qua- meafures n, , , .
hty and diftinftion. In 1666,, he took the degree of fun * * ^ ^ motlon an(^ revolution of the
Doftor of Divinity at Cambridge 5 in 1669, was made
? iu luuy, \\ab maae
prebendary of Canterbury ; in 1672, was admitted dean
of that cathedral ; and three years after, was made a
prebendary of St PauPs cathedral, London. In 1679,
he became acquainted with Charles earl of Shrewfbury’
whom he converted from Popery ; and the next year
Vefufed to fign the clergy of London’s addrefs of thanks
to King Charles II. for not agreeing to the bill of ex-
clufion of the duke of \ ork. In l68j, he vilited the
unfortunate Lord Ruffel when under, condemnation 5 and
attended him in his laft moments on the fcaffold. In
1689, he was in ft ailed dean of St Paul’s ; made clerk of
the clofet to King William and Queen Mary ; and ap¬
pointed one of the commiffioners to prepare matters to
be laid before the convocation, in order to a compre-
henfion of all Proteftants, as well dillenters as church¬
men ; but this attempt was fruftrated by the zeal of
thofe members of that body, who refufed to admit of
any alteration in things confeiledly indifferent. In 1691,
Dr f illotfon was, notwithftanding the warmeft remon-
ftrances and intreaties on his part, confecrated arehbi-
fiiop of Canterbury, and four days after was fworn one
bx the privy council j their majefties always repofing an
entire confidence in his prudence, moderation, and
integrity. In 1694, he was feized with a pally, of
which he died in the 65th year of his age. He was in¬
terred in the church of St Lawrence Jewry, London,
where a handfome monument is eretted to his memory!
This learned and pious divine, wkile living, was greatly
inveighed againfl: by the enemies of the revolution. Af¬
ter his death there was found a bundle of bitter libels
which had been publiftied againft him, on which he had
written with his own hand, “ I forgive the authors of
thefe books, and pray God that he may alfo forcrive
them.” It is remarkable, that while this truly great
man was in a private ftation, he always laid afide two-
tenths of his income for charitable ufes. One volume
in folio of Dr Tillotfon’s Jermons was, publiftied in his
life-time, and correaed by his own hand *, they were
tranflated into French by Barbeyrac. Thofe which came
. abroad after his death, from his chaplain Dr Barker
made two volumes in folio, the copy of which was fold
for 25001. This was the only legacy he left to his
family, his extenfive charity having confumed his yearly
revenues as conflantly as they came to his hands. King
William, however, gave two grants to his widow : the
hrft: of which was an annuity of 400I. during the term
of her natural life, and the fecond of 200I. as an addi¬
tion to the former annuity. Dr Tillotfon wrote fome
other works befides his Sermons j and alfo publiftied Dr
Barrow’s works, and Dr Wilkins’s Treatife of the Prin¬
ciples and Duties of Natural Religion, and a volume of
that divine’s Sermons.
TIMBER, wood fit for building, &c. See Tree
and Strength of Materials. ’
1IMBERS, the ribs of a fhip, or the incurvated
pieces, of wood, branching outward from the keel in a
vertical direaion, fo as to give ftrength, figure, and fo-
Xidity, to the whole fabric. See Ship-building, book i
chap. 11.
TIME, a fucceflion of phenomena in the univerfe
.fr a mode of duration marked By certain periods or
I He general idea which time gives in every thing to
winch it is applied, is that of limited duration. Thus
we cannot lay of the Deity, that he exiits in time: be¬
cause eternity, which he inhabits, is abfolutely uniform
neither admitting limitation nor fucceffion. See Meta!
PHYSICS, 20p.
Time, in Mujie, is an affection of found, by which
it is find to be long or (hurt, with regard to its continu-
ance in the fame tone or degree of tune.
Mufical time is diftinguifhed 'into common or duple
time, and triple time. ^
Double duple or common time, is when the notes
are in a duple duration of each other, viz. a femibreve
equal to two minims, * minim to two crotchets, a crotch¬
et to two quavers, &c.
Common or double time is of two kinds. The firfl
when every bar or meafure is equal to a femibreve, or
its value m any combination of notes of a lefs quantity,
ibe fecond is where every bar is equal to a minim, or
its value in lefs notes. The-movements of this kind of
meafure are various, but there are three common dif-
tinctions 5 the firttfow, denoted at the beginning of
the line by the mark Q 5 the fecond bri/l} marked
thus gj 5 and the third very thus marked j^.
.Triple time is when the durations of the notes are
trip e of each other, that is, when the femibreve is equal
to three minims, the minim to three crotchets, &c. and
it is marked T.
TlME-Keepers) or Injlruments for mcafuring Time.
See Clock, Dial, Watch, &c. *
Harrifon's Time-Keeper. See Harrison and Lon¬
gitude.
TIMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian general, who
reftored the Syracufans to their liberty, and drove the
Carthaginians out of Sicily. See Syracuse, N° co—
54-
TIMON the Sceptic, who is not to be confounded
with I imon the Myanthrbpe, was a Phliafian, a difciple
of Pyrrho, and lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadel-
phus. He took fo little pains to invite difciples to his
fchooi, that it has been Laid of him, that as the Scy¬
thians fhot flymg Timon gained pupils by running from
tnem. He was fond of rural retirement j and was fo
C jj-o , —7 icmcuient, ana was ]
much addifted to wine, that he had a fuccefsful conte
with feveral celebrated champions in drinking. Lik
Lucian, he wrote with farcaftic humour againft th
whole body of philofophers. The fragments of his fati
ncal poem Stilt, often quoted by the ancients, hav
been carefully colkaed by Henry Stephens in his Poefi
rnuofophica. Timon lived to the age of 90 years
1 IMON, furnamed Mifanthropos, or the Man-hater
tamous Athenian, who lived about 420 B. C. He wa
°ne day afked, why he loved the young Alcibiade
wmle he detefted all the reft of the human race > 01
which he replied, “ It ?s becaufe I forefee that he wi]
be the ruin of the Athenians.” He carefully avoide,
all torts of company ; yet went one day to an afTembl-
ot the people, and cried with a loud voice, “ That h
had a fig-tree on which feveral perfons had hange<
themfelves
. [ 439
in order
he gave
T I M
•flraon themfelves j but as he intended to cut it down,
11 to build a houfe on the place where it flood,
imotheus.them not;ce 0f any Gf them had a mind to
^ v " hang themfelves, they murt make hafte and do it fpee-
dily.” He had an epitaph engraved on his tomb, filled
with imprecations againft thofe who read it. Shake-
fpeare has formed a tragedy on his flory.
TIMOR, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indian fea,
to the fouth of the Moluccas, and to the eaft of the
illand of Java, being 150 miles in length, and 37 in
breadth. It abounds in fandal-wood, wax and honey j
and the Dutch have a fort here. The inhabitants
are Pagans, and are little better than favages ; and
fome pretend they had not the ufe of fire many years
ago.
TIMOTHEUS, one of the moft celebrated poet-mu-
ficians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city
of Caria, 446 years B. C. He was contemporary with
Philip of Macedon and Euripides j and not only ex¬
celled in lyric and dithyrambic poetry, but in his per¬
formance upon the cithara. According to Paufanias,
he perfe&ed that inftrument by the addition of four
new firings to the feven which it had before ; though
Suidas fays it had nine before, and that Timotheus only
added two, the 10th and nth, to that number. See
Lyre.
With refpeft to the number of firings upon the lyre
of Timotheus: The account of Paufanias and Suidas is
confirmed in the famous fenatus-confultum againft him,
ftill extant, preferved at full length in Boethius. Mr
Stillingfleet has given an extract from it, in proof of the
fimplicity of the ancient Spartan mufic. The fa£t is
mentioned in Athenaeus j and Cafaubon, in his notes
upon that author, has inferted the whole original text
from Boethius, with correftions. The following is a
faithful tranflation of this extraordinary Spartan aft of
parliament. “ Whereas Timotheus the Milefian, com¬
ing to our city, has dilhonoured our ancient mufic, and,
defpifing the lyre of feven firings, has, by the introduc¬
tion of a greater variety of notes, corrupted the ears of
our youth *, and by the number of his firings, and the
novelty of his melody, has given to our mufic an effe¬
minate and artificial drefs, inftead of the plain and order¬
ly one in which it has hitherto appeared *, rendering me¬
lody infamous, by compofing in the chromatic inftead of
the enharmonic : The kings and
the ephori have therefore refolved to pafs cenfure upon
Timotheus for thefe things : and, farther, to oblige him
to cut all the fuperfluous firings of his eleven, leaving
only the feven tones j and to banifh him from our city;
that men may be warned for the future not to introduce
into Sparta any unbecoming cuftom.” 
1 he fame ftory, as related in Athenaeus, has this ad¬
ditional circumftance, That when the public executioner
was on the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off'
the new firings, Timotheus, perceiving a little ftatue in
the fame place, with a lyre in his hand of as many firings
as that which had given the offence, and ftiowing it to
the judges, was acquitted.
It appears from Suidas, that the poetical and mufical
compofitions of Timotheus were very numerous, and of
various kinds. He attributes to him 19 nomes, or can¬
ticles, in hexameters j 36 proems, or preludes •, 18 dithy-
rambics ; 21 hymns j the poem in praife of Diana ; one
panegyric $ three tragedies, the Perfians, Phinidas, and
] . TIP
Laertes ; to which muft be added a fourth, mentioned Timotheus
by feveral ancient authors, called Niobe, without forget¬
ting the poem on the birth of Bacchus. Stephen of 1 lPP^rary-
Byzantium makes him author of 18 books of nomes,
or airs, for the cithara, to 8000 verfes ; and of loco
ngso/ft;<se, or preludes, for the nomes of the flutes.
iimotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas,
at the age of 97 j though the Marbles, much better au¬
thority, fay at 90 ; and Stephen of Byzantium fixes his
death in the fourth year of the 103th Olympiad, two
years before the birth of Alexander the Great j whence
it appears, that this Timotheus -was not the famous
player on the flute fo much efteemed by that prince,
who was animated to fuch a degree by his performance
as to feize his arms; and who employed him, as Athe¬
naeus informs us, together with the other great mufi-
cians of his time, at his nuptials. However, by an in¬
attention to dates, and by forgetting that of thefe two
muficians of the fame name the one was a Milefian
and the other a Theban, they have been hitherto often
confounded.
TIMUR-beck. See Tamerlane.
TIN, a metallic fubftance. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index for an account of its qualities and
ores ; and for the method of reducing its ores, fee Ores,
Redu&ion of.
1 INC AL, the name by which crude or impure borax
is fometimes known. See Borax, Chemistry Index.
TINCTURE, in Pharmacy. See Materia Me¬
dic a Index.
TIND AL, Dr Matthew, a famous Englifti writer,
was the fon of the reverend Mr John Tindal of Beer-
Ferres in Devonlhire, and wTas born about the year 1657.
He ftudied at Lincoln college in Oxford, whence he
removed to Exeter, and was afterwards elefted fellow
of All-Souls. In 1685 he took the degree of doftor
of lawr, and in the reign of James II. declared himfelf a
Roman Catholic j but foon renounced that religion.
After the revolution he publifhed feveral pamphlets in
favour of government, the liberty of the prefs, &c.
His “ Rights of the Chriftian Church afferted,” occa-
fioned his having a violent conteft with the high-
church clergy j and his treatife “ Chriftianity as old as
the Creation,” publilhed in 1730, made much noife,
and was anfwered by feveral writers, particularly by
Dr Conybeare, Mr Forfter, and Dr Leland. Dr Tin¬
dal died at London in Auguft 1733. He left in
manufeript a fecond volume of his “ Chriflianity as old
as the Creation the preface to which has been pu-
blilhed. Mr Pope has fatirized Dr Tindal in his
Dunciad.
TINDALE, William. See Tyndale.
TINNING, the covering or lining any thing W’ith
melted tin, or tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Looking-
glaffes are foliated or tinned with plates of beaten tin,
the Avhole bignefs of the glafs, applied or faftened
thereto by means of quickfilver. See FOLIATING of
Looking GlaJJes.
TINNITUS aurium, a noife in the ears like the
continued found of bells, very common in many difor-
ders, particularly in nervous fevers.
TIPPERARY, a county of the province of Munfter
in Ireland, bounded on the weft by thofe of Limerick
and Clare, on the eaft by the county of Kilkenny and
Queen’s county? on the fouth by the county of Water-
forcL.
T I R
Gou
edit, of
' Camden's
Britannia.
ford, and on the north and north-eaft by King’s-county
and the territory of the ancient O’Carols. It extends
about 52 miles in length, 27 in breadth, containing
599,500 acres, divided into 12 baronies, containing
169,000 inhabitants. It fends three members to par¬
liament, viz. two for the county, and one for Cionmell.
The north part of it is mountainous and cold ; but in the
fouth the air is milder, and the foil much more fertile, pro*
ducing plenty of corn, and good pailure for the numerous
herds of cattle and flocks of flieep with which it abounds,
The north part is called Ormond, and for a long time
gave the title of earl, and afterwards of marquis and duke,
to the noble family of Butler, defcended from a lif¬
ter of Thomas h Becket archbithop of Canterbury, till,
at the acceflion of George I. the laft duke was attaint¬
ed of higb-treafon, and died abroad. In that part of the
county, the family had great prerogatives and privileges
granted them by Edward III. Another dilfridf in this
county was anciently called the County of the Holy Crofs
of Tipperary, from a famous abbey in it ftyled Holy
Crofs, on account of a piece of Chrift’s crofs that was
faid to be preferved there. The remains of the abbey,
or rather the fpot where it flood, are ftill held in great
veneration.
TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with
a kind of ftaff tipped with filver, and takes into his
charge all prifoners who are committed or turned over at
a judge’s chambers.
TIPULA, the Crane-fly 5 a genus of infers be-
longing to the order of diptera. See ENTOMOLOGY
Index.
TIRE, in the fea language, is a row of cannon
placed along a fhip’s fide, either above upon deck, or
below, diftinguiftied by the epithets of upper and lower
tires.
TIREE, or TlREY, one of the Weftern iflands of
Scotland, 10 miles long and from one to two in breadth,
contains above 2000 inhabitants, and produces ftreep and
black cattle, with fome grain and kelp. W. Long. 6.
48. N. Lat. 56. 32.
TIROL, or Tyrol, a county of Germany in the
circle of Auftria, under which may be included the
territories belonging to the bifhops of Brixen, Trent,
and Chur, the Teutonic Order, and the prince of Dei-
trichftein, the Auftrian feigniories before the Arlberg,
and the Auftrian diftri&s in Swabia. It is 150 miles
in length, and 120 in breadth, and contains 28 large
towns.
The face of the country is very mountainous. Of
thefe mountains, fome have their tops always buried in
fnow ; others are covered with woods, abounding with
game. Of the lower, fome yield plenty of corn, ofhers
wine, and woods of chefnut trees. The valleys are ex¬
ceeding fertile alfo, and pleafant. In fome places confi-
derable quantities of flax are raifed, in others there is a
good breed of horfes and horned cattle; and, among the
mountains, abundance of chamois and wild goats.' In
this country are alfo found garnets, rubies, amethyfts,
agates, carnelians, calcedonies, malachites, &c.; nor is
it without hot baths, acid waters, fait pits, mines of fil-
yer, copper, and lead. The principal river of Tirol
is the^ Inn, which, after traverfing the country, and
receiving a number of lefler ftreams into it, enters
Bavaria, in which, at Paffau, it falls into the Danube,
E 440 }
TIT
The men here are very tall, robuft, and vigorous; the
women alfo are flout, and generally fair; and both lexes
have a mixture of the Italian and German in their tem¬
pers and charadlers. As there is little trade or manu-
fadure in the country, except what is occafioned by the
mines and fait works, many of the common people are
obliged to feek a fubfiftence elfevvhere. A particular
kind of falutation is ufed all over Tirol. When a per-
fon comes into a houle, he fays, “ Hail! Jefus Chritt:”'
the anfwer is, “ May Chrift be raifed, and the Holy
Virgin his mother.” Then the mailer of the houfe
takes the vifitor by the hand. This falutation is fixed
up in print at all the doors, with an advertifement tacked
to it, importing, that Pope Clement XL granted iocx
days indulgence, and a plenary abfolution, tothofe who.
fhould pronounce the falutation and anfvver, as often as
they did it. The emperor has forts and citadels fo ad-
vantageoufly fituated on rocks and mountains all over the
country, that they command all the valleys, avenues, and
palfes that lead unto it. The inhabitants, howe ver, to
keep them in good humour, are more gently treated,
and not fo highly taxed as thofe of the other hereditary-
countries. As to the ftates, they are much the fame in
this country as in the other Auftrian territories, except
that the peafants here fend deputies.to the diets. Tirol
came to the houfe of Auftria in the year 1363, when
Margaret, countefs thereof, bequeathed it to'her un¬
cles the GUK.es of Auftria, T he arms of Firol are an
eagle gules, in a field argent. The counts of rl rap are
hereditary ftewards; the lords of Glofz, chamberlains;
the princes of Trautfon, marftials; the counts of Wol-
kenftein, mailers of the horfe and carvers; the houfe of
Spaur, cup-bearers; the counts of Kungl, fewers and
rangers; the counts of Brandis, keepers of the jewels;
the houfe of Welfperg, purveyors and llaff-bearers; and
the counts of Coal to, falconers. Befides the governor,
here are three fovereign colleges, fubordinate to the court
at Vienna, which fit at Infpruck, and have their different
departments, lovvards the expences of the military
eftablifhment of this country, the proportion is 100,000
florins yearly ; but no more than one regiment of foot is
generally quartered in it.
Tirol is divided into fix quarters, as they are called ;
namely, thofe of the Lower and Upper Innthal, Vintf-
gow, Etch, Eifack, and Pufterthal.
r, TITAN, in fabulous hilldry, the fon of Coelus and
Terra, and the elder brother of Saturn, fuffered the latter
to enjoy the crown, on condition that he fliould bring
up none of his male iffue, by which means the crown
fliould at length revert to him; but Jupiter being fpared
by the addrefs of Rhea, Saturn’s wife, Titan and his
children were fo enraged at feeing their hopes fiVif-
trated, that they took up arms to revenge the injury;
and not only defeated Saturn, but kept him and his wife
prifoners'till he was delivered by Jupiter, who defeated
the Titans; when from the blood of thefe Titans flain
in the battle, proceeded ferpents, fcorpions, and all ve¬
nomous reptiles. See Saturn.
Such is the account given by the poets of this family
of Grecian and Roman gods. From the fragments of
Sanchoniatho, however, and other ancient writers, many
learned men have inferred that the Titans were an early
race of ambitious heroes, who laid the foundation of
■that idolatry which quiddy overfpread the world, and
that
TIT [ 441 ] TIT
Titan, that by affumlng the names of the luminaries of heaven
they contrived to get themfelves every where adored as
the Dii majorum gentium. That the word Titan ilgni-
fies the fun, there can indeed be very little doubt.
Every one knows that fuch was its fignification in the
iEolic diale6t *, and as it is evidently compounded of
77, which, in fome oriental tongues, fignifies bright or
clear, and Tan, which lignifies a country or the earth,
it may be fafely concluded that Titan was the name of
the fun before the word was imported into Greece. But
the great queftion among antiquarians is, of what coun¬
try was that race which, affuming to themfelves the
names of the heavenly bodies, introduced into the world
that fpecies of idolatry which is known by the appella¬
tion of Hero-wsrJJjip ?
M. Pezron, in a work publifhed many years ago, and
entitled The Antiquities of Nations, maintains that the
Titans were a family of Sacae or Scythians, who made
their firft appearance beyond Media and Mount Imaus,
in the upper regions of Afia •, that they were the de¬
fendants of Gomer the fon of Japheth and grandfon of
Noah ; and that after conquering a great part of the
world, upon entering Upper Phrygia, they quitted
their ancient name of Gomerians or Cimmerians, and
affiamed that of Titans. All this, he fays, happened
before the birth of Abraham and the foundation of the
Aflyrian monarchy ; and he makes Uranus, their fecond
prince in the order of fucceflion, to have conquered
Thrace, Greece, the ifland of Crete, and a great part of
Europe. Uranus was fuceeeded by Saturn, and Saturn
by Jupiter, who flourilhed, he fays, 300 years before
Mofes, and divided his vaft empire between himfelf, his
brother Pluto, and his coufin-german Atlas, who was
called Telamon. For the truth of this genealogy of the
Titans M. Pezron appeals to the moft approved Greek
hiftorians ; but unluckily for his hypothefis, thefe writers
have not a fingle fentence by which it can be fairly Sup¬
ported. It fuppofes not only the great antiquity of the
Scythians, but likewife their early progrefs in arts and
fciences, contrary to what we have proved in other ar¬
ticles of this work. See Sculpture, N° 4 and 5. and
Scythia.
Others, taking the fragment of Sanchoniatho’s Phe-
nician hiftory for their guide, have fuppofed the Titans
to have been the defcendants of Ham. Of this opinion
was Bifliop Cumberland ; and our learned friend Dr
Doig, to whom we have been indebted for greater fa¬
vours, indulged us with the perufal of a manufeript, in
which, with erudition and ingenuity ftruggling for
the pre-eminence, he traces that impious family from
the profane fon of Noah, and fliows by what means
they fpread the idolatrous worfhip of themfelves over
the greater part of the ancient world. Cronus, of
whofe exploits fome account has been given elfewhere
(fee SanchoNIATHo), he holds to be Ham 5 and tra¬
cing the progrefs of the family from Phoenicia to Cy¬
prus, from Cyprus to Rhodes, thence to Crete, and from
Crete to Samothrace, he finds reafon to conclude that
the branch called Titans or Titanides flourifhed about
the era of Abraham, with whom, or with his fon Ifaac,
he thinks the Cretan Jupiter muft have been contem¬
porary. As they proceeded from countries which were
the original feat of civilization to others in which man¬
kind had funk into the grofleft barbarifm, it was eafy
for them to perfuade the ignorant inhabitants that they
Vol. XX. Part II.
derived the arts of civil life from their parent the fun, Titan,
and in confequence of their relation to him to affume to 'Ilthe3,
themfelves divine honours. To alk how they came to '' >■"***
think of fuch grofs impiety, is a queftion as foolilh as it
■would be to afk how Flam their anceftor became fo
wicked as to entail the curfe of God upon himfelf and
his pofterity. The origin of evil is involved in dif¬
ficulties $ but leaving all inquiries into it to be profe-
cuted by the metaphyfician and moralift, it is furely
more probable that the worftrip of dead men originated
among the defcendants of Ham than among thofe of
Shem and Japheth and that the fragment of Sancho-
niatho, when giving an account of the origin of the
Titans, the undoubted authors of that worihip, is more
deferving of credit than the fabulous and comparatively
late writers of Greece and Rome.
TITHES, in ecclefiaftical law, are defined to be the
tenth part of the increafe, yearly arifing and renewing
from the profits of lands, the ftock upon lands, and the
perfonal induftryof the inhabitants: the firft fpecies be¬
ing ufually called predial, as of corn, grafs, hops, and
wood ; the fecond mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c.
confiding of natural produ£ls, but nurtured and pre-
ferved in part by the care of man j and of thefe the
tenth muft be paid in grofs; the third perfonal, as of
manual occupations, trades, fifheries, and the like j and
of thefe only the tenth-part of the clear gains and pro¬
fits is due.
We ftiall, in this article, confider, 1. The original of
the right of tithes. 2. In whom that right at prefent
fubfifts. 3. Who may be difcharged, either totally or
in part, from paying them.
I. As to their original, we will not put the title of
the clergy to tithes upon any divine right $ though fuch
a right certainly commenced, and we believe as certain¬
ly ceafed, with the Jewifti theocracy. Yet an honour¬
able and competent maintenance for the minifters of the
gofpel is undoubtedly jure divino, whatever the particu- Black/l.
lar mode of that maintenance may be. For, befides^ow«f«^
the pofitive precepts of the New Teftament, natural
reafon will tell us, that an order of men who are fepa-
rated from the world, and excluded from other lucra¬
tive profeffions for the fake of the reft of mankind, have
a right to be furniftied with the neceffaries, conve¬
niences, and moderate enjoyments of life, at their ex¬
pence $ for whofe benefit they forego the ufual means
of providing them. Accordingly all municipal laws
have provided a liberal and decent maintenance for their
national priefts or clergy ; ours, in particular, have e-
ftabliftied this of tithes, probably in imitation of the
Jewifti law : and perhaps, confidering the degenerate
ftate of the world in general, it may be more beneficial
to the Englifti clergy to found their title on the law of
the land, than upon any divine right whatfoever, unac¬
knowledged and unfupported by temporal fan&ions.
We cannot precifely afcertain the time when tithes
were firft introduced into this country. Poflibly they
were contemporary with the planting of Chriftianity
among the Saxons by Auguftin the monk, about the
end of the fixth century. But the firft mention of them
which we have met with in any written Englifti law,
is a conftitutional decree, made in a fynod held A. D.
786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is ftrong-
ly enioined. This canon or decree, which at firft
bound not the laity, was effe£lually confirmed by two
3 K kingdoms
TIT C 442 ] TIT
kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary con¬
ventions of eftates, refpeftively confiding of the kings of
Mercia and Northumberland, the bifhops, dukes, fena-
tors, and people. Which was a few years later than the
time that Charlemagne eftabliflied the payment of them
in France, and made that famous divifion of them into
four parts j one to maintain the edifice of the church,
the fecond to fupport the poor, the third the bilhop, and
the fourth the parochial clergy.
The next authentic mention of them is in the fcedus
Edwardi et Guthruni; or the laws agreed upon between
King Guthrun the Dane, and Alfred and his fon Ed¬
ward the Elder, fuccefiive kings of England, about the
year 900. This was a kind of treaty between thofe
monarchs, which may be found at large in the Anglo-
Saxon laws: wherein it was necefiary, as Guthrun was
a Pagan, to provide for the fubfillence of the Chridian
clergy under his dominion ; and accordingly, we find
the payment of tithes not only enjoined, but a penalty
added upon non-obfervance : which law is feconded by
the laws of Athelftan, about the year 930. And this is
as much as can certainly be traced out with regard to
their legal original.
2. We are next to confider the perfons to whom
tithes are due. Upon their firft introduction, though
every man was obliged to pay tithes in general, yet he
might give them to what priefts he pleafed ; which
were called arbitrary confecrations of tithes ; or he might
pay them into the hands of the bilhop, who diftributed
among his diocefan clergy the revenues of the church,
which were then in common. But when diocefes were
divided into parilhes, the tithes of each parilh were al¬
lotted to its own particular minifter; firff by common
confent or the appointments of lords of manors, and
afterwards by the written law of the land.
Arbitrary confecrations of tithes took place again
afterwards, and w^ere in general ufe till the time of
King John. This was probably owing to the intrigues
of the regular clergy, or monks of the BenediCline and
other orders, under Archbilhop Dunftan and his fuccef-
fors; who endeavoured to wean the people from pay¬
ing their dues to the fecular or parochial clergy (a
much more valuable fet of men than themfelves), and
were then in hopes to have drawn, by fanClimonious
pretences to extraordinary purity of life, all ecclefiafti-
cal profits to the coffers of their own focieties. And
this will naturally enough account for the number and
riches of the monafteries and religious houfes which
were founded in thofe days, and which were frequently
endowed with tithes. For a layman, who was obliged
to pay his tithes fomewhere, might think it good policy
to ereCf an abbey, and there pay them to his own
monks, or grant them to fome abbey already ereCled ;
fince for this donation, which really coft the patron lit¬
tle or nothing, he might, according to the fuperftition
«f the times, have maffes for ever fung for his foul.
But in procefs of years, the income of the poor laborious
parifh-priefts being fcandaloufly reduced by thefe ar¬
bitrary confecrations of tithes, it was remedied by Pope
Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a decretal epifile
fent to the archbifhop of Canterbury, and dated from
the palace of Lateran: which has occafioned Sir Henry
Hobart and others to miftake it for a decree of the coun¬
cil of Lateran, held A. D. 1179, which only prohibit¬
ed what wascalled the infeodation of tithes^ or their be¬
ing granted to mere laymen; whereas this letter of Tithaj.
Pope Innocent to the archbilhop enjoined the payment
of tithes to the parfons of the refpeftive parifhes where
every man inhabited, agreeable to what was afterwards
direfted by the fame pope in other countries. This
epillle, fays Sir Edward Coke, bound not the lay fub-
je&s of this realm ; but being reafonable and juft, it
was allowed of, and fo became lex terrce. This put an
effectual flop to all the arbitrary confecrations of tithes j
except fome footfteps which ftill continue in thofe por¬
tions of tithes which theparfon of one parifh hath, though
rarely, a right to claim in another : for it is nowuniver-
fallyheld, that tithes are due, of common right, to the par-
fon of theparilh, unlefs there be afpecialexemption. This
parfon of the parifh may be either the a&ual incumbent,
or elfe the appropriator of the benefice •, appropriations
being a method of endowing monafteries, which feems
to have been devifed by the regular clergy, by w'ay of
fubftitution to arbitrary confecrations of tithes. '
3. We obferved that tithes are due of common right
to the parfon, unlefs by fpecial exemption j let us there¬
fore, fee thirdly, who may be exempted from the pay¬
ment of tithes, and how lands and their occupiers may
be exempted or difcharged from the payment of tithes,
either in part or totally j firft, by a real compofition j
or, fecondly, by cuftom or prefeription.
Firf, A real compofition is when an agreement is
made between the owner of the lands and the parfon or
vicar, with the confent of the ordinary and the patron,
that fuch lands fhall for the future be difcharged from
payment of tithes, by reafon of fome land or other real
recompenfe given to the parfon in lieu and fatisfaftion
thereof. This was permitted by law, becaufe it was
fuppofed that the clergy would be no lofers by fuch.
compofition ; fince the confent of the ordinary, whofe
duty it is to take care of the church in general, and of
the patron, whofe intereft it is to proteft that particular
church, were both made neceffary to render the com¬
pofition effeftual: and hence have arifen all fuch com-
pofitions as exift at this day by force of the common
law. But experience fhowing that even this caution
was ineffectual, and the poffeffions of the church being
by this and other means every day diminiftied, the dif-
abling ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. was made j which pre¬
vents among other fpiritual perfons, all parfons and vi¬
cars from making any conveyances of the eftates of their
churches, other than for three lives of 21 years. So
that now, by virtue of this ftatute, no real compofition,
made fince the 13 Eliz. is good for any longer term
than three lives or 21 years, though made by confent
of the patron and ordinary : which has indeed effectu¬
ally demolilhed this kind of traffic j fuch compofitions
being now rarely heard of, unlefs by authority of par¬
liament.
Secondly, a difeharge by cuftom or prefeription, is
where time out of mind fuch perfons or fuch lands have
been either partially or totally difcharged from the pay¬
ment of tithes. And this immemorial ufage is binding
upon all parties j as it is in its nature an evidence of uni-
verfal confent and acquiefcence, and with reafon fup-
pofes a real compofition to have been formerly made.
This cuftom or prefeription is either de modo decimandir
or de non decitnando.
A modus decimandi, commonly called by the fimple
name of a modus only, is where there is by cuftom a
particular
TIT
[ 443 ]
T I T
Tithes, particular manner of tithing allowed, different from the
general law of taking tithes in kind, which are the
actual tenth-part of the annual increafe. This is fome-
times a pecuniary compenfation, as twopence an acre
for the tithe of land ■: fometimes it is a compenfation in
work and labour, as that the parfon (hall have only the
twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in confideration
of the owner’s making it for him : fometimes, in lieu of
a large quantity of crude or imperfeft tithe, the parfon
(hall have a lefs quantity when arrived at greater ma¬
turity, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe-eggs, and
the like. Any means, in (hort, whereby the general
law of tithing is altered, and a new method of taking
them is introduced, is called a modus decimandi, or fpe-
cial manner of tithing.
A prefcription de non decimando is a claim to be en¬
tirely difcharged of tithes, and to pay no compenfation
in lieu of them. Thus the king by his prerogative is
difcharged from all tithes. So a vicar (hall pay no tithes
to the re&or, nor the reftor to the vicar, for ecclejia de-
eimas non fohit ecclejice. But thefe perfonal privileges
(not ariling from or being annexed to the land) are per*
fonally confined to both the king and the clergy ; for
their tenant or leffee (hall pay tithes, though in their
own occupation their lands are not generally tithable.
And, generally fpeaking, it is an eftabliftied rule, that
in lay hands, modus de non decimando non valet. But
fpiritual perfons or corporations, as monalleries, abbots,
biftiops, and the like, were always capable of having
their lands totally difcharged of tithes by various ways :
as, i. By real compofition, 2. By the pope’s bull of
•xemption. 3. By unity of poffeflion \ as when the
reftory of a parifh, and lands in the fame parifii, both
belonged to a religious houfe, thofe lands were difchar¬
ged of tithes by this unity of poffeflion. 4. By pre¬
fcription ; having never been liable to tithes, by being
always in fpiritual hands. 5. By virtue of their order ;
as the Knights Templars, Ciftercians, and others, whofe
lands were privileged by the pope with a difcharge of
tithes. Though, upon the diffolution of abbeys by
Henry VIII. moft of thefe exemptions from tithes
would have fallen with them, and the lands become
tithable again, had they not been fupported and upheld
by the ftatute 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. which ena&s, that
all perfons who fhould come to the poffefiion of the
lands of any abbey then diffolved, (liould hold them free
and difcharged of tithes, in as large and ample a man¬
ner as the abbeys themfelves formerly held them. And
from this original have fprung all the lands which be¬
ing in lay hands, do at prefent claim to be tithe-free:
for if a man can (how his lands to have been fucli ab¬
bey-lands, and alfo immemorially difcharged of tithes
by any of the means before mentioned, this is now a
good prefcription de non deciniando. But he muft (how
both thefe requifites : for abbey-lands, without a fpecial
ground of difcharge, are not difcharged of courfe ;
neither will any prefcription de non decimando avail
in total difcharge of tithes, unlefs it relates to fuch ab¬
bey-lands.
It is univerfally acknowledged that the payment of
tithes in kind is a great dilcouragement to agriculture.
They are inconvenient and vexatious to the hufband-
*nan, and operate as an impolitic tax upon induftry.
The clergvman, too, frequently finds them troublefome
and precarious j his expences in coliefling are a confi-
Tithe*
Titian.
derable drawback from their value, and his juft rights
are with difficulty fecured ; he is too often obliged to
fubmit to impofition, or is embroiled with his parifhion-
ers in difputes and litigations, no lefs irkfome to his feel¬
ings than prejudicial to his intereft, and tending to pre¬
vent thofe good effedls which his precepts (liould pro¬
duce. It is therefore of the utmoft importance to pa¬
rochial tranquillity, and even to religion, that fome juft
and reafonable ftandard of compofition could be fixed.
Land has been propofed, but in the prefent (late of the
divifion of property this is impoflible : and as money is
continually changing in its value, it would alfo be a
very improper ftandard, unlefs fome plan could be form¬
ed by which the compofition could be increafed as the
value of money diminifhes. A plan of this kind has
been publifhed in the Tranfadlions of the Society infti-
tuted at Bath, vol. iv. which thofe who are interefted
in this fubjeft may confult for farther information.
TITHING, (Tithinga, from the Sax. Theothungt%
i. e. Decuriam), a number or company of ten men, with
their families, knit together in a kind of fociety, and all
bound to the king, for the peaceable behaviour of each
other. Anciently no man was fuffered to abide in Eng¬
land above forty days, unlefs he were enrolled in fome
tithing.—One of the principal inhabitants of the tithing
was annually appointed to prefide over the reft, being
called the tithing-man, the head-borough, and in fome
countries the borfeholder, or borough’s ealder, being
fuppofed the difcreeteft man in the borough, town, or
tithing. The diftribution of England into tithings
and hundreds is owing to King Alfred. See Borse-
HOLBER.
TITIANO Vecelli, or Titian, the moft univer-
fal genius for painting of all the Lombard-fchool, the
beft colourift of all the moderns, and the moft eminent Pilkihx-
for hiftories, portraits, and landfcapes, wras born at Ca-?®W’J'
dore, in the province of Friuli, in the (fate of Venice, ^inten!
in 1477, or in 1480 according to Vafari and Sandrart.
His parents fent him at ten years of age to one of his
uncles' at Venice, who finding that he had an inclina¬
tion to painting, put him to the fchool of Giovanni Bel-
iino.
But as foon as Titian had feen the works of Giorgi¬
one, whofe manner appeared to him abundantly more
elegant, and lefs conftrained than that of Bellino, he
determined to quite the ftyle to which he had fo long
been accuftomed, and to purfue the other that recom¬
mended itfelf to him, by having more force, more re¬
lief, more nature, and more truth. Some authors affirm,
that he placed himfelf as a difciple with Giorgione ; yet
others only fay, that he cultivated an intimacy with
him ; but it is undoubtedly certain that he ftudied with
that great mafter j that he learned his method of blend¬
ing and uniting the colours *, and praftifed his manner
fo effedfually, that feveral of the paintings of Titian
were taken for the performances of Giorgione ; and
then his fupcefs infpired that artift with an invincible
jealoufy of Titian, which broke off their connexion for
ever after.
The reputation of Titian rofe continually ; every new
work contributed to extend his fame through all Eu¬
rope 5 and he was confidered as the principal ornament
of the age in which he flourifhed. And yet, Sandrart ob-
ferves that amidft all hisapplaufe andeonftantemployment
at Venice, his income and fortune were inconfiderable j
3 K 2 and
TIT [ 444 1 TIT
and he was more remarkable for the extenfivenefs of his
talents, than for the affluence of his circumftances. But
when his merit was made known to the emperor Chas. V.
that monarch knew how to fet a juft value on his fupe-
rior abilities •, he enriched him by repeated bounties,
allowed him a confiderable penfion, conferred on him
the honour of knighthood, and, what was ft ill more,
honoured him with his friendship. He painted the por¬
trait of that benefa&or fcveral times 5 and it is record¬
ed by Sandrart, that one day, while the emperor was
fitting for his picture, a pencil happening to drop from
the painter, he ftooped, took it up, and returned it j
obligingly anfwering to the modeft apology of the artift
(who blufhed at the condefcenfion of fo great a mo¬
narch), that the merit of a Titian was worthy of the
attendance of an emperor.
I he excellence of Titian was not fo remarkably ap¬
parent in the hiftorical compofitions which he painted as
in his portraits and landfcapes, which feem to be fupe-
rior to all competition ; and even to this day, many of
them preferve their original beauty, being as much the
admiration of the prefent age as they have defervedly
been of the ages paft.—It is obferved of Titian by mod:
writers, that in the different periods of his life he had
four different manners 5 onerefembling hisfirft inftruftor
Bellino, which was fomewhat ftiff; another, in imita¬
tion of Giorgione, more bold, and full of force j his
third manner was the refult of experience, knowledge,
and judgment, beautifully natural, and finilhed with
exquifite care, which manner was peculiarly his own $
and in thofe pi&ures which he painted between the years
of approaching old age and his death may be noticed
his fourth manner. His portraits were very differently
finiftied in his early, and in his latter time, according
to the teftimony of Sandrart. At firft he laboured his
pictures highly, and gave them a poliffled beauty and
luftre, fo as to produce their effe<ft full as well when they
were examined clofely as when viewed at a diftance ;
but afterwards, he fo managed his penciling, that their
greateft force and beauty appeared at a more remote
view, and they pleafed lefs when they were beheld more
nearly. So that many of thofe artifts who ftudied to
imitate him,, being mifled by appearances which they
did not fufficiently confider, have imagined that Titian
executed his work with readinefs and a mafterly rapidi¬
ty 5 and concluded that they fhould imitate his manner
moft effe£lually by a freedom of hand and a bold pen¬
cil : Whereas in reality, Titian took abundance of pains
to work up his piftures to fo high a degree of perfec¬
tion , and the freedom that appears in the handling was
entirely effeSed by a Ikilful combination of labour and
judgment.
It cannot be truly affirmed, that Titian equalled the
great maffers of the Roman fchool in defign $ but he al¬
ways took care to difpofe his figures infuch attitudes as
Ihowed the moft beautiful parts of the body. His tafte
in defigning men was not generally focorredt or elegant
as it appeared in his boys and female figures ’r but his
colouring had all the look of real fleftr, his figures
breathe. He was not fo bold as Giorgione, but in
tendernefs and delicacy he proved himfelf much fuperior
to him and all other artifts.. The expreffion of the paf-
lions was not his excellence, though even in that refpedl
many of his figures merited the jufteft commendation 5
but he always gave hb figures an air of eafe and digni¬
ty. His landfcapes are univerfally allowed to be un¬
equalled, whether we confider the forms of his trees, the
grand ideas of nature which appear in his fcenery, or
his diftances which agreeably delude and delight the
eye of every obferver j and they are executed with a
light, tender, and mellow pencil. He learned from
nature the harmony of colours, and his tints feem afton-
ifiling, not only for their force, but their fweetnefs ; and
in that refpeft his colouring is accounted the ftandard of
excellence to ail proftffors of the art.
It would prove almoft an endlefs tafk to enumerate
the variety of works executed by this illuftrious artift,
at Rome, Venice, Bologna, and Florence, as well as
thofe which are to be ieen in other cities of Italy, in
England., Spain, Germany, and France j but there are
two, which are mentioned as being truly admirable.
One is, a Fail Supper, preferved in the refe&ory at the
Efcnrial in Spain, which is inimitably fine j the other
is at Milan, reprefenting Chrift crowned with thorns.
The principal figure in the latter has an attitude full of
grace and dignity more than mortal, and the counte¬
nance (hows a benevolence and humility, combined
with dignity and pain, which no pencil but that of Ti¬
tian could fo feelingly have defcribed. It is admirably
coloured, and tenderly and delicately penciled ; the
heads are wonderfully beautiful, the compofition excel¬
lent, and the whole has a charming effetff by the chiaro-
fcuro.
He was of fo happy a conftitution, that he was
never ill till the year 1576, when he died of the
plague, at 99 years of age. His difciples were Paulo
Veronefe, Giacomo Tintoret, Giacomo de Porte Baffa-
no, and his fons.
TITLARK. See Alauda, Ornithology/^a*.
TITLE, an appellation of dignity or rank given to
princes and perfons of diftin<ffion.
Titles were not fo common among the ancient Greeks
or Romans as they are in modern times. Till the reign
of Conftantine the title of lllujlrious was never given
except to thofe who were diftinguifhed in arms or let¬
ters : But at length it became hereditary in the families
of princes, and every fon of a prince was illuftrious.
The title of Highnefs was formerly given only to kings.
The kings of England before the reign of Henry VIII.
were addreffed by the title of your Grace. That mo¬
narch firft affumed the title of Highnefs, and afterwards
that of Majefy. The title of majefty was firft given
him by Francis I. in their interview in 1520. Charles
V. was the firft king of Spain who affumed the fame
title.
Princes, nobles, and clergy, generally have one title
derived from their territories and eftates, and another
derived from their rank or from fome other remarkable
circumftance. The pope is called the Bifhop of Rome,
and has the title of Holinefs. A cardinal has his name
generally from fome church, and is faluted by the name
of Eminent, ox mof Eminent. An archbiftiop, befides
being named from his diocefe, is called his Grace and
mof Reverend: a bilhop is alfo diftinguiflied by the
name of his diocefe, and has the title of his Lordfiip
and right Reverend. Inferior clergymen are denomi¬
nated Reverend.
The titles of crowned heads derived from their domi¬
nions it is unneceffary to mention. It will be fufficient
to mention thofe by which they are addreffed. To an
emperor
T O B [ 445 ] . T O B
Title
Tobacco.
emperor is given tlie title of Imperial Majejly; lo kings,
that of MajeJhj ; to the princes of Great Britain, Royal
Highnefs ; to thofe of Spain, Infant; to eleftors, Elec¬
toral Highnefs ; to the grand duke of Tufcany, Mojl
Serene Highnefs; to the other princes of Italy and Ger¬
many, Highnefs ; to the doge of \ enice, Mojl Serene
Prince ; to the grand-mader of Malta, Eminence; to
nuncios and ambaffadors of crowned heads, Excellency ;
to dukes, Grace ; to marquifes, earls, and barons, Lord-
Jhip‘ . .
The emperor of China, among his titles, takes that
of Tien Su, “ Son of Heaven.” The Orientals, it is
obferved, are exceedingly fond of titles j the fimple go¬
vernor of Schiras, for inftance, after a pompous enume¬
ration of qualities, lordihips, &c. adds the titles of
Flower of Courtefy, Nutmeg of Conflation, and Rofe of
Delight,
Title, in denotes any right which a perlon
has to the poffeflion of a thing, or an authentic inllru-
ment whereby he can prove his right. See the articles
Right, Property, &c.
TITLE to the Crown in the Britifh Confitution. See
Succession.
TITMOUSE. See Parus, Ornithology Index.
TITULAR, denotes a perfon inverted with a title, in
virtue of which he holds an office or benefice, whether
he performs the funftions thereof or not.
TITUS Vespasianits, the Roman emperor, the fon
of Vefpafian •, of whom it is related, that not being able
to recollefl any remarkable good a&ion he had done on
a certain day, he exclaimed, “ I have loft a day !” He
might truly be called the father of his people; and
though Rome laboured under various public calamities
during his reign, fuch was his equitable and mild admi-
niftration, that he conftantly preferved his popularity.
He was a great lover of learning, and compofed feveral
poems. He reigned but two years ; and it is thought
Domitian his brother poifoned him, A. D. 8l. aged 41.
See (JHiflory of') Rome.
TIVIOT hills. See Cheviot.
TIVOLI, the modern name of TlBUR.
TOAD. See Rana, Erpetology Index.
TOAD-Fifh. See Lophius, Ichthyology Index.
Toab-FIux. See Antirrhinum, Botany Index.
TOAD-Stone, an argillaceous ftone. See Geology.
TOBACCO. See Nicotiana, Botany Index,
and Snuff.
Tobacco-Pipe-Fifh. See Fistularia, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
TOEACCO-Pipes, Manufacture of. The art of making
tobacco-pipes, or, as it is commonly called, pipe-making,
though one of the fimpleft fpecies of pottery, is fufficient-
ly curious to merit defeription in a didlionary of arts
and fciences.
The procefs of pipe-making may be divided into
fix ft ages •, viz. 1. Beating or preparing the clay j 2.
Rolling ; 3. Moulding j 4. Trimming ; 5. Drying 5 and,
6. Burning.
Preparation of the Clay.—The fine white clay em¬
ployed by the pipe-makers, is dug from the quarries in
maffes of about a cubic foot each. Before it can be
ufed in the manufacture of tobacco-pipes, it muft be re¬
duced to the confiftence of a tough pafte. lo effe£t
this, after its outer furface has been cleared from dirt
ojc dull, it is broken into fmall pieces about as large as
4-:
a goofe’s egg, and thrown into a tub with fuch a quan- tubacca.
tity of foft water as experience has (hewn to be fuffi- /•—~
cient to bring it to the proper confiftence. After lying
till it has foaked up all the water, which ufually re¬
quires from 12 to 24 hours, it is taken from the tub and
laid on a thick ftrong wooden bench. Here it is beat¬
en by a heavy four-fquare iron inftrument, in fuch a
manner as to cut it from one end to the other into very
thin llices. It requires confiderable addrefs to perform
this operation, and it is furprifing how thin the work¬
men will fometimes cut the llices, and how' equally
they will thus divide the clay. This beating is con¬
tinued, alternately folding up the clay and Hieing it,
till the whole is perfe&ly fmooth. It is then ready for
xolling.
Rolling.-—The operation of rolling reduces the clay
into pieces of a proper fize and length for making pipes,
and almoft to the proper form. The roller fits at a
bench with a fmooth board before him, and holds in
his hand another fmooth board about 18 inches long,
four broad, and about half an inch thick, having one
end rounded off on one fide, fo as to produce a corre-
fponding hollow in the clay. He now takes a piece of
the beaten clay, and rolls it out, firft with his hands*
and then with the board, till it acquire the form of a
long (lender cylinder, with one end confiderably larger
than the reft. This large end is to form the bole, and
the cylinder the (hank of the future pipe. The pieces
of clay thus formed are laid befide each other on a flat
board, and are now ready for moulding.
Moulding.—This is the moft complex operation, and
requires the greateft number of inftruments. The prin¬
cipal of thefe is the mould, which is compofed of two
long pieces of iron, formed fo as to join together, and
having their correfponding fides cut into the ftiape of
half a tobacco pipe, each piece being hollowed fo as to
form half a flender cylinder, with a larger cavity at the
upper end, and at fuch an angle as it is intended the
bole of the pipe (hall make with the ffiank. Juft above
that part of each fide of the mould which ftands be¬
yond what is intended to form the bole, there is a notch
fbr admitting a knife to cut off the fuperfluous clay.
To receive the united mould there L a vice, having
at one end two upright pofts, between which moves a
long lever, and to this lever, near the pofts, there is
loofely attached a piece of iron ending below in a fmooth
conical head, capable of entering the large opening of
the mould, but rather fmaller than the opening, lo as
that when forced down into it, a fufficient thicknefs of
clay may be left between the cone and the fides of the
mould, to form the bole of the pipe. One fide of this
vice is fixed, and the other moveable, towards the form¬
er. The moveable fide has attached to it an iron ferew
with a very long lever as its handle, fo that by turning
the ferevv one way or the other, the moveable fide of
the vice may be forced nearer the fixed fide, or fuffered
to return to its original pofition.
Befides thefe principal inftruments, the moulder re¬
quires a flender fteel wire, fixed in a handle at one end,
and having its other extremity formed into a very fmall
head j a faucer containing wool well impregnated with
oil, and a fmall woollen or cotton brufh.
When about to mould his pipes, he lays hold of the
ftiank of one of the rolled pieces, and with great dexte¬
rity, which practice alone can teach, he paffes up the
tiiledd
Tobacco.
T O B [ 446
< . oiled wire through Its whole length, till he finds It ar¬
rived at the commencement of the larger extremity of
the clay. This extremity he then bends to the proper
angle, and having oiled the infide of each part of his
mould, he lays the piece of clay with the wire in it, in¬
to one part of the mould, and covers it with the other.
He now puts the mould containing the clay into the
vice, and with the left hand turning round the handle
of the lerew, fo as to fix the mould firmly within the
vice, he, with the right hand, prelles down the lever with
its conical head, and thus forms the cavity of the bole.
He now withdraws the mould, cuts off with his knife
the fuperfluous clay from the bole, opens the mould,
takes out the pipe, and now only withdraws the wire.
He then lays the moulded pipe on a flat board, in the
fame manner as the rolled pieces before defcribed. The
pipes thus moulded require to be trimmed, that is, to
have the prominences arifing from the joining of the
mould, and other fuperfluous pieces of clay taken off,
fo as to render the furface fmooth and round.
1 rimming.—The operation of trimming is generally
performed by boys and girls, as it requires very little
ikill. The trimmer has before him a fmooth block of
wood, about the length of the pipe, and of confiderable
thicknefs, elevated a little at the remote end. He has
alfo a thick piece of fmooth iron, one edge of which
has acrofs it two or more femicylindrical grooves, capa¬
ble of receiving half the fhank of a pipe. Taking one
of the rough moulded pipes, the trimmer carefully paffes
up the hollow of the ftiank, a wire fimilar to that em¬
ployed in moulding, and holding the pipe by the bole,
while the fhank lies before him on the wooden block,
he pares off with a blunt knife all the excrefcences of
clay, both from the fhank and bole, and rubs the for-
mer, while lying on the block, with the grooved part
of hxs iron, fo as to render it as fmooth as poflible. He
now cuts off the ragged piece at the extremity of the
fhank, withdraws the wire, and lays the pipe on the
drying frame. One great objed of the trimmer is, to
fee that the pipe is completely perforated, which hedif-
covers by blowing through it; and if he finds the hole
chokwl up, he muft open it by puffing the wire as far
as poffible. If this does not fucceed, he breaks the pipe
as ufelefs. r i
Drying.-—The pipe has now received all the work
that can be bellowed on it by the maker, previous to its
being burned; but as the expofing of it to heat, while
loft and pliable, would make it crack, it is neceffary
that it be properly dried. For this purpofe, a frame is
prepared, compofed of three or four long pieces of
wood, fattened to two end pieces in fuch a manner, as
diat the middle of the frame ffall be the loweft, to give
the ffanks of the pipes that curve which they generally
poffefs After being trimmed, the pipes are laid befide
each other in this concave frame, with their boles hang¬
ing down over the edges of the frame, and their (hanks
bending within its hollow. In this pofition they are ex-
poitd to the air till they are dry and firm. They are
then ready for burning* or baking.
Burning. -For burning or baking the pipes, there is
to be prepared a kiln of a fimple but peculiar conftrue-
tion. It is built in the form of a cylinder, clofe at the
bottom and on the fides, and open at the top. Below
the bottom is a grate for receiving the fuel, and round
t le Tides are eonttruaed vertical or fpiral flues, opening
3
1
toe
*yhe *°P’ fanf communicating below with the grate. Tobacco
le Tides of the furnace on its interior are pretty thin r^ag0
and are formed of a cement compofed of clay mixed ^
with freff cow dung. In the middle of the cavity t
placed a pedeftal compofed of the fame materials for
the pipes to lean againft. When the pipes are fuffi.
ciently dried, they are arranged round this pedeftal
retting againft it, and againft each other, with their
boles next the bottom of the furnace. They are thus
placed in fucceflive layers, till the furnace befufficiently
full, when the open fpace at top is filled up with bricks
placed over each other, fo as to leave interftices for the
free circulation of the air, and of the fmoke and flame
which iflue through the flues. In thefe interftices are
laid feveral pieces of broken dried pipes, to ferve as py
rometers for afcertaining the ftate of the included pipes
during the burning. The fire is now lighted, and kept
up till, on examining the pieces of clay laid in the in¬
terftices of the bricks, it is concluded that the pipes
within the furnace are fufficiently baked. The fire is
then fuffered to go out, and the whole to cool till the
next day, when the bricks are taken down, the pipes
removed, and packed in barrels for fale.
After being burnt, the pipes are fometimes glazed,
which is done by rubbing them, while warm, with flan-
nel and a little white wax. In fome places the extre¬
mities of the ffanks are rendered fmooth by dipping
them before burning in the ordinary potters glazing-
winch prevents that adhefion to the lips fo unpleafant in
new unglazed pipes.
10^4G.°» one 0** t^ie Caribbee iflands, ceded to
Great Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763, taken by
the French in 1781, and retaken by the Britiff in
^93. t lies in the latitude of j 1 degrees 10 minutes
north, and 59 degrees 40 minutes longitude weft from
London, about 40 leagues fouth-by-weft from Barba-
^oes* 35 fouth-eaft from St Vincents, 20 fouth-eaft
from Grenada 12 north-eaft from the Spaniff ifland of
1 nnidada, and between 30 and 40 north-eaft from the
Spanifh mam. According to the lateft accounts, it is
iomewhat more than 30 miles in length from north-eaft
to foutb-weft, between 8 and 9 in breadth, and from 23
to 25 leagues in circumference. The Engliff vifited
this ifland very early, Sir Robert Dudley being there in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In that of Charles I.
William earl of Pembroke procured a grant of this,
with two other fmall iflands; but died before he was able
to carry into execution his defign of fettling them. In
A. D. 1632 fome merchants of Zealand fent over a
fmall colony thither, and gave it the name of New Wal-
c'^ren ; but before they were able thoroughly to efta-
bhff themfelves, they were deflroyed by the Indians af-
ftfted by the Spaniards. Ten years after, James duke
of Courland fent a colony thither, who fettled them-
elves upon Great Courland bay, and made a confider-
able progrefs in planting. A. D. 1654, Meffieurs A-
r T?1? A- ^0^.nelms Lampfius, two opulent merchants
of fluffing, fent a confiderable number of people thi¬
ther who fettled on the other fide of the ifland, and
lived in amity with the Courlanders, until they learned
that the king of Sweden had feized the perfon of their
duke and difpoffeffed him of his dominions, when they
attacked and forced his fubjefts to fubmit. The duke
being afterwards reftored, he obtained from Charles II.
a grant of this ifland, dated the j 7th of November
1664.
4
T O B L 447 3 T O K
lbaff0( ,664. In the fecond Dutch war the count d’Eftrees,
boliki. by order of his mafter, totally ruined it at the clofe of
■V—'the year 1677 and from that time it continued wafte
till Britain took poflfeflion of it after the treaty of Paris.
The climate, notwithilanding its vicinity to the line, is
fo tempered by the breezes from the fea, as to be very
fupportable even to Europeans $ and hath the fame ad¬
vantages with that of Grenada, in having regular fea-
fons, and alfo in being exempt from the hurricanes.
There fire throughout the ifland many rifing grounds,
though, except at the north-eaft extremity, there is no
part of it that can be ftyled mountainous j and even
there the country is far from being rugged or impaflable.
The foil, if we may credit either Dutch or French wri¬
ters, is as fertile and luxuriant as any of the iflands,
and very finely diverfified. Ground provifions of all
forts have been raifed in great plenty, a vaft variety of
vegetables, excellent in their kind, feme for food, fome
fer phyfic. Almolt every fpecies of ufeful timber is to
be found here, and fome of an enormous fize j amongft
others, the true cinnamon and nutmeg tree, as the
Dutch confefs, and of which none could be better
judges*, whole groves of faffafras, and of trees that bear
the true gum copal, with other odoriferous plants that
render the air wholefome and pleafant. It is as well
watered as can be wilhed by rivers that fall into the
fea on both fides, many fmaller dreams, and fine freth
fprings in almoft every part of the ifland. The fea-
coaft is indented by 10 or 12 fair and fpacious bays,
and there are amongft thefe one or two ports capable
of receiving as large ftiips as ever vifited thofe feas.
There are wild hogs in great plenty, abundance of.
fowls of different kinds, and a vaft variety of fea and
river filh. At the north-eaft extremity lies little To¬
bago, which is two miles long, and about half a mile
broad, very capable of improvement.
TOBOLSKI, the capital of Siberia, is fituated at
the confluence of the rivers Tobol and Irtilh, in N. Lat.
58° 12', E. Long. 68° 18'. The city ftands upon the
afcent of a high hill, the lower part of which is inha¬
bited by Mahometan Tartars, who carry on a confider-
able traffic upon the river Irtiffi, and convey their mer-
chandife quite acrofs Great Tartary, as far as China.
The river Irtifli is reckoned as rapid as the Danube j
runs from the fouth, and empties itfelf into the Oby :
the Tobol waffies the other fide of the town, and a lit¬
tle below it falls into the Irtifti. By means of thefe
two rivers, there is a conftant flow of merchandife into
the city during the fummer feafon. ToboUki is there¬
fore a great mart for the commodities of Mufcovy, Tar¬
tary, and other countries: and here is a great concourfe
of merchants. All forts of provifions are plentiful and
cheap. An hundred weight of rice is fold for 16 co-
pecs, equal to about eightpence fterling j a fturgeon
weighing 40 pounds, for half that money j an ox for
two rix-dollars, and every other article in proportion.
The adjacent country abounds with game in great va¬
riety. The fupreme court of judicature for all Siberia
is held in this city, which is alfo the feat of a metropo¬
litan, fent hither from Mofcow to exercife fpiritual ju-
rifdicftion over the whole kingdom. Tobollki is well
fortified, and defended by a ftrong garrifon, under the
command of the waiwode, w’ho refides in the place, and
takes charge of the fur tribute, which is here depofited
in proper magazines. This governor enjoys a very ex-
tenfive command, and can occafionaliy bring into the ToboiikT
field 9000 men, befides a ftrong body of Tartars on U
horfeback, to make head againft the Kalmucks and wine!.
Coffacks, in their repeated incurfions. A fufficient num- v
ber of Ruffians, called Jcmfkoiks, are kept in continual
pay by the government, on the banks of the Irtiffi, to
iupply travellers on the czar’s account with men, boats,
or carriages, to convey them as far as Surgut on the
Oby, a voyage of 200 leagues by water. This is the
common method of travelling in the fummer ; but in
winter the journey by land is not half fo long, being,
performed in fleds over the ice and fnow, with which
the country is covered. Thefe fleds are moved by a pair
of dogs, which will draw a load of 300 pounds with
furprifing expedition. They are hired at eafy rates,
and during one half of the year may be feen flying over
the fnow in great numbers. The city is fuppofed to
contain 15,000 inhabitants. It is 800 miles eaft from
Mofcow, and 1000 from Peterffiurgh.
TODDA Panna. See Cycas, Botany Index.
TODDY, a name given to the juice of the cocoa-
nut tree. See Arack.—Toddy is alfo a name given to
a mixture of fpirits, water, and fugar.
TonDr-Bird. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
TODUS, the Tody $ a genus of birds belonging to
the order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woollen gown
or mantle, which feems to have been of a femicircular
form, without fleeves ; differing both in richnefs and
largenefs, according to the circumftances of the wearer,
and ufed only upon occafion of appearing in public.
Every body knows that the toga was the diftinguiffi-
ed mark of a Roman : hence the jus togce, or privilege
of a Roman citizen *, i. e. the right of wearing a Ro¬
man habit, and of taking, as they explain it, fire and
water through the Roman empire.
TOKAY WINE, derives its name from a town of
Hungary, where it is produced. There are four forts
of wine made from the fame grapes, diftinguiffied at
Tokay by the names of ejfence, aufpruch, mafslach, and
the common wine. The effence is made by picking out
the half-dried and ffirivelled grapes, and putting them
into a perforated veffel, where they remain as long as
any juice runs off by the mere preffure of their own
weight. This is put into fmall calks. The aufpruch is
made by pouring the expreffed juice of the grapes from
which the former had been picked on thofe that yield¬
ed the effence, and treading them with the feet. The
liquor thus obtained ftands for a day or two to ferment,
and then is poured into fmall calks, which are kept in
the air for about a month, and afterwards put into calks.
The fame procefs is again repeated by the addition of
more juice to the grapes which have already undergone
the two former preffures, and they are now wrung with
the hands j and thus is had the mafslach. The fourth
kind is made by taking all the kinds together at firft,
and fubmitting them to the greateft preffure : this is
chiefly prepared by the peafants. The effence is thick,
and very fweet and lufeious: it is chiefly ufed to mix
with the other kinds. The aufpruch is the wine com¬
monly exported, and which is known in foreign coun¬
tries by the name of Tokay.
The goodnefs of it is determined by the following
rules. The colour ffiould neither be reddiffi nor very
pale, but a light filver : in trying it, the palate and tip
T O L
-Tokay 0f the tongue fhould be wetted without fwallowing it,
and if it manifeft any acrimony to the tongue it is not
ToMo. g00^ j but the tafte ought to be foft and mild : when
» poured out, it Ihould form globules in the glafs, and
have an oily appearance : when genuine, the ftrongeft
is always of the beft quality : when fwallowed, it fhould
have an earthy aftringent tafte in the mouth, which is
called the tafte of the root. All tokay wine" has an aro¬
matic tafte, which diftinguiflies it from every other fpe-
cies of wine. It keeps to any age, and improves by
time : but is never good till about three years old. It
is the beft way to tranfport it in calks ; for when it is
on the feas, it ferments three times every feafon, and
thus refines itfelf. When in bottles, there muft be an
empty fpace left between the wine and the cork, other-
tHfe it would burft the bottle. A little oil is put upon
the furface, and a piece of bladder tied over the cork.
The bottles are always laid on their fides in fand. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixiii. part ii. p. 292, &c.
TOKENS. See Tradesmens Tokens.
TOISE, a French meafure containing fix of their
feet, or a fathom.
'POLAND, John, a famous writer, -was born near
Londonderry in Ireland in 1670, and educated in the
Popifh religion ; but at 16 years of age embraced the
.principles of the Proteftants. He ftudied three years at
the univerfity of Glafgow ; was created mafter of arts in
the univerfity of Edinburgh $ and afterwards completed
his ftudies at Leyden, where he refided two years. He
then v/ent to Oxford, where, having the advantage of
the public library, he collected materials upon various
fubjedfs, and compofed feme pieces j among which wTas,
A Diftertation to prove the received hiftory of the tra¬
gical death of Atilius Regulus, the Roman conful, to
be a fable. He began likewife a rvork of greater con-
fequence, in which he undertook to fhow that there are
no myfteries in the Chriftian religion. He publifhed it
in 1696 at London, under the title of ChriJIianity not
myjlerious. This book gave great offence, and was at¬
tacked by feveral writers. He afterward wrote in fa¬
vour of the Hanoverian fueceffion, and many other
pieces. In 1707 he went into Germany, where he vi-
fited feveral courts ; and in 1710 he was introduced to
Prince Eugene, who gave him feveral marks of his ge-
nerofity. Upon his return to England he was for fome
time fupported by the liberality of the earl of Oxford
lord-treafurer, and kept a country houfe at Epfom ; but
foon lofing his lordftiip’s favour, he publifhed feveral
pamphlets againft that minifter’s meafures. In the laft
four years of his life he lived at Putney, but ufed to
fpend moft part of the winter in London. Mr Toland
died at London in 1722. He was a man of uncommon
abilities, publifhed a number of curious trafts, and was
perhaps the moft learned of all the infidel writers •, but
his private character was far from being an amiable one 5
for he was extremely vain, and wanted thofe foetal vir¬
tues which are the chief ornaments as well as duties of
life. His pofthumous works, two volumes oftavo, were
publifhed in 1726, with an account of his life and writ¬
ings, by Mr Des Maizeaux.
IOLEDO, an ancient and trading city of Spain in
New Caftile, of which it was formerly the capital.
ne'sTravels About two centuries ago it is faid to have contained
in Spam, more than 200,000 inhabitants ; but they are now di-
'c‘1’ u‘ lainifhed to 20,000, or at moft to 30,000. It is ad-
T O L
vantageoufly feated on the river Tajo, which furrounds it Toledo
on two fides ; and on the land fide, it has an ancient Toleratio
wall built by a Gothic king, and Hanked with 100
towers. It is feated on a mountain, which renders the
ftreets uneven, and which are narrow 5 but the houfes
are fine, and there are a great number of fuperb ftruc-
tures, befides 17 public fquares, where the markets are
kept. The fineft buildings are the royal caftle and the
cathedral church ; which iaft is the richeft and moft
confiderable in Spain. It is feated in the middle of the
city, joining to a handfome ftreet, with a fine fquare
before it. Several of the gates are very large, and of
bronze. There is alfo a fuperb fteeple, extremely high,
from whence there is a very diftant profpeft. The Sa-
grariro, or principal chapel, is a real treafury, in which
are 15 large cabinets let into the wall, full of prodigious
quantities of gold and filver veffels, and other works.
There are two mitres of filver gilt, fet all over with
pearls and precious ftones, with three collars of mafiy
gold, enriched in like manner. There are two brace¬
lets and an imperial crown of the Virgin Mary, confift-
ing of large diamonds and other jewels. The weight
of the gold in the crown is 15 pounds. The vtffel
which contains the confecrated wafer is of filver gilt,
as high as a man, and fo heavy, that it requires 30 men
to carry it 5 within it is another of pure gold enriched
with jewels. Here are 38 religious houfes, moft of
which are worthy a traveller’s notice, with many other
facred buildings, a great number of churches belonging
to 27 parilhes, and fome hofpitals. Without the town
are the remains of an amphitheatre, and other antiqui¬
ties.
Toledo is an archbifhop’s fee, and the feat of the pri¬
mate of Spain. His revenue is faid to be worthy^.
400,000 ducats, but there are large deduftions to be burnt's
made from it. It pays 15,000 ducats to the monks o{TraveUv
the Efeurial, befides feveral other penfions. Toledo has S^am'
alfo a univerfity. It was formerly celebrated for the
exquifite temper of the fword blades made there. It is
fituated in E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 39. 50. and is 37
miles fouth from Madrid.
TOLERATION, in matters of religion, is either
civil or ecclefiaftical. Civil toleration is an impunity
and fafety granted by the ftate to every fe<ft that does
not maintain doftrines inconfiftent with the public
peace : and ecclefiaftical toleration is the allowance
which the church grants to its members to differ in cer¬
tain opinions, not reputed fundamental.
As the gods of Paganifm were almoft all local and
tutelary, and as it was a maxim univerfally received
that it was the duty of every man to worfhip, together
with his own deities, the tutelary gods of the country
in which he might chance to refide, there was no room
for perfecution in the Heathen world, on account of dif¬
ferent fentiments in religion, or of the different rites
with which the various deities were worlhipped. Had
the primitive Chriftians joined their fellow-citizens in
the worfhip of Jupiter, Juno, and the reft of the rabble
of Roman divinities, they would have been fuffered to
worfhip, without moleftation, the Creator of the world
and the Redeemer of mankind ; for in that cafe the
God of the Chriftians would have been looked upon as
a Being of the fame kind with the gods of the empire ;
and the great principle of intercommunity would have
remained unviolated. But the true God had exprefsly
prohibited
[ 448 1
T O L
■ation. prohibited both Jews and Chriftians from wovfhipping
any other god befides Himfelf j and it was their refufal
to break that precept of their religion which made their
Heathen matters look upon them as Atheifts, and per-
fecute them as a people inimical to the ftate. Utility,
and not truth, was the object for which the Heathen
legiflatures fupported the national religion. They well
knew that the ttories told by their poets of their differ¬
ent divinities, of the rewards of Elyffum, and of the
punithments of Tartarus, were a colleftion of fenfelefs
fables j but they had nothing better to propofe to the
vulgar, and they were not fuch ftrangers to the human
heart, as to fuppofe that mankind could live together in
fociety without being influenced in their conduct by
feme religion.
Widely different from the genius of Paganifm was
the fpirit of the Jewith difpenfation. Truth, which is
in faft always coincident with general utility, was the
great objedl: of the Mofaic law. The children of Ifrael
were feparated from the reft of the world, to preferve
the knowledge and worftiip of the. true God, at a time
when all the other nations on earth, forgetting the Lord
that made them, were falling proftrate to flocks and
ftones, and worfhipping devils and impure fpirits. Such
was the contagion of idolatry, and fo Itrong the propen-
fity of the Ifraelites to the cuftoms and manners of the
Egyptians, and other polytheiftic nations around them,
that the purpofe of their feparation could not have been
ferved, had not Jehovah condefcended to become not
only their tutelary God, but even their fupreme civil
Magiftrate (fee Theology, N° 151.) j fo that under
the Mofaic economy, idolatry was the crime of high
treafon, and as fuch juftly punifhed by the laws of the
ftate. Among the Jews, the church and ftate were not
indeed different focieties. They were fo thoroughly in¬
corporated, that what was a tin in the one was a crime
in the other 5 and the forfeiture of ecclefiaftical privi¬
leges was the forfeiture of the rights of citizens.
In many refpe&s the Chriftian religion is direftly op-
polite to the ritual law of Mofes. It is calculated for
all nations, and intended to be propagated among all.
Inftead of feparating one people from another, one of
its principal objefts is to diffeminate univerfal benevo¬
lence, and to inculcate upon the whole human race,
that mutual love which naturally fprings from the
knowledge that all men are brethren. Its ultimate end
being to train its votaries for heaven, it concerns itfelf
no farther with the affairs of earth than to enforce by
eternal fan&ions the laws of morality j and the king¬
dom of its Founder not being of this world, it leaves
every nation at liberty t© fabricate its own municipal
laws, fo as beft to ferve its own intereft in the various
circumftances in which it may be placed; and denounces
a curfe upon all who pay not to thofe laws the fulleft
obedience, when they are not obvioufly inconfiftent
■with the laws of piety and virtue, which are of prior
obligation. The Chriftian church therefore muft always
remain a diftindt fociety from the ftate *, and though,
till the prefent age of hazardous innovations, it has been
deemed expedient in every country, where the truth of
the gofpel is admitted, to give to the religion of Chrift
a legal eftabliihment, and to confer immunities on its
numfters, this meafure has been adopted, not to fecure
the purity of the faith, which appeals to the private
judgment of each individual, but merely to preferve
Vol. XX. Part II.
[ 449 ]
T 0 L
the peace of iociety, and to put a refiraint upon thofe Tolcraticm-
actions of which human laws cannot take cognizance,
With religion, Chriftian governments have no farther
concern than as it tends to promote the pradlice of vir¬
tue. The early Chriftians, however, not underftanding
the principle upon which penal laws were employed to
preferve the purity of the Jewifti religion ; and, as our
bleffed Lord obferved to two of his apoftles, not knowT-
ing what fpirit they wrere of—haftily concluded that
they had a right to enforce the dodlrines and worfhip of
the New Teftament, by the fame means which had
been ufed to preferve the Ifraelites fteady to the doc¬
trines and worfhip of the Old. Hence, though they
had fuffered the cruelleft perfecutions themfelves (fee
Persecution), they no fooner got the power of the
ftate in their hands, than they perfecuted the Pagans
for their idolatry $ and afterwards, when herefies arofe
in the church, perfecuted one another for exprefling m
different phrafes metaphyfical propofitions, of fuch a na¬
ture as no human mind can fully comprehend. The
apoftle had forewarned them that there muft be herefies
in the church, that they who are approved may be made
maniieft j but it did not occur to them that perfecution
for opinion is the worft of all herefies, as it violates at
once truth and charity.
Hitherto thefe unhallowed means of bringing Chri-
ftians to uniformity of faith and pradftice, had been only
occafionally employed, from their not accurately diftin-
guifhing between the fpirit of the gofpel and that of the
law $ but as foon as the bilhops of Rome had brought
the inhabitants of Europe to recognize their infallibility
in explaining articles of faith and deciding points of
controverfy, perfecution became a regular and perma¬
nent inftrument of ecclefiaftical difeipline. To doubt
or to deny any dottrine to which thefe unerring inftruc-
tors had given the fan&ion of their approbation, was
held to be not only a refifting of the truth, but an a£t of
rebellion againft their facred authority ^ and the fecular
power, of which, by various arts, they had acquired
the abfolute dire&ion, wTas inftantly employed to avenge
both.
“ Thus Europe had been accuftomed, during many Robertfoii’s
centuries, to fee fpeculative opinions propagated or de- Hijlory of
fended by force j the charity and mutual forbearance G
which Chriftianity recommends with fo much warmth,
were forgotten, the facred rights of confcience and of
private judgment were unheard of, and not only the idea
of toleration, but even the word itfelf, in the fenfe now
affixed to it, was unknown. A right to extirpate error
by force, was univerfally allowed to be the prerogative
of thofe who poffeffed the knowledge of truth j and
though the firft reformers did not arrogate to themfelves
in direft terms that infallibility which they had refufed
to the church of Rome, they were not lefs confident of
the truth of their own doftrines, and required with equal
ardour the princes of their party to check fuch as prefu¬
med to impugn or to oppofe them. To this requeft too
many of thefe princes lent a willing ear. It flattered at
once their piety and their pride to be confidered as pof-
fefling all the rights of Jewifti princes ) and Henry the
VIII. of England, after labouring to make his divines
declare that all authority ecclefiaftical as well as civil
flows from the crown, perfecuted alternately the Papifts
and Proteftants. Many of his fucceffors, whofe charac¬
ters were much better than his, thought themfelves duly
3 L authorized
T O L [ 450 ] TOM
Tpleraticn.
authorized, In virtue of their acknowledged fupremacy
over all ftates and conditions of men, to enforce by
means of penal laws a uniformity of faith and worfhip
among their fubjefts: and it was not till the revolution
that any fe£t in England feems to have fully under-
flood, that all men have an unalienable right to worfhip
God in the manner which to them may feem moft fuit-
able to his nature, and the relation in which they fland
to him 5 or that it is impoffible to produce uniformity
of opinion by any other means than candid difquifition
and found reafoning. That the civil magiflrate has a
right to check the propagation of opinions which tend
only to fap the foundations of virtue, and to diflurb the
peace of fociety, cannot, we think, be queftioned j but
that he has no right to reflrain mankind from publicly
profefling any lyftem of faith, which comprehends the
being and providence of God, the great laws of mora¬
lity, and a future date of rewards and punilhments, is
as evident as that it is the obje£t of religion to fit man¬
kind for heaven, and the whole duty of the magiftrates
to maintain peace, liberty, and property, upon earth.
We have elfewhere obferved (fee Test), that among
a number of different fe&s of Chriftians, it is not the
fuperior purity of the fyftem of faith profeffed by one of
them, that,gives it a right to the immunities of an effa-
hlifhment in preference to all its rivals j but though the
legiflature is authorized, in certain circumilances, to
make a lefs pure fyftem the religion of the ftate, it would
be the height of abfurdity to fuppofe that any man, or
body of men, can have authority to prevent a purer
fyftem from being acknowledged as the religion of indi¬
viduals. For propagating opinions and purfuing pradii-
ces which necefiarily create civil difturbance, every man
is anfwerable to the laws of his country; but for the
foundnefs of his faith, and the purity of his worfhip, he
is anfwerable to no tribunal but that which can fearch
the heart.
When churches are eftablifiied, and creeds drawn up
qs guides to the preaching of the national clergy, it
is obvious that every clergyman who teaches any thing
diredtly contrary to the dodtrine of fuch creeds, violates
the condition on which he holds his living, and may be
juftly deprived of that living, whether his obnoxious opi¬
nion be in itfelf true or falfe, important or unimportant j
but his punifhment fhould be extended no farther. To
expel a Chriftian from private communion for teaching
aay dodtrine which is neither injurious to the ftate nor
contrary to the few fimple articles which comprife the
fum of the Chriftian faith, is the groffeft tyranny, and
the governors of that church which is guilty of it, ufurp
the prerogative of the bieffed Lprd, who commanded
the apoftfes themfelves not to be called mafters in this
fenfe; for one (fays he) is your matter (t^av <5
even Chrift. It is indeed a hardftiip to deprive a man of
his living for confcientioufiy illuftrating what he believes
to be a truth of the gofpel, only becaufe his illuftration
may be different from that which had formerly been gi¬
ven by men fallible like himfelfbut if the eftablifh-
ment oi human compilations of faith be neceflary, this
hardfhip cannot be removed, but by making fuch com¬
pilations as fimple as poffible, and drawing them up in
icripture language. Such a reformation, could it be ef-
fedted peaceably, would ferve other good purpofes 5 for
while it would fufficiently guard the purity of the faith,
it would withdraw that temptation which too many efta-
bliftiments throw in the way of men, to fubfcribe to the Toleratk
truth of what they do not really believe ; and it would l|
effectually banilh from the Chriftian church every thing Tomb-
which can be called by the name of perfedition. See
Nonconformists.
TOLL, a tax or cuftom paid for liberty to vend
goods in a market or fair, or for keeping roads in pro¬
per repair. The firft appointment of a toll on highways
of which we read, took place in 1346. See Road.
TOLQUSE. See Toulouse.
TOLU, a town of South America in Terra Firma,
and in the government of Carthagena; famous for the
fine balfam of Tolu, brought into Europe from thence
and produced from a tree like a pine. It is feated on a*
bay of the North fea, 60 miles fouth of Carthagena.
W. Long. 75. 25. N. Lat. 9. 45.
TOLOlFERA, the BALSAM-of-ToLU Tree; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of deeandria. See
Botany, p. 182. and Chemistry, N° 2483.
TOMATOES. See Solanum, Botany Index.
TOMB, includes both the grave or fepulchre wherein
a defundl is interred, and the monument eredted to pre-
ferve his memory. The word is formed from the Greek
zvpZo;, tumulus, “ fepulchre;” or, according to Me-
nage, from the Latin tumba, which fignifies the fame.
In many nations it has been cuftomary to burn the
bodies of the dead, and to colledt the allies with pious
care into an urn, which was depofited in a tomb or fe¬
pulchre. See Burning. Among many nations it has
alfo been the pradtice to lay the dead body in a tomb,
without confuming it, after having wrapped it up de¬
cently, and fometimes placing it in a coffin. See Coe-
STN. ' ,
1 he tombs of the Jews vrere generally hollow places-
hewn out of a rock. Abraham buried Sarah in a cave.
Such was the place too in wrhich the kings of Judah and
Ifrael were interred : and fuch was the place in which
the body of our Saviour was depofited by Jofeph of Ari-
mathea. But it is probable that the common people bu¬
ried their dead in graves; for our Saviour compares the
Pharifees to “ graves which appear not, and the men that
walk over them are not aware of them.” Over the
tombs, perhaps only of people of diftindlion, a ftone or
monument was eredted, to intimate to paffengers that 1
they were burying places, that they might not pollute
themfelves by touching them. With the fame intention,
as Lightfoot informs us, they whitened them every year
on the 15th of February. '
The Egyptians alfo buried their dead in caves, called
catacombs. See Catacomb. The pyramids, as fome
think, were alfo employed for the fame purpofe. Some¬
times alfo, after embalming their dead, they placed them-
in niches in fome magnificent apartment in their hou-
fes, >
The Greeks and Romans burned their dead, and depo¬
fited their afhes in a tomb. The Greeks interred the
allies without the cities, by the fades of their highways.
Sometimes indeed, by way of particular honour, they
were buried in an elevated part of the town; and the
Lacedaemonians were allowed by Lyeurgus to bury in
the city and round their temples: But this was forbid¬
den among the Romans by the law of the twTelve tables,.
In urbe ne fepelito, neve urito; yet Valerius Publicola,
Pofthumus Tubertius, and the family of the Claudii,
were buriedi in the Capitol. To bury by the fides ot
public
TOM [ 4Si ] TON
mb. public roads ‘vvas common among the Romans alfo j
i. y——' jience their epitaphs frequently began with Sifte viator.
Highways were made choice of probably for two rea-
fons: x. That the dead might not be offenlive or injure
the health of the living, which they certainly would if
buried in towns or populous places ; and, idly, That
they might hold out to travellers a leffon of mortality,
and teach the ruftic moralift t*) die.
As it would fwell this article to too’^reat a fize
to deferibe all the different kinds of tombs which
have been ufed by different nations and ages, we mult
content ourfelveS with fhortly deferibing the tombs of
a few nations, and adding a few concomitant circum-
itances.
The tombs of the Parfees are lingular. The deceafed,
after lying a proper time in his own houfe, for the pur-
pofes of mourning, is carried, followed by his relations
and friends, the females chanting a requiem, and depo-
iited in a tomb of the following conftrudtion. It is a
circular building, open at top, about 55 feet diameter,
and 2$ feet in height, filled to within 5 feet of the top,
excepting a well of 15 feet diameter in the centre. The
part fo filled is terraced, with a flight declivity toward
the well. Two circular grooves three inches deep are
railed round the well; the firft at the diftance of four,
the fecond at ten, feet from the well. Grooves of the
like depth or height, and four feet diftant from each
other at the outer part of the outer circle, are carried
ilraight from the wall to the well, communicating with
the circular ones, for the purpofe of carrying off the
water, &c. The tomb, by this means, is divided into
three circles of partitions : the outer, about feven feet
by four : the middle fix by three : the inner, four by
two : the outer for the men, the middle for the women,
the inner for the children ; in which the bodies are re-
fpe&ively placed, wrapped loofely in a piece of cloth,
and left to be devoured by the vultures \ which is very
foon done, as numbers of thofe animals are always feen
hovering and watching about thefe charnel houfes, in
expeflation of their prey. The friends of the deceafed,
er the perfons who have charge of the tomb, come at
the proper time, and throw the bones into their recep¬
tacle, the well in the centre j for which purpofe, iron
rakes and tongs are depofited in the tomb. The en¬
trance is clofed by an iron door, four feet fquare, on the
eaftern fide, as high up as the terrace, to which a road
is raifed. Upon the wall, above the door, an additional
wall is raifed, to prevent people from looking into the
tomb, which the Parfees are particularly careful to pre¬
vent. A Perfian infeription is on a ftone inferted over
the door, which we once copied, but have forgotten its
tenor. From the bottom of the wall fubterraneous paf-
fages lead to receive the bones, &c. and prevent the
well from filling.
Of the ancient fepulchres found in Rufliaand Siberia,
fome are perfect tumuli, raifed to an enormous height,
^ *0/0. wlflle others are almoft level with the ground. Some of
S' rol. vii.them are encompaffed with a fquare w’all of large quarry
ftones placed in an ere£t pofition ; others are covered
only with a fmall heap of ftones, or they are tumuli
adorned with ftones at top. Sc me are walled with brick
within, and vaulted over j others are no more than pits
or common graVes. In fome the earth is excavated feve-
ral fathoms deep j others, and efpecially thofe which are
topped by a lofty tumulus, are only dug of a fufircient Tcrrsfr
depth for covering the carcafe. In many of thefe fe- J1(
pulchres the bones of men, and frequently of horfes, , j"t '
are found, and in a condition that renders it probable
the bodies were not burnt before they were inhumed.
Other bones ftiow clearly that they have been pre-
vioufly burnt; becaufe a part of them is unconfirmed,
and becaufe they lie in a difordered manner, and fume
of them are wanting. Urns, in which other nations of
antiquity have depofited the alhes of their dead, are
never met with here. But fometimes what remained
of their bodies after the combuftion, and even whole
carcafes, are found wrapped up in thin plates of gold.
Many dead bodies are frequently feen depofited toge¬
ther in one tomb ; a certain indication that either a
battle had been fought in the neighbourhood of the
place, or that fome families buried their relations in an
hereditary tomb.
The Moors, like all other Mahometans, hold it
contrary to the fpirit of religion to bury their dead in
mofques, and to profane the temple of the Moft High
by the putrefadfion of dead bodies. In the infancy of
the church the Chriftians had the like refpeiff for their c! e,ner'*y
temples. The burial grounds of the Mahometans are
without the city •, the emperors have their fepulchres
diftinft and diftant from the mofque, in fanfluaries,
built' by themfelves : their tombs are exceedingly
Ample.
All Mahometans inter the dead at the hour fet apart
for prayer. The defunft is not kept in the houfe, ex¬
cept he expires after funfet 5 but the body is tranfport-
ed to the mofque, whither it is carried by thofe who are
going to prayer. Each, from a fpirit of devotion, is
defirous to carry in his turn. The Moors fing at their
burial ferviee ; which ufage perhaps they have imita¬
ted after the Chriftians of Spain. They have no par¬
ticular colour appropriated to mourning. Women re¬
gularly go on the Friday to weep over and pray at
the fepulchres of the dead, whofe memory they hold
dear.
Among the northern nations it was cuftomary to
bury their dead under heaps of ftones called cairns, or
under barrows : (See the articles Catrns and Bar-
row). The inhabitants of Tibet, it is laid, neither
bury nor burn their dead j but expofe them on the tops
of mountains. See Tibet.
TOMBUCTOO, a city of Africa, and capital of a
rich and populous country, fituated near the Niger, in
E. Long. 1. 30. and N. Lat. 16. 30. Some manufac¬
tures, particularly that of cotton cloth, are carried on in
Tombuftoo *, and it has a confiderable trade with the
caravans. It is governed by a king, who has a guard
of 3000 Irorfe. The country around abounds with wheat
and barley, with numerous herds of cattle, fo that milk
and butter are in great plenty.
TOMPION, a fort of bung or cork ufed to flop the
mouth of a cannon. At fea this is carefully encircled
with tallow or putty, to prevent the penetration of the
water info the bore, whereby the powder contained in
the chamber might be damaged or rendered incapable
of fervice.
TON, a meafure or weight. See Tun.
TONE, or Tune, in Mujic, a property of found,
whereby it comes under the relation of grave and acute /
3 L 3 or
f ON [ 452 ] TON
lone or t}ie degree 0f elevation any found has, from the de-
Tonnage. Sree ^vviftnefs °f the vibrations of the parts of the fo-
»■ > ■ norous body.
The variety of tones in human voices arifes partly
from the dimenfions of the windpipe, which, like a flute,
the longer and narrower it is, the (harper the tone it
gives 5 but principally from the head of the larynx or
knot of the throat: the tone of the voice being more or
lefs grave as the rima or cleft thereof is more or lefs
open.
The word tone is taken in four different fenfes among
the ancients : 1. For any found; 2. For a certain in¬
terval, as when it is faid the difference between the dia-
pente and dia effaron is a tone ; 3. For a certain locus
or compafs of the voice, in which fenfe they ufed the
Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian tones; 4. For tenfion, as when
they fpeak of an acute, grave, or a middle tone.
Tone is more particularly ufed, in mufic, for a cer¬
tain degree or intervahof tune, whereby a found may be
either raifed or lowered from one extreme of a concord
to the other, fo as dill to produce true melody.
TONGUE. See Anatomy, N° 102.
TONIC, in Mnjic, fignifies a certain degree of ten-
fion, or the found produced by a vocal firing in a given
degree of tenfion, or by any fonorous body when put in
vibration.
'Ionic^ fays Rouffeau, is likewife the name given by
Ariftoxenus to one of the three kinds of chromatic mu¬
fic, whofe divifions he explains, and which was the or¬
dinary chromatic of the Greeks, proceeding by two
iemitones in fucceflion, and afterwards a third minor.
Tonic Dominant. See Dominant.
TONNAGE gW Poundage, an ancient duty on
wine and other goods, the origin of which feems to have
been this : About the 2l(I of Edward III. complaint
was made that merchants were robbed and murdered on
the feas. The king thereupon, with the confent of the
peers, levied a duty of 2s. on every ton of wine, and
22d. in the pound on all goods imported ; which was
treated as illegal by the commons. About 25 years
after, the king, when the knights of (hires were re¬
turned home, obtained a like grant from the citizens
and burgeffes, and the year after it was regularly grant¬
ed in parliament. I hefe duties were diminifhed fome-
times, and fometimes increafed ; at length they feem to
fomment. haVe beCn fixed at ^ tonnage and ls- poundage. They
'toL i. were at ufually granted only for a dated term of
years, as, for two years in 5 Ric. II. ; but in Henry
yi,Ts time they were granted him for life by a flatute
in the 3lfl year of his reign ; and again to Edward IV.
for the term of his life alfo : fince which time they
were regularly granted to all his fucceffors for life,
fometimes at the firfl, fometimes at other fubfequent
parliaments, till the reign of Charles I.; when, as the
noble hidorian expreffes it, his miniders were not fuf-
ficiently felicitous for a renewal of his legal grant. And
yet thefe impods were imprudently and unconditution-
ally levied and taken, without confent of parliament,
for 15 years together ; which was one of the caufes of
thofe unhappy difeontents, judifiable at fird in too
many indances, but which degenerated at lad into caufe-
lefs rebellion and murder. For, as in every other, fo
In this particular cafe, the king (previous to the com¬
mencement of hodilities) gave the nation ample fatisfac-
lion for the errors of his former conduft, by paffing an
aft, whereby he renounced all power in the crown of W
levying the duty of tonnage and poundage, without the T<«iui
exprefs confent of parliament; and alfo all power of itn- *—^
pofition upon any merchandifes whatever. Upon the
redoration this duty was granted to King Charles II.
for life, and fo it was to his two immediate fucceffors *
but now, by three Several datutes, 9 Ann. c. 6. 1 Geo!
I. c. 12. and 3 Geo. I. c. 7. it is made perpetual, and
mortgaged for the debt of the public.
TONQUIN, a kingdom of Ada, in the Ead Indies
beyond the Ganges ; bounded on the north by the pro!
vince of Yunnan in China, on the ead by the province
of Canton and the bay of Tonquin, on the fouth by
Cochin China, and on the wed by the kingdom of
Laos. It is about 1200 miles in length and 500 in
breadth ; and is one of the fined and mod confiderable
kingdoms of the Ead, as well on account of the num¬
ber of inhabitants as the riches it contains and the trade
it carries on. The country is thick fet with villages ;
and the natives in general are of a middle dature^and
clean limbed, with a tawney complexion. Their faces
are oval and flattidi, and their nofes and lips well pro¬
portioned. Their hair is black, long, lank, and coarfe;
and they let it hang dowm their flioulders. They are
generally dexterous, nimble, aflive, and ingenious in
mechanic arts. They weave a multitude of fine filks,
and make curious lacker-works, which are tranfported
to other countries. There is fuch a number of people,
that many want employment; for they feldom go t»
wrork but when foreign (hips arrive. The money and
goods brought hither by the Englifh and Dutch put
them in atiion ; for they have not money of their own
fufficient to employ themfelves; and therefore one-third
at lead mud be advanced beforehand by the merchants:
and the (hips mud day here till the goods are finilhed,
which is generally five or fix months. They are fo ad¬
dicted to gaming, that when every thing elfe is lod, they
will dake their wives and children. The garments of
the Tonquinefe are made either of filk or cotton ; but
the poor people and foldiers wear only cotton of a dark
tawney colour. Their houfes are fmall and low ; and
the walls either of mud, or hurdles daubed over with
clay. They have only a ground floor, with two or
three partitions ; and each room has a fquare hole to let
in the light. The villages confid of 30 or 40 houfes,
furrounded wfith trees ; and in fome places there are
banks to keep the water from overflowing their gar¬
dens, where they have oranges, betels, melons, and fa-
lad-herbs. In the rainy feafon they cannot pafs from
one houfe to another without wading through the wa¬
ter ; they fometimes have boats. In the capita] city
called Cac/10 there are about 20,000 houfes with mud-
walls, and covered with thatch ; a few are built with
brick, and roofed with pan-tiles. In each yard is s
fmall arched building like an oven, about fix feet high,
made of brick, which ferves to fecure their goods in cafe
of fire. The principal dreets are very vfide, and paved
with fmall dones. The king of Tonquin has three pa¬
laces in it, fuch as they are ; and near them are dables
for his horfes and elephants. The houfe of the Englilh
factory is feated at the north end of the city, fronting
the river, and is the bed in the city. The people in
general are courteous, and civil to drangers; but the
great men are proud, haughty, and ambitious ; the fol-
diers infolent, and the poor thievifli. They buy all
their
TON [
mquin their wives, of which the great men have feveral:
II the poor are (tinted for want of money. In hard times
mtine. ^ men fen both their wives and children to buy
rice to maintain themfelves. The women offer them-
felves to (trangers as wives while they (lay, and agree
with them for a certain price. Even the great men
will offer their daughters to the merchants and officers
who are likely to (lay fix months in the country. They
are not afraid of being with child ; for if they are girls
they can fell them wrell when they are young, becaufe
they are fairer than the other inhabitants. Thefe wo¬
men are faid to be very faithful $ and are trufted with
money and goods by the Europeans during their ab-
fence, and will make great advantage with them. The
firft new moon in the year that happens after the mid¬
dle of January, is a great feftival ; when they rejoice
for 10 or 12 days together, and fpend their time in all
manner of fports. Their common drink is tea, but they
make themfelves merry with arrack. The language is
fpoken very much in the throat; and fome of the words
are pronounced through the teeth, and has a great re-
femblance to the Chinefe. They have feveral mechanic
arts or trades ; fuch as fmiths, carpenters, joiners, tur¬
ners, weavers, tailors, potters, painters, money-changers,
paper-makers, workers in lacker, and bell-founders.—
Their commodities are gold, mulk, filks, calicoes, drugs
of many forts, woods for dyeing, lacquered wares,
earthen wares, fait, anifeeds, and worm-feeds. The lac¬
quered ware is not inferior to that of Japan, which is
accounted the bed in the world. With all thefe mer-
chandifes, one would expeft the people to be very rich,
but they are in general very poor ; the chief trade be¬
ing carried on by the Chinefe, Engliffi, and Dutch.
The goods imported, befides filver, are faltpetre, ful-
phur, Englifli broad-cloth, pepper, fpices, and great
guns.
TONSILS. See Anatomy, N° 102.
TONSURE, in Ecclejiajlical Hijlory, a particular
manner of (having or clipping the hair of ecclefiaftics
or monks. The ancient tonfure of the clergy was
nothing more than polling the head, and cutting the
hair to a moderate degree, for the fake of decency
and gravity : and the fame obfervation is true with
refpeft to the tonfure of the ancient monks. But
the Romans have carried the affair of tonfure much
farther ; the candidate for it kneeling before the bi-
(hop, who cuts the hair in five different parts of the
head, viz. before, behind, on each fide, and on the
crown.
TONTINE, a loan given for life annuities with be¬
nefit of furvivorffiip; fo called from the inventor Lau¬
rence Tonti, a Neapolitan. He propofed his fcheme
in 1653 to reconcile the people to Cardinal Maza-
zine’s government, by amufing them with the hope of
becoming fuddenly rich. He obtained the confent of
the court, but the parliament would not regifter the
edift. He made attempts afterwards, but without fuc-
cefs.
It was not till Louis XIV. xvas diftrefied by the league
of Augffiurg, and by his own immenfe expences, that he
had recourfe to the plans of Tonti, which, though long
laid afide, were not forgotten. By an edift in 1689 he
created a Tontine royale of 1,400,000 livres annual
rent, divided into 14 clafles. The a6tions were 300
livres a piece, and the proprietors were to receive 10I.
453 1 T ° P .
but per cent, with benefit of furvivorffnp in every clafs. Tontine
This fcheme was executed but very imperfedlly j for | .j
none of the dalles rofe to above 25,000 livres, inilead . 01^ alJS,.
of 100,000,according to the original inllitution j though
the annuities were very regularly paid. A few years
after, the people feeming in better humour for proje£ts
of this kind, another tontine was eredled upon nearly
the fame terms, but this was never above half full.
They both fubfifted in the year 1726, when the French
king united the 13th clafs of the firft tontine with the
14th of the fecond ; all the aflions of which were*
pofleffed by Charlotte Bonnemay, widow of Lewis Bar-
bier, a furgeon of Paris, who died at the age of 96.
This gentlewoman had ventured 300 livres in each ton¬
tine j and in the lad year of her life (lie had for her
annuity 73,500 livres, or about 3600I. a-year, for about
30!.
The nature of the tontine is this j there is an annuity,
after a certain rate of intereft, granted to a number of
people j divided into claffes, according to their refpedlive
ages ; fo that annually the whole fund of each clafs is
divided among the furvivors of that clafs j till at lad it
falls to one, and upon the extindlion of that life, reverts
to the power by which the tontine was erefted, ancT
which becomes thereby fecurity for the due payment of
the annuities.
TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any
inftrument ufed for making other complex inftruments
and machines, or in other operations of the mechanic
arts.
TOOTH, for a defcription of, fee Anatomy, N°
27.
TOOTHACH. See Medicine, N° 210, and Sur¬
gery Index.
TooTHACH-Tree. See Zanthoxylum, 7 Botany
TOOTHWORT. See Plumbago, j" Index.
TOP, a fort of platform, furrounding the lower
mafthead, from which it projefls on all fides like a
fcaffbld.
The principal intention of the top is to extend the
topmaft ffirouds, fo as to form a greater angle with the
mad, and thereby give additional fupport to the latter.
It is fuftained by certain timbers fixed acrofs the hounds
or (boulders of the mads, and called the trejlle-trees and
crofs-trees.
Befides the ufe above mentioned, the top is otherwife
extremely convenient to contain the materials neceffary
for extending the fmall fails, and for fixing or repairing
the rigging and machinery with more facility and expe¬
dition. In drips of war it is ufed as a kind of redoubt,
and is accordingly fortified for attack or defence ; being
furnidred with fvvivels, mudeetry, and other fire-arms,
and guarded by a thick fence of corded hammocks. Fi¬
nally, ,it is employed as a place for looking out, either
in the day or night.
T0P-MaJl,t\\& fecond divifion of a mad, or that part
which ftands between the upper and lower pieces. See
the article Mast.
ToP-Sai/s, certain large fails extended acrofs the top-
mafts by the topfail-yard above, and by the yard attach¬
ed to the lower mad beneath ; being faftened to the
former by robands, and to the latter by means of two
great blocks fixed on its extremities, through which
the topfail-fheets are inferted, paffing from thence to
two other blocks fixed on the inner part of the yard
olofe
' TOR
Top-Sails clofe by the mart 5 and from thefe latter the Iheets
lead downwards to the deck, where they may be
1 llackened or extended at pleafure. See the article
Sail.
TOPAZ, a gem or precious done. See Minera¬
logy Index.
TOPE, a fpecies of Squalus. See Ichthyology
Index.
TOPHET. See Hinnom and Moloch.
^TOPHUS, in Medicine, denotes a chalky or ftony
concretion in any part of the body ; as the bladder,
kidney, &c. but efpecially in the joints.
TOPIC, a general head or fubjeft of difcourfe.
Topics, in Oratory! See Oratory, N° 10—13.
Topics, or Topical Medicines, are the fame with
external remedies, or thofe applied outwardly to fome
difeafed and painful part: fuch are plaflers, cataplafms,
unguents, &c.
TOPOGRAPHY, a defcription or draught of fome
particular place, or fmall traift of land, as that of a city
or town, manor, or tenement, field, garden, houfe, caftle,
or the like ; fuch as furveyors fet out in their plots, or
make draughts of, for the information and fatisfaftion of
the proprietors.
TOPSHAM, a town in Devonfhire, in England,
feated on the river Exmouth, five miles fouth taft of
Exeter, to which place the river was formerly navi¬
gable 3 but in time of war was choaked up defignedly,
lo that Ihips are now obliged to load and unload at
Topfham. W. Long. 3. 26. N. Lat. 50. 39.
TORBAY, a fine bay of the Englilh channel, on
the coaft of Devonfhire, a little to the eaft of Dart¬
mouth, formed by two capes, called Bury Points, and
Bob's Nofe.
TORDA, or Rasor-bill. See Alca, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
10RDYLIUM, Hart-wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 45th order, Umbellate. See
Botany Index.
iORIES, a political faction in Britain, oppofed to
the Whigs. rr
1 he name of Tories was given to a fort of banditti
in Ireland, and was thence transferred to the adherents
of Charles I. by his enemies, under the pretence that
he favoured the rebels in Ireland. His partifans, to be
even with the republicans, gave them the name of
Whigs, from a word which fignifies whey, in derifion of
then: poor fare. I he Tories, or cavaliers, as they were
alio called, had then principally in view the political
in ter eft of the king, the crown, and the church of Eno-.
land ; and the round-heads, or Whigs, propofed chiefly
the maintaining of the rights and interefts of the peo¬
ple, and of Proteftantifm. _ This is the moft popular ac¬
count *, and yet it is certain the names Whig and Tory
O R
The ft ate Tories are either Tom,
were but little known till about the middle of the reign
of King Charles II. M. de Cize relates, that it was in
the year 1678 that the whole nation was firft obferved
to be divided into W higs and Tories 3 and that *on
occafion of the famous depofition of Titus Oates, who
accrued the Catholics of having confpired ao-ainft the
king and the ftate, the appellation of Whig was given
to fuch as_ believed the plot real 5 and Tory to thofe
Who held it -hditrous.
Thefe parties may be confidered either with regard
4
454 ] T
to the ftate or to religion.
violent or moderate: the firft would have the king to 11
be abfolute, and therefore plead for paflive obedience r°rr'ceI-
non-refiftance, and the hereditary right of the houfe Jlla!,£sP"
Stuart. The moderate Tories would not fuffer the king1 ^
to lofe any of his prerogative 3 but then they would not
iacnfice thofe of the people. The flate Whigs are either
itrong republicans or moderate ones. The firft (fays
Rapin) are the remains of the party of the long parlia¬
ment, who attempted to change monarchy to a com¬
monwealth : but thefe make fo flender a figure, that
Sfy ferved t0 ftrengthen the party of other Whigs.
Ihe Tories would perfuade the world, that all the
Whigs are of this kind; as the Whigs would make
us believe that all the Tories are violent. The mode¬
rate ftate Whigs are much in the fame fentiments
with the moderate Tories, and defire that the govern¬
ment may be maintained on the ancient foundation:
all the difference is, that the firft bear a little more to
the parliament and people, and the latter to that of the
king. In fhort, the old Whigs were alwavs jealous of
the encroachments of the royal prerogative' and watch¬
ful over the prefervation of the liberties and properties
of the people. r
TORMENTILLA, Eormentil, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of icofandria, and"in the natural
iyitem ranging under the 35th order, Senticofas. See
Botany Index.
IORNADO, a hidden and vehement guft of wind
from all points of the compafs, frequent on the coaft of
Guinea.
IORPEDO, the Cramp-fish. See Raja, Ich-
TH yolog y* Index.
. ^ ORPOR, a numbnefs, or defeft of feeling and mo¬
tion. Galen fays it is a fort of intermediate diforder be¬
tween palfy and health.
I ORREFACI ION, in Chemijlry, is the roafting or
Icorching of a body by the fire, in order to difcharge a
part either unneceffary or hurtful in another operation.
Sulphur is thus difcharged from an ore before it can be
wrought to advantage.
IORRENT, denotes a temporary ftream of water
falling fuddenly from mountains, whereon there have
been great rains, or an extraordinary thaw of fnow.
TORRICELLI, Evangeliste, an illuftrious Ita¬
lian mathematician and philofopher, born at Faenza in
1608. He was trained in Latin literature by his uncle
a monk ; and after cultivating mathematical knowledge
for fome time without a mafter, he ftudied it under
Father Benedict Caftelli, profeffor of mathematics at
Rome,. Having read Galileo’s dialogues, he compofcd
a treatife on motion, on his principles, which brought
him acquainted with Galileo, who took him home as
an affiftant: but Galileo died in three months after.
He became profeffor of mathematics at Florence, and
greatly improved the art of making telefcopes and mi-
crofcopes : but he is beft known for finding out a me¬
thod of afcertaining the weight of the atmofphere by
quickfilver 3 the barometer being called, from him, the
Torricellian tube. He publiftied Opera Geometrica, 4to,
16443 and died in 1647.
I ORRICELLIAN EXPERIMENT, a famous experi¬
ment made by Torricelli, by which he demonftrated the
preffure of the atmofphere in oppofition to the doflrines
of fudlion, &c. finding that preffure able to fupportonly
TOR
rrlcel- a certain length of mercury, or any other fluid, in an in-
ii Experi-verte(j glafs tube. See BAROMETER.
nJjnt TORSK, or Tusk. See Gadus, Ichthyology
rture. Index.
e-v—' TORTOISE. SeeTESTuco, Erpetology Index.
I '.Tranf. TORTOISE-Jhcll, the (hell, or rather fcales, of the
* ^8‘ teftaceous animal called a tortoife; ufed in inlaying, and
^ I^' in various other works, as for fnuff-boxes, combs, &c.
Mr Catefby obferves, that the hard ftrong covering
which inclofes ail forts of tortoifes, is very improperly
called a Jhcll; being of a perfect bony contexture j but
covered on the outfide with fcales, or rather plates, of a
horny fubftance ; which are what the workmen call
tortoife-Jhell.
There are two general kinds of tortoifes, viz. the
land and fea tortoife, tejludo terrejlris and marina. The
fea-tortoife, again, is of feveral kinds j but it is the caret,
or teftudo imbricata of Linnaeus, alone which furniflxes
that beautiful fliell fo much admired in Europe.
The fliell of the caretta, or hawk (bill tortoife, is
thick ; and confilts of two parts, the upper, which co¬
vers the back, and the lower the belly : the two are
joined together at the fides by ftrong ligaments, which
yet allow of a little motion. In the fore-part is an aper¬
ture for the head and fore-legs, and behind for the
hind-legs and tail. It is the under (hell alone that is
1 nfed : to feparate it, they make a little fire beneath it,
and as foon as ever it is warm, the under {hell becomes
eafily feparable with a point of a knife, and is taken oft*
in laminae or leaves.
The whole fpoils of the caret confift in 13 leaves or
fcales, eight of them flat, and five a little bent. Of the
flat ones, there are four large ones, fometimes a foot
long, and feven inches broad. The beft tortoife-ftrell
is thick, clear, tranfparent, of the colour of antimony,
fprinkled with brown and white. When ufed in mar¬
quetry, &c. the workmen give it what colour they
pleafe by means of coloured leaves, which they put un¬
derneath it.
Working and joining of TORTOISE-Jhell.—Tortoife-
flrell and horn become foft in a moderate heat, as that
of boiling water, fo as to be prefled, in a mould, into
any form, the (hell or horn being previoufly cut into
plates of a proper fize. Plumier informs us, in his yirt
de Tourner, that two plates are likewife united into one
by heating and preffing them •, the edges being thorough¬
ly cleaned, and made to fit clofe to one another. The
tortoife-ftiell is conveniently heated for this purpofe by
applying a hot iron above and beneath the jundlure,
w ith the interpofition of a wet cloth to prevent the fliell
from being fcorched by the irons : thefe irons fliouldbe
pretty thick, that they may not lofe their heat before
the union is effedled. Both tortoife-fliell and horns may
be ftained of a variety of colours, by means of the co¬
louring drugs commonly ufed in dyeing,.and by certain
metallic folutions.
TORTURE, a violent pain infli&ed on perfons to
force them to confefs the crimes laid to their charge,
or as a punifhment for crimes committed.
Torture was never permitted among the Romans ex¬
cept in the examination of flaves: it would therefore ap¬
pear, that it was a general opinion among them, that a
flave had fuch a tendency to falfehood, that the truth
«culd only be extorted from him. To the difgrace of
t 455 J
T o U
the profeffors of Chriftianity, torture was long pra&ifed Torture
by tbofe who called themfelves Catholics, againft thofe
whom they termed heretics ; that is, thofe who differed
in opinion, from themfelves. Finding thatrthey could
not bring over others, to adopt their fentiments by the
force of argument, they judged it proper to compel them
by the force of puniftiment. This practice was very ge¬
neral among orthodox Chriftians, but efpecially among
Roman Catholics. See Inquisition.
By the law of England, torture was at one period em¬
ployed to compel thofe criminals who flood obftinately
mute when brought to trial, and refufed either to plead
guilty or not guilty 5 but it is now abolifhed (fee Ar¬
raignment, and Rack). A hiftory of the machines
which have been invented to torture men, and an ac¬
count of the inftances in which they have been em¬
ployed, would exhibit a difmal pidture of the human
charadter.
TORUS, in ArchiteBure, a large round moulding
ufed in the bafes of columns. See Architecture.
TOUCAN. See Rhamphastos, Ornithology
Index.
TOUCH-NEEDLE, among affayers, refiners, &c. lit¬
tle bars of gold, filver, and copper, combined together,
in all the different proportions and degrees of mixture ;
the ufe of which is to difcover the degree of purity of
any piece of gold or filver, by comparing the mark it
leaves on the touchftone with thofe of the bars.
The metals ufually tried by the touchftone are gold,
filver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one an¬
other in different degrees and proportions, by fufion.
In order to find out the purity or quantity of bafer me¬
tal in thefe various admixtures, when they are to be exa¬
mined they are compared with thefe needles, which
are mixed in a known proportion, and prepared for this
ufe. The metals of thefe needles, both pure and mix¬
ed, are all made intalamimeor plates, one-twelfth of an
inch broad, and of a fourth part of their breadth in
thicknefs, and an inch and half-long ; thefe being thus
prepared, you are to engrave on each a mark indicating
its purity, or the nature and quantity of the admixture
in it. The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or the
fofter kinds of black pebbles, are the moft proper for
touchftones.
The method of ufing the needles and ftone is thus :
The piece of metal to be tried ought firft to be wiped
well with a clean Unvel or piece of foft leather, that you
may the better fee its true colour ; for from this alone
an experienced perfon, will in fome degree, judge be¬
forehand what the principal metal is, and how and with
what debafed.
-.Then choofe a convenient, not over large, part of
the furface of the metal, and rub it feveral times very
hardly and ftrongly againft the touchftone, that in cafe
a deceitful coat or cruft fhould have been laid upon it,
it may be worn off by that fridlion : this, however, is
more readily done, by a grindftone or fmall file. Then
wipe a flat and very clear part of the touchftone, and
rub againft it, over and over, the juft-mentioned .part
of the furface of the piece of metal, till you have, on
the flat furface of the ftone, a thin metallic cruft, an
inch long, and about an eighth of an inch broad : this
done, look out the needle that feems moft like to the
metal under trial, wipe the lower part of this needle
v.'tjr,
Touch-
Needle
II
Toulon.
T O U [ 456 ]
very clean, and then rub it againft the touchftone, as ful order,
you did the metal, by the fide of the other line, and in
a diredtion parallel to it.
When this is done, if you find no difference between
the colours of the two marks made by your needle and
the metal under trial, you may with great probability
pronounce that metal and your needle to be of the fame
alloy, which is immediately known by the mark en¬
graved on your needle. But if you find a difference be¬
tween the colour of the mark given by the metal, and
that by the needle you have tried, choofe out another
needle, either of a darker or lighter colour than the
former, as the difference of the tinge on the touchftone
diredts ; and by one or more trials of this kind you will
be able to determine which of your needles the metal
anfwers, and thence what alloy it is of, by the mark of
the needle 3 or elfe you will find that the alloy is ex¬
traordinary, and not to be determined by the compari-
fon of your needles,
Touchstone, a black, fmooth, gloffy ftone, ufed to
examine the purity of metals. The ancients called it
lapis Lydius, the Lydian ftone, from the name of the
country whence it was originally brought.
Any piece of pebble or black flint will anfwer the
purpofes of the beft lapis Lydius of Afia. Even a piece
of glafs made rough with emery is ufed with fuccefs, to
diftinguifh true gold from fuch as is counterfeit; both
by the metallic colour and the teft of aquafortis. The
true touchftone is of a black colour, and is not uncom¬
mon in many parts of the world.
TOUCHWOOD. See Boletus, Botany Index.
TOULON, a celebrated city and feaport of France,
In that part of the late province of Provence which is
now denominated the department of the Var. It is a
very ancient place, having been founded, according to
the common opinion, by a Roman general. It is the
chief town of the department, and before the great re¬
volution in 1789 was an epifcopal fee. The inhabitants
are computed at 80,000. It is divided into the Old
Quarter and the New Quarter. The firft, which is
very ill built, has nothing remarkable in it but the Rue
aux Arbres, the Tree-Street, which is a kind of courfe
or mall, and the town-houfe j the gate of this is fur-
rounded by a balcony, which is fupported by two ter¬
mini, the mafterpieces of the famous Pujet. The New
Quarter, which forms as it were a fecond city, contains,
befide the magnificent works conftrufted in the reign of
Louis XIV. many fine houfes (among which that of the
late feminary merits beyond companion the preference)
and a grand oblong fquare, lined with trees, and ferving
as a parade.
The Merchants Haven, along which extends a noble
quay, on which ftands the town-houfe, is protefted by
two moles, begun by Henry IV. The New Haven
was conftru&ed by Louis XIV. as were the fortifications
of the city. In the front of this haven is an arfenal,
containing all the places neceffary for the conftru&ion
and fitting out of veffels : the firft object that appears is
a rope-walk, entirely arched, extending as far as the
eye can reach, and built after the defigns of Vauban :
here cables are made, and above is a place for the pre¬
paration of hemp. Here likewife is the armoury for
mulkets, piftols, halberds, &c. In the park of ar¬
tillery are cannons placed in piles, bombs, grenades,
xnortars, and balls of various kinds, ranged in wonder-
T O U
The long fail-room, the foundery for can- Toulon
the dockyards, the bafons, &c. are all worthy of Touloufe
non
obfervation.
Both the Old and New Port have an outlet into the
fpacious outer road or harbour, which is furrounded by
hills, and formed by nature almoft circular. Its cir¬
cuit is of very great extent, and the entrance is defend,
ed on both fides by a fort with ftrong batteries. In a
word, the bafons, docks, and arfenal, at Toulon, war¬
ranted the remark of a foreigner that vifited them in the
late reign, that “ the king of France was greater there
than at Verfailles.” Toulon is the only mart in the
Mediterranean for the re-exportation of the products of
the Eaft Indies.
This place was deftroyed toward the end of the tenth
century, and pillaged by the African pirates almoft as
foon as rebuilt. The conftable of Bourbon, at the head
of the Imperial troops, obtained poffeflion of it in 1524,
as did Charles V. in 15363 but in the next century
Charles Emanuel duke of Savoy could not enter it, and
Pnnce Eugene in 1707 ineffe&ually laid fiege to it.
This city was furrendered by the inhabitants in Septem-
ber 1793 to the Britith admiral Lord Hood, as a con¬
dition and means of enabling them to effeft the re-efta-
blifhment of monarchy in France, according to the con-
ftitution of 1789. Lord Hood accordingly, in conjunc¬
tion with the Spaniflr land and naval forces, took pof¬
feflion of the harbour and forts in truft for Louis XVII.
It was garrifoned for fome time by the Britifti troops,
and their allies the Spaniards, Neapolitans, and Sardi¬
nians 3 but the French having laid fiege to it, the gar-
rifon was obliged to evacuate the place in the month of
December following, after having deftroyed the grand
axfenal, two ftiips of 84 guns, eight of yq, and two fri¬
gates 3 and carried off the Commerce de Marfeilles, a
fliip of 120 guns, with an 80 and 74 gun ftiip. This
exploit was moft gallantly performed, after it was found
impoflible to defend the town, or to carry off the fhips.
Lord Hood entrufted the management of the affair to
Sir Sydney Smith, fo diftinguifhed for his intrepidity.
Captain Hare commanded the fireftiip which was towed
into the grand arfenal 5 and fo eager was he to execute
his orders, that inftead of letting fire to the train in the
ufual cautious manner, he fired a piftol loaded with
powder into the bowl of the train, compofed of 36
pounds of powder and other combuftibles. The con-
fequence Avas, he Avas blown into the Avater Avith fuch
violence, as to knock a lieutenant of the Victory’s boat
overboard, and narrorvly efcaped with his life. A Spa-
nilh captain was appointed to fet fire to the fmall arfe¬
nal, but cowardice prevented him from executing his
orders 3 and this is the reafon why the Avbole French
ftiips Avere not deftroyed. We have been favoured Avith
this account by an officer of the Britifti fleet.
loulon is feated on a bay of the Mediterranean, 17
leagues fouth-eaft of Aix, 15 fouth-eaft of Marfeilles,
and 217 fouth-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 5. 56. N. Lat.
43; 7*
TOULOUSE, a very ancient city of France, in the
department of Upper Garonne, and late province of
Languedoc, Avith an archbiftiop’s fee. It is the moft
confiderable city in France next to Paris and Lyons,
although its population bears no proportion to its ex¬
tent. According to Mr Neckar’s calculation, it con¬
tains 56,000 inhabitants. The ftreets are A'ery hand-
fome,
T O U [4;
5 loufe, fotne, and the walls of the city, as well as the houfes,
uur• are built with bricks. The town-houfe, a modern
u £rU(g.ure^ forms a perfect fquare, 324 feet long and 66
high. The principal front occupies an entire fide of the
grand fquare, lately calk'd the Place Royalc. In the
oreat hall, called the Hall of lllujlrious Merit is the fta-
tue of the Chevalier Ifaure, and the bulls of all the
great men to whom Touloufe has given birth. Com-
ni inicating with the ocean on one fide by the river Ga
ronne, and with the Mediterranean on the other by the
canal of Languedoc, Touloufe might have been a great
commercial city ; but the tafte of the inhabitants has
been direded to the fciences and belles-lettres. Of
courfe, there are two colleges, two public libraries, and
three academies. The little commerce of Touloufe con-
lifts in leather, drapery, blankets, mignionets, oil, iron,
mercery, hardware, and books. The bridge over the
Garonne is at leatt equal to thofe of Tours and Orleans ;
it forms the communication between the fuburb of St
Cyprian and the city. The quays extend along the
banks of the Garonne ; and it has been in contempla¬
tion to line them with new' and uniform houfes. Tou¬
loufe is 37 miles call of Auch, 125 fouth-eaft of Bour-
deaux, and 3 50 fouth-by-weft of Paris. E. Long. 1.
32. N. Lat. 43. 36.
TOUR, Henry de la, Vifcount Turenne, a cele¬
brated French general, was the fecond fon of Henry de
la Tour duke of Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in
1611. He made his firft campaigns in Holland, under
Maurice and Frederic Henry princes of Orange ; who
were his uncles by the mother’s fide ; and even then dif-
tinguilhed himfelf by his bravery. In 1634 he march¬
ed with his regiment into Lorraine j and having contri¬
buted to the taking of La Mothe, was, though very
young, made marefchal de camp. In 1636 he took Sa-
verne, and the year following the caftles of Hirfon and
Sole ; on which occafion he performed an action like
that of Scipio’s, with refpeff to a very beautiful woman
whom he lent back to her hufband. The vifcount Tu-
yenne continued to dillinguifli himfelf in feveral fieges
and battles, and in 1644 was made marfhal of France 5
but had the misfortune to be defeated at the battle of
Mariendal in 1645. However, he gained the battle of
Nortlingen three months after'} reltored the eleffor of
Treves to his dominions; and the following year made
the famous junction of the French army with that of
Sweden commanded by General Wrangel, which obli¬
ged the duke of Bavaria to demand a peace. After¬
wards that duke breaking the treaty he had concluded
with France, he was defeated by the vifcount l urenne
at the battle of Zumarlhaufen, and in 1648 driven en¬
tirely out of his dominions. During the civil wars in
France he fided with the princes, and was defeated at
the battle of Rhetel in 1650 ; but foon after was refto-
red to the favour of the king, who in 1652 gave him
the command of his army. He acquired great honour
at the battles of Jergeau, Gren, and the fuburbs of St
Anthony, and by the retreat he made before the army
‘commanded by the princes at Ville Neuve St George.
In 1654 he made the Spaniards raifethe fiege of Arras :
the next year he took Conde, St Guilian, and feveral
other places ; gained the famous battle of Dunes ; and
made himfelf mailer of Dunkirk, Oudenarde, and al-
tnoll all Flanders : this obliged the Spaniards to con¬
clude the peace of the Pyrenees in 1660. Thefe ini-
VOL. XX. Part II.
7 ] T O U
portant fervices occafioned his being made marlhal-ge- Tour
neral of the king’s camps and armies. The war being li
renewed with Spain in 1667, Turenne commanded in
Flanders; and took fo many places, that in 1668 the — 
Spaniards were obliged to fue for peace. He command¬
ed the French array in the war againtl the Dutch in
1672 ; took 40 towns in 22 days ; purfued the elector
of Brandenburg even to Berlin ; gained the battles of
Slintflieinij Ladenburg, Enlheim, Mulhaufen, and Tur-
keim ; and obliged the Imperial army, which, conlilted
of 70,000 men, to repafs the Rhine. By this campaign
the vifcount Turenne acquired immortal honour. He
palled the Rhine to give battle to General Montecu-
culi, whom he followed as far as Salpach ; but mount¬
ing upon an eminence to difeover the enemy’s camp, he
was killed by a cannon-ball in 1675. All France re¬
gretted the lofs of this great man, who, by his military
exploits, had raifed the admiration of Europe.
TOURAINE, a province of France, bounded on
the north by Maine, on the call by Orleanois, on the
fouth by Berris, and on the well by Anjou and Poitou*
It is about }8 miles in length, and 55 in breadth where
it is broadeil. This country is watered by 17 rivers,
befides many brooks, which not only render it delight¬
ful, but keep up a communication with the neighbour¬
ing provinces. The air is temperate, and the loil is fo
fruitful that it is called the garden of France. It now
forms the department of Indre and Loire, of which
Tours is the capital.
TOURMALINE, a fpecies of mineral belonging
to the filiceous genus. See Mineralogy Index.
TOURNAMENT, a martial fport or exercife which
the ancient cavaliers ufed to perform, to {how their bra¬
very and addrefs. It is derived from the French word
tourner, i. e. “ to turn round,” becaufe to be expert in
thefe exercifes, much agility both of horfe and man was
requifite, they riding round a ring in imitation of the
ancient Circi.
The firft tournaments were only courfes on horfeback,
wherein the cavaliers tilted at each other with canes
in manner of lances ; and were diftinguilhed from jufts,
which were courfes or careers, accompanied with at¬
tacks and combats, with blunted lances and fwords.
See Just.
The prince who publilhed the tournament, ufed to
fend a king at arms, with a fafe-condudl, and a fword,
to all the princes, knights, &c. fignifying that he in¬
tended a tournament and clafliing of fwords, in the pre¬
fence of ladies and damlels ; which was the ufual for¬
mula of invitation.
They firft engaged man againft man, and then troop
again!! troop; and, after the combat, the judges allot¬
ted the prize to the beft cavalier, and the beft ftriker
of fwords ; who was accordingly conduced in pomp to
the lady of the tournament; whereafter thanking her
very reverently, he faluted her and likewife her two at¬
tendants. ...
Thefe tournaments made the principal diverfion of
the 13th and 14th centuries. Munfter fays, it was
Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, and afterwards em¬
peror, who died in 936, that firft introduced them ; but
it appears from the chronicle of Tours, that the true in¬
ventor of this famous fport, at lead in France, was one
Geoffry, lord of Preuilli, about the year 1066.
-Inftances of them occur among the Englilh in the
3 M reign
T O U
ioiirna- reign of King Stephen, about the year 1140 j but they
were not much in ufe till Richard’s time, towards the
Tournefort. year 1149* After which period thefe diverlions were
v-—performed with extraordinary magnificence in the Tilt-
yard near St James’s, Smith field, and other places.
The following is the account of a tournament, from
Maitland. King Richard II. defigning to hold a
tournament at London on the Sunday after Michaelmas,
fent divers heralds to make proclamations of it in all the
principal courts of Europe j and accordingly not a few
princes, and great numbers of the prime nobility, re-
forted hither from France, Germany, the Netherlands,
&c. I his folemnity began on Sunday afternoon, from
the Tower of London, with a pompous cavalcade of 60
ladies, each leading an armed knight by a filver chain,
being attended by their ’fquires of honour, and, palling
through Cheapfide, rode to Smithfield, where the jufts
and tournaments continued feveral days with magnifi¬
cent variety of entertainments ; on which occafion the
king kept open houfe at the bilhop of London’s palace
for all perfons of diftinftion, and every night concluded
with a ball.
^ At laft, however, they were found to be produ&ive
of bad effects, and the occafions of feveral fatal misfor¬
tunes—as in the in fiance of Henry II. of France, and
of the tilt exhibited at Chalons, which, from the num¬
bers killed on both Tides, was called the little war of
Chalons. Thefe and other inconveniencies, refulting
from thofe dangerous paftimes, gave the popes occafion
to forbid them, and the princes of Europe gradually
concurred in difcouraging and fupprefiing them.
TOURNAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands
in Flanders, and capital of a diftrift called Tournaysis,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is divided into tw'o parts by the
river Scheldt ; and is large, populous, well built, and
carries on a great trade in woollen fluffs and ftockings.
The cathedral is a very handfome ftrufture, and con¬
tains a great many chapels, with rich ornaments, and
feveral magnificent tombs of marble and brafs. The
town was taken by the allies in 1709 ; but was ceded
to the houfe of Aufiria by the treaty of Utrecht, though
the Dutch had a right to put in a garrifon. It was ta¬
ken by the French in June 1745, who demolilhed the
fortifications. In 1781 the emperor Jofeph II. obliged
the Dutch to withdraw their garrifon. It was taken
by the French in 1791, abandoned by them in 1793,
and again conquered by them in 1794. It is 14 miles’
muth-eaft of Lille, 30 fouth-weft of Ghent, and 13 c
north-by-eaft from Paris. E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat.
T'OURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, a famous
.wench botanift, was born at Aix in Provence in 1636.
He had a paflion for plants from his childhood, which
overcame his father’s views in putting him to ftudy phi-
lofophy and divinity ; therefore on his death he quitted
theology, and gave himfelf up entirely to phyfic, natu¬
ral hiftory, and botany. Fie wandered over the moun-
tains of Dauphiny, Savoy, Catalonia, the Pyrenees, and
the Alps, in fearch of new fpecies of plants, which he
acquired with much fatigue and danger. His fame in
1683 procured him the employment of botanic profeffor
in the king’s garden ; and by the king’s order, he tra¬
velled into Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England,
where he made prodigious colleftions of plants. In
1700, Mr Tournefort, in obedience to another order?
T R A
fimpled over all the illes of the Archipelago, upon the Tournefi
coafis of the Black fea, in Bithynia, Pontus, Cappado- || '
cia, Armenia, and Georgia ; making obfervations on Tra“‘t‘o I
natural hiftory at large, ancient and modern geography,
religion, manners, and commerce. He fpent three
years in this learned voyage j and then refuming his
profefiion, was made profeffor of phyfic in the college-
royal. He died in conlequencC of an accidental cruih
of bis bread by a cart-wheel, which brought on a fpit-
ting of blood and hydrothorax, that carried him off in
1708. He wrote Elements of Botany, both in French
and Latin ; A relation of his Voyage into the Levant j
with other pieces of lefs confideration.
I OURNI£)UET, in Surgery, an inftrument form¬
ed with fcrews, for compreffing any part with rollers,
&c. for the flopping of haemorrhagies. See Surgery
Index.
TOWER, a tall building confifting of feveral fio-
ries, ulually of a round form, though fome are fquare
or polygonal. Towers are built for fortreffes, &c. as
the Tower of London. See London, N° 46.
TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable num¬
ber of people, being of :■ middle fize between a city and
a village.
I OXICODENDRON. See Rhus, Botany In¬
dex.
TRAAS. See Terras.
TRACHEA. See Anatomy, N° 119.
1 RACHINUS, the Weever, a genus of fillies be¬
longing to the order of jugulares. See Ichthyology
Index.
TRACT, in Geography, an extent of ground, or a
portion of the earth’s furface.
Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmall trea-
tife or written difcourfe upon any fubjeft.
I RADE, in general, denotes the fame with com¬
merce, confifting in buying, felling, and exchanging of
commodities, bills, money, 6sc. See Commerce, Coin>
Money, Company, &c.
IRADE-lVmds, denote certain regular winds at fea,.
blowing either conftantly the fame way, or alternately
this way and that ; thus called from their ufe in naviga¬
tion, and the Indian commerce. See Meteorology.
TRADESMEN’S tokens, a term fynonymous a-
mong medalifis with provincial coins.
i. his is a fubjeft curious enough to deferve attention,
though we will not go fo far as Mr Pinkerton does,
who fays that it is a fubjeft in which the perpetual glory
of the nation is interefted. Since the year 1789 provin¬
cial halfpence have been made and circulated in confi¬
derable quantity. As, ancient medals and coins have
been frequently of ufe to hiftorians, it is to be regretted
that many of thefe provincial halfpence are rendered ufe*
lefs in this refpedl by unmeaning figures and puerile de¬
vices. Utility and elegance ought to be fiudied: for
this view it has been propofed by a gentleman of tafte
on this fubjeft, that all coins ftiould be diftinguiftred by
one of the following five charafleriflics. 1. Fac fimiks
of magnificent beautiful buildings. 2. Reprefentations
of great and ufeful undertakings. 3. Emblems of the
indufiry and commerce of the age. 4. The illuftrious
men, &c. to whom the nation has given birth. 5. Im¬
portant biftorical events.
TRADIT ION, fomething handed down from one
generation to another without being written. Thus the
Jews
r -458 i
1
T 1 A [ 459 1
adltion Jews pretended, that befides their written law contain- its breadth about 80.
T R A
ed in the Old Teftament, Mofes had delivered an oral
law which had been conveyed down from father to fon j
and thus the Roman Catholics are faid to value particu¬
lar doctrines fuppofed to have defcended from the apo-
ftolic times by tradition.
TRAGACANTH. See Astragalus, Materia
Medic a Index.
TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reprefenting fome
fignal aftion performed by illuftrious perfons, and which
has frequently a fatal iffue or end. See PoETRY, Part
II. fea. I.
TRAGI-COMEDY, a dramatic piece, partaking both
of the nature of tragedy and comedy ; in which a mix¬
ture of merry and ferious events is admitted.
TRAGOPOGON, Goat’s-beard j a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia •, and in the
natural fyftem ranging under the 49th ox&zr, Compojitee.
See Botany Index.
TRAJAN, Marcus Ulpius, a celebrated Roman
emperor, who gained many vidtories over the Parthians
and Germans, pulhing the empire to its utmoft extent
on the eaft and north fides. He died at Silinunte, a
city of Cilicia, which from him was called Trajanopolis,
in the year 117.
TRAJAN'S Column, a famous hilforical column ere£l-
ed in Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It is of
the Tufcan order, though fome what irregular : its
height is eight diameters, and its pedeftal Corinthian :
it was built in a large fquare called Forum Romanum.
Its bafe confifts of 12 ftones of an enormous fize, and is
raifed on a focle, or foot, of eight Heps : withinfide is a
ftaircafe illuminated with 44 windows. It is 140 feet
high, which is 35 feet fhort of the Antonine column,
but the workmanlhip of the former is much more va¬
lued. It is adorned from top to bottom with baffo re¬
lievos, reprefenting the great a&ions of the emperor
again!! the Dacians.
TRAIN, a line of gunpowder laid to give fire to a
quantity thereof, in order to do execution by blowing
up earth, works, buildings, &c.
TRAIN of Artillery, includes the great gurs and
other pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the
field.
T R AIN-Oil, the oil procured from the blubber of a
whale by boiling.
TRALLIAN, Alexander, a Greek writer on
phyfic, a native of Tralles in Lydia, who lived about
the middle of the fixth century. His works are divided
into 12 books \ in which he treats of diftempers as they
occur, from head to foot. He was the firft who opened
the jugular vein, and that ufed cantharides as a blifter
for the gout. Dr Freind, in his Hiftory of Phyfic,
ftyles him one of the moft valuable authors fince the
time of Hippocrates. Though he appears on the
whole to have been a rational phyfician, yet there are
things in his writings that favour of enthufiafm and fu-
perdition.
TR A-LOS-MONTES, a province of Portugal, cal¬
led in Latin Tranfniontana, becaufe fituated on the eaft
fide of a chain of hills that feparate it from Entre Du-
ero-e-Minho. It is bounded on the north by Galicia •,
on the fouth by the provinces of Beira and Leon ; by
the laft of w'hich it is bounded alfo to the eaft. Its
length from north to fouth is upwards of 120 miles, and
Tra-lds-
montes
It is full of mountains, and pro¬
duces little corn, but plenty of wine, fruits of feveral
forts, and abundance of game. Tra JLfion
TRANSACTIONS, a name generally given to a >..l—v—. ■>
colledtion of the papers read before literary or philofo-
phical focieties. The name of Philofophical Tranfac-
tions was firft adopted by the Royal Society of Lon¬
don.
The Philofophical TranfafHons to the end of the
year 1700 were abridged in three volumes by Mr John
Lowthorp : thofe from the year 1700 to 1720 were
abridged in two volumes by Mr Henry Jones : thofe
from 1719 to 1733 were abridged in two volumes by
Mr John Eames and Mr John Martyn ; Mr Martyn
continued the abridgment of thofe from 1732 to 1744
in two volumes, and of thofe from 1743 to 1750 in two
volumes.
They were for many years publiftied in numbers, and
the printing of them was always, from time to time, the
Angle adt of the refpedlive fecretaries, till the year 1752,
when the fociety thought fit that a committee fhouldbe
appointed to reconfider the papers read before them,
and to feledl out of them fuch as they fhould judge moft
proper for publication in the future Tranfaftions. They
are publiftied annually in two parts at the expence of
the fociety, and each fellow is entitled to receive one
copy gratis of every volume publiftied after his admifi
fion into the fociety.
They were firft fet on foot in 1665, by IVfr Olden¬
burg, fecretary of the fociety, and were continued by
him till the year 1677. Upon his death, they were dif-
continued till January 1678, when Dr Grew refumed
the publication of them, and continued it for the months
of December 1678, and January and February 1679,
after which they were intermitted till January 1683!,
During this laft interval they were fupplied in forae
meafure by Dr Hooke’s Philofophical Colledlions. They
were alfo interrupted for three years, from December
1687 to January 1691, befide other fmaller interrup¬
tions, amounting to near one year and a half more, be¬
fore Odlober 1695, fince which time the Tranfadtions
have been regularly carried on.
TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcendent, fome-
thing elevated, or raifed above other things ; which
paffes and tranfeends the nature of other inferior things.
TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original waiting, par¬
ticularly that of an adt or inftrument inferted in the bo¬
dy of another.
TRANSFER, in commerce, an ad! whereby a per-
fon furrenders his right, intereft, or property, in any
thing moveable or immoveable, to another.
TRANSFORMATION, in general, denotes a
change of form, or the alfuming a new form different
from a former one.
TRANSFUSION, the ad! of pouring a liquor out of
one veffel into another.
TRANSPUSION of Blood, an operation by which it
was fome time ago imagined that the age of animals
would be renewed, and immortality, or the next thing
to it, conferred on thofe who had undergone it.
The method of transfufing Dr Lower gives us to the
following effed! : take up the carotid artery of the dog,
or other animal, whofe blood is to be transfufed into
another of the fame, or a different kind : feparate it
from the nerve of the eighth pair, and lay it bare above
3 M 2 an
T It A
Frftnsfufion. an inch. Make a ftrong ligature on tke upper part of
■' t|ie artery j and an inch nearer the heart another liga¬
ture with a running knot, to be loofened and faftened
as occafion requires. Draw two threads between the
two ligatures, open the artery, put in a quill, and tie
up the artery again upon the quill by the two threads,
and flop the quill by a flick*
Then make bare the jugular vein of the other animal
for about an inch and a half in length, and at each end
make a ligature with a running knot j and in the fpace
between the two knots draw under the veins two threads,
as in the other. Open the vein, and put into it two
quills, one into the defcending part of the vein, to re¬
ceive the blood from the other dog, and carry it to the
heart j the other quill put into the other part of the ju¬
gular, towards the head, through which the fecond ani¬
mal’s own blood is to run into dirties. The quills thus
tied fall, flop them up with flicks till there be occafion
to open them.
Things thus difpofed, fallen the dogs on their Tides
towards one another, in fuch manner as that the quills
may go into each other ; then unflop the quill that goes
down into the fecond dog’s jugular vein, as alfo that
coming out of the other dog’s artery J and by the help
of two or three other quills put into each other, as there
fhall be occafion, infert them into one another. Then
flip the running knots, and immediately the blood runs
through the quills as through an artery, very impetu-
oufly. As the blood runs into the dog, unltop the quill
in the upper part of his jugular, for his own blood to
run out at, though not conflantly, but as you perceive
him able to bear it, till the other dog begins to cry and
faint, and at lafl die. Lnjlly, Take both quills out of
the jugular, tie the running knot fafl, and cut the vein
afunder, and few up the fkin : the dog, thus difiniiTed,
will run away as if nothing ailed him.
In the Philofophical Tranfadtions we have accounts of
the fuccefs of various transfufions pradlifed at London,
Paris, in Italy, &c. Sir Edmund King transfufed forty-
nine ounces of blood out of a calf into a fheep ; the
fheep, after the operation, appearing as well and as
flrong as before.
M. Denis tranfufed the blood of three calves into
three dogs, which all continued brifk, and ate as well
as before. The fame perfon transfufed the blood of
four wethers into a horfe twenty-fix years old, which
thence received much flrength, and a more than ordi¬
nary appetite.
Soon after this operation was introduced at Paris, viz.
in 1667 and 1668, M. Denis performed it on five hu¬
man fubjedls, two of whom recovered of diforders under
which they laboured,, one being in perfed health fuffer-
ed no inconvenience from it; and two perfons who were
ill, and fubmitted to the operation, died j in confequence
of which the magiftrates iffued a fentence, prohibiting
the transfufion on human bodies under pain of imprifon-
ment.
Mr:John Hunter, we are told, made many ingenious
experiments to determine the effe£ls of transfufing blood,
fome of which are fufficient to attradl attention. Eut
whether fuch experiments can ever be made with fafety
on the human body, is a point not eafily determined.
They might be allowed in defperate cafes proceeding
from a corruption of the blood, from poifon, &c. as in
hydrophobia.
[ 460 3
T R A
Tranfit
TRANSIT, from tranjit, “ it paffes over,1’ fignifies
the paffage of any planet over the fun, moon, or liars. II
TRANSITION, the paflage of any thing from oneTra,1.lnm!
place to another. tl0n•
Iransition, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° 39.
1RANSI1IVE, in Grammar, an epithet applied to
fuch verbs as fignify an aftion which pafies from thefub-
je£l that does it, to or upon another lubjedt which re¬
ceives it. Under the head of verbs tranfitive come what
we ufually call verbs abiive and pajjive; other verbs,
whole aftion does not pafs out of themlelves, are called
neuters.
I RANSLATION, the adt of transferring or re¬
moving a thing from one place to another ; as we fay,
the tranllation of a bilhop’s fee, a council, a feat of juf-
tice, &c.
i RANSLATION is alfo ufed for the verfion of a book
or writing out of one language into another.
The principles of tranllation have been clearly and ac¬
curately laid down by Dr Campbell of Aberdeen in his
invaluable Preliminary Difiertations to his excellent
tranflations of the gofpels. Phe fundamental rules
which he eltablilhes are three : 1. That the tranllation
lliould give a complete tranfeript of the ideas of the ori¬
ginal. 2. f hat the dyle and manner of the original
lliould be preferved in the tranllation. 3. That the
tranllation Ihould have all the eafe of original compofi-
tion. i he rules dedueible from thefe general laws are
explained and illuflrated with much judgment and
talle. in an Effay on the Principles of Tranflation, by
Mr Pytler, judge-advocate of Scotland.
TRANSMARINE, fomething that comes from or
belongs to the parts beyond fea.
1 RANSMIGRA'J ION, the removal or tranflation
of a whole people into another country, by the power
of a conqueror.
I R ANSMIGRATION is particularly ufed for the pafiage
of the foul out of one body into another. See Metem¬
psychosis.
J RANSMUI A I ION, the afl of changing one
fubllance into another.
Nature, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is delighted with
tranfmutation : water, which is a fluid, volatile, talle?
lefs,. fait, is, by heat, tranfmuted into vapour, which is
a kind of air y and by cold into ice, which is a cold,
tranfparent, brittle Rone, eafily diffolvable 5 and this
Rone is convertible again into water by heat, as vapour
is by cold.—Earth, by heat, becomes fire, and, by cold,,
is turned into earth again : denfe bodies, by fermenta¬
tion, are rarefied into various kinds of air ; and that air,
by fermentation alio, and fometimes without it, reverts
into grofs bodies. All bodies, bealis, fifhes, infefls,
plants, &c. with all their various parts, grow and in-
creafe out of water and aqueous and faline tinfluresj
and, by putrefaflion, all of them revert into water, or
an aqueous liquor again.
Transmutation, in alchemy, denotes the ?.£l of
changing imperfed metals into gold or filver. This is
alfo called the grand operation ; and, they fay, it is to
be eflfefled with the philofopher’s Rone.
The trick of tranfmuting cinnabar into filver is thus :
the cinnabar, being bruifed grofsly, is flvatified in a cru¬
cible with granulated filver, and the crucible placed in
a great fire ; and, after due time for calcination, taken
off y then the matter, being poured out, is found to be
cinnabar
1
l
T R A [ 461 ] T R E
ifmuta- cinnabar turned into real filver, though the filver grains
ion appear in the fame number and form as when they were
II pUt into the crucible; but the mifchief is, coming to
• * handle the grains of filver, you find them nothing but
. Ught friable bladders which will crumble to pieces be¬
tween the fingers.
The tranfmutability of water into eapth feems to have
been believed by Mr Boyle*, and Bilhop Watfon thinks
that it has not yet been difproved. See his Chemical
EJfays.
Transmutation of Acids, or of Metals, is the
change of one acid or of one metal into another.
TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that
is framed acrofs a double-light window.
TRANSOMS, in a fhip, certain beams or timbers
extended acrofs the fternpoft of a Ihip, to fortify her
afterpart, and give it the figure moft fuitable to the
fervice for which (he is calculated.
TRANSPARENCY, in Phyfics,* a quality in cer¬
tain bodies, whereby they give paffage to the rays of
light: in conftradiftintRion to opacity, or that quality
of bodies which renders them impervious to the rays of
light.
It has been generally fuppofed by philofophers, that
tranfparent bodies have their pores difpofed in ftraight
lines, by which means the rays of light have an oppor¬
tunity of penetrating them in all directions', but fome
experiments in eleClricity have made it apparent, that
by the aCtion of this fluid the moft opaque bodies, fuch
as fulphur, pitch, and fealing-wax, may be rendered
tranfparent as glafs, while yet we cannot fuppofe the di¬
rection of their pores to be any way altered from what it
originally was (fee Electricity). There is a curious
inftance of an increafe of tranlparency in rubbing a piece
of white paper over one that has been written upon or
printed : while the white paper is at reft, the writing or
print will perhaps fcarce appear through, it ; but when
in motion, will be very ealily legible, and continue fo
till the motion is difcontinued.
TRANSPOSITION, in Grammar, a difturbing or
diflocating the words of a difeourfe, or a changing their
natural order of conftruClion, to pleafe the ear by render¬
ing the contexture more fmooth, eafy, and harmonious.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in Theology, the
converfion or change of the fubftance of the bread and
wine in the eucharift, into the body and blood of Jefus
Chrift \ which the Romifti church fuppofe to be wrought
by the confecration of the prieft. See SUPPER of the
Lordy N° 9.
TRANSVERS ALIS, in Anatomy, a name given to
feveral mufcles. See Anatomy, Part II.
TRANSVERSE, fomething that goes acrofs another
from corner to corner : thus bends and bars in heraldry
are tranfverfe pieces or bearings ; the diagonals of a
parallelogram or a fquare are tranfverfe lines.
TRANSYLVANIA,a province of Europe, annexed
to Hungary, and bounded on the north by Upper Hun¬
gary and Poland, on the eaft by Moldavia and Wa¬
lachia, on the fouth by Walachia, and on the weft by
Upper and Lower Hungary. It is (urrounded on all
parts by high mountains, which, however, are not bar¬
ren. The inhabitant* have as much corn and wine as
they want themfelves; and there are rich mines of gold,
filver, lead, copper, quickfilver, and alum. It has un¬
dergone various revolutions 5 but it now belongs to the
houfe of Auftria. The inhabitants are of feveral forts
of religions 9 as Papifts, Lutherans, Calvinifts, Socini-
ans, Photinians, Arians, Greeks, and Mahometans. It c
is about 162 miles in length, and ijo in breadth. The
adminiftration of affairs is conducted by twelve perfonsj
namely, three Roman Catholics, three Lutherans, three
Calvinifts, and three Socinians. The militia is com¬
manded by the governor, whofe commiffion is the more
important, as Tranfylvania is the bulwark of Chriften-
dom. It is divided into feveral (mail diftridts, called^
palatinates and counties; and is inhabited by three dif¬
ferent nations, Saxons, Silefians, and Hungarians. Her-
manftadt is the capital town.
TRAPEZIUM, in Geometry, a plane figure con¬
tained under four unequal right lines.
TRAPEZIUS, a mufcle. See Anatomy, PartIL
TRAPP, a compound rock. See Geology.
TRAVELLERS joy. See Clematis, Botany
Index.
TRAVERSE, or Transvef iE, in general, denotes
fomething that goes athwart another j that is, croffes
and cuts it obliquely.
Traverse, \n Navigation, implies a compound courfe,
or an affemblage of various courfes, lying at different
angles with the meridian. See Navigation.
TRAVERSE Board, a thin circular piece of board,
marked with all the points of the compafs, and having
eight holes bored in each, and eight fmall pegs hang¬
ing from the centre of the board. It is ufed to de¬
termine the different courfes run by a fhip during tbo
period of the watch, and to afcertain the diftance of each
courfe.
TRAVESTY, a name given to a humorous tranf-
lation of any author. The word is derived from the
French travefer, “ to difguife.”
TREACLE, or Melasses. See Sugar.
Treacle Beer. See Spruce.
Treacle Mufard. See Clypeola, Botany Index.
TREASON, a general appellation, made ufe of by
the law, to denote not only offences againft the king
and government, but alfo that accumulation of guilt
which arifes whenever a fuperior repofes a confidence in
a fubjeft or inferior, between whom and himfelf there
fubfifts a natural, a civil, or even a fpiritual relation;
and the inferior fo abufes that confidence, fo forgets the
obligations of duty, fubjeftion, and allegiance, as to de*
ftroy the life of any fuch fuperior or lord. Hence trea-
fon is of two kinds, high and petty.
High Treafon, or Treafon Paramount (which is equi¬
valent to tile crimen la jo- majcfutis of the Romans, as
Glanvil denominates it alfo in our Englifh law), is .an
offence committed againft the fecurity of the king or
kingdom, whether by imagination, word,, or deed. In
order to prevent the inconveniences which arofe in Eng¬
land from a multitude of conftrudtive treafons, the fta-
tute 25 Edw. III.c. 2. was made; which defines what
offences only for the future ftiould be held to be trea¬
fon ; and this ftatute comprehends all kinds of high-
treafon under feven diftinft branches.-
“ 1. When a man doth compafs or imagine the death
of our lord the king, of our lady his queen, or of their
eldeft fon and heir.” Under this defeription it is held
that a queen-regnant (fuch as Queen Elizabeth and
Quyen
Tranfyi-
vania
II
Treafon.
Z
the
Treafon. Queen Anne) is within the words of the a£V, being in-
v verted with royal power, and intitled to the allegiance
of her fubjedrts : but the hulhand of fuch a queen is not
comprifed within thefe words ; and therefore no treafon
can be committed againft; him.
Let us next fee what is a comparing or imagining the
death of the king, &c. Thefe are fynonymous terms :
the word compafs Signifying the purpofe or defign of the
mind or will ; and not, as in common Speech, the car¬
rying fuch defign to efTeft. And therefore an acciden¬
tal ftroke, which may mortally wound the Sovereign,
per infortunium, without any traitorous intent, is no trea¬
fon : as was the cafe of Sir Walter Tyrrel, who, by the
command of King William Rufus, fliooting at a hart,
the arrow glanced againft a tree, and killed the king
upon the fpot. But as this comparting or imagination is
an aft of the mind, it cannot poflibly fall under any
judicial cognizance, unlefs it be demonftrated by Some
open or overt aft. The ftatute exprefsly requires, that
the accufed “ be thereof upon fufticient proof attainted
of Some open aft by r*.n of his own condition.” Thus,
to provide weapons or ammunition for the purpofe of
killing the king, is held to be a palpable overt aft of
treafon in imagining his death. To confpire to imprifon
the king by force, and move towards it by afiembling
company, is an overt aft of comparting the king’s death j
for all force ufed to the perfon of the king, in its confe¬
rence may tend to his death, and is a ftrong prefump-
tion of Something worfe intended than theprefent force,
by Such as have fo far thrown off their bounden duty to
their Sovereign : it being an old observation, that there
is generally but a rtiort interval between the prifons and ’
the graves of princes. It feems clearly to be agreed,
that by the common law and the ftatute of Edw. III.
.words Spoken amount only to a high miSdemeanor, and
no treaSon. For they may be Spoken in heat, without
any intention } or be miftaken, perverted, or mifremem-
bered by the hearers ; their meaning depends always on
their conneftion with other words and things; they may
Signify differently even according to the tone of voice
with which they are delivered ; and fometimes filence
Itfelf is more expreflive than any dilcourfe. As there¬
fore there can be nothing more equivocal and ambiguous
than words, it would indeed be unreasonable to make
-them amount to high treafon. And accordingly, in
Cai. I. on a reference to all the judges, concerning
fome very atrocious words Spoken by one Pyne, they
certified to the king, “ that though the words were as
wicked as might be, yet they were no treafon ; for un¬
lefs it be by fome particular ftatute, no words will be
treaSon.” If the wTords be fetdown in writing, it argues
more deliberate intention ; and it has been "held, that
writing is an overt aft of treafon ; inx fcribere ejl 'ngere.
But even in this cafe the bare words are not the treafon
but the deliberate aft of writing them.
2. The fecond Species of treafon is, “ if a man do vio¬
late the king’s companion, or the king’s eldeft datio-hter
unmarried, or the wife of the king’s eldeft fon and heir.”
By the king’s companion is meant his wife ; and by vio¬
lation is underftood carnal knowledge, as well without
force as with it : and this is high treafon in both parties
U both be confenting ; as fome of the wives of Hen¬
ry VIII. by fatal experience evinced.
3. The third fpecies of treaSon is, “ if a man do levy
v/ai againft our lord the king in his realm.” And this
[ 462 ]
T R E
may be done by taking arms, not only to dethrone the Trtafo
king, but under pretence to reform religion, or the laws UT'
or to remove evil counfellors, or other grievances whe¬
ther real or pretended. For the law does not, neither
can it permit any private man, or fet of men, to inter,
fere forcibly in matters of fuch high importance j efpe-
cially as it has eftablifhed a fufticient power for thele
purpofes in the high court of parliament: neither does
the eonftitution juftify any private or particular refift-
ance for private or particular grievances ; though, in
Cafes of national oppreffion, the nation has very juftifi.
ably rifen as one man, to vindicate the original contraft
fubfifting between the king and his people.
^ 4‘ If a man be adherent to the king’s enemies in
his realm, giving to them aid and comfort in the realm
or elfewhere,” he is alfo declared guilty of high-treafon.
I his muft likewife be proved by fome overt aft ; as by
giving them intelligence, by fending them provifions,
by felling them arms, by treacheroufty furrendering a
fortrefs, or the like.
5* “ a man counterfeit the king’s great or privy
feal,. this is alio high-treafon. But if a man takes wax
bearing the impreftion of the great feal off from one pa¬
tent, and fixes it to another, this is held to be only an
abufe of the feal, and not a counterfeiting of it : as”was
the cafe of a certain chaplain, who in fuch a manner
framed a difpenfation for non-refidence. But the knav-
ifti artifice of a lawyer much exceeded this of the divine.
One of the clerks in chancery glued together two pieces
of parchment ; on the uppermoft of which he wrote a
patent, to which he regularly obtained the great feal,
the label going through both the Ikins. He then dif-
folved the cement, and taking off the written patent,
on the blank fkin, wrote a frtfti patent of a different
import from the former, and publithed it as true. This
was held no counterfeiting of the great feal, but only a
gieat nufprifion ; and Sir Edward Coke mentions it
with fome indignation that the party was living at that
day.
6. 1 he fixth fpecies of treafon under this ftatute is,
if a man counterfeit the king’s money ; and if a man
bring falfe money into the realm counterfeit to the mo¬
ney of England, knowing the money to be falfe, to mer-
chandife and make payment withal.” As to the firft
branch, counterfeiting the king’s money; this is trea¬
fon, whether the falfe money be uttered in payment or
not. Alfo if the king’s own minters alter the ftandard
or alloy eftablifhed by law, it is treafon. But gold and
filver money only are held to be within this ftatute.
With regard likewife to the fecond branch, importing
foreign counterfeit money in order to utter it here; it is
held that uttering it, without importing it, is not with¬
in the ftatute.
7\ Fhe laft fpecies of treafon afcertained by this fta¬
tute is,. “ if a man flay the chancellor, treafurer, or the
king’s juftices of the one bench or the other, juftices in
eyre, or juftices of aflize, and all other juftices afligned
to hear and determine, being in their places doing their
offices.” Thefe high magiftrates, as they reprefent the
king’s majefty during the execution of their offices, are
therefore for the time equally regarded by the law. But
this ftatute extends only to the aftual killing of them ;
and not to wounding, or a bare, attempt to kill them.
It extends alfo only to the officers therein fpecified ; and
therefore the barons of the exchequer, as fuch, are not
within
THE [ 463
reafon. within the protection of this aftj but the lord keeper or
-Y*■^commiflioners of the great feal now feem to be within
it, by virtue of the ftatutes 5 Eliz. c. 18. and 1 W. and
M. c. 21.
The new treafons, created fince the ftatute 1 M. c. 1.
and not comprehended under the defcription of ftatute
25 Edw. III. may be comprifed under three heads. The
firit fpecies relates to Papiftsy the fecond to faliifying
the coin or other royal fignatures, as faliely forging the
fign manual, privy fignet, or privy feal, which (hall be
deemed high treafon (t M. flat. ii. c. 6.). The third
new fpecies of high treafon is fuch as was created for
the fecurity of the Protellant fucceflion in the houfe of
Hanover. For this purpofe, after the aft of fettlement
was made, it was enafted by ftatute 13 and 14 W. III.
c. 3. that the pretended prince ot Wales, affuming the
title of King James III. fhould be attainted of high trea¬
fon 5 and it was made high-treafon for any of the king’s
fubjefts to hold correfpondence with him or any perfon
employed by him, or to remit money for his ufe. And
by 17 Geo. II. c. 39. it is enafted, that if any of the
fons of the pretender {ball land or attempt to land in
this kingdom, or be found in the kingdom or any of its
dominions, he fhall be adjudged attainted of high-trea-
lonj and correfponding with them or remitting money
to their ufe is made high treafon. By 1 Ann. flat. 2.
c. 17. the offence of hindering the next in fucceflion
from fucceeding to the crown is high-treafon: and by
6 Ann. c. 7. if any perfon fhall malicioufly, advifedly,
and direftly, by writing or printing, maintain, that any
other perfon hath any right to the crown of this realm,
otherwife than according to the aft of fettlement, or
that the kings of this realm with the authority of par¬
liament are not able to make laws to bind the crown
and its defeentj fuch perfon fhall be guilty of high-
treafon.
The punilhment of high treafon in general is very fo-
lemn and terrible. 1. That the offender be drawn to
the gallows, and not be carried or walk 5 though ufual-
ly (by connivance, at length ripened by humanity into
law) a fledge or hurdle is allowed, to preferve the of¬
fender from the extreme torment of being dragged on
the ground or pavement. 2. That he be hanged by the
neck, and then cut down alive. 3. That his entrails
be taken out, and burned while he is yet alive. 4. That
his head be cut off. 5. That his body be divided into
four parts. 6. That his head and quarters be at the
king’s difpofal.
The king may, and often doth, difcharge all the pu-
nifhment except beheading, efpecially where any of noble
blood are attainted. For beheading being part ot the
judgment, that may be executed, though all the reft
be omitted by the king’s command. But where be¬
heading is no part of the judgment, as in murder or
other felonies, it hath been faid that the king cannot
change the judgment, although at the requeft of the
party, from one fpecies of death to another.
In the cafe of coining, which is a treafon of a diffe¬
rent complexion from the reft, the punifhment is milder
for male offenders1, being only to be drawn and hanged
by the neck till dead. But in treafons of every kind
the punifhment of women is the fame, and different from
that of men. For as the natural modefty of the fex for¬
bids the ex poling and publicly mangling their bodies,
their fentence (which is to the full as terrible to fenfe as
]
T R E
the other) is to be drawn to the gallows, and there to be Treafon
burned alive. |1
For the confequences of this judgment, fee Attain- ^reafurer^
der, Forfeiture, and Corruption of Blood.
Betty or Petit Treafon, according to the ftatute 25
Edward III. c. 2. may happen three ways: by a fer-
vant killing his mafter, a wife her huftmnd, or an eccle-
fiaftical perlon (either fecular or regular) his fuperior, to
whom he owes faith and obedience. A fervant who
kills his mafter whom he has left, upon a grudge con¬
ceived again ft him during his fervice, is guilty of petty
treafon: for the traitorous intention was hatched while
the relation fubfifted between them, and this is only an
execution of that intention. So if a wife be divorced
a merfa et thoro, ftill the vinculum matrimonii fubfilts $
and if ftie kills fuch divorced hufband, (he is a traitrefs.
And a clergyman is underftood to owe canonical obedi¬
ence to the biftiop who ordained him, to him in whofe
diocefe he is beneficed, and alfo to the metropolitan of
fuch fuifragan or diocefan bilhop; and therefore to kill
any of thele is petit treafon. As to the reft, whatever
has been faid with relpeft to wilful Murder, is alfo
applicable to the crime of petit treafon, which is no
other than murder in its moft odious degree j except
that the trial lhall be as in cafes of high treafon, before
the improvements therein made by the ftatutes of Wil¬
liam III. But a perfon mdifted of petit treafon may
be acquitted thereof, and found guilty of manflaughter
or murder: and in fuch cafe it fhould feem that two
witneffes are not neceffary, as in cafes of petit treafcn
they are. Which crime is alfo diftinguilhedfrom mur¬
der in its punifhment.
The punifhment of petit treafon in a man, is to be
drawn and hanged, and in a woman to be drawn and
burned : the idea of which latter punifhment feems to
have been handed down to us from the laws of the an¬
cient Druids, which condemned a woman to be burned
for murdering her hufband; and it is now the ufual
punifhment for all forts of treafons committed by thofe
of the female fex. Perfons guilty of petit treafon were
firft debarred the benefit of clergy by ftatute 12 Henry
VII. c. 7. which has fince been extended to their aiders,
abettors, and counfellors, by ftatutes 23 Henry VIII. c.
I, 4, and 5 P. and M. c. 4.
TREASURE, in general, denotes a ftore or flock of
money in referve.
TREASURE-Trove, in Law, derived from the French
word trover, “ to find,” called in Latin thefaurus inven¬
tus, is where any money or coin, gold, filver, plate, or
bullion, is found hidden in the earth or other private
place, the owner thereof being unknown; in which cafe
the treafure belongs to the king: but if he that had hid
it be known, or afterwards found out, the owner and not
the king is intilled to it.
TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of
a prince or corporation is committed to be kept and duly
difpofed of, in payment of officers and other expences.
See Treasury.
Of thefe there is great variety. His majefty of Great
Britain, in quality of eleftor of Hanover, is arch-trea-
furer of the Roman empire. In England, the principal
officers under this denomination are, the lord high-trea-
furer, the treafurer of the houfehold, trealurer of the
navy, of the king’s chamber, &c.
The lord high-treafurer of Great Britain, or firft com-
miflioner
T Pi E [ 464
Treafurer miflioner of the treafury, -when in commJffion, has un-
Trcbuchet. ^er. ^*s.c^arSe an^ government all the king’s revenue
which is kept in the exchequer. He holds his place
during the king’s pleafure •, being inftituted by the de¬
livery of a white ftaff to him. He lias the check of
all the officers employed in colle&ing the cuftoms and
royal revenues : and in his gift and difpofition are all
the offices of the cuftoms in the feveral ports of the king¬
dom j efcheators in every county are nominated by
him ; he alfo makes leafes of the lands belongino' to
the crown.
-The office of lord-treafurer is now in comtniffion.
The number of lords-commiffioners is five 5 one of whom
is the firft lord, whofe annual falary was formerly
383I. but is now 4000I. ; and who, unlefs he be s
peer, is alfo chancellor of the exchequer, and prime
minifter in the government of this country 5 the other
lords commiffioners have an annual falary of 1600I.
each.
Treasurer of the floufehohd, is an officer who, in
the abfence of the lord-fleward, has power, with the
comptroller and other officers of the green-cloth and
the fteward of the Marfhalfea, to hear ajid determine
treafons, felonies,. and other crimes committed within
the king’s palace. See Household.
There is alfo a treafurer belonging to the eftabliffi-
ir.ent of her majefty’s houfehold, &c.
TREASURER of the hhavy^ is an officer who receives
money out of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord
liigh-treafurer, or the lords commiffioners executing that
place 5 and. pays all charges of the navy, by warrant
from the principal officers of the navy.
TREASURER of the County, he that keeps the county
flock. There are two of them in each county, chofen
by the major part of the juftices of the peace, &c. at
their general quarter feffion ; under previous fecurity
given for the money entrufted with them, and the faith¬
ful execution of the truffis repofed in them.
.1 REA3URY, the place wherein the revenues of a
prince are received, preferved and diffiurfen. In Eno--
land the treafury is a part of the exchequer $ by fome
called the lower exchequer. The officers of his ma-
jeffiy’s treafury, or the lower exchequer, are the lords
commiffioners, one of whom is chancellor, two joint fe-
eretaries, private fecretary to the firft lord, two cham¬
berlains, an auditor, four tellers, a clerk of the pells
ufilers of the receipt, a tallv-cutter, &e. See each officer
under his proper article, Chancellor, Teller, Tal¬
ly, &c.
Lords of the TREASURE. In lieu of one fingle di-
reft.r and adminillrator of his majefty’s revenues under
the title of lord high treafufer, it is at prefent thought
proper to put that office in commiffion, i. e to ap¬
point feveral perfons. to difcharge it with equal au-
tnonfy, under the title of lords cormnijjioners of the
treafury. J
• ISE, a fet difcourfe in writing on any fub-
. TREATY, a covenant between two or more na¬
tions ; or the feveral articles or conditions ftipulated
and agreed upon by two fovereign powers.
TREBLE, in AZiy/fc, the higheft or mofi acute of
the four parts in fymphony, or that which is heard the
clearett and ftmlleft in a concert.
TREE UCHET, Trebucket, Tribuch (Terbiche-
J
THE
Alfo a great engine TreWb
Tres,
turn'), a tumbrel or cucking ftool.
to caft ftones to batter walls.
TREE, a large vegetable, rifing with one woody
flem to a confiderable height.
Trees may be divided into two clafles, timber uni.
fruit-trees ; the firft including all thofe trees which are
ufed in machinery, ftiip-biiilding, &c. or, in general
for purpofes of utility j and the fecond comprehending
thofe trees valued only, or chiefly, for their fruit. It b
not neeeffary to form a third clafs to include trees ufed
for fuel, as timber is ufed for this purpofe where it is
abundant ; and where it is not abundant the branches
of the timber trees, or fuch of them as are dwarfifh, un¬
healthy, or too fmall for mechanical purpofes, are ufed
as fuel.
The anatomy and phyfiology of trees have already
been given under-the generic name Plant and Sap.
Certain trees, it is well known, are natives of parti¬
cular diftrifts 5 but many of them have been tranfplant-
ed from their native foil, and now flouriffi luxuriantly in
diilant countries, lo that it becomes a matter of very
confiderable. difficulty to afcertain their original foil.
I'he following rules are given for this purpofe by the
Honourable Haines Barrington.
1 l rnu. grow in large mafles, and cover confi-
■derable tradh of ground, the woods not ending abrupt*-
ly, by a change to other trees, except the fituation and
ftrata become totally different. 2. They mult grow
kindly in copfes, and fhoot from the flool, fo as to con¬
tinue for ever, if not very carefully grubbed up. 3. The
feed muft ripen kindly •, nature never plants but where
a fucceffion in the greateft profufion will continue. Laft-
ly, trees that give names to many places are probably
indigenous.
The growth of trees is a curious and interefting fub*
je£t ; yet few experiments have been made to deter¬
mine what the additions are which a tree receives an-
'nually in different periods of its age. The only obfer-
vations which we have feen on this fubjeft worth re¬
peating were made by the ingenious Mr Barker, to
whom the Philofophical Tranfadlions are much indebt¬
ed for papers containing an accurate regifter of the
weather, v'hich he has kept for many years. He has
drawn up a table to point out the growth of three kinds
©f trees, oaks, allies, and elms j which may be feen
in the.Philofophical TranfaRions for 1788. We lhall
give his conclufions.
“ I find (fays he) the growth of oak and afii to be
nearly the.farae. I have Tome of both forts planted at
the fame time, and in the fame hedges, of which the
oaks are the largeft 5 but there is no certain rule as to
that. The common growth of an oak or an alh is
about an inch in girth in a year 5 fome thriving ones
will grow an inch and a half j the unthriving ones not
fo much. Great trees grow more timber in a year than
fmall ones j for if the annual growth be an inch, a coat
of one-lixth of an inch is laid on all round, and ;be
timber added to the body every year is its length mul¬
tiplied into the thicknefs of the coat and into the girth,
and therefore the thicker the tree is, the more timber is
added.”
We will prefent our readers with a table, Ihowing
the growth of 17 kinds of trees for two years. The
trees grew at Cavenhani in Suffolk.
Oak
T R E
[ 465 ] T R E
Tree.
1 Oak
2 Larch
3 Scotch fir
4 Spruce fir
r Spanifh chefnut
6 Elm
7 Pinafter
8 Larch
9 Weymouth pine
10 Acacia
11 Beech
12 Plane, occidental
3 Lombardy poplar
14 Black poplar
15 Willow
6 Silver fir
7 Lime
July 17S5
F. In.
O I Of
0$
3i
5t
7f
3i
Si
5
6i
6f
8
2i
9i
7t
8f
July 17S6
. F. In.
O Ilf
1 3
Si
61
7i
9
4i
6
6
5l
6f
7i
o
4i
2
81
1
o
o
2
2
1
O
1
o
o
2
I
3
o
I IOf
July 17S7.
F. In.
Of
4
7!
Ti
8
1
1
1
o
o
2 11
2 7f
1
o
1
o
o
2
1
3
o
2
7
7!
6f
7i
81
3l
5l
3
91
o
Trees fometimes attain a very great fize : this muft
depend in a great meafure on the richnefs of foil, but
no lefs on the degree of heat. Indeed heat is fo effen-
tial to the growth of trees, that as we go from the
place within the polar circles where vegetation begins,
and advance to the equator, we find the trees increafe
in fize. Greenland, Iceland, and other places in the
fame latitude, yield no trees at all; and the fhrubs which
they produce are dwarfifh ; whereas, in warm climates,
they often grow to an immenfe fize. Mr Marlhamfaw
fpruce and filver firs in the dock-yard in Venice above
40 yards long, and one of 39 yards was 18 inches dia¬
meter at the fmall end. He was informed that they
came from Switzerland.
The largeft tree in Europe, mentioned by travellers,
is the chefnut tree on Mount Etna, already defcribed
under the article Etna, N° 18. It is a certain fad!
that trees acquire a very great fize in volcanic coun¬
tries. Befide the multitude of fine groves in the neigh¬
bourhood of Albano in Italy, there are many detached
«aks 20 feet in circumference, and many elms of the
fame fize, efpecially in the romantic wTay to Eaftello,
called the Galleria. In travelling by the fide of the
lake of Bolfena, the road leads through an immenfe
number of oaks, fpread upon beautiful hills. Where
the lava has been fufficiently foftened, they are clean
and ftraight, and of a confiderable fize *, but where the
lava has not been converted into a foil proper forilrong
vegetation, they are round-headed, and of lefs fize j
however, taken all together, they make a magnificent
appearance ; and the fpot itfelf ought to be ranked
among the fine parts of Italy. The fame may be ob-
ferved of the fmall lake of Vico, encompafied with gen¬
tle rifings, that are all clothed with foreft-trees.
Some yews have been found in Britain 60 feet
round. Palms in Jamaica attain the height of 200 feet;
and fome of the pines in Norfolk ifland are 280 feet
high*
Of all the different kinds known in Europe, oak is
heft for building ; and even when it lies expofed to air
and water, there is none equal to it. Fir-timber is the
Rext in degree of goodnefs for Building, efpecially in
Vol. XX. Part II.
England, where they build upon leafes. It differs from Tree,
oak in this, that it requires not much feafoning, and
therefore no great Hock is required before-hand. Fir is
ufed for flooring, wainfcoting, and the ornamental parts
of building within doors. Elm is the next in ufe, efpe*
daily in England and France : it is very tough and
pliable, and therefore eafily worked : it does not readily
fplit ; and it bears driving of bolts and nails better
than any other wood j for which reafon it is chiefly ufed
by wheel-wrights and coach-makers, for (hafts, naves*
&c. Beech is alfo ufed for many purpofes : it is very
tough and white when young, and of great (Length j
but liable to warp very much when expofed to the wea¬
ther, and to be worm eaten when ufed within doors j
its greateft ufe is for planks, bedfteads, chairs, and
other houfehold goods. A(h is likewife a very ufeful
W’ood, but very fcarce in mod parts of Europe j it ferves
in buildings, or for any other ufe, when fcreened from
the weather •, handfpikes and oars are chiefly made of it.
Wild chefnut timber is by many efteemed to be as good
as oak, and feems to have been much ufed in old build¬
ings ; but whether thefe trees are more fcarce at prefent
than formerly, or have been found not to anfwer fo well
as was imagined, it is certain that this timber is now but
little ufed. Walnut-tree is excellent for the joiner’s
ufe, it being of a more curious brown colour than beech,
and not fo fubjedl to the worms. The poplar, abele,
and afpen trees, which are very little different from each
other, are much ufed inftead of fir j they look well, and
are tougher and harder.
The goodnefs of timber not only depends on the foil
and fituation in which it (lands, but likewife on the fea-
fon wherein it is felled. In this people difagree very
much j fome are for having it felled as foon as its fruit
is ripe, others in the fpring, and many in the autumn.
But as the fap and moifture of timber is certainly the
caufe that it perilbes much fooner than it otherwife
would do, it feems evident, that timber (hould be felled
when there is the lead fap in it, viz. from the time that
the leaves begin to fall till the trees begin to bud. This
work ufually commences about the end of April in
England, becaufe the bark then rifes mod freely 5 for
where a quantity of timber is to be felled, the datute
requires it to be done then, for the advantage of tan¬
ning. The ancients chiefly regarded the age of the
moon in felling their timber j their rule was to fell it in
the wane, or four days after the new moon, or fometimes
in the lad quarter. Pliny advifes it to be in the very in-
dant of the change : which happening to be in the lad
day of the winter foldice, the timber, fays he, will be
incorruptible.
Timber fhould likewife be cut when of a proper age ;
for when it is either too young or too old, it will not
be fo durable as when cut at a proper age. It is faid
that oak (hould not be cut under 60 years old, nor
above 200. Timber, however, (hould be cut in its
prime, when almod fully grown, and before it beg'ins
to decay ; and this will be fooner or later according to
the drynefs and roolftnefs of the foil where the timber
grows, as alfo according to the bignefs of the trees ;
for there are no fixed rules in felling of timber, expe¬
rience and judgment mud dire& here as in mod other
cafes.
Great attention’ is neceffary in the feafoning of tsrfe-
3 N- ber.%
THE [ 4<56 ] T R E
ber. Some advife the planks of timber to be laid for -a
few days in fome pool or running ftream, in order to
extraft the fap, and afterwards to dry them in the fun
or air. By this means, it is faid, they will be prevented
from either chopping, calling, or cleaving 5 but againft
fhrinking there is no remedy. Some again are for bury¬
ing them in the earth, others in a heat; and fome for
fcorebing and feafoning them in fire, efpecially piles,
polls, &c. which are to Hand in water or earth. The
Venetians firft found out the method of feafoning by
fire ; which is done after this manner ; They put the
piece to be feafoned into a llrong and violent flame j in
this they continually turn it round by means of an en¬
gine, and take it out when it is everywhere covered with
a black coaly cruft j the internal part of the wood is
thereby fo hardened, that neither earth nor water can
damage it for a long time afterwards.
Dr Plott fays, it is found by long experience, that
the trunk or body of the trees, when barked in the
fpring, and left ftanding naked all the fummer expofed
to the fun and wind, are fo dried and hardened, that the
fappy part in a manner becomes as firm and durable as
the heart itfelf. This is confirmed by M. Buffon, Avho,
in 1738, prefented to the Royal Academy of Sciences at
•Baris a memoir entitled, “ An eafy method of increaf-
ing the folidity, ftrength, and duration of timberfor
which purpofe he obferves, “ nothing more is neceflary
thaft to ftrip the tree entirely of its bark during the fea-
fon of the rifing of the fap, and to leave it to dry com¬
pletely before it be cut down.”
By many experiments, particularly defcribed in that
eflfay, it appears, that the tree fhould not be felled till
the third year after it has been ftripped of the bark ;
that it is then perfectly dry, and the fap become almoft
as ftrong as the reft of the timber, and ftronger than
the heart of any other oak tree which has not been fo
ftripped ; and the whole of the timber ftronger, heavier,
and harder ; from which he thinks it fair to conclude,
that it is alfo more durable. “ It would no longer (he
adds) be neceffary, if this method were praftifed, to cut
off the fap ; the whole of the tree might be ufed as tim¬
ber ; one of 40 years growth would ferve all the pur-
pofes for which one of 60 years is now required •, and
this praftice would have the double advantage of in-
creafing the quantity, as well as the ftrength and foli¬
dity, of the timber.”
I he navy board, in anfwer to the inquiries of the
commiftioners of the land revenue, in May 1789, in¬
formed them, that they had then ftanding fome trees
ftripped of their bark two years before, in order to try
the experiment of building one half of a Hoop of war
with that timber, and the other half with timber felled
and ftripped in the common way. This very judicious
mode of making the experiment, if it be properly exe¬
cuted, will undoubtedly go far to afcertain the effefts
of this pradlice. We are forry that we are not able
to inform our readers what was the refult of the experi¬
ment.
After the planks of timber have been well feafoned
and fixed in their places, care is to be taken to defend
or preferye them •, to which the fmearing them with
linfeed oil, tar, or the like oleaginous matter, contri¬
butes much. The ancients, particularly Hefiod and
Virgil, advife the fmoke-drying of all inftruments made
of wood, by hanging them up in the chimneys where
wood fires are ufed. The Dutch preferve their gates Tree
portcullices, drawbridges, fluices, &c. by coating them
over with a mixture of pitch and tar, whereon they
ftrew fmall pieces of cockle and other Ihells, beaten al¬
moft to powder, and mixed with fea-fand, which in¬
crufts and arms them wonderfully againft all affaults of
wind and weather. When timber is felled before the fap
is perfectly at reft, it is very fubjeft to worms •, but to
prevent and cure this, Mr Evelyn recommends the fol¬
lowing remedy as the moft approved : Put common ful-
phur into a cucurbit, with as much aquafortis as will
cover it three fingers deep ; diftil it to drynefs, which is
performed by two or three redlifications. Lay the ful-
phur that remains at bottom, being of a blackifti or
fand-red colour, on a marble, or put it in a glafs, and rt
will diffolve into an oil ; with this oil anoint the timber
which is infedled with worms. This, he fays, will not
only prevent worms, but preferve all kinds of woods,
and many other things, as ropes, nets, and mafts, from
putrefadlion, either in water, air, or fnow.
An experiment to determine the comparative durabi-
lity of different kinds of timber, when expoied to the
weather, was made by a nobleman in Norfolk ; of which Aunals 0
an account is given by Sir Thomas Beevor. This no- Ayml-
bleman, in the year 1774, ordered three polls, forming
two fides of a quadrangle, to be fixed in the earth on a?*
rifing ground in his park. Into thefe polls were mor¬
tified planks, an inch and a half thick, cut out of trees
from 30 to 45 years growth. Thefe, after ftanding 10
years, were examined, and found in the following ftate
and condition :
The cedar was perfe6lly found ; larch, the heart
found, but the fap quite decayed ; fpruee fir, found *,
filver fir, in decay ; Scotch fir, much decayed ; pin-
after, quite rotten ; chefnut, perfeflly found •, abele,
found \ beech, found; walnut, in decay ; fycamore,
much decayed ; birch, quite rotten. Sir Thomas Bee¬
vor juftly remarks, that the trees ought to have been n£
the fame age ; and Mr Arthur Young adds, they ought
to have been cut out of the fame plantation.
The immenfe quantity of timber confumed of late
years in Ihip-building and other purpofes has diminiih-
ed in a very great degree the quantity produced in this
country. On this account, many gentlemen who with
well to their country, alarmed with the fear of a fearci-
ty, have ftrongly recommended it to government to pay
fome attention to the cultivation and prefervation of tim¬
ber.
We find, on the bcft authority, that of Mr Irving in-
fpeftor general of imports and exports, that the Hup¬
ping of England in 1760 amounted to 61C7 in num¬
ber, the tonnage being 433,922 ; and the (hipping in
Scotland amounted to 976 in number, the tonnage be-
ing 52,818. In 1788 the whole fliipping of Britain
and Ireland and their colonies amounted to 13,800 be-
iug tons burden, and employing 107,925
men. The tonnage of the royal navy in the fame year
was 413,667. We are informed alfo, on what we con-,
fider as the bell authority (the report of the commiffion-Eleventh
ers of the land revenue), that the quantity of oak timber,Report-
of Englilh growth, delivered into the dockyards from
1760 to 1788 was no lefs than 768,676 loads, and that
the quantity ufed in the merchants yards in the fame
time was 516,630 loads ; in all 1,285,306 loads. The
foreign oak ufed in the fame period was only 137,766
loads.
T R E C 407 ] T R E
free, loads. So that, after deducing the quantity remaining
-v——^ in the dock-yards in 1760 and 1788, and the foreign
oak, there will remain about 1,054,284 loads of Engliih
oak, confumed in 28 years, which is at an average
37>653 loads per annum, befides from 8300 to 10,000
loads expended annually by the Eaft India Company
within the fame period (a).
The price of wood has rifen in proportion to the de¬
mand and to its diminution. At the conqueft, woods
were valued, not by the quantity of timber which they
contained, but the number of fwine which the acorns
could fupport. In 1608, oak in the forefts was fold
at ios. per load, and fir-wood for 2s. per load. In
1663 or 1665, in navy contra&s from 2l. to 21.15s. 6d.
per load was given. In 1756 it rofe to 4I. 5s. per
load, and 3s. in addition, becaufe no tops are received.
Plank four inch fold in 1769 for 7I. a load, three inch
61.; which prices were the fame in 1792.
So great an expenditure of valuable timber within fo
fliort a period, gives reafon to fear that the forefts of
this country will foon be entirely difmantled, unlefs
fomething is done to raife frelh fupplies.' The building
of a 70 gun (hip, it is faid, would take 40 acres of
timber. This calculation is indeed fo exceflive, that it
is.fcarcely credible. This, however, is no exaggeration.
According to the prevailing opinion of experienced fur-
veyors, it will require a good foil and good manage¬
ment to produce 40 trees on an acre, which, in a hun¬
dred years, may, at an average, be computed at two
loads each. Reckoning, therefore, two loads at 81. 16s.
one acre will be worth 350I. and confequently 40 acres
will only be worth 14,200!. Now a 70 gun ftiip is ge¬
nerally fuppofed to coft 70,000!.; and as (hips do not
laft a great many years, the navy continually requires
new (hips, fo that the forefts muft be ftripped in a cen¬
tury or two, unlefs young trees are planted to fupply
their place.
Many plans have been prepofed for recruiting the
forefts. Premiums have been held forth to individuals;
and it has been propofed that the crown-lands fhould be
fet apart for the fpecial purpofe of raifing timber.
With refpeft to individuals, as they muft generally be
difpofed to fow or plant theif lands with thofe vege¬
tables which will beft reward their labours, it is not to
be expetted that they will fet apart their fields for
planting trees unlefs they have a greater return from
them than other crops. But bad muft that land be
which will not yield much more than 35°^ Procluce *n
100 years. But though it be evident that good land
will produce crops much more lucrative to the proprietor
than timber, yet ft ill there are lands or pieces of land
which might be applied with very great advantage to
the production of wood. Uneven ground, or the fides
of fields where corn cannot be cultivated, might very
properly be fet apart for this purpofe ; barren lands, or
fuch as cannot be cultivated without great labour and
expence, might alfo be planted. Hedge-rows and
clumps of trees, and little woods fcattered up and down. Tree,
would ftielter and defend the fields from deftruCtive —
winds, would beautify the face of the country, render
the climate warmer, improve barren lands, and furnilh
wood for the arts and manufactures.
But to cultivate foreft timber has alfo been thought
of fuch national importance, that it has been deemed
worthy of the attention of government. It has been
propofed to appropriate fuch part of the crown-lands as
are fit for the purpofe folely of producing timber for
the navy. This appears a very proper fcheme in fpe-
culation ; but it has been objefted, that for government
to attempt the farming of forefts would be really to
eftabliih groups of officers to pocket falaries for doing
what, it is well known, will never be done at all. But
to this objedion we reply, that fuch an agreement might
be made with the infpeClors of forefts, as to make it
their own intereft to cultivate trees with as much care
as poffible. Their falary might be fixed very low, and
railed in proportion to the number of trees which they
could furnith of fuch a fize in a certain number of years.
After all, we muft acknowledge that we muft depend
greatly on Ruflia, Sweden, Norway, and America, for
fupplying us with timber ; and while thefe countries take
our manufactures in exchange, we have no reafon to com¬
plain. Still, however, we ought furely not to negleCl
the cultivation of what is of fo much importance to our
exiftence as a nation, for it may often be impoffible in
time of war to obtain timber from foreign countries.
In the beginning of this article w'e mentioned the
general divifion of trees into timber or foreft-trees and
fruit trees. We have already faid all that our limits
will permit refpeCling the former: we will now, there¬
fore, fay fomething of the latter. Our obfervations (hall
be confined to the methods of preferring fruit trees in
blofibm from the effeCts of froft, and from other difeafes
to which they are liable.
The Chevalier de Dienenberg of Prague, we are told, European
has difeovered a method of effectually preferring trees in Magazine,
bloffom from the fatal effeCIs of thofe frofts which fome- March
times in the fpring deftroy the moft promifing hopes of a X7J|1,
plentiful crop of fruit. His method is extremely fimple.
He furrounds the trunk of the tree in bloffom with a
wifp of ftraw or hemp. The end of this he finks, by
means of a ftone tied to it, in a veffel of fpring water,
at a little diftance from the tree. One veffel w7ill conve¬
niently ferve two trees : or the cord may be lengthened
fo as to furround feveral, before its end is plunged, into
the water. It is neceffary that the veffel be placed in an
open fituation, and by no means (haded by the branches
of the neighbouring trees, that the froft may produce all
its effeCI on the water, by means of the cord communi¬
cating with it.—This precaution is particularly neceffary
for thofe trees the flowers of which appear nearly at the
fame time as the leaves; which trees are peculiarly ex-
pofed to the ravages of the froft. The proofs of its effi¬
cacy, which he had an opportunity of obferving in the
3 N 2 fpring
(a) A writer in tire Bath Tranfaaions fays, that the aggregate of oaks felled in England and Wales for 30
years paft has amounted to ,20,000 loads a-year ; and affirms that he has '“h’Ptf.®0" ""
indifputable fa&s. The difference between this account, and that which we have given in the text hom _ -
port of the commiffioners, we leave to be reconciled by tbofe who have proper opportunities. W e give the faBs
merely on the authority of others.
THE
fprlng of 1787, were remarkably ftriking. Seven apri-
^ cot efpaliers in his garden began to blofl'om in the month
of March. Fearing that they would fuffer from the late
frofts, he furrounded them with cords as above dire<51ed.
In effect, pretty (harp frofts took place fix or eight
nights: the apricot-trees in the neighbouring gardens
were all frozen, and none of them produced any fruit,
whilft each of the chevalier’s produced fruit in abun¬
dance, which came to the greateft perfedftion.
The following is the method propofed by Mr Wil¬
liam Forfyth for curing injuries and defeats in trees j for
which a reward was given to him by his majefty, on
condition that he ftiould make it public. It is equally
applicable to foreft as to fruit trees (b).
Take one bulhel of frelh cow-dung j half a bufiiel of
lime rubbilh of old buildings (that from the ceilings of
rooms is preferable) j half a buftiel of wood athesj and a
fixteenth part of a bulhel of pit or river fand. The three
laft articles are to be lifted fine before they are mixed j
then work them well together with a fpade, and after¬
wards with a wooden beater, until the ftuiT is very
fmooth, like fine plafter ufed for the ceilings of rooms.
The compofition being thus made, care muft be taken
to prepare the tree properly for its application, by cut¬
ting away all the dead, decayed, and injured parts, till
you come to the frelh found wood, leaving the furface of
the wood very fmooth, and rounding off the edges of
the bark with a draw-knife, or other inftrument, per-
fe&ly fmooth, which muft be particularly attended to.
Then lay on the plafter about one-eighth of an inch
thick all over the part where the wood or bark has been
fo cut away, finilhing off the edges as thin as poffible.
Then take a quantity of dry powder of wood alhes,
mixed with a fixth part of the fame quantity of the allies
of burnt bones ; put it into a tin box, with holes in the
top, and lhake the powder on the furface of the plafter,
till the whole is covered over with it, letting it remain
for half an hour to abforb the moifture : then apply more
powder, rubbing it on gently with the hand, and re¬
peating the application of the powder, till the whole
plafter becomes a dry fmooth furface.
All trees cut down near the ground fhould have the
furface made quite fmooth, rounding it off in a fmall de¬
gree, as before mentioned; and the dry powder dire&ed
to be ufed afterwards ftiould have an equal quantity of
powder of alabafter mixed with it, in order the better to
refill the dripping of trees and heavy rains. If any of
the compofition be left for a future occafion, it Ihould
ke kept in a tub or other veffel, and urine of any kind
poured on it, fo as to cover the furface •, otherwife the
atmofphere will greatly hurt the efficacy of the applica¬
tion. Where lime rubbilh of old buildings cannot be
eafily got, take powdered chalk, or common lime, after
having been flaked a month at leaft. As the growth of
the tree will gradually affeft the plafter, by raifing up
its edges next the bark, care Ihould be taken, where that
T R E
happens, to rub it over with the finger when occafion Tree
may require (which is bell done when moiftened by II
rain), that the plafter may be kept nffiole, to prevent. Trer,t
the air and wet from penetrating into the wound. ' v~'~
Ey this procefs, fome old worn-out pear trees, that Fcrfyth'j
bore only a few fmall, hard fruit, of a kernelly texture, Ob/nva.
were made to produce pears of the belt quality and fineft tio”s 0,1'
flavour the fecond fummer after the operation 3 and in
four or five years they bore fuch plenteous crops, as a ^
young healthy tree would not have produced in four
times that period.
By this procefs, too, fome large ancient elms, in a
moft decayed ftate, having all their upper parts broken,
and a Imall portion only of the bark remaining, (hot out
ftems from their tops, above thirty feet in height, in fix
or feven years from the firft application of the compofi¬
tion.
Thus may valuable trees be renovated ; and foreft
trees, which areufeful or ornamental from their particu¬
lar fituation, be preferved in a flouriftiing ftate. But
what is far more interefting, a perfett cure has been
made, and found timber produced, in oak trees, which
had received very confiderable damage from blows, brui-
fes, cutting of deep letters, the rubbing off the bark by
the ends of rollers, or wheels of carts, or from the
breaking of branches by ftorms.
TREFOIL. See Trifolium, Botany Index.
T-REMELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of cryptogamia. See Botany Index.
'IREMOR, an involuntary fhaking, chiefly of the
hands and head, fometimes of the feet, and fometimes
of the tongue and heart.—Tremors arifing from a too
free ufe of fpirituous liquors require the fame treatment
as palfies.
TRENCHES, in fortification, are ditches cut by the
befiegers, that they may approach the more fecurely to
the place attacked, whence they are alfo called lines of
approach.
I RENT, Bishopric of, a province of Germany, in
the circle of Auftria, near the frontiers of Italy j is
bounded on the north by Tirol; on the eaft by the Fel-
trino and Bellunefe j on the fouth, by Vincentino, the
Veronefe, Brefciano, and the lake de Garda; and on
the weft, by the Brefciano and the lake de Garda. The
foil is faid to be very fruitful, and to abound in wine
and oil.
Trent, a city of Germany, and capital of the bi-
ffiopric of that name, is a very ancient place, and Hands
in a fertile and pleafant plain, in the midft of the high
mountains of the Alps. The river Adige w’afhes its
walls, and creeping for fome time among the hills, runs
fwiftly into Italy. Trent has three eonfiderable churches,
the principal of which is the cathedral : this is a very
regular piece of architeflure. The church of St Maria
Major is all of red and white marble ; and is remark¬
able for being the place where the famous council of
Trent
t 468 ]
(b) A pafte for covering the wounds of trees, and the place where grafts are inferted, was difcovered long ago*
It is recommended in a Ireatife on Fruit Trees, publifhed by Thomas Hitt in 1755 j a third edition of which,
W a u W3S in 1768. It confiftsof a mixture of clay and cow’s dung diluted with water. This
pa e he irects to be laid on the wound with a brufti; it adheres firmly, he fays, without cracking till the wound
hea s. We are informed by a gentleman, to whofe opinion and experience we pay great refpeft, that this pafta
anfwers every purpofe which Mr Forfyth’s can ferve.
rent
jves.
THE [ 469
Trent was held, whofe decifions are now the Handing
rule of the Romith church. E. Long. II. 5. N. Lat.
4°Trent, one of the largeft rivers in England, which
rifes in the moorland of Stafforddiire, and runs fouth-
weft by Newcaftle-under-Line j and afterwards dividing
the county m two parts, runs to Burton, then to Not¬
tingham and Newark ^ and fo continuing its coune due
north to Gainihorough on the confines of Lincolndiire,
it joins leveral rivers, and falls into the Humber.
Trent, Council of, in Ecclefajlical Hijlory, denotes
the council affembled by Paul III. in 1545, and conti¬
nued by 25 feffions till the year 1563, under Julius III.
and Pius IV. in order to corre61, illuftrate, and fix with
nerfpicuity, the do&rine of the church, to reftore the
vigour of its difcipline, and to reform the lives of its mi-
nifters. The decrees of this council, together with the
creed of Pope Pius IV. contain a fummary of the doc¬
trines of the Roman Catholics. Thefe decrees were
fubfcribed by 255 clergy, con filling of four legates, 2
other cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 25 archbilhops, 168 bi-
fliops, befides inferior clergy. Of thefe 150 came from
Italy, of courfe the council was entirely under the influ¬
ence of the pope. For a more particular account of the
council of Trent, fee JVXofheim’s Church Hiftoiy, the
Modern Univerfal Hiilory, vol. xxiii. and Father Paul s
Hiftory of the Council of I rent.
TRENTON. See New JERSEY.
TREPANNING. See Surgery Index.
TRES TABERNJE, in Ancient Geography, a place in
Latium, lying on the V ia Appia, on the left or fouth
fide of the river Aftura, to the north of the 1 aludes
Pomptinse. Its ruins are now feen near Cifterna, a vil¬
lage in the Campagna di Roma, 21 miles from Rome,
whence the Chriftians went out to meet St Paul.
TRESPASS, in Law, fignifies any tianfgreflion of
the law, under treafon, felony, or mifprifion of either :
but it is commonly ufed for any wrong or .damage that
is done by one private perfon to another, or to the king
in his foreft.
TRESS LE TREES, in Ship-Building, two flrong bars
of timber fixed horizontally on the oppofite fides of the
lower mail head, to fupport the frame of the top and the
weight of the top-maft.
TRESSURE, in Heraldry, a diminutive of an orle,
ufually held to be half the breadth thereof.
TRET, in Commerce, an allowance made for the
wafte or the dirt that may be mixed with any commodi¬
ty ; which is commonly four pounds in every 104 pounds
weight.
TREVERI, or Treviri, in Ancient Geography, an
ancient and a powerful people, both in horfe and foot,
according to Caefar \ extending far and wide between
the Meufe and the Rhine. Their chief town was called
Tr ever is. Now Triers or Treves.
TREVES, or Triers (in Latin Trevere, Trevers,.
Treviris, or Augujla Trevirorutn), the capital of the
German archbifhopric of the fame name, Hands 60 miles
weH of Mentz, 52 fouth of Cologne, and 82 north of
Strafburg. This city vies with moH in Europe for anti¬
quity, having been a large and noted town before Au-
guftus fettled ,a colony in it. It was free and imperial
till the year 1560, when it wras furprifed and fubjedled
by its archbifliop James III. It Hands on the Mofede,
wer. which it has a fair Hone bridge. The cathedral is
4.
Treve?,
Trial.
] T R I
1 large building ♦, and near it Hands the eledor’s palace,
which not long ago was rebuilt. Here are three colle¬
giate and five parilh churches, three colleges of Jefuits,
thirteen monaReries and nunneries, an univerfity founded
in 1472, a houfe of the Teutonic order, and another of
that of Malta, with fome remains of the ancient Roman
theatre. Roman coins and medals are often round in
the ruins of the old city. In the cathedral they pretend
to have our Saviour’s coat and St Peter’s Half, to which
they aferibe miracles. The private houfes here are
mean •, and the city is neither well fortified nor inhabi¬
ted. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat. 49. 45.
TRIAL, in Law, the examination of a caufe accord- '
ing to the laws of the land before a proper judge •, or
it is the manner and order obferved in the hearing and
determining of caufes.
Trials are either civil or criminal.
I. Civil TRIALS. The fpecies of trials in civil cafes
are feven : By record; by infpeBion or examination •, by
certificate ; by witnejfes ; by wager of battel; by wager
of law ; and by jury. The firft fix are only had in cer¬
tain fpecial or eccentrical cafes, where the trial by jury,
would not be fo proper or effeftual: (See them explain¬
ed under their refpeftive titles). The nature of the lafl,
that principal criterion of truth in the law of England,
(hall be explained in this article.
As trial by jury is elteemed one of the moR import¬
ant privileges which members of fociety can enjoy, and
the bulwark of the Britilh conftitution, every man of
reflexion muR be flimulated by the defire of inquiring
into its origin and hiitory, as well as to be acquainted
with the forms and advantages by which it is accompa¬
nied. We will therefore begin with tracing it to its
origin. Its inflitution has been aferibed to our Saxon
anceHors by Sir William BlackRone.
“ Some authors (fays that illuRrious lawyer) have en- Riackft.
deavoured to trace the original of juries up as high as the Comment.
Britons themfelves, the firR inhabitants of our ifland ;vo1- m*
but certain it is that they were in ufe among the earlieRp'
Saxon colonies, their inRitution being aferibed by BHhop
Nicholfon to Woden himfelf, their great legiflator and.
captain. Hence it is, that we may find traces of juries
in the laws of all thole nations which adopted the feodal
fyflem, as in Germany, France, and Italy ; who had all
of them a tribunal compofed of twelve good men and
true, boni homines, dually the vaflals or tenants of the
lord, being the equals or peers of the parties litigant ;
and, as the lord’s vaffals judged each other in the lord’s
courts, fo the king’s vaffals, or the lords themfelves,
judged each other in the king’s court. In England jwe
find actual mention of them fo early as the laws of King
Ethelred, and that not as a new invention. Stiernhook
aferibes the invention of the jury, which in the Teuto¬
nic language is denominated nembda, to Regner king op
Sweden and Denmark, who was contemporary with our
King Egbert. JuR as we are apt to impute the inven¬
tion of this, and kme other pieces of juridical polity,
to the fuperior genius of Alfred the Great’, to whom,
on account of his having done much, it is ufu.il to attri¬
bute every thing : and as the tradition of ancient Greece
placed to the account of their own Hercules whatever
achievement was performed fuperior to the ordinary-
pro wefs of mankind. Whereas the truth feems to be,
that this tribunal was univerfally eflablilhcd. among all
the northern nations, and fo interwoven in their very
conflitutioiv
T R I [ 470 ] T R I
conftitution, that the earlieft accounts of the one give us
alfo fome traces of the other.”
This opinion has been controverted with much learn¬
ing and ingenuity by Dr Pettingal in his Inquiry into
the Ufe and Praftice of Juries among the Greeks and
Romans, who deduces the origin of juries from thefe an¬
cient nations.
He begins with determining the meaning of the word
'Six.ctrcti in the Greek, and judices in the Roman, writers.
“ The common acceptation of thefe words (fays he),
and the idea generally annexed to them, is that of pre¬
sidents of courts, or, as we call them, judges ; as fuch
they are underftood by commentators, and rendered by
critics. Dr Middleton, in his lifeof Cicero, exprefsly calls
the judices, of the bench: and Archbifliop Potter,
. and in Ihort all modern writers upon the Greek or Roman
orators, or authors in general, exprefs and judices
by fuch terms as convey the idea of pref dents in courts
of jujiice. The propriety of this is doubted of, and
hath given occafion for this inquiry ; in which is Ihown,
from thebeft Greek and Roman authorities, that neither
the of the Greeks, or the judices of the Romans,
ever fignified pref dents in courts ofjudicature, or judges
of the bench; but, on the contrary, they were diftin-
guilhed from each other, and the difference of their duty
and funftion was carefully and clearly pointed out by
the orators in their pleadings, who were the belt autho¬
rities in thofe cafes, where the quellion related to forms
of law, and methods of proceeding in' judicial aifairs
and criminal procefs.
The prefidents of the courts in criminal trials at A-
thens were the nine archons, or chief magillrates, of
which whoever pi elided was called or
jirefident of the court. Thefe nine prefided in different
caufes peculiar to each jurifdiftion. The archon, pro¬
perly fo called, had belonging to his department all pu¬
pillary and heritable cafes } the flxnfav; or rex facro-
rum, the chief prieft, all cafes where religion was con¬
cerned ; the polemarchus, or general, the affairs of the
army and all military matters j and the fix thefinothetse,
the other ordinary fuits.
Wherever then the 'oikkccu, or judicial men, are
addreffed by the Greek orators in their fpeeches, they
are not to be underftood to be the prefiding mamftrates
but another clafs of men, who w?ere to inquire into the
ftate of the cauie before them, by witneffes and other
metiiods of coming at truth ; and after inquiry made
and witneffes heard, to report their opinion and verdict
to the prefident, Avho was to declare it.
t The feveral fteps and circumftances attending this ju¬
dicial proceeding are fo fimilar to the forms obferved by
our jury, that the learned reader, for fuch I muft fup-
pofe him, cannot doubt but that the nature, intent, and
proceedings of the among the Greeks were
the fame with the Englifti jury ; namely, for the pro¬
tection of the lower people from the power and oppref-
fion of the great, by adminiftering equal law and juftice
to all ranks ; and therefore when the Greek orators di¬
rected their fpeeches to the etv$ge$ dixccrxi, as we fee in
Demofthenes, iEfchines, and Lyfias, we are to under-
itand it in the fame fenfe as when our lawyers at the bar
fay, Gentlemen of the jury.
So likewife among the Romans, the judices, in their
pleadings at the bar, never fignified judges of the bench
oi prefidents <)f the court, but a body or order of men
whofe office in the courts of judicature was diftina from
J
that of the praftor or judex quefionis, which anfwered Tr'q
to our judge of the bench, and was the fame with the
archon, or »yE^«y of the Greeks ; whereas the
duty of the judices confided in being impannelled as we
call it, challenged, and fwore to try uprightly the cafe
before them ; and when they had agreed upon their o-
pinion or verdid, to deliver it to the prefident who was
to pronounce it. This kind of judicial procefs was firft
introduced into the Athenian polity by Solon, and
thence copied into the Roman republic, as probable
means of procuring juft judgment, and proteding the
lower people from the oppreflion or arbitrary decifions of
their fuperiors.
_ When the Romans were fettled in Britain as a pro¬
vince, they carried with them their jura and wfituta,.
their laws and cuftoms, which was a pradice effential
to all colonies ; hence the Britons, and other countries
of Germany and Gaul, learned from them the Roman
law's and cuftoms ; and upon the irruption of the north¬
ern nations into the fouthern kingdoms of Europe,
the law's and inftitutions of the Romans remained, when
the power that introduced them was withdrawn : and
Montefquieu tells us, that under the firft race of kings
in France, about the fifth century, the Romans that re¬
mained, and the Burgundians their new mailers, lived
together under the fame Roman laws and police, and
particularly the fame forms of judicature. How rea-
fonable then is it to conclude, that in the Roman courts
of judicature continued among the Burgundians, the
form of a jury remained in the fame ftate it was ufed at
Rome. It is certain, Montefquieu, fpeaking of thofe
times, mentions the paires or hommes de fef homagers
or peer*, which in the fame chapter he calls ju^es,
judges os jurymen : fo that we hence fee bow at that
time the hommes defef or “ men of the fief,” were
called peers, and thofe peers were juges or jurvmen,
Thefe were the fame as are called in the laws of the Con-
feftor pers de la tenure, the “ peers of the tenure, or
homagers,” out of v'hom the jury of peers were chofen,
to try a matter in difpute between the lord and his te¬
nant, or any other point of controverfy in the manor.
So likewife in all other parts of Europe, where the Ro¬
man colonies had been, the Goths fucceeding them, con¬
tinued to make ufe of the fame laws and inftitutions,
which they found to be eftablifhed there by the firft
conquerors. I his is a much more natural way of ac¬
counting for the origin of a jury in Europe, than having
recourfe to the fabulous ftory of Woden and his favage
Scythian companions, as the firft introducers of fo hu¬
mane and beneficent an inftitution.”
Trials by jury in civil caufes are of two kinds j ex¬
traordinary and ordinary.
x. I he firft fpecies of extraordinary trial by jury is
that of the grand aftize, which was inftituted by King
H enry II. in parliament, by Way of alternative offered
to the choice of the tenant or defendant in a writ of
right, inftead of the barbarous and unchriftian cuffom of
duelling. For this purpofe a writ de mogna afffa eh-
genda is dire&ed to the ftieriff, to return four knights,
V'ho are to ele61: and choofe 12 others to be joined with
them ; and thefe all together form the grand aflize, or
great jury, which is to try the matter of right, and
muft now confift of 16 jurors. Another fpecies of ex¬
traordinary juries is the jury to try an attaint 5 which is
a procefs commenced againft a former jury for bringing
a falfe verdift. See the article Attaint.
2. With
1 :h/i.
I merit'
ee the
de
T R 1 [ 47
With regard to the ordinary trial by jury in civil
* cafes, the moil: clear and perfpicuous way of treating it
■will be by following the order and courfe of the pro¬
ceedings themfelves.
When therefore an iflue is joined by thefe words,
« And this the faid A prays may be inquired of by the
country j” or, “ And of this he puts himfelf upon the
country, and the faid B does the like the court
awards a writ of venire facias upon the roll or record,
commanding the iheriff “ that he caufe to come here,
on fuch a day, twelve free and lawful men, liberes et le¬
gates homines, of the body of his country, by whom the
truth of the matter may be better known, and who are
neither of kin to the aforefaid A nor the aforelaid B,
to recognife the truth of the iffue between the faid
parties.” And fuch writ is accordingly iffued to the
{heriff. It is made returnable on the laft return of the
fame term wherein iffue is joined, viz. hilary or trinity
terms; which, from the making up of the iffues therein,
are ufually called ijfuable terms. And he returns the
names of the jurors in a panel (a little pane or oblong
piece of parchment) annexed to the writ. This jury is
not fummoned, and therefore not appearing at the day
mull unavoidably make default. For which reafon a
comoulfive procefs is now awarded again ft the jurors,
called in the common pleas a writ of habeas corpora ju-
ratorum, and in the King’s Bench diflringas, command¬
ing the ftieriff to have their bodies, or to diftrain them
by their lands and goods, that they may appear upon
the day appointed. The entry therefore on the roll of
record is, “ That the jury is refpited, through defend of
the jurors, till the firft day of the next term, then to ap¬
pear at Weftminfter ; unlefs before that time, viz. on
Wednefday the fourth of March, the juftices of our lord
the king appointed to take aflizes in that county {ball
have come to Oxford, that is, to the place aftigned lor
holding the affizes. Therefore the ftieriff is command¬
ed to have their bodies at Wreftminfter on the faid firft:
day of next term, or before the faid juftice of aftize, if
before that time they come to Oxford, viz. on the fourth
of March aforefaid.” And as the judges are fure to
come and open the circuit commiftions on the day men¬
tioned in the writ, the ftieriff returns and fummons this
jury to appear at the affizes : and there the trial is had
before the juftices of aftize and nif. prius: among whom
(as hath been faid*) are ufually two of the judges of
the courts at Weftminfter, the whole kingdom being
divided into fix circuits for this purpofe. And thus we
may obferve,. that the trial of common iffues, at niji
prius, was in its original only a collateral incident to
the original bufinefs of the juftices of affize ; though
now, by the various revolutions of praftice, it is become
their principal civil employment ; hardly any thing re¬
maining in ufe of the real affizes but the name.
If the fheriff be not an indifferent perfon, as if he be
a party in the fuit, or be related by either blood or af¬
finity to either of the parties, he is not then trufted to
return the jury ; but the venire ihall be directed to the
coroners, who in this, as in many other inftances, are
the fubftitutes of the ftieriff to execute procefs when be
is deemed an improper perfon. If any exception lies
to the coroners, the venire (hail be directed to two clerks
of the court, or two perfons of the county named by
the court, and fvvorn. And thefe two, who are called
*tforsi or electors, (hall indifferently name the jury, and
i ] T R I
their return is final j no challenge being allowed to their Trial,
array. v—
Let us now paufe a while, and obferve (with Sir
Matthew Hale *), in thefe firft preparatory flages of * Hi/l.
the trial, how admirably this conftitution is adapted and ^
framed for the inveftigation of truth beyond any other c' 12,
method of trial in the world. For, firft, the perfon re¬
turning the jurors is a man of fome fortune and confe-
quence j that fo he may be not only the lefs tempted
to commit wilful errors, but likevvife be refponfible for
the faults of either himfelf or his officers : and he is al-
fo bound by the obligation of an oath faithfully to exe¬
cute his duty. Next, as to the time of their return :
the panel is returned to the court upon the original ve¬
nire, and the jurors are to be fummoned and brought in
many weeks afterwards to the trial, whereby the parties
may have notice of the jurors, and of their fufficiency
or infufBciency, charatlers, connexions, and relations,
that fo they may be challenged upon juft caufe 5 while,
at the fame time, by means of the compulfory procefs
(of diflringas, or habeas corpora) the caufe is not like
to be retarded through defeX of jurors. Thirdly, As to
the place of their appearance : which in cauftsot weight
and confequence is at the bar of the court", but in ordi¬
nary cafes at the affizes, held in the county where the
caufe of aXion arifes, and the witneffes and jurors live :
a proviiion moft excellently calculated for the faving of
expence to the parties. For though the preparation of
the caufes in point of pleading is tranfaXed at Weftmin¬
fter, whereby the order and uniformity of proceeding is
preferved throughout the kingdom, and multiplicity oi
forms is prevented •, yet this is no great charge or
trouble, one attorney being able to tranfaX the bufinefs
of 40 clients. But the troublefome and moft expenfive
attendance is that of jurors and witneffes at the trial 3
which therefore is brought home to them, in the coun¬
ty where moft of them inhabit. Fourthly, I he per¬
fons before whom they are to appear, and before whom
the trial is to be held, are the judges of the fuperior
court, if it be a trial at bar 3 or the judges of aflize, de¬
legated from the courts at Wcftminfter by the king, if
the trial be held in the country : perfons, whofe learn¬
ing and dignity fecure their jurifdiXion from contempt,
and the novelty and very parade of whofe appearance
have no fmall influence upon the multitude.. The very
point of their being ftrangers in the county is of infinite
fervice, in preventing tliofe faXions and parties which
would intrude in every caufe of moment, were it tried
only before perfons refident on the fpot, as juftices of the
peace, and the like. And the better to remove all fuf-
picion of partiality, it was wifely provided by the fta-
tutes 4 Edw. III. c. 2. 8 Ric.,11. c. 2. and 33 LLm
VIII. c. 24. that no judge of affize (hould hold pleas in
any- county wherein he was born or inhabit^. And as
this inftitution prevents party and faXion from inter¬
mingling in the trial of right, fo it keeps both the rule
and the adminiftration of the laws uniform. Thefe
juftices, though thus varied and (hifted at every affizes,
are all fworn to the fame laws, have had the fame edu¬
cation, have purfued the lame fludies, converfe and
confult together, communicate their decifions and refo-
lutions, and prefide in thofe courts which are mutually
conneXed, and their judgments blended together, as they
are interchangeably courts of appeal or advice to each
other. And hence their adminiftration of juftice, and
somLuSt-
T R I
Trial, conduct of trials, are confonant and uniform *, whereby
* that confufion and contrariety are avoided, which Would
■naturally arife from a variety of uncommunicating judges,
or from any provincial eftablifhment. But let us now
return to the affizes.
When the general day of trial is fixed, the plaintiff
or his attorney muft bring down the record to the af¬
fizes, and enter it with the proper officer, in order to
its being called on in courfe.
Thefe fteps being taken, and the caufe called on in
court, the record is then handed to the judge, to perufe
and obferve the pleadings, and what iffues the parties
are to maintain and prove, while the jury is called and
fworn. To this end the fheriff returns his compulfive
procefs, the writ of habeas corpora or di/lrivgas, with the
panel of jurors annexed, to the judge’s officer in court.
The, jurors contained in the panel are either fpecial
or common jurors. Special juries were originally intro¬
duced in trials at bar, when the caufes were of too great
nicety for the difcuffion of ordinary freeholders^ or
where the fheriff was fufpetted of partiality, thougdi not
upon fuch apparent caufe as to warrant an exception to
him. He is in fuch cafes, upon motion in court, and
, a rule granted thereupon, to attend the prothonotary or
other proper officer with his freeholder’s book; and the
officer is to take indifferently 48 of the principal free¬
holders in the prefence of the attorneys on both fides :
who are each of them to ftrike off 12, and the remain¬
ing 24 are returned upon the panel. By the flatute
3 Geo. II. c. 25. either party is entitled upon motion
to have a fpecial jury ftruck upon the trial of any iffue,
as well at the affizes as at bar, he paying the extraor¬
dinary expence, unlefs the judge will certify (in pur-
fuance of the ftatute 24 Geo. II. c. 18.) that the caufe
required fuch fpecial jury.
A common jury is one returned by the flieriff ac¬
cording to the direftions of the ftatute 3 Geo. II. c. 25.
which appoints that the ftieriff or officer fliall not return
a feparate panel for every feparate caufe, as formerly ;
but one and the fame panel for every caufe to be tried
at the fame affizes, containing not lefs than 48, nor
more than 72, jurors: and that their names being writ¬
ten on tickets, fhall be put into a box of glafs; and
when each caufe is called, 12 of thefe perfons, whofe
names fhall be firft drawn out of the box, fhall be fworn
upon the jury, unlefs abfent, challenged, or excufed }
or unlefs a previous view of the meffuages, lands, or
place in queftion, {hall have been thought neceflary by
the court j in which cafe, fix or more of the jurors re¬
turned, to be agreed on by the parties, or named by a
judge or other proper officer of the court, fhall be ap¬
pointed by fpecial writ of habeas corpora or dijlringas,
to have the matters in queftion fhown to them by "two
perfons named in the writ; and then fuch of the jury
as have had the view, or fo many of them as appear,
fhall be fworn on the inqueft previous to any other ju¬
rors. Thefe a£ts are well calculated to reftrain any fu-
fpicion of partiality in the fheriff, or any tampering
with the jurors when returned.
As the jurors appear when called, they fhall be fworn,
unlefs challenged by either party. See the article Chal¬
lenge.
If by means of challenges or other caufe, a fufficient
number of unexceptionable jurors doth notappear at the
trial, either party may. pray a taks*.
T R I
A tales is a fupply of fuch men as are fummoned upon Tri
the firft panel, in order to make up the deficiency. For
this purpofe a writ of decern tales, 06I0 tales] and the
like, was wont to be iffued to the fheriff at common law
and muft be ftill fo done at a trial at bar, if the jurors
make default. But at the affizes, or nifi prius, by vir¬
tue of the ftatute 55 Hen. VIII. e. 6. and other fubfe-
quent ftatutes, the judge is empow-ered at the prayer of
either party to award a tales de circumjiantibus of per¬
fons prefent in court, to be joined to the other jurors to
try the caufe ; who are liable, however, to the fame
challenges as the principal jurors. This is ufually done
till the legal number of 12 be completed ; in which pa¬
triarchal and apoftolical number Sir Edward Coke hath
difcovered abundance of myftery.
When a fufficient number of perfons impanelled, or
talefmen appear, they are then feparately fworn, well
and truly to try the iffue between the parties, and a true
verdidl to give according to the evidence 5 and hence
they are denominated “ the jury,and “jurors,”
Jc. juratores.
The jury are now ready to hear the merits; and to
fix their attention the clofer to the fads which they are
impanelled and fworn to try, the pleadings are opened
to them by counfel on that fide which holds the affirma¬
tive of the queftion in iffue. For the iffue is faid to lie,
and proof is always firft required upon that fide which
affirms the matter in queftion: in which our lawragrees
with the civil, ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui
negat; cwn per rerum naturam faBum-negantis probatio
nulla Jit. The opening counfel briefly informs them
what has been tranfaded in the court above; the par¬
ties, the nature of the adion, the declaration, the plea,
replication, and other proceedings ; and laftly, upon
what point the iffue is joined, which is there fent down
to be determined. Inftead of which, formerly the
whole record and procefs of the pleadings were read to
them in Engliffi by the court, and the matter of iffue
clearly explained to their capacities. The nature of the
cafe, and the evidence intended to be produced, are
next laid before them by counfel alfo on the fame fide;
and when their evidence is gone through, the advocate
on the other fide opens the adverfe cafe, and fupports It
by evidence; and then the party which began is heard
by way of reply. See Pleadings.
Evidence in the trial by jury is of two kinds ; either
that w'hich is given in proof, or that which the jury
may receive by their own private knowledge. The
former, ox proofs, (to which in common fpeech the name
of evidence is ufually confined) are either written or pa¬
rol ; that is, by word of mouth. Written proofs, of
evidence, are, 1. Records ; and, 2. Ancient deeds of 30
years {landing, which prove themfelves : but, 3. Mo¬
dern deeds; and, 4. Other writings, muft: be attefted
and verified by parol evidence of Avitneffes. With re¬
gard to parol evidence or Avitneffes; it muft firft be re¬
membered that there is a procefs to bring them in by-
writ of fubpcena ad teJUficandum; which commands
them, laying afide all pretences and excufes, to appeal
at the trial on pain of look to be forfeited to the king ;
to which the ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 9. has added a penalty
of 10I. to the party aggrieved, and damages equivalent
to the lofs fuflained by Avant of his evidence. But nd
witnefs, unlefs his reafbnable expences be tendered himi
is bound to appear at all; nor, if he appear, is he bound
to
[ 472 1
' 4
I
T R 1 [ 473 ] T R I
Trial, to give evidence till fuch charges are actually paid him 5
' except he refides within the bills of mortality, and is
fummoned to give evidence within the fame. This
compulfory procefs, to bring in unwilling witneffes, and
the additional terrors of an attachment in cafe of dif-
obedience, are of excellent ufe in the thorough invelti-
gation of truth : and, upon the fame principle, in the
Athenian courts, the witnefl.es who were fummoned to
attend the trial had their choice of three things : either
to fwear to the truth of the fail in queftion, to deny or
abjure it, or elfe to pay a fine, of 1000 drachmas.
All witnefies, of whatever religion or country, that
have the ufe of their reafon, aTe to be received and ex¬
amined, except fuch as are infamous, or fuch as are in-
terefted in the event of the caufe. All others are com¬
petent witnefles *, though the jury from other circum-
Itances will judge of their credibility. Infamous per-
fons are fuch as may be challenged as jurors, propter de¬
lictum : and therefore never (hall be admitted to give
evidence to inform that jury, with whom they were too
feandalous to aflociate. Interefled witnefles may be ex¬
amined upon a voir dire, if fufpecfed to be fecretly con¬
cerned in the event j or their intereft may be proved in
court. Which laft is the only method of fupporting an
objection to the former clafs j for no man is to be exa¬
mined to prove his own infamy. And no counfel, at¬
torney, or other perfon, intruded with the fecrets of the
caufe by the party himfelf, {hall be compelled, or per¬
haps allowed, to give evidence of fuch converfation or
matters of privacy as came to his knowledge by virtue
of fuch truft and confidence : but he may be examined
as to mere matters of faft, as the execution of a deed or
the like, which might have come to his knowledge
without being intruded in the caufe.
One witnefs (if credible) is fufficient evidence to a
jury of any Angle fa6t : though undoubtedly the con¬
currence of two or more corroborates the proof. Yet
our law confiders that there are many tranfaftions to
which only one perfon is privy j and therefore does not
always demand the tedimony of two. Pofitive proof is
always required, where, from the nature of the cafe, it
appears it might poflibly have been had. But, next to
pefitive proof, circumftantial evidence, or the dodfrine
of prefumptions, muft take place : for when the fadt it-
felf cannot be demonftratively evinced, that which comes
neareft to the proof of the fact is the proof of fuch cir-
cumftanees which either neceflarily or ufually attend
fuch facts} and thefe are called prefumptions, which
are only to be relied upon till the contrary be actually
proved.
The oath adminiftered to the witnefs is not only that .
what he depofes fhall be true, but that he {hall alio de-
pofe the whole truth : fo that he is not to conceal any
part of what he knows, whether interrogated particu¬
larly to that point or not. And all this evidence is to
be given in open court, in the prefence of the parties,
their attorneys, the counfel, and all byftanders: and
before the judge and jury : each party having liberty
to except to its-competency, which exceptions are pub¬
licly ftated, and by the judge are openly and publicly
allowed or difallowed, in the face of the country : which
touft curb any fecret bias or partiality that might arife
in his own breafl.
When the evidence is gone through on both Tides,
Vol. XX. Part II.
the judge, in the prefence of the parties, the counfel, Trial,
and all others, turns up the whole to the jury 5 omit- : v-”
ting all fuperfluouscircumrtances, obferving wherein the
main queftion and principal ififue lies, ftating what evi¬
dence has been given to fupport it, with fuch remarks
as he thinks neceflary for their direction, and giving
them his opinion in matters of law arifing upon that
evidence.
1 he jury, after the proofs are fummed up, unlefs the
cafe be very clear, withdraw from the bar to confider of
their verdibt ; and in order to avoid intemperance and
caufelefs delay, are to be kept without meat, drink, fire,
or candle, uniefs by permiflion of the judge, till they
are unanimoufly agreed. A method of accelerating una¬
nimity not wholly unknown in other conftitutions of Eu¬
rope, and in matters of greater concern. For by the
golden bull of the empire, if, after the congrefs is open¬
ed, the eleftors delay the eledtion of a king of the Ro¬
mans for 30 days, they {hall be fed only with bread and
water till the lame is accomplifhed. But if our juries
eat or drink at all, or have any eatables about them,
without confent of the court, and before verdidl, it is
finable ; and if they do fo at his charge for whom they
afterwards find, it will fet afide the verdidt. Alfo, if
they fpeak with either of the parties or their agents af¬
ter they are gone from the bar, or if they receive any
frefii evidence in private, or if, to prevent difputes, they
call lots for whom they {hall find, any of thefe circum-
ftances will entirely vitiate the verdidt. And it has been
held, that if the jurors do not agree in their verdift be¬
fore the judges are about to leave the town, though
they are not to be threatened or imprifoned, the judges
are not bound to wait for them, but may carry them
round the circuit from town to town in a cart. This
neceflity of a total unanimity feems to be peculiar to our
owrn conftitution ; or at leaft, in the nambda or jury of
the ancient Goths, there was required (even in criminal
cafes) only the confent of the major part^ and in cafe of
an equality, the defendant was held to be acquitted.
When they are all unanimoufly agreed, the jury re¬
turn back to the bar *, and before they deliver their ver-
di61, the plaintiff is bound to appear in court, by himfelf,
attorney, or counfel, in order to anfwer the amercement
to which by the old law he is liable, in cafe lie fails in
his fuit, as a punilhment for his falfe claim. To be
amerced, or a mercie, is to be at the king’s mercy with
regard to the fine to be impofed ; in mifcncordia domim
regis pro falfo clnmore fue. The amercement is difufed,
but the form ftill continues ; and if the plaintiff does not
appear, no verdidl can be given-; but the plaintiff is
faid to be nonfuit, non fequitnr clamorem fuum. There¬
fore it is ufual for a plaintiff, when he or his counfel
perceives that he has not given evidence fufficient to
maintain his iffue, to be voluntarily nonfuited, or with¬
draw himfelf: whereupon the crier is ordered to call the
plaintiff; and if neither he, nor any body for him, ap¬
pears, he is nonfuited, the jurtys are difcharged, the ac¬
tion is at an’end, and the defendant {hall recover his
cofts. The reafon of this praftice is, that a nonfuit is
more eligible for the plaintiff than a verdidl againft
him : for after a nonfuit, which is only a default, he
may commence the fame fuit again for the fame caufe
of aftion ; but after a verditfl had, and judgment confe-
quent thereupon, he is for ever barred from attacking .
3 O the
T R I
Trial, the defendant upon the fame ground of complaint. But
v-—cafe the plaintiff appears, the jury by their foreman
deliver in their verdift.
A verdift, vere dittum, is either privy or public. A
privy verdift is when the judge hath left or adjourned
the court: and the jury, being agreed, in order to be
delivered from their confinement, obtain leave to give
their verdidt privily to the judge out of court: which
privy verdidt is of no force, unlefs afterwards affirmed
by a public verdidt given openly in court; wherein the
]ury may, if they pleafe, vary from their privy verdidt.
So that the privy verdidt is indeed a mere nullity ; and
yet it is a dangerous pradtice, allowing time for the
parties to tamper with the jury, and therefore very fel-
dom indulged. But the only effectual and legal verdidt
is the public verdidt: in which they openly declare to
have found the iffue for the plaintiff, or for the defen¬
dant •, and if for the plaintiff, they affefs the damages
alfo fuftained by the plaintiff, in confequence of the in¬
jury upon which the adtion is brought.
When the jury have delivered in their verdidt, and it
is recorded in court, they are then difcharged j and fo
ends the trial by jury : a trial which ever has been, and
it is hoped ever will be, looked upon as the glory of the
Engliffi law. It is certainly the molt tranfcendant pri¬
vilege which any fubjedt can enjoy or with for, that he
cannot be affedted either in his property, his liberty, or
his perfon, but by the unanimous confent of 12 of his
neighbours and equals. A conllitution that we may
venture to affirm has, under providence, fecured the
juft liberties of this nation for a long fucceffion of ages.
* Montef- And therefore a celebrated French writer *, wffio con-
quieu, Spir. eludes, that becaufe Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, have
xe 6. J0ft their liberties, therefore thofe of England in time
muft perilh, fhould have recolledled that Rome, Sparta,
and Carthage, at the time wrhen their liberties were
loft, were ftrangers to the trial by jury.
Great as this eulogium may feem, it is no more than
this admirable conftitution, when traced to its princi¬
ples, will be found in fober reafon to deferve.
The impartial adminiftration of juftice, which fecures
both our perfons and our properties, is the great end of
civil fociety. But if that be entirely entrlifted to the
magiftracy, a feledt body of men, and thofe generally
feledted by the prince or fuch as enjoy the higheft offices
in the ftate, their decifions, in fpite of their own natu¬
ral integrity, will have frequently an involuntary bias
towards thofe of their own rank and dignity : it is not
to be expedted from human nature, that the few fhould
be always attentive to the interefts and good of the ma¬
ny. On the other hand, if the power of judicature were
placed at random in the hands of the multitude, their
decifions would be wild and capricious, and a new rule
of adtion would be every day eftablifhed in our courts.
It is wifely therefore ordered, that the principles and
axioms of law, which are general propofitions flowing
from abftradted reafon, and not accommodated to times
or to men, fhould be depofited in the breafts of the
judges, to be occafionally applied to fuch fadts as come
properly afeertained before them. For here partiality
can have little fcope; the law is well known, and is the
lame for all ranks and degrees: it follows as a regular
eonclufion from the premiffes of fadt pre-eftablifhed. But
in fettling and adjufting a queftion of fadl, when intruft-
ed to any Angle magiftrate, partiality and injuftice have
T R I
an ample field to range in, either by boldly afferting Tri;
that to be proved which is not fo, or more artfully by '""““v
fuppreffing fome circumftances, ftretching and warpino-
others, and diftinguifhing away the remainder. Here
therefore a competent number of fenfible and upright
jurymen, chofen by lot from among thofe of the middle
rank, will be found the beft inveftigators of truth, and
the fureft guardians of public juftice. For the moft
powerful individual in the ftate will be cautious of com¬
mitting any flagrant invafion of another’s right, when he
knows that the fadt of his oppreffion muft be examined
and decided by I 2 indifferent men not appointed till
the hour of trial; and that when once the fadt is afeer¬
tained, the law muft of courfe redrefs it. This there¬
fore preferves in the hands of the people that fhare which
they ought to have in the adminiftration of public juf¬
tice, and prevents the encroachments of the more power¬
ful and wealthy citizens.
Criminal TRIALS. The regular and ordinary method
of proceeding in the courts of criminal jurifdidtion may
be diftributed under 12 general heads, following each
other in a progreffive order: viz. I. Arreft ; 2. Com¬
mitment and bail j 3. Profecution 5 4. Procefs j 5. Ar¬
raignment, anditsincidentsj 6. Plea, and iffue j 7. Trial,
and convidlion ; 8. Clergy; 9. Judgment, and its con-
fequencesj 10. Reverfal of judgment j 11. Reprieve, or
pardon j 12. Execution. See Arrest, Commitment,
Presentment, Indictment, Information, Appeal,
Process upon an IndiElmeni, Arraignment, and
Plea ; in which articles all the forms which precede
the trial are deferibed, and are here enumerated in the
proper order.
The feveral methods of trial and conviftion of of¬
fenders, eftabliffied by the laws of England, were for¬
merly more numerous than at prefent, through the fu-
perftition of our Saxon anceftors; who, like other north¬
ern nations, were extremely addi&ed to divination ; a
charadler which Tacitus obferves of the ancient Ger¬
mans. They therefore invented a confiderable number
of methods of purgation or trial, to preferve innocence
from the danger of falfe witneffes, and in confequence
of a notion that God would always interpofe miraculouf-
ly to vindicate the guiltlefs•, as, i.By Ordeal; 2. By
Corsned ; 3. By Battel. See thefe articles.
4. A fourth method is that by the peers of Great Bri¬
tain, in the Court of PARLIAMENT; or the Court of
the Lord High STEWARD, when a peer is capitally in¬
dicted ; for in cafe of an appeal, a peer (hall be tried by
jury. This differs little from the trial perpatriam, or
by jury ; except that the peers need not all agree in
their verdiCt; and except alfo, that no fpecial verdift
can be given in the trial of a peer; becaufe the lords of
parliament, or the lord high fteward (if the trial be had
in his court), are judges fufficiently competent of the
law that may arife from the fa£t; but the greater num¬
ber, confifting of 12 at the leaft, will conclude, and
bind the minority.
The trial by jury, or the country, per patriam, is alfo
that trial by the peers of every Briton, which, as the
great bulwark of his liberties, is fecured to him by the
great charter : nullus liber ho?no capitatur, velimprifone-
tur, out exulet, aut aliquo alio modo de/lruatur, nlf per
legale judicium parium fuorum, vel per legem terra.
When therefore a prifoner on his Arraignment has
pleaded not guilty, and for his trial hath put himfelf
upon
[ 474 ]
T Pv I C 47S ] T R I
Trial, upon the country, which country the jury are, the (he-
riff of the county muft return a panel of jurors, liberos
it legates homines, de viceneto ; that is, freeholders with¬
out juft exception, and of the or neighbourhood j
which is interpreted to be of the county where the faft
is committed. If the proceedings are before the court
of king’s bench, there is time allowed between the ar¬
raignment and the trial, for a jury to be impanelled by
writ of venire facias to the (heriff, as in civil caufes 5
and the trial in cafe of a mifdemcanor is had at tiiji prius,
unlefs it be of fuch confequence as to merit a trial at bar ;
which is always invariably had when the prifoner is tried
for any capital offence. But, before commiflioners of
oyer and terminer and gaol-delivery, the ftieriff, by vir¬
tue of a general precept direfted to him beforehand, re¬
turns to the court a panel of 48 jurors, to try all felons
that may be called upon their trial at that feflion 5 and
therefore it is there ufual to try all felons immediately
or foon after their arraignment. But it is not cuftomary,
nor agreeable to the general courfe of proceedings, un¬
lefs by confent of parties, to try perfons indifted of
fmaller mifdemeanors at the fame court in which they
have pleaded not guilty, or traverfed the indiftment.
But they ufually give fecurity to the court to appear at
the next aflizes or feflion, and then and there to try the
traverfe, giving notice to the profecutor of the fame.
In cafes of high-treafon, whereby corruption of blood
may enfue (except treafon in counterfeiting the king’s
coin or feals), or mifprifion of fuch treafon, it is enafted
by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. firft, that no perfon fhall be
tried for any fuch treafon, except an attempt to affaffi-
nate the king, unlefs the indictment be found within
three years after the offence committed : next, that the
prifoner (hall have a copy of the indictment (which in¬
cludes the caption), but not the names of the witneffes,
five days at leaft before the trial, that is, upon the true
conftruCtion of the aCt, before his arraignment; for then
is his time to take any exceptions thereto, by way of plea
or demurrer; thirdly, that he ftiall alfo have a copy of
the panel of jurors two days before his trial: and, laftly,
that he fhall have the fame compulfive procefs to bring
in his witneffes for him, as was ufual to compel their
appearance againft him. And by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21.
(which did not take place till after the deceafe of the
late pretender) all perfons indiCted for high-treafon, or
mifprifions thereof, fhall have not only a copy of the
indictment, but a lift of all the witneffes to be produced,
and of the jurors impanelled, with their profeflions and
. places of abode, delivered to him ten days before the
trial, and in the prefence of two witneffes, the better to
prepare him to make his challenges and defence. And
no perfon indiCted for felony is, or (as the law ftands)
ever can be, entitled to fuch copies before the time of
his trial.
When the trial is called on, the jurors are to be fworn
'as they appear, to the number of 12, unlefs they are
challenged by the party.
Challenges may here be made, either on the part of
the king, or on that of the prifoner ; and either to the
whole array, or to the feparate polls, for the very fame
’realons that they may be made in civil caufes. But in
criminal caufes, or at leaft in capital ones, there is, in
favorem vitce, allowed to the prifoner an arbitrary and
capricious fpecies of challenge, to a certain number of
jurors, without ftiowing any caufe at all; which is called
■a peremptory challenge ; a provifion full of that tender- Trla
nefs and humanity to prifoners for which our Englilh^
laws are juftly famous. This is grounded on two rea-
fons. 1. As every one muft be fenfible what hidden
impreftions and unaccountable prejudices ive are apt tb
conceive upon the bare looks and geftures of another ;
and how neceftary it is that a prifoner) when put to de¬
fend his life) fliould have a good opinion of his jury, the
want of which might totally difconcert him ; the law
wills not that he fliould be tried by any one man againft
whom he has conceived a prejudice, even without being
able to aflign a reafon for fuch his diflike. 2. Becaufe,
upon challenges for caufe ftiown, if the reafon afligned
prove infufficient to fet afide the juror, perhaps the bare
queftioning his indifference may fometimes provoke a
refentment; to prevent all ill confequences from which,
the prifoner is ftill at liberty, if he pleafes, peremptorily
to fet him afide.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft,
hoivever, have fome reafonable boundary ; otherwife he
might never be tried. This reafonable boundary is fel¬
led by the common law to be the number of 35 ; that
is, one under the number of three full juries.
If by reafon of challenges or the default of the jurors,
a fufticient number cannot be had of the original pa*
nel, a tales may be awarded as in civil caufes, till the
number of 12 is fworn, “ well and truly to try, and
true deliverance make, between our fovereign lord
the king and the prifoner whom they have in charge ;
and a true verdift to give, according to their evi¬
dence.”
When the jury is fworn, if it be a caufe of any con¬
fequence, the Indictment is ufually opened, and the
evidence marfhalled, examined, and enforced by the
counfel for the crown or profecution. But it is a fettled
rule at common law, that no counfel {hall be allowed a
prifoner upon his trial upon the general iffue, in any ca¬
pital crime, unlefs fome point of law fhall arife proper to
be debated. A rule which (however it may be palli*
ated under cover of that noble declaration of the law,
when rightly underftood, that the judge {hall be coun¬
fel for the prifoner ; that is, fliall fee that the proceed¬
ings againft him are legal and ftriftly regular) feems to
be not at all of a piece with the reft of the humane
treatment of prifoners by the Englilh law. For upon
what face of reafon can that afliftance be denied to lave
the life of a man, which yet is allowed him in profecu-
tions for every petty trefpafs ? Nor indeed is it, ftri£tly
fpeaking, a part of our ancient law ; for the Mirrour,
having obferved the neceflity of counfel in civil fuits,
“ who know how to forward and defend the caufe by
the rules of law, and cuftoms nf the realm,” immedi¬
ately afterwards fubjoins, “ and more neceffary are they
for defence upon indiftments and appeals of felony,
than upon other venial caufes.” And, to fay the truth,
the judges themfelves are fo fenfible of this defeat in our
modern practice, that they feldom fcruple to allow a
prifoner counfel to ftand by him at the bar, and to in-
ftruft him what queftions to alk, or even, to afk queftions
for him, with regard to matters of fa£t ; for as to mat¬
ters of law arifing on the trial, they are entitled to
the afliftance of counfel. But ftill this is a matter of
too much importance to be left to the good pleafure
of any judge, and is worthy the interpofition of the le-
giflature ; which has ftiown its inclination to indulge
* O 2 prifoners
T R I
Tml
[
prifoners with this reafonable afTiilance, by ena&ing, in
Tributary. ^.atute 7 ^c* 3* that perfons indi&ed for fuch
high treafon as works a corruption of the blood or mif-
prifonment thereof (except treafon in counterfeiting the
king’s coins or feals), may make their full defence by
counfel, not exceeding two, to be named by the prifoner,
and affigncd by the court or judge ; and this indulgence,
by ftalute 20 Geo. II. c. 30. is extended to parliamen¬
tary impeachments for high-treafon, which were excep¬
ted in the former aft.
"When the evidence on both fides is clofed, the jury
cannot be difeharged (unlefs in cafes of evident necedity)
till they have given in their VERDICT. If they find
the prifoner not guilty, he is then for ever quit and dif¬
eharged of the accufatmn, except he be appealed of fe¬
lony within the time limited by law. And upon fuch
his acquittal, or difeharge for want of profecution, he
fhall be immediately fet at large without payment of any
fee to the gaoler. But if the jury find him guilty, he
is then faid to beconvifted of the crime whereof be ftands
indicted. See the article Conviction 5 and fubfequent
thereto, the articles Judgment, Attainder, For¬
feiture, Execution, alfo Benejit o/CLEhcr, Re¬
prieve, Pardon.
Trial, in Scotland. See Scots Law.
1 RIANDRI A, (from “ three,” and “ a
man or hufband),” the name of the third clafs in Lin-
naeus’s fexual fyItem,confiding of plants ivith hermaphro¬
dite flowers, which have three ftamina or male organs.
1 RI ANGLE, in Geometry, a figure of three fides
and three angles.
IRIBE, in antiquity, a certain quantity or number
of perfons, when a divifion was made of a city or people
into quarters or diftrifts.
1 RIBRACHYS, in Ancient Poetry, a foot con fill¬
ing of three fyllables, and thefe all (hart; as, melius.
I RIBUNAL, in general, denotes the feat of a judge,
called in our courts bench.
1RIBUNE, among the ancient Romans, a magi-
drate chofen out of the commons, to proteft them
againd the oppreflions of the great, and to defend the
liberty of the people againd the attempts of the fenate
and confuls.
The tribunes of the people were fird edablidied in
the year of Rome 259. The fird defign of their crea¬
tion was to fhelter the people from the cruelty of ufurers,
and to engage them to quit the Aventine mount, whi¬
ther they had retired in difpleafure.
Their number at fird was but two ^ but the next year,
under the confulate of A. Podhumius Aruncius and^Caf-
fius Vifceliinus, there were three more added; and this
number of five was afterwards increafed by L. Trebonius
to ten.
Military 1RIBUNE, an officer in the Roman army,
commander in chief over a body of forces, particularly
the divifion of a legion 5 much the fame with our co¬
lonel, or the French maitre de camp.
TRIBUTARY, one who prays tribute to another
476 ] T R I
in order to live in peace with or fliare in his protec- Trip
tion. . It
TRIBUTE, a tax or impod which one prince orTrlS0^l•
date is^ obliged to pay to another as a token of de- J
pendence, or in virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe of
peace.
TRICEPS, in Anatomy. See there, Tables of the-
Mtfcles.
TRICHECUS, Walrus; a genus of aquatic ani¬
mals belonging to the clafs of mammalia, and order of
brula. See Mammalia Index.
T RICHOMANES, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of cryptogamia, and order of fihces. See Bo¬
tany Index.
TRICOCCEAE, (r^u, “ three,” and “ a
grain”), the name of the 38th order in Linnseus’s Frag¬
ments of a Natural Method, confiding of plants with
a Angle three-cornered capfule, having three cells, or
internal divifions, each containing a Angle feed. See
Botany.
TRICOSANTHES, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of moncecia, and in the natural fydem ran¬
ging under the 34th order, Cucurbitucece. See Botany
Index.
TRIDENT, an attribute of Neptune, being a kind
of feeptre which the painters and poets put into the
hands of that god, in form of a fpear or fork with three
teeth ; whence the word.
TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices
or employments-which lad for three years.
TRIENS, in antiquity, a copper money of the va¬
lue of one third of an as, which on one fide bore a Ja¬
nus’s head, and on the other a water rat.
TRIENTALIS, Chick weed Winter-green, a
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of heptandria, and
in the natural fydem ranging under the 20th order,
Kotaceee. See Botany index.
1 RIERS, or 'Treves. See Treves.
1 RlhOLIUM, I refoil, or Clover, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of diadelphia, and in the
natural fydem ranging under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece.
See Botany Index.
I RIGA, in antiquity, denotes a kind of car or cha¬
riot drawn by three horfes ; whence the name.
I RIGLA, a genus of fiflies belonging to the order
of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
TRIG LOCH IN, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of hexandria, and in the natural fydem ranging
under the fifth order, Tripeialoideec. See Botany
Index.
TRI-GLYPHS, in Architecture, a fort of ornament
repeated at equal intervals, in the Doric freeze.
Dialing Trig on. See Dialing.
TR1GONALIS. See Pila.
TRIGONELLA, Feni tgreek, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of diadelphia, and in the natural
fydem arranged under the 3 2d order, Papilionucece. Sea
Botany Index.
TRIGONOMETRY.
[ 447 3
TRIGONOMETRY.
tur„ andHPRIGONOMETRY is the application of arithme-
onftruc- tic to geometry. It confifts of two principal parts,
m of Tri* viz. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY and SPHERICAL TlUGO-
nometn- N0METRY,
‘ [‘‘L> eS'. Plane trigonometry treats of the application of num¬
bers to determine the relations of the fides and angles of
a plane triangle to one another.
Spherical trigonometry treats of the application of
numbers in like manner to fpherical triangles ; the na¬
ture of thefe will be explained in the courle of this ar¬
ticle.
Both branches of the fubjeft depend effentially upon
certain numerical tables, the nature and conftru&ion of
which we {hail now proceed to explain.
SECTION I.
NATURE AND CONSTRUCTION OF
TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.
It has been demonftrated in Geometry (Theor. 31.
Se£l. IV.) that any angles at the centre of a circle have
to one another the fame proportion as the arches in¬
tercepted between the lines which contain the angles.
Hence it is eafy to infer, that an angle at the centre of
a circle has the fame ratio to four right angles, that the
arch intercepted between the lines which contain the
angle has to the whole circumference. It alfo follows
that we may employ arches of a circle as meafures of
angles, and thus the comparifon of angles is reduced to
the comparifon of arches of a circle. From this prin¬
ciple we itifer the confiftency of the firlt of the follow¬
ing feries of definitions.
Definitions.
I. If two ftraight lines interfe<R one another in the
centre of a circle, the arch of the circumference inter¬
cepted between them is called the Menfure of the angle
p]ate which they contain. Thus, (Plate DXXXVII. fig. I.)
;XXVH R>e arch AB is the meafure of the angle contained by
fig. 1. the lines C A and CH.
•II. If the circumference of a circle be divided into
360 equal parts, each of thefe is called a Degree ; and
if a degree be divided into 60 equal parts, each of thefe
is called a Minute ; and if a minute be divided into 60
equal parts, each of thefe is called a Second, and fo on ;
and as many degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. as are in any
arch, fo many degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. are faid to
be in the angle meafured by that arch.
Cor. i. Any arch is to the whole circumference of
■which it is a part, as the number of degrees and parts
of a degree in it is to the number 360. And any
angle is to four right angles as the number of degrees,
&e. in the arch which is the meafure of the angle to
36°.
Cor. 2. Hence alfo it appears that the arches which
saeafure the fame angle, whatever be the radii with
2
which they are defcribed, contain the fame number of Nature and
degrees and parts of a degree. Conftruc-
The degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. contained in antlon of
arch or angle are commonly written thus, 230 29' 3 2" f^xablesl
20,,/, which expreffion means 23 degrees 29 minutes u—y—*
32 feconds, and 20 thirds.
III. Two angle,s which make together two right
angles,, alfo two arches which make together a femi-
circle, are called the Supplements of one another.
IV. A ftraight line BG drawn through B, one of
the extremities’ of the arch AB, perpendicular to the di¬
ameter palling through the other extremity A, is called
the Sine of the arch AC, or of the angle ACB, having,
arch AB for its meafure.
Cor. I. The fine of a quadrant or of a right angle
is equal to the radius.
Cor, 2. The fine of an arch is half the chord of
twice the arch.
V. The fegment AG of the diameter intercepted
between its extremity and the fine BG is called the*
Verfed Sine of the arch AB, or of the angle ACB,
VI. A ftraight line AH touching the circle at A.
one extremity of the arch AB, and meeting the diame¬
ter CB which palfes through B the other extremity, is
called the Tangent of the arch AB, or of the angle
ACB.
Cor. The tangent of half a right angle is equal to
the radius.
VII. The ftraight line CH between the centre and
the extremity ol the tangent AH is called the Secant of
the arch AB or of the angle ACB.
Cor. to Def. 4, 6, 7. The fine, tangent, and fe-
cant of any angle ACB, are alfo the line, tangent,
and fecant of its fupplement BCE. For by the de¬
finition, BG is the fine of the angle BCE ; and if
BC be produced to meet the circle in I, then AH is
the tangent and CH the fecant of the angle AC I or
BCE.
Cor. to Def. 4, 5, 6, 7. The fine, verfed fine, tan^
gent, and fecant of an arch which is the meafure of the
angle ACB is to the fine, verfed fine, and fecant of
anv other arch which is the meafure of the fame angle,
as the radius of the firft arch is to the radius of the fe-
cond.
Let BG, fig. 2. be the fine, AG the verfed fine, Fig. 2.
AH the tangent, and CH the lecant ol the arch AB to
the radius C A 5 and b g, ag, a h, c h the fame things to
the radius C a. From fimilar triangles BG : bg v. BC :
C } and becaule CG : C ^ C B : C :: Q&. : C aj
therefore, by divifion AG : ag :: CA : C a. Alio
AH : a h :: CH \ C h \\ CA : C a.
Hence it appears that if tables be confiru&ed exhi¬
biting in numbers the fines, tangents, and verfed fines of
certain angles to a given radius, they will exhibit the
ratios of the fines, tangents, and verfed fines of the fame
angles to any radius whatever. In fuch tables, which
are called trigonometrical tables, the radius is either
fuppofed 1,-or fome number in the feries 10,100, Jooo,
Fig. i.
478 TRICON
[Nature and &C, Xhe conftruflion and ufe of thefe tables we fliall
gonometri- VIII. Ihe dnterence between any angle and a right
cal Tables, angle, or between any arch and a quadrant, is called the
'' Complement of that angle, or of that arch. Thus,, if
the angle ACD, fig. 1. be a right angle, and confe-
quently the arch AD, which is its meafure, a quadrant,
the angle BCD is the complement of the angle BCA,
and the arch BD is the complement of the arch AB.
Alfo the complement of the obtufe angle BCE is BCD,
its excefs above a right angle ; and the complement of
the arch BDE is the arch BD.
IX. The fine, tangent, or fecant of the complement
of any angle is called the cofine, cotangent, or cofecant
of that angle. Thus, fuppofing the angle ACD to be
a right angle, then BE—CG, the fine of the angle
BCD, is the cofine of the angle BCA j DK, the tan¬
gent of the angle BCD, is the cotangent of the angle
BCA, and CK, the fecant of the angle BCD, is the co¬
fecant of the angle BCA.
The following properties of the lines which have
been defined flow immediately from their pofition.
1. The fum of the fquares of the fine and cofine of
any angle is equal to the fquare of the radius. For, in
the right-angled triangle BGC, BC*=:BG*-h-GC*,
(Geometry, Sett. IV. theor. 13.). Now BG is the
fine, and CGrzBF is the cofine of the angle BCA.
2. The radius is a mean proportional between the
tangent of any angle and its cotangent, or tan. ACB X
cot. ACBrrrad.1. For fince DK, CA are parallel,
the angles DKC, HCA are equal; now CDK, C AH
are right angles, therefore the triangles CDK, HCA
are fimilar, and therefore AH : AC :: CD or AC : DK,
and ACl=AHxDK.
3. The radius is a mean proportional between the co¬
fine and fecant of any angle. Or cof. ACB x fee.ACB
=rad.\ For the triangles CGB, CAH are fimilar j
therefore CG : CB or CA :: CA : CH.
4. The tangent of an arch is a fourth proportional
to its cofinc, its fign and the radius, or tan. ACB—
fin. ACB _
col' ACB 'x'rat ‘ or’ *rom “mi^ar triangles CG : GB
CA : AH.
Trigonometrical tables ufually exhibit the fines, tan¬
gents, and fccants of all angles which can be exprefled
by an exatt number of degrees and minutes from 1 mi¬
nute to 90 degrees, or a right angle. Thefe may be
computed in various ways, the moft elementary is to
calculate them by the help of principles deducible im¬
mediately from the elements of geometry.
It has been demonftrated in Geometry, (Se£t. V.
prob. 22.) that the chord of one-fixth of the circumfer¬
ence, or an arch of 6o°, is equal to the radius ; therefore,
if BD be an arch of 30°, its fine BF will be half the
radius (cor. 2. def. 4.). Let us fuppofe the radius to
be expreffed by unity, or I, then fin. 30°=:|-; now
fince a being put for any arch, cof.* «-f-fin.* «=rrad.*
(where by cof.* a is meant the fquare of the number ex¬
prefling the cofine of the arch a, &c.) and as fin.* 30°
=T, therefore cof.* 3o0=l—&c. Cof. 30'°=:
-*V3—8660254038.
It has been demonftrated in the arithmetic of fines
^AtGEBRA, § 356*) that 2 coi.*tf—i-{-cof.2rt/ hence we
have the following formula for finding the cofine of an
arch, having given the cofine of its double; cof. a~
O M E T R Y.
JBy this formula from the cofine of SO^oXic
we may find that of 15°, and again from cof. 15° we
may find cof. 70 30', and proceeding in this way we cal Tab!
may find the cofines of 3° 45', i° 52' 30", and fo on,' Y-
till after 11 bifeftions the cofine of 52" 44,// 3** 45* is
found j we may then find the fine of this arch by the
formula fin. «=r^/(i—cof.* «). Now, as from the na¬
ture of a circle the ratio of an arch to its fine approaches
continually to that of equality, when the arch is conti¬
nually dimini fired, it follows that the fines of very finall
arches will be very nearly to one another as the arches
themfelves : Therefore, as 52" 44,'/ 3iv 45* to 1' f0 is
the fine of the former arch to the fine of the latter.
By performing all the calculations which we have
here indicated, it will be found that the fine of T is
.0002908882.
It has been ftrewn in the arithmetic of fines (Alge-
BRA> § 3J5-) a and b being put for any two
arches, fin. (a-}-£)=2 cof. b fin. a—fin. («—£), hence
putting 1' for b, and 1', 2', 3', &c. fucceflively for a,
we have,
fin. 2’—2 cof. I'xfin. 1',
fin. 3'=2 cof. I'xfin. 2'—fin. l',
fin. 4'—2 cof. T x fin. 3'—fin. 2',
&c.
In this way the fines for every minute of the quadrant
may be computed, and as the multiplier cof. B remains
always the fame, the calculation is eafy. If inftead of
1 , the common diflerence of the feries of arches were
any other angle, the very fame formula w’ould apply.
The fines, and confequently the cofines of any num¬
ber of arches being fuppofed found, their tangents may
be found by confidering that tan. " ; and their
col. a
fecants from the formula fee. a~—
cof. a
We have here very briefly indicated the manner of
conftrudfting the trigonometrical canon, as it is fometimes
called. I here are, however, various properties of fines,
tangents, &c. which greatly facilitate the a£tual calcu¬
lation of the numbers, thefe the reader will find detail¬
ed in Algebra, Seft. XXV. which treats exprefsly of
the Arithmetic of Sines.
1 he moft expeditious mode of computing the fine or
cofine of a fingle angle is by means of infinite feries:
T he inveftigation of thefe is given in Fluxions, § 70.;
and it is there fliewn that if a denote any arch, then,
the radius being exprefled by 1,
fin. a~a-
cof. o— I
1‘2 ' 3 1 * 2*3 -4- j
<j*
&c.
—•—1_ 
1 * 2 1 1 • 2 * 3 *
3 • 4
&c.
To apply thefe we muft have the arch exprefled in parts
of the radius, which requires that we know the pro¬
portion of the diameter of the circle to its circumference.
We have inveftigated this proportion in. Geometry,
Prop. 6. Seft. vi. 5 alfo in Fluxions, § 137.; and fub-
fequently in the article entitled Squaring the Circle.
From thefe feries others may be found which lhall
exprefs the tangent and fecant. Thus becaufe tan.
TRIGONOMETRY.
479
Mature and fin. a
Conftruc- «- cof> a
on of Tn-
-onometri-by that for the cofine,
al Tables. ,
, we get, after dividing the feries for the fine
2 a5 17
tan. a—a-\ -}-
-J- &c.
3 I5
And in like manner, dividing unity by the feries for
cof. a, becaufe fee. o= ■ v , we get
fee. a~ 14 
‘ 2
cofi «’
5 a4 61 a6
24
720
-f &c.
We lhall conclude what we propofed to fay on the
conftruction of the tables, by referring fuch of our
readers as wilh for more extenfive information on this
fubjeft to Dr Hutton’s Introduction to his excellent
Mathematical tables; alfo to the treatifes which treat
exprefsly of trigonometry, among which are thofe of
Ernerfon, Simpfon, BomiycaJIle, Cagnoli, Maudu.it, La¬
croix, Legendre. In particular we refer to an excel¬
lent treatife on the fubjeCt by Mr R. Woodhoufe of
Caius college, Cambridge.
Defcription of the Table of Logarithmic Sines, &c.
That trigonometrical tables may be extenfively ufe-
ful, they ought to contain not only the fine, tangent,
and fecant to every minute of the quadrant, but alfo the
logarithms of thefe numbers; and thefe are given in
Dr Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, a work which we
have already mentioned ; as, however, the fines, &c. or
the natural fines, &.c. as they are called, are much lefs
frequently wanted than their logarithms, we have only
given a table of the latter. See Logarithms.
This table contains the logarithms of the fines and
tangents, or the logarithmic fines and tangents, to every
minute of the quadrant, the degrees at top and minutes
defeending down the left-hand fide, as far as 450, and
from thence returning with the degrees at the bottom
and the minutes afeending by the right hand fide to
90°, in fuch a manner that any arch on the one fide is
in the fame line with its complement on the other, the
refpe&ive fines, cofines, tangents, and cotangents, being
in the fame line with the minutes, and on the columns
figured with their refpeflive names at top when the de¬
grees are at top, but at the bottom when the degrees
are at the bottom. The differences of the fines and
cofines are placed in columns to the right-hand, marked
D and the differences of the tangents and cotangents
are placed in a column between them, each difference
belonging equally to the columns on both fides of it.
Alfo each differential number is fet oppofite the fpace
between the numbers whofe difference it is. All this
and take the log. fine, &c. of the remainder for that of Nature and
the angle. Con(ln|c:
To find the log. fine of any angle expreffed by de- gonometril"
grees and minutes. If the angle be lefs than 450, look cal Tables,
for the number of degrees at the top, and oppofite to *
the minutes on the left hand will be found the fine re¬
quired ; thus the log. fine of 8° 10' is 9.15245, But if
the angle be 450 or more than 450, look for the degrees
at the bottom and the minutes on the right hand, and
oppofite will be found the log. fine required. Thus the
log. fine of 58° 12' is 9.92936. The very fame direc¬
tions apply for the cofine, tangent, and cotangent j and
from what has been faid, the manner of finding the
angle to degrees and minutes, having given its fine, &c.
muft be obvious.
If the angle confifls of degrees, minutes, and feconds*,
find the fine or tangent to the degrees and minutes, and
add to this a proportional part of the difference given
in the column of differences for the feconds, obferving
that the whole differencecorrefponds to I'or 60". Thus
to find the log. fine of 30° 23' 28"; firfl: the fine of
30° 23' is 9.70396. The difference is 21. As 60";
28" :: 21 : ——— =10 nearly, the part of the differ¬
ence to be added, therefore the fine of 30° 23' 2&" is
9.70406.
On the contrary, let it be required to find the angle-
correfponding to the tangent 10.14152.
The next lefs tangent in the table is 10.14140, which
correfponds to 540 io'j the difference between the pro¬
pofed tangent and next lefs is 12; and the difference
between the next lefs and next greater, as given in th&
table, is 26; therefore, 26 : 12 :: 60" : —; 28"
26
nearly, hence the angle correfponding to the propofed
log. tangent is 340 io7 28".
SECTION II.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
The following propofitions exprefs as many of the
properties of plane triangles as are effentially neceffary
in plane trigonometry.
Theor. I.
In a right-angled plane triangle, as the hypothe-
nufe is to either of the fides, fo is the radius to
the fine of the angle oppofite to that fide ; and
as either of the fides to the other fide, fo is the
radius to the tangent of the angle oppofite to
that fide.
will be evident by infpedting the table itfelf.
There are no logarithmic fecants in the table, but
thefe are eafily had from the cofines; for fince fee. «=
rac|#a
^—, therefore, log. fee. a—2 log. rad.—log. cof. a;
now log. rad. mo, therefore the log. fecant of any arch
is had by fubtradling its log. cofine from 20.
The log. fine, log. tangent, or log. fecant of any
angle is exprelfed by the fame numbers as the log. fine,
log. tangent, or log. fecant of its fupplement j there-
fore, when an angle exceeds 90°, fubtradt it from 1800
Let ABC be a right-angled plane triangle (fig. 3.), F;g ^
of which AC is the hypothenufe.On A as a centre
with any radius, deferibe the arch DE ^ draw EG at
right angles to AB, and draw DF touching the circle
at D, and meeting AC in F. Then EG is the fine of
the angle A to the radius AD or AE, and DF is its
tangent.
The triangles AGE, ADF are manifeftly fimilar to
the triangle ABC. Therefore AC : CB :: AE : EG5
that is, AC : CB :: rad. : fin. A.
Again,
480
TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane Tri- Again, AB : EC :: AD : DF : that is AB : EC ::
d^rad. ftan. A.
Cor. In a right-angled triangle, as the hypothenufe
to either of the fides, fo is the fecant of the acute angle
adjacent to that fide to the radius. For AF is the fecant
of the angle A to the radius AD j and AC : AB :: AF
: AD, that is, AC : AB :: fee. A : rad.
Note. I his propofition is moft eafily remembered
'when ftated thus. If in a right-angled triangle the hi/po-
thenufe be made the radius, the fdes become the fines of
the oppojite angles ; and if one oj the fides be made the
radius, the other fde becomes the tangent of the eppofite
wangle, and the hijpotheniife its fecant.
Theor. II.
The Tides of a plane triangle are to one another as
the fines of the oppofite angles.
Iheor. iy. PnneTn.
T'- r gonometry
It a perpendicular be drawn from any angle of a
triangle to the oppofite fide or bafe ; the fum of
the fegments of the bafe is to the fum of the
other two fides as the difference of thefe fides
to the difference of the fegments of the bafe.
Let ABC be a triangle (fig. 6.), and BD a perpen-Fig. $
dicular drawn to the bafe from the oppofite ano-le •
AD-f-DC : AB + BC :: AB—BC : AD—DB.& ’
On, B as a centre with the radius BC, deferibe a
circle meeting AC in E, and AB in G, and the fame
line produced in F. Then AC : AF :: AG : AE •
now AF = AB-f-BC, and AG = AB—BC, and be-
caufe ED — DC, AE (or AD—DE) — AD DC
therefore AC : AB-j-BC r: AB—BC : AD DC. *
Tig. 4. From B any angle of the triangle ABC (fig. 4.), draw
BD perpendicular to AC. Then, by lafl: theorem,
AB : BD :: rad. : fin. A,
alfo BD : BC :: fin. C : rad.
therefore ex eqito inveffely (Geometry, Se£l. III.
.Theor. 7.), AB : BC :: fin. C : fin. A.
Problem.
Having given the fum of any two quantities and alfo
their difference, to find each of the quantities.
Solution. To half the fum add half the difference
of the quantities, and it will give the greater ; and from
half the fum fubtraft half the difference, and it will give
the lefs.
Tig- 5-
Theor. III.
The fum of any two fides of a triangle is to their
difference as the tangent of half the fum of the
angles oppofite to thefe fides to the tangent of
half their difference.
Let ABC, fig. 5. be a triangle ; AB-j-BC : AB
—BC :: tan.“ (^BCA+ ^iBAC) : tan. *(^iBCA
—^.BAC).
In AB produced take BE=rBC, and on B as a cen¬
tre with BC or BE as a radius, deferibe the femicircle
ECF meeting AC in D j join BD, CF, and CE, and
from F draw EG parallel to AC, meeting CE in G.
Becaufe the angles CEE, CBE, ftand on the fame
arch CE, and the former is at the circumference of the
circle, and the latter at the centre j therefore, the
angle CFE is half the angle CBE (Geometry,
SedL II. 1 heor. XIV.) 5 but the angle CBE is the fum
of the angles BAG, BCA (Geometry, Se&. I. Theor.
XXIIL) j therefore the angle CFE is half the fum of
the angles BCA, BAC.
Became the angle BDC is the fum of the angles
B AC, ABD, therefore the angle ABD is the difference
between the angles BDC, BAD 5 but fince BDrrBC,
the angle BDC is equal to BCD or BCA, therefore
ABD is the differeiice df the angles BCA, BAC ; but
ABD, or FED, being an angle at the centre of the
circle, is double the angle FCD at the circumference,
which laft is equal to the alternate angle CFG $ there¬
fore the angle CFG is half the difference of the angles
BCA, BAC. *
Becaufe CE L manifeftly the tangent of-the angle
CFE to the radius CF, and CG the tangent of the an°le
CFG to the fame radius ; therefore CE : CG :: tan.
CFE : tan. CFG, that is, CE : CG :: tan. 4- (BCA-f-
BAC) : tan. 4 (BCA—BAC)) but becaufe EG is pa¬
rallel to AC, CE : CG :: AE : AF, that is, CE : CG
:: AB-j-BC : AB — BC, therefore AB-j-BC : AB
—BC; tan. (BCA-j-BAC) tan. 4 (BCA—BAC).
A E D B C.
For let the greater of the twro quantities be expreffed
by the line AB, and the lefs by BC 5 bifeft AC in D,
and take DE equal to DB, then AE=:BC, and xAB
—BC =• AB—AErmEB, and 4 (AB—BC)-DB ;
alfo 4 (AB-j-BC)—AD $ now AB:s: AD-j-DB and
BC=AD—DB, therefore the truth of the folution is
evident.
In a plane triangle there are five diffimff parts,
which are fo connected with one another, that any
three of them being given, the remaining two may be
found j thefe are, the three fides and any two of the
three angles; a: to the remaining angle, that depends
entirely upon the other two, and may be found from
them independent of the fides.
If one of the angles be a right angle, then the num¬
ber of parts is reduced to four, and of thefe, any two
being given, the remaining two may be found.
Solution of the Cafes of Right-angled Plane Triangles.
In right-angled triangles there are four cafes which
may be refolved by the fir ft theorem.
Case 1. The hypothenufe AC (fig. 7.) and an anglep;?-
A being given, to find the fides AB, BC about the
right angle.
Solution.
Rad. : fin. A
Rad. : cof. A
AC : BC,
AC : AB.
Example. In the triangle ABC, let the hypothenufe
AC be 144, and the angle A ao0 22'. Required the
fides AB and BC.
To find AB.
Logarithms.
Rad. - - IO.OOCOO
Sin. A 390 22' 9.80228
AC 144 - 2.15836
Rad.
To find BC
Log.
IC.COOOO
EC=:9i.3
1.96064
Cof. A 390 22' 9.88824
AC 144 2.15836
AB=iii.3 2.04660
Here
TRICON
Tri- Here the logarithms of the fecond and third terms
iefy are added, and the logarithm of the firft term fubtrafted
“-^or rejected from the fum.
Case 2. A fide AB, and an acute angle A (and
confequently the other angle C) being given, to find
the bypothenufe AC, and remaining fide BC.
0 t" Cof. A : radi :: AB : AC,
Solution. |Rad_ • tun. A a AB i BC.
Example. In the triangle ABC are given AB 208,
and the angle A 350 l6', to find AC and BC.
To find BC.
Rad. - * - lOiOoooo
To find AC.
Cof. A 35° 16' 9.91194
Rad. - -
AB 208
10.00000
2.31806
12.31806
AC=r254.7 2.40612
Tan. A 350 16' 9.84952
AB 208 - 2.31806
BC=i47.i
2.16758
CaSe 3. The hypothenufe AC and a fide AB being
given, to find the angle A (and confequently C) and
the fide BC.
Solution.
C AC : AB :: rad. : cof A,
\ Rad.: fin. A :: AC : BC.
Example. Let the hypothenufe AC be 272, and the
fide AB 232. Required the angle A and the fide
BC.
To find A.
AC 272 - 2.43457
AB 232
Rad. -
2.36549
10.00000
12.36549
Rad.
To find BC.
10.00000
Sin. A 310 28' 9.71767
AC 272 - - 2.43457
BC 142 - - 2.15224
Cof. A=:3i0 28' 9.93092
Case 4. The fides AB and BC about the right
angle being given, to find the angle A (and thence C)
and the hypothenufe AC.
c f AB : BC : rad. : tan. A,
Solution. { Cof. A : rad.i AB: AC.
Example. Let the fide AB be 186, the fide BC 152.
Required the angle A* and the hypothenule AC.
To find A.
AS 186 - 2.26951
BC 152
Rad.
2.18184
10.00000
12.18184
Tan.A=390 15' 9.91233
To find AC.
Cof. A 390 15' 9.88896
Rad.
AB 186
10.00000
2.26951
12.26951
AC—240.2 2.38055
Solution of the Cafes of Oblique-angled Triangles.
In oblique-angled triangles there are alfo four cafes',
"which, with their folutions, are as follows.
Case i. Two angles A and B, and a fide AB, being
given, to find the other fides AC, BC.
Vol. XX. Part II.
O M E T R Y. 481
Solution. Firft fubtracl the fum of the angles A and Plane Tri-
B from l8o°, and the remainder is the angle C j then gunHmctr)
AC and BC are to be found from thefe proportions. s
Sin. C : Sin. B :: AB : AC,
Sin. C : Sin. A :: AB : BC.
The truth of this folution is obvious from Theor. II.
Example. In the triangle ABC are given the fide
AB=r266, the angle A 38° 40', the angle B 720 l6'j
to find the fides AC and BC.
Firft, A4-B = iio° 56', and 180°—no0
4'=C.
Sin. C 69° 4' 9-97035
Sin. B 720 16' 9.97886
AB 266 - 2.42488
12.40374
AC=27i.3 2.43339
Sin. C 69° 4' 9.97035
Sin. A 38° 40' 9.79573
AB 266 - 2.42488
12.22061
BC=i77.9 2.25026
CaSe 2. Two fides AC, CB (fig. 9.), and the angle pjg, ^
A oppofite to one of them, being given j to find the
other angles B, C, and alfo the other fide AB.
Solution. The angle B is found by this propor¬
tion.
CB : AC :: fin. A : fin. B.
When CB is lefs than CA, the angle B admits of
two values, one of which is the fupplement of the other;
becaufe, correfponding to the fame value of the fide
AC, and the angle A, the fide BC may evidently have
two diftinft pofitions, viz. CB, C b. The angle CB A
and its fupplement C b A being found, the angle
ACB, alfo the angle AC b may be found, by fift>
tra&ing the fum of the two known angles from i8oQ,
and then AB and A b may be found by thefe propor¬
tions. ,
Sin. A : Sin. ACB :: CB : AB,
Sin. A : Sin. AC b :: CB ox C b : Ab.
This is called the ambiguous cafe, on account of the
angle B and the fide AB having fometimes two va¬
lues.
This folution, like the laft, is deduced from Theo¬
rem II.
Example. Suppofe AC 225, BC 180, and the angle
A 42® 20'; to find the remaining parts.
CB 180 - s
AC 225
Sin. A 420 20'
2.25527
2.35218
9.82830
12.18048
Sin. ABC=57° 20'
Or fin. A ^ Cm 22 40
9.92521
In the triangle ACB we have now the fide AC and
the angles CAB, CBA, therefore the remaining angle
ACB and fide AB may be found by Cafe I.; and the
fame is true of the triangle AC b.
3 P Case
1
482
Plane Tri-
TRICON
Case Two lides CA, CB and the included angle
' C being given, to find the remaining angles B, A, and
fide AB.
Solution. Find AC-f-CB, the fum of the fides,
and AC — CB their difference; alfo find the fum of
the angles A and B (that fum is the fupplement of C),
and half that fum ; then half the difference of the
angles will be got from this proportion. (See Theor.
III.).
AC+CB : AC—-CB :: tan.^(*8 +A) : tan.|(B—A).
Having now the fum and difference of the angles B and
A, the angles will be found by the rule given in the
problem following Theor. IV.
The remaining fide may be found by either of thefe
proportions.
Sin. B : fin. C :: AC : AB; or fin. A : fin. C :: BC : AB.
O M E T R Y.
To find A.
AC 105 - 2.02119
AD 70. q
Rad.
1.84819
10.00000
11.84819
Cof. A 470 49' 9.82700
To find B. Spher
BC 95 - I.97772Trigm » I:
 try
BD 54.5 - ' ' V
Rad.
1.73640
10.00000
11.73640
Gof. B 550 - 9.75868
For the application of plane trigonometry, fee Men*
suration, Seft. I.
SECTION III.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Theor. I.
Example. Let AC be 128, CB 90, and the angle
C 48° 12'. Required the remaining parts of the tri¬
angle.
AC-f.CB 218 - 2.33846
AC — CB 38 - 1.57978
tan. f (B +A) 65° 54' . 10.34938
11.92916
tan,A (B—A) 210 17' - 9.59070
Hence by the given rule in the above-mentioned pro¬
blem, R=:870 it', A=43° 3,7V As we now know all
the angles and two fides, the remaining fide may be
found by Cafe 1.
Case 4. The three fides AB, BC and AC (fig. 10.)
being given, to find the three angles A, B, C.
Solution. Let fall a perpendicular CD upon the
greateft of the three fides from the oppofite angle.
Then find the difference between AD and DB by this
proportion.,
AB : AC-f-CB :: AC—CB : AD—DB.
The fegments AD, DB may now be found feverally
by the rule given for finding each of the quantities
whofe fum and difference is given, and then the angles
A and B may be found by the following propor¬
tions.
If a fphere be cut by a plane through the centre,
the fedtion is a circle.
The truth of this propofition is evident from the de.
finition of a fphere. See Geometry, Se£t. IX. Def. 3,
Definitions.
I. Any circle which is a fe&ion of a fphere by a
plane pafifng through its centre, is called a great circle
of the fphere.
Cor. All great circles of a fphere are equal, and the
centre of the fphere is their common centre, and any
two of them bifeft one another.
II. The pole of a great circle of the fphere is a point
in the fuperficies of the fphere from which all ftraight
lines drawn to the circumference of the circle are
equal.
III. A fphericalangle is that which on the fuperficies
of a fphere is contained by two arches of great circles,
and is the fame with the inclination of the planes of
thefe great circles.
IV. A fpherical triangle is a figure upon the fuperfi¬
cies of a fphere comprehended by three arches of three
great circles, each of which is lefs than a femicircle.
Theor. II.
The arch of a great circle between the pole and
the circumference of another circle is a qua¬
drant.
CA : AD :: rad. : cof. A,
CB : BD rad. : cof. B.
The angles A, B being found, C of courfe is known.
The firft part of this folution follows from Theor. IV.
ihe latter part from Theor. I,
Example. Let AB be 125, AC 105, and BC 95.
Required the angles.
In this cafe AC-fBC=200, AC—BCmo, there¬
fore we have
125 : 200 :: 10 : AD—DBs=^<H=1(5.
*25
Now AD-j-DB—iaj, therefore ADr^o.c DB=£
54:5*
Let ABC be a great circle (fig, II.), and D itSpjg jj
pole ; let the great circle ADC pafs through D, and
let AEC be the common feftion of the planes of the
two circles, which will pafs through E the centre of
the circle, join DA, DC. Becaufe the chord DA is
equal to the chord DC, (Def. 2.) the arch DA is equal
to the arch- DC ; now ADC is a femicircle, therefore
the arches AD and DC are quadrants.
Cor. I. If DE be drawn, the angle AED is a right
angle, and DE being therefore at right angles to every
line it meets with in the plane of the circle ABC, is at
right angles to that plane. Therefore the ftraight line
drawn from the pole of any great circle to the centre
•f the fphere is at right angles to the plane of that circle.
Cos. 2. The circle has two poles D, D', one on
each..
TRIGONOMETRY.
483
. c j ical each fide of its plane, which are the extremities of
Trig )me-a diameter of the- fphere perpendicular to the plane
= .ABC.
Theor. III.
A fpherical angle is meafured by the arch of a
great circle intercepted between the great circles
containing the angle, and having the angular
point for its pole.
Let AB, AC be two arches of great circles con-
' taining the fpherical angle BAG ; let BC be an arch
of a great circle intercepted between them, and having
A for its pole, and let BD, CD, AD be drawn to D
the centre of the fphere. The arches AB, AC arc qua¬
drants, (Theor. II.), and therefore the angles ADB,
ADC right angles; therefore (Geometry, Se61. VII.
Def. 4.), the angle BDC (which is meafured by the
arch BC) is the inclination of the planes of the circles
BDA, CDA, and is equal to the fpherical angle BAC
, (Def. 3.).
Cor. If AB, AC two arches of great circles meet in
A, then A (hall be the pole of a great circle palling
through B and C.
Theor. IV.
Fig 3.
Two great circles whofe planes are perpendicular
pafs through each others poles.
Let ACBD, AEBF be two great circles, the
planes of which are at right angles to one another ;
from G the centre of1 the fphere, draw GC in the plane
ABCD perpendicular to AB, then GC is alfo perpen¬
dicular to the plane AEBF, (Geometry, Se6t. VII.
Theor. 12.); therefore C is the pole of the circle AEBF,
and if CG be produced to D, D is the other pole of the
circle AEBF.
In the fame manner, by drawing GE in the plane
AEBF perpendicular to AB, and producing it to F,
it is (hewn that E and F are the poles of the circle
ABCD.
Cor. 1. If two great circles pafs through each others
poles, their planes are perpendicular to one another.
Cor. 2. If of two great circles the firft palfes through
the poles of the fecond, the fecond alfo paffes through
the poles of the firft.
Theor. V.
For let each fide of ABC be produced to meet the Spherical
fides that contain the angle oppofite to it, in the tri-1 ri£onom^~
angle DEF 3 then, becaufe BC paffes through the poles try' .
of ED, DF, ED, DF muff alfo pafs through the poles
of BC. (Theor. II. Cor. 2.). Therefore the points
D, () are the poles of BC. In like manner R, F are
the poles of AB, and E, O the poles of AC. Hence
EL, FK are quadrants, (Theor. II.); and therefore EF
is the fupplement of KL, but fince A is the pole of EF,
KL is the meafure of the angle at A ; thus EF is the
fupplement of the meafure of the angle at A. In like
manner FD is the fupplement of the meafure of the an¬
gle at B, and DE the fupplement of the meafure of the
angle at C.
Further, it will appear in the fame manner that BC
is the fupplement of HM, the" meafure of the angle at
D ; that AB is the fupplemcnt of NK the meafure of
the angle at F 3 and that AC is the fupplement of GL,
the meafure of the angle at E.
Theor. VI.
If from any point E, which is not the pole of the
great circle ABC, there be drawn arches of
great circles EA, EK, EB, &c. the greatefl of
thefe is EGA, which pafies through G the pole
of ABC, and EC the remainder of the femicircle
is the leaft, and of the other, EK, EB, &c. EK
which is nearer to EA is greater than EB, which
is more remote.
Let AC be the common fe&ion of the planes of the Fig. 15.
great circles AEC, ABC 3 draw EH perpendicular to
AC, which will be perpendicular to the plane of the
circle ABC (Geometry,Se61. VII. Theor. XII.), and
join AE, X.E, BE, KH, BH. Then of all the ftraight
lines drawn from H to the circumference, HA is the
greateft, HC the leaft, and HK greater than HB :
Therefore in the right-angled triangles EH A, EHK,
EHB, EHC, which have the fide EH common, EA
is the greateft hypothenufe, EC the leaft, and EK
greater than EB, confequently the arch EGA is the
greateft, EC the leaft, and EK greater than EB.
Theor. VII.
Any two Tides of a fpherical triangle are together
greater than the third, and all the three Tides
are together lefs than a circle.
If the angular points of any fpherical triangle be
made the poles of three great circles, another
triangle will be formed by their interfe£Hons,
fuch, that the fides of the one triangle will be
refpe&ively the fupplements of the meafures
of the angles oppofite to them in the other.
F‘; Let the angular points of the triangle ABC be the
poles of three great circles 3 which by their interfec-
tions form the three lunary furfaces DQ, FK, and EO 3
A being the pole of EF, B the pole of DI, and C the
pole of ED. Then the triangle DEF which is com¬
mon to three lunary furfaces will be in every refpefl
iuppkmental to the triangle ABC.
Let ABC be a fpherical triangle, let D be the cen-fig, if,
tre of the fphere, join DA, DB, DC. The folid angle
at D is contained by three plane angles ADB, BDC,
ADC, any two of which are greater than the third,
(Geometry, Sea. VII. Theor. XV.) 3 and therefore
any two of the arches AB, BC, AC which meafure
thefe angles muft be greater than the third arch.
To prove the fecond part of the propofition, pro¬
duce the fides AB, AC until they meet again in E 3
then ECA and EBA are Temicircles 3 now CB is lefs
than CE-fEB, therefore CB + CA + BA is lefs than
CE + EB-f-CA-j-BA, but thefe four arches make up
two femicircles 3 therefore CB~l-CA-j-BA is lefs than
a circle.
3 P 2
Theor,
484
Spherical
Trigonome¬
try.
TRIGONOMETRY.
Theor. VIII.
Fig. 18.
Fig- 14-
Fig. 13.
“ If two fides of a fpherical triangle be equal, the
angles oppofite to them are equal, and con-
verfely.
a fpherical triangle is greater, equal, or left than aqua. Sph.*,
di ant, half the fura of the oppofite angles will be great-Trigonoe
er, equal, or Aefs than a right angle. try,
Theor. XI.
Fig- 17-
In the triangle ABC, if the fides AB, AC be equal,
the angles ABC, ACB are alfo equal. If AB, AC be
quadrants, ABC, ACB are right angles. If not, let
the tangent to the fide AB at B meet EA the line of
common fedion of the planes AB, AC in F, and let
the tangents to the bafe BC at its extremities meet each
other in G ; alfo, let FC, FG, EC, and EB be joined.
1 hen the triangles FEB, I EC have FE common,
EBirrEC, and the angle AEB—AEG, therefore FB
rrrFC, and the angle FCE~FBF a right angle: hence
FC is a tangent, and the triangles FGB, GCF are mu¬
tually equilateral, therefore the angle FBG~FCG, and
confequently the fpherical angle ABCrrACB.
Again, if the angles ABC, ACB be equal, the fide
AB—AC. For if in fig. 14. the angle ABC be equal
to ACB, the fide Dr of the fupplemental triangle
DEF will be equal to the fide I)E (Xheor. V.)^ there-
fore the angle DEF—DFE, and confequently in the
triangle ABC, the fide ACrrAB by Theorem V.
Cor. In any triangle the greater angle is fubtended
by the greater fide ; and converfely. For if the angle
ACB begreater than ABC (fig. I 8.) let BCD= ABC,
t en BD—DC, and AB—AD~j-DC, which is greater
than AC ( Fheor. VII.). The converfe is demonftra-
tcd in the fame manner as the like property of plane
triangles, (Geometry, Sett. I. Theor. XIII.).
In a right-angled triangle, according as either of
the fides about the right angles is greater, equal,
or lefs than a quadrant, its oppofite angle is
greater, equal, or lefs than a right angle : and
converfely. 0
Theor. IX.
All the angles of a fpherical triangle are toge¬
ther greater than two, and lefs than fix right
angles.
In the triangle ABC (fig. 14.) the three angles
are together lefs than fix right angles, becaufe when
added to the three exterior angles they only make fix ;
and they are greater than two right angles, becaufe their
ineafures GH, KL, MN, added to DE, EF, FD, are
equal to three femicircles ; and DE, EF, FD being lefs
than two femicircles (Theor. Vll.) GH, KL, MN muft
be greater than one.
Theor. X.
Any two angles of a fpherical triangle are to¬
gether greater, equal, or lefs than two right
angles, according as the fum of the oppofite fides
is greater, equal, or lefs than a femicircle; and
converfely. *
Let the fides AB, AC (fig. 19.) 0f the fpherical
triangle ABC be produced to meet in D 5 then it is
evident, that according as the fum of AB, BC is great¬
er, equal, or lefs than the femicircle ABD, the fide
BC will be greater, equal, or lefs than BD; the angle
D or A will be greater, equal, or lefs than BCD, and
the fum of the angles BAG, BCA greater, equal, or
lefi- than the fum of BCA, BCD, which is two right
angles. °
Cor. According as half the fum of any two fides of
2
Let ABC (fig. 20.) be a triangle right-angled at B,Fi2l2*
and let the fides AB, BC be produced to meet in D •
then, becaufe they pafs through each others poles, E the
middle point of BAD will be the pole of BCD’; let a
great circle pafs through, the points CE. The arch EC
is a quadrant, and the angle ECB a right angle. Now
it is plain, that according as AB is greater, equal, or
lefs than the quadrant EB, the oppofite angle ACR
will be greater, equal, or lefs than the right angle
ECB, and converfely.
Cor. 1. If the two fides be both greater, or both lefa
than quadrants, the hypothenufe will be lefs than a
quadrant ; but if the one be greater and the other lefs,
the hypothenufe will be greater than a quadrant, and
converfely.
For in the triangles ABC, ADC, right-angled at B,
D, m which the fides AB, BC are lefs, and confequent¬
ly AD, DC greater than quadrants, the hypothenufe
AC is lefs than a quadrant, becaufe it is nearer to CB
tbap the quadrant CE. But in the triangle a BC, of
-which the fide a B is greater, and BC lefs than a qua-
diant, the hypothenufe «C is greater than a quadrant,
becaufe it is further from CB than CE is.
Cor. 2. In every fpherical triangle, of which the
two fides aie not both quadrants, if the perpendicular
from the vertex fall within, the angles at the bafe will
be both acute, or both obtufe ; but if it fall without,
the one will be obtufe, and the other acute, and con¬
verfely.
Theor. XII.
In any right-angled fpherical triangle, as radius
is to the fine of the hypothenufe, fo is the
fine of one of the oblique angles to the fine of
its oppofite fide.
Let ABC (fig. 21.) be a fpherical triangle, having Fig. m
a right angle at B ; and let AD, BD, CD be drawn
to the centre of the ipbere. From C, in the plane
DCA, let CE be drawn perpendicular to DA, and
from E, in the plane DBA, draw EF perpendicular
to the fame line, and let CF be joined. Then becaufe
DA is perpendicular to the two lines CE, EF, it is
perpendicular to the plane CEF, and confequently the
plane CEF is perpendicular to the plane DBA ; but
the plane DCB is alfo perpendicular to DBA ; there¬
fore their line of common feftion CF is perpendicular
to the fame : Hence CFD, CFE are right angles.
Now in the right-angled triangle CFE, rad. : CE ::
fin. E : CF; but the angle CEF, being the inclination
of the planes DCA, DBA, is the fame with the fphe¬
rical angle CAB, CE is the fine of AC, and CF the
fine of BC; therefore rad. : fin. AC :: fin. A : fin.BC.
Cor.
Fi; 12
5 ;rical CoR. I. As radius to the cofine of either of the fides,
jr nome-f0 js tiie cofine of the other to the cofine of the hypo-
ry* , thenufe.
For let the great circle of which A is the pole,
meet the three fides in D, E, F •, then F is the pole of
AD *, and applying this propofition to the complemental
triangle FCE, rad. : fin. FC :: fin. F : fin. CE j that
is, rad. : cof. BC :: cof. AB : cof. AC.
Cor. 2. As radius to the cofine of one of the fides,
fo is the fine of its adjacent angle to the cofine of the
other angle.
TRIGONOMETRY. 48s
Then (Theor. 13. Cor. 2.) rad. : cof. A :: tan. AC : Spherical
tan. AB. Trigonome-
Therefore, (rad. : tan. AC ::) cot. AC : rad. :: cof., ^
A : tan. AB, v
And (Theor. 12. Cor. 2.) rad. : cof. BC :: fin. C :
cof. A.
Case 3. Let the complement of the fide AB be the
middle part.
Then (Theor. 13.) rad. : fin. AB :: tan. A : tan. BC.
Therefore (rad. : tan. A ;:) cot. A : rad. :: fin. AB :
tan. BC.
Theor. XIII.
In any right-angled triangle, as radius to the fine
of one of the fides, fo is the tangent of the
adjacent angle to the tangent of the other
fide.
And (Theor. 12.) rad. : fin. AC :: fin. C : fin. AB.
We are indebted for the foregoing rule to Napier,
the celebrated inventor of logarithms. It comprehends
all the propofitions which are neceffary for the relolution
of right-angled triangles, and being eafily remembered,
is perhaps one of the happieft inftances of artificial me¬
mory that is known.
Pi; 3*
From B let BE be drawn perpendicular to DA, and
from E, EF alfo perpendicular to DA, in the plane
DC A, to meet DC in F, and let BF be joined. It may
be Ihown as in the preceding propofition, that FB is
perpendicular to the plane DBA 5 hence FB is the tan¬
gent of BC, and FBE is a right-angled triangle $ there¬
fore rad. : EB :: tan. E : FB ; that is rad. : fin. AB ::
tan. A : tan. BC.
CoR. I. As radius to the cofine of the hypothenufe,
fo is the tangent of one of the angles to the cotangent
of the other. For, in the complemental triangle FCE,
(fig. 22.) rad. : fin. CE :: tan. C : tan. FE, that is,
rad. : cof. AC :: tan. C : cot. A, or, rad. : cof. AC ::
tan. A : cot. C.
Cor. 2. As radius is to the cofine of one of the
angles, fo is the tangent of the hypothenufe to the tan¬
gent of the fide adjacent to that angle.
For rad. : fin. FE :: tan. F : tan. CE ; that is, rad. :
cof. A :: cot. AB : cot. AC, or rad. : cof. A :: tan.
AC : tan. AB.
Napier's Rule for Circular Parts.
Let the hypothenufe, the two angles, and the comple¬
ments of the two fides of any right-angled fpherical tri¬
angle be called thefve cv cular parts of the triangle. Any
one of thefe being confidered as the middle part, let the
two which are next to it be called the adjacent parts, and
the remaining two the oppofte parts. Then the two pre¬
ceding theorems, with their corollaries, may be all ex-
prefled in one propofition adapted to practice, as follows.
In any right-angled fpherical triangle, the reed angle
under radius, and the cojine of 'the middle part, is equal
to the re Bangle under the cotangents of the adjacent parts,
or to the reB angle under the fries oj the oppofte parts.
Theor. XIV.
In any fpherical triangle, the fines of the fides are
proportional to the fines of the oppofite angle.
This propofition has been demonflrated in the cafe p;g_ 2 ^
of right-angled triangles. Let ABC be any oblique-
angled triangle, divided into two right-angled triangles,
ABD, CBD, by the perpendicular BD, falling from
the vertex upon the bale AC. In the former, the
complement of BD being the middle part, rad. X fin.
BD = fin. AB x fin. A, (Napier’s Ruee). In the
latter, the complement of BD being the middle part,
rad. X fin. BD rr fin. BC X fin. C. Hence fin. AB
X fin. A = fin. BC x fin. C, and fin. AB : fin. BC ::
fin. C : fin. A.
Cor. I. The cofines of the two fides are to one
another diredlly as the cofines of the fegments- of the
bafe. This is proved by making AB, BC the middle
part.
Cor. 2. The tangents of the two fides are to one
another inverfely as the cofines of the vertical angles.
This will follow from making the angles ABD, CBD
the middle parts.
Lemma i. The fum of the tangents of two arches is
to their difference, as the redd angle under the fine and
cofne of half their fum to the re&angle under the fne
and cof tie of half their difference.
For, putting a and b for any two arches, by the
arithmetic of fines (Algebra, § 353-)>
Sin a cof. £-{-cof. a fin. Z'rrfin. («-{-£).
Let each fide of this equation be divided by cof. ®
cof. b, and we get
fin. a fin. b  fin. (a-fb')
cof. a cof. b fin. a cofiA
Fi >4, Case i. Let the hypothenufe AC be the middle
part.
Then, rad. : cof. AC :: tan. C : cot. A (Theor. 13.
Cor. 1.).
Therefore (rad. : tan. C ::) cot. C : rad. :: cof. AC :
cot. A.
And rad. : cof. AB :: eof. BC : cof. AC (Theor. 12.
Cor. 1.).
Case 2. Let tlie angle A be the middle part.
. . fin. (a-fA)
that is, tan. a-j-tan. b—-  r.
fin. a coi. b
In like manner, from the formula fin. («-
fin. a cof. b—cof. a fin. b, we get
fin. («—U)
A)
tan, a—tan. b —
fin. a cof. b *
therefore tan. a -j- tan. b : tan. a — tan. b : fin. (a-fA)
: fin. («—b), and remarking that fin- (a-{A) = 2 fin.
i («-fA)
486
Spherical
Trigonome¬
try-
kjpmm
TRIGONOMETRY.
4 (« -j" cof. -j- (o and fin. («—Z») = 2 fin.
4 («—i») cof. 4 («—^), (Algebra, § 358) it follows
j that tan. a -f- tan. b : tan. a — tan. b :: fin. 4 («+£)
cof. 4- (a-\-b) : fin. (a—£) cof (a—£).
Lemma 2. jT/zi? fum of the fnes of two arches is to
their difference, as the reElangle under the fne of half
the fum and cofne of half the difference of thefe arches is
to the reBangle under the fne of half the difference and
cof tie of half the fum.
For it has been fhown in the arithmetic of fines (Al-
GEBRA, § 355), that
Sin. + -f- fin. Qo—fj —r 2 fin. p cof y,
Sin. (p-\-q) —fin. =r 2 cof. p fin. q.
Let p— a-\-\b, and q— 4 a— 4 b, fo that P"\-q,
zra and p—qzz b, then thefe formulas become
Sin. fl-ffin. 2 fin 4 (« + ^) cof 4 {a—b)
Sin. a—fin. b~2 cof 4 («4-^) fin- -4 (a—b).
Therefore, fin. a + fin. b : fin. a— fin. £ fin. 4 (a+£)
cof 4 (a—b) : cof. 4 (« + ^) fin. 4 («—b).
Lemma 3. The fum of the fnes of two arches is to
their difference, as the tangent of half the fum of thefe
arches is to the tangent of half their difference.
For, dividing the latter antecedent and confequent of
the proportion in the foregoing lemma by cof. 4 («-f^)
Xcofi 4 («—b'), we have fin. o-ffin. b : fin. a— fin. b ::
fin. 4 (« + £). fin. 4 t . , r fin.
col. £ (a-H) cof. 4 {a—by ' cof.
tan. fin. a -f* fin* ^ : fin. a— fw. b :: tan. 4 (a4-b) :
tan. 4 («—b).
Lemma 4. The fum of the cofnes of two arches is
to their difference, as the cotangent of half the fum of
thefe arches is to the tangent of half their difference.
By Arithmetic of fines (Algebra, § 355.),
cof (p—q) 4- cof. (p-\-q)=z 2 cof. ju cof q,
M " c°f* (P—$0 — cof. (p-f-y)=: 2 fin. p fin. q.
Let p~ 4 (b-\-al) and q~ 4 (b—a), then p—q^za
and p-\-q—b, and the two formulas become
cof. c + cof bzz 2 cof. 4 (Z<4a) cof. 4 {b—a'),
cof. a—cof. bzz 2 fin. 4 (b+a) fin. 4 (£—a) ;
Hence, cof "4- cof. b \ cof a—.cof. b :: cof. 4 (b^ai)
cof. 4 {b-—a) : fin. i (^+«) fin. 4 (b—a)j
and dividing the latter antecedent and ccnfequent by
fin. 4 (£+«) cof. 4 (b—a),
eof 4 (^-f-«)
cof. «-}-cof. b : cof. a—cof. b
fin. 4 {b—a)
and
cof. 4 {b-
fin.
fin. 4 (b-±.a)
that is, becaufe ~ zz cot.
■<*) lin.
cof.
= tan. we have cof a -f cof b : cof
cof b :: cot. 4 : tan. 4 (b—o').
■?ig. 26.
In the demonftration of the remaining theorems, we
fliall put A, B for the angles A and B at the bafe of
the fpherical triangle ACB (fig. 26), a and b for the
udes oppofite to thefe angles, p and q for the fegments
of the bafe BD, AD made by the perpendicular arch
CD, P and Q for the vertical angles BCD, ACD ; we
3
fhall alfo put / for \ («+£), # for 4 f—b\ / for SpW;^
4 (p + q), d> for 4 (/>-?), S for 4 (A +B), D forTrigonome.
4 (A—B), S' for 4 (P+Q)> and D' for 4 (P—£). try.^
Theor. XV.
In any fpherical triangle, the tangent of half the
fum of the fegments of the bafe is to the tan*
gent of half the fum of the two Tides, as the
tangent of half their difference to the tangent
of half the difference of the fegments of the
bafe.
For by Theor. XIV. Cor. 1. cof. a : co{.'b :: cof. p
: cof. q; therefore, cof. a -f cof. b : cof. a — cof. b
:: cof. p+ cof. q : cof. p — cof. q, hence (Lemma 4.)
cot. s : tan. d':: cot. s’: tan. d', or cot. s : cot. s':: tan. d
: tan. d' j but cot. s : cot. /:: tan. s': tan. s, therefore,
tan. s' : tan s :: tan. d: tan. d'. This propofition ex-
preffed in words at length is the theorem to be demon¬
strated.
Theor. XVI.
The cotangent of half the fum of the vertical
angles and the tangent of half their difference,
or the cotangent of half their difference and the
tangent of half their fum, according as the per¬
pendiculars fall within or without, are recipro¬
cally proportional to the tangents of half the
fum and half the difference of the angles at the
bafe.
For, taking the cafe in which the perpendicular CD fig. 17.
(fig. 27O falls within, let EFG be the fupplemental
triangle, let the arches GE, GF meet again in L, and
produce CA, CB to meet EF in H and K. Becaufe
G and L are the poles of AB, the perpendicular CD,
if produced, will pafs through G and L ; let it meet EF
in I; then, becaufe C is the pole of EF, the arch GCI
#is perpendicular to EF, and fince E is the pole of EC,
KE=a quadrantrrFH, and EHrrKF, and IF—IE=
IK.——IH. In the triangle LEF, by the preceding pro¬
pofition, tan. 4 (Fl-f IE) : tan. 4 (FL-f-LE) :: tan.
4 (FL—LE) : tan. 4 (FI--IE) or tan. 4 (KI—IH).
Now FI-j-IE, or FE, being the fupplement of C,
(Theor. 5.), tan. 4 FErrcot. 4 C ; and FL, LE being
the fupplements of FG and GE, FL and LE are the
meafures of the angles A, B ; moreover, IK, IH are
the meafures of the angles BCD, ACD, therefore,
cot. 4 C, or cot. 4 (P + QJ : tan. 4 (A-j-B) : tan*
4 (A—B) : tan. 4 (P—In the very fame way
it may be proved, when the perpendicular falls without
the triangle, that cot. 4 (T—-Q.) : tan. 4 (A+B) ::
tan. 4 (A—B) : tan. § (P + Q.)*
Theor. XVII.
In any fpherical triangle, the fine of half the fum
of the fides is to the fine of half their difference,
as the cotangent of half the vertical angle to the
tangent of half the difference of the angles at
the bafe.
For fince tan. a : tan. bt: cof. Q : cof. P, therefore,
tan.
lencal
7 onome-
ry-
J •17'
TRIGONOMETRY.
tan. fl-f tan. I ; tan. a-~tan. b :: cof. -{-co^ P • co^*
■ £—cof. P 5 hence, by Lemma 2 and 4.
fin. s cof. j : fin. d cof. d :: cot. S' : tan. D' .. . (1).
487
4^ (A-f-B) ; fin, 4 (A—B) :: tan. 4 AB : tan. 4(BC Spherical
 AC). * Trigonome¬
try-
Theor. XX.
Again, becaufe (by Theor. XIV.) fin. a : fin. b ::
fin. A r fin. B, therefore, fin. a + fin. b : fin. a—fin. b
:: fin. A-f-fin. B : fin. A—fin. Bj hence, (by Lemma
2. and 3.).
fin. s cof. d : fin. d cof. r :: tan. S : tan. D . . . (2).
In any fpherical triangle, the cofine of half the
fum of the angles at the bafe is to the eofine of
half their difference, as the tangent of half the
bafe to the tangent of half the fum of the two
Tides.
Taking now the produft of the correfponding terms of
the proportions (1) and (2), and rejecting the factor
cof. r cof. d, which is common to the firft antecedent
and confequent of the refulting proportion, we have,
fin.2r : fin.* d :: cot. S' tan. S : tan. D' tan. D.
For in the triangle ELF, cof. \ (LF-f-LE) : cof. Fig.*7*
4(LF—LE):: cot.4L : tan.4 (E+F) (Th.XVIII.)
that is, becaufe of the relation of the triangle FLE to
ABC, as exprefied in laft theorem, cof. 4 (A-{-B): cof.
4 (A—B) tan.f AB : tan. 4 (BC-j-AC).
But fince by Theor. XVI. tan. S : tan. D' :: cot. S' :
tan. D, therefore cot. S' tan. S : tan. D' tan. D :: cot.* S'
: tan.* D ; therefore, fin.* s: fin.* d :: cot.* S' : tan.* D,
and fin. s : fin. d:: cot. S': tan. D, this proportion when
exprefled in words is the proportion to be demonftrated.
Theor. XVIII.
In any fpherical triangle, the cofine of half the
fum of the two Tides is to the cofine of half
their difference, as the cotangent of half the
vertical angle to the tangent of half the fum of
the angles at the bafe.
For it has been proved in laft theorem that
fin. s cof. s : fin. d cof. d :: cot. S': tan. D'
fin. j cof. d: fin. d cof. s :: tan. S : tan. D j
therefore, dividing the terms of the firft of thefe two
proportions by the correfponding terms of the fecond,
we get
cof. j- cof. d cot. S' tan. D'
cof. d ’ cof. s tan. S tan. D
Hence, multiplying the firft and fecond terms by cof. s
X cofi d, and the third and fourth by tan. S tan. D, we
have
cof.* s : cof.*//:: cot. S' tan. D : tan. S tan. D'.
But fince by Theor. XVI. tan. D : tan. D' :: cot. S':
tan. S, therefore, cot. S'tan. D : tan. S tan. D' :: cot.* S'
: tan.* Sj therefore, cof.* j : cof.*// :: cot.* S' : tan.* S,
and cof. s : cof. d :: cot. S' : tan. S.
Theor. XIX.
In any fpherical triangle, the fine of half the fum
of the angles at the bafe is to the fine of half
their difference, as the tangent of half the bafe
to the tangent of half the difference of the two
Tides.
For the fame conftru&ion being made as in Theor.
XVI. in the triangle ELF (fig. 27.) fin. 4 (FL -f-LE)
: fin. 4 (FL—LE) :: cot. f L : tan. 4 (E—F) (Theor.
XVII, ) *, but EFG being the fupplemental triangle of
ABC, LF and LE are the meafures of A and B, L is
the fupplement'of AB, and LFE, LEF are the mea¬
fures of the Tides AC, BC (Theor, V.) j therefore fin.
Scholium.
Let one of the fix parts of any fpherical triangle be
neglected 5 let the one oppofite to it, or its fupplement,
if an angle, be called the middle part, the two next to
it the adjacent parts, and the remaining two the oppqfite
parts. Then the four preceding propofitions, which are
called Napier's Analogies, becaufe firft invented by him,
may be included in one, as follows.
In any fpherical triangle, the Jine or cofine of half the
fum of the adjacent parts, is to the fine or cof ne of half
their difference, as the tangent of half the middle part to
the tangent of half the difference or half the fum of the
oppofte parts, that is, #
Sin. 4 (A-j-a) : fin. 4 (A—o) :: tan. 4 M : tan.
4 (O—0).
Cof. 4 (A+°) : c°fi 4 (A—d) :: tan. 4 M - tan,
4 (O-J-o).
When A, a and M are given, by the firft proportion,
4(0—o') is found, and by the fecond 4(0-|-o) •, thence
O and 0 may be had immediately by the problem fol¬
lowing Theor. IV. Plane Trigonometry.
The Cafes of Right-angled Spherical Triangles..
In a right-angled triangle, let c denote the fide op- pjg
polite the right angle, a, b the fides containing it, and
A, B the oppoftte angles, A being oppofite to a, and
B to b. Then, combining thefe quantities two by two,
there will be found to be fix diftindt combinations, or
cafes.
Case i. When c, A, the hypothenufe and one of
the angles are given ; to find a, b, B.
« is found by Theor. XII. j b by Theor. XIII. Cor. 2.
and B by Theor. XIII. Cor. 1.
Case 2. Given a, B, a fide and its adjacent angle.
Sought, A,b,c.
A is found by Theor. XII. Cor. 2. j Z>by Theor.XIII. j
c by Theor. XIII. Cor. 2.
Case 3. Given a, A, a fide and its oppofite angle j
to find b B, c.
b is found by Theor. XIII. j B by Theor. XII.
Cor. 2.} c by Theor. XII.
Case 4. Given c, a, the hypothenufe, and one of the
fides •, to find A, b, B.
A is found by Theor. XII. j b by Theor. XII. Cor. 1,5
B by Theor. XIII. Cor. 2.
Case
4&8
Spherical Cafe 5. Given a, b, the two fides. Sought A, B, r.
Trigonome- A jg foUnd Theor. XIII.; B by the fame ; c by
, L try- Theor. XII. Cor. 1.
Case 6. Given A, B, the two angles. Sought
a, by c.
a and b are found by Theor. XII. Cor. 2. j c by
Theor. XIII. Cor. 1.
The cafes may be all refolved alfo by Napier's Rube,
obferving to make each of the things given the middle
part •, then two of the required parts will be found, and
the remaining part is found by making it the middle
part.
By Theor. II. and Cor. 1. each of the unknown parts
is, in every cafe except the third, limited to one
value.
Xbe Cafes of Oblique-angled Spherical Triangles.
In any fpherical triangle let the fides be denoted by
a, b, Cy and the oppofite angles by A, B, C refpec-
tively.
Let p, q denote the fegments into which a fide is di¬
vided by a perpendicular from the oppofite angle, and
P, Q the parts into which it divides the angle. Com¬
bining the fix quantities a, b, c, A, B, C, three by
three, there are found fix diftindt combinations or
cafes.
Case i. Given a. A, b, two fides and an angle op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought c, B, C.
B is found by Theor. XIV.; c by either Theor. XIX.
or Theor. XX.; C by Theor. XVII. or Theor. XVIII.
Case 2. Given A, a, B, two angles and a fide op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought b, c, C.
b is found by Theor. XIV.} c and C as in Cafe 1.
Case 3. Given a, C, b, two fides and the included
angle. Sought A, B, c.
Pv Y>
Find I (A-—B) by Theor. XVII. and } (A-fB) by Spherical
Theor. XVIII. and thence A and B by the ruleTr'gono[M’
SECT. II. for finding each of two quantities whofe fum try'
and difference are given. All the angles being known, "
alfo two fides, c is found by Theor. XIV.
Case 4. Given A, c, B. two angles and a fide be¬
tween them. Sought <7, C, &.
Find («—b) by Theor. XIX. and f («-{-£) by
Theor. XX. and thence a, b. All the fides and two
angles being now known, C is found by Theor. XIV.
Case 5. Given a. b, c, the three fides. Sought A,
B, C.
Draw’ a perpendicular from any one of the angles,
dividing the oppofite fide into the fegments p, q. Find
4 (j;—q) by Theor. XV. and then, from 4 (p+q) and
J (jo—q),y find />, q. The triangle being now refolved
into two right-angled triangles, the angles may be found
by Cafe 4. of right angled triangles.
Case 6. Given A, B, C, the three angles. Sought
«, by c.
Draw a perpendicular, dividing any one of the angles
into the parts P, Q. Find 4 (P—Q.) by Theor. XVI.
and then P, £). The triangle being now refolved into
two right-angled triangles, the fides may be found by
Cafe 6. of right-angled triangles.
By Theor. X. XI. and Cor. each of the unknown
parts is limited to one value in all the cafes, except in
fome of the fubcafes of the firft and fecond.
As every oblique-angled triangle may be refolved in¬
to two right-angles, all thefe cafes may be refolved by,
means of Napier''s Rule, and the 13th propofition only.
And the cafes may be reduced to three, by ufing the
fupplemental triangle.
T R I G O N O M E T
1
T R X
Trihilatse TPlHILATiE, from tres, “ three,1’ and hilum,
U “ an external mark on the feed the name of the 23d
. Trmga- clafs in Lim aeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method ;
confifting of plants with three feeds, which are marked
with an external cicatrix or fear, where they are faften-
ed within the fruit. See Botany.
TRIM, implies in general the ftate or difpofition by
which a Ibip is belt calculated for the feveral purpofes of
navigation.
Thus the trim of the hold denotes the moft conveni¬
ent and proper arrangement of the various materials con¬
tained therein relatively to the (hip’s motion or liability
at fea. The trim of the malls and fails is alfo their moll
appofite fituation with regard to the contlrudlion of the
Ihip and the effort of the wind upon her fails. See SEA¬
MANSHIP.
THING A, Sandpiper $ a genus of birds belong-
T r 1
the order of grails. See OrniTHOLOCY Triap
ing to
Index.
TRINIDAD, an illand in the gulf of Mexico, fe-
parated from New Andalufia, in Terra Firma, by a v
ftrait about three miles over. The foil is fruitful, pro¬
ducing fugar, cotton, Indian corn, fine tobacco, and
fruits. It Avas taken by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595*
and by the French in 1676, who plundered the ifland
and then left it. It is about 62 miles in length, and
45 in breadth ; and was difeovered by Chrillopher Co¬
lumbus in 1498. It is now in the poffeffion of Britain.
What was called a bituminous lake in this illand, ap¬
pears, from the experiments of Mr Hatchet, to be 3
porous if one from which the mineral pitch exudes. . .
TRINITARIANS, thofe who believe in the Trini¬
ty •, thofe who do not believe therein being called Anti-
trinitarians.
trinity.
Trinita
riefis.
TRIG GNOME TRY.
5X
/.
/I
D IV
!
!
/ .
C (
O' 'j-
   j
fy
TE _\l
33 /
TRIGONOMETRY.
488
Spherical Cafe ^ Given a, b, the two tides. Sought A, B, c.
Trigonome- jg £oun(j Theor. XIII.; B by the fame 5 c by
> - ry~ Theor. XII. Cor. 1.
Case 6. Given Af B, the two angles. Sought
a, by c.
a and b are found by Tbeor. XII. Cor. 2. j c by
Theor. XIII. Cor. 1.
Tirind T!'eor- x7n-an<1: (A+B)sp'"«
1 neor. XVIII. and thence A and B by the ruleTrigon°me-
Sect. II. for finding each of two quantities whofe fum try'
and difference are given. All the angles being known
alfo two tides, c is found by Theor. XIV.
Case 4. Given A, c, B. two angles and a fide be¬
tween them. Sought aq C, b.
The cafes may be all refolVed alfo by Napier's Rube,
obferving to make each of the things given the middle
part; then two of the required parts will be found, and
the remaining part is found by making it the middle
part.
By Theor. II. and Cor. 1. each of the unknown parts
is, in every cafe except the third, limited to one
value.
T/ie Cafes of Oblique-angled Spherical Triangles.
In any fpherical triangle let the fides be denoted by
a, b, c, and the oppofite angles by A, B, C refptc-
tively.
Let p, q denote the fegments into which a fide is di¬
vided by a perpendicular from the oppofite angle, and
P, £) the parts into which it divides the angle. Com¬
bining the fix quantities a, b, c, A, B, C, three by
three, there are found fix diftinft combinations or
cafes.
Case i. Given a. A, b, two fides and an angle op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought c, B, C.
B is found by Theor. XIV.; c by either Theor. XIX.
or Theor. XX. j C by Theor. XVII. or Theor. XVIII.
Case 2. Given A, a, B, two angles and a fide op¬
pofite to one of them. Sought b, c, C.
b is found by Theor. XIV. j c and C as in Cafe 1.
Case 3. Given a, C, b, two fides and the included
angle. Sought A, B, c.
\
Find i («—b) by Theor. XIX. and f («+^) by
Theor. XX. and thence a, b. All the fides and two
angles being now known, C is found by Theor. XIV.
Case 5. Given a, b, ry the three fides. Sought A,
B, C.
Drav^ a perpendicular from any one of the angles,
dividing the oppofite fide into the fegments p: q. Find
4 (jo—q') by Theor. XV. and then, from 4 (and
T (T—f)? T> (l' bhe triangle being now refolved
into two right-angled triangles, the angles may be found
by Caie 4. oi right angled triangles.
Case 6. Given A, B, C, the thtree angles. Sought
a, b, c.
Draw a perpendicular, dividing any one of the angles
into the parts P, (,). Find f (P—£) ) by Theor. XVI.
and then P, £). The triangle being now refolved into
two right-angled triangles, the fides may be found by
Cafe 6. of right-angled trkngles. '
By Theor. X. XI. ampAArt. ea
parts is limited to ong'value/fn^all
fome of the fubcafes of the mrft a
As every obliqhe-angled Ifiangle may-he^ThVed in¬
to twm right-angles, all thefe cafes may be nefidved by
means of Napier's Rule, and the 13th propofiticmN^Iy.
And the cafes may be reduced to three, by ufing
fupplemental triangle.
T R I
Tnhilatse TPlHILATiE, from tres, “ three,” and hilum,
TriJj a “ an external mark on the feedthe name of the 23d
 “ga; clafs in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method;
confifting of plants with three feeds, which are marked
with an external cicatrix or fear, where they are faften-
ed within the fruit. See Botany.
TRIM, implies in general the Hate or difpofition by
which a fhip is belt calculated for the feveral purpofes of
navigation.
Thus the trim of the hold denotes the moft conveni¬
ent and proper arrangement of the various materials con¬
tained therein relatively to the Ihip’s motion or liability
at fea. .The trim of the mails and fails is alfo their moft
appoiite fituation with regard to the contlru6lion of the
fliip and the effort of the wind upon her fails. See Sea¬
manship.
TRINGA, Sandpiper; a genus of birds belong-
T R I
ing to the order of grallae. See ORNITHOLOGY Tfingi
Index. II
TRINIDAD, an illand in the gulf of Mexico, fe- Tri|a-
para led frtmv New -Andalufia, in Terra. Firroa. by a . " '
ftrait about three miles over. The foil is fruitful, pro¬
ducing fugar, cotton, Indian corn, fine tobacco, and
fruits. It wras taken by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595,
and by the French in 1676, who plundered the ifland
and then left it. It is about 62 miles in length, and
45 in breadth ; and was difeovered by Chriftopher Co¬
lumbus in 1498. It is now in the poffeffion of Britain.
What was called a bituminous lake in this ifland, ap¬
pears, from the experiments of Mr Hatchet, to be a
porous ftpne from which the mineral pitch exudes.
TRINIT ARIANS, thofe who believe in the Trini¬
ty ; thofe who do not believe therein being called Jlnti-
trinitarians,
TRINITY.
T R I
X Ity TRINITY, in Theology, the ineffable myftery of
three perfons in one God ; Father, Son, and Holy Spi-
Ti )l1' rit. See THEOLOGY.
TRINITT-Houfe. See LONDON, N° 49.
TRINITT-Sunday, a feftival obferved on the Sunday
next after Whitfunday, in honour of the holy Trinity.
The obfervatxon of this feftival was firft enjoined in the
council of Arles, anno 1260.
TRINOB ANTES, in Ancient Geography, a people
of Britain, fuppofed to have occupied Middlefex and
Eflex.
TRIO, in Mujic, a part of a concert wherein three
perfons fing; or, more properly, a mufical compofition
confiding of three parts.
TRIPHTHONG, in Grammar, an affemblage or
concourfe of three vowels in one fyllable ; as quce.
TRIPLE, in Mujic, is one of the fpecies of meafure
cr time. See Music.
TRIPOD, in antiquity, a famed facred feat or ftool,
fupported by three feet, whereon the priefts and fibyls
were placed to render oracles. It was on the tripod
that the gods were faid to infpire the Pythias with that
divine fury and enthufiafra wherewith they were feized
at the delivery of their predi&ions.
TRIPOLI, a country of Africa, in Barbary ; bound¬
ed on the north by the Mediterranean fea $ on the
fouth, by the country of the Beriberies 5 on the weft,
by the kingdom of Tunis, Biledulgerid, and territory
of the Gadamis 5 and on the eaft, by Egypt. It is
about 9 25 miles along the fea coaft j but the breadth is
various. Some parts of it are pretty fruitful j but that
towards Egypt is a fandy defert. It had the title of a
kingdom ; but is now a republic, governed by a dey.
He is not abfolute j for a Turkifh baihaw refides here,
who receives his authority from the grand feignior, and
has a power of controuling the dey, and levying taxes
on the people. The dey is elefted by the foldiers, who
make no fcruple of depofing him when they pleafe.
Tripoli, a confiderable town of Africa, and capital
of a republic of the fame name in Barbary, and under
prote&ion of the grand feignior, with a caftle and a
fort. It is pretty large, and the inhabitants are noted
pirates. It was taken by Charles V. who fettled the
knights of Malta there ; but they were driven away by
the Turks in 1551. It was formerly very flourilhing •,
and has now fome trade in fluffs, faffron, corn, oil,
wool, dates, oftrich feathers, and {kins : but they make
more of the Chriftian flaves which they take at fea 5 for
they either fet high ranfoms upon them, or make them
perform all forts of work. It is feated on the coaft of
the Mediterranean, in a fandy foil, and furrounded by
a wall, ftrengthened by other fortifications. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 32. 34.
Tripoli, called Tripoli's of Syria, to diftinguifh it
from Tripoli in received its name from its being
anciently formed of three cities at a fmall diftance from
each other, one of which belonged to the Aradians, or
ancient kingdom of Arad, the fecond to the Sidonians,
and the third to the Tyrians, perhaps as a common
mart to thofe maritime powers. The prefent town of
Tripoli is built at the diftance of a mile and a half from
the other, upon the declivity of a hill facing the fea, in
34° 20' north latitude, and in 350 50' eaft longitude
from Greenwich. It is furrounded with walls, fortified
with feven high ftrong towers, and a caftle, all of Go-
Vol. XX. Part IL
T R I
thic archite£lure j but the ftreets are narrow, and the Tripoli
houfes low. The city contains about 8000 houfes, and it
near 60,000 inhabitants, confifting of Turks, Chrif- iT'"'niP
tians, and Jews. The bafha, or pacha, who refides in
the caftle, where there is a garrifon of 200 janizaries,
governs the adjacent territory, in which there is plenty
of fruit, and a great number of mulberry trees, which
enable the inhabitants to carry on a filk manufacture^
from which they draw confiderable profit.
All the environs of Tripoli are laid out in orchards,
where the nopal grows fpontaneoufly, and the white
mulberry is cultivated for the filk-worm j the pomegra¬
nate, orange, and lemon trees for their fruit, which is
here very fine. The country, though delightful to the
eye, is unhealthy j from July to September, epidemic
fevers, like thofe of Scanderoon and Cyprus, prevail,
and are principally caufed by the artificial inundations
made for the purpofe of watering the mulberry trees, to
enable them to throw out their fecond leaves, and from
a want of free circulation of air, the city being open
only to the weftward.
Tripoli, a fpecies of argillaceous earth, much ufed
in the polifhing of metals. See Mineralogy Index.
TRIPTOLEMUS, Laws of. See Mysteries,
N° 74.
TRIQUETROUS, among botanifts, denotes a fruit
or leaf that has three flat Tides or faces.
TRIREMIS, in antiquity, a galley with three ranks
of oars on a fide.
TRISMEGISTUS, an epithet or furname given to
one of the two Hermefes. See Thoth.
TRISMUS, the Locked Jaw. See Medicine,
N° 280.
TRISYLLABLE, in Grammar, a word confifting
of three fyllables.
TRITICUM, Wheat ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of triandria j and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 4th order, Gramma. See Botany
and Agriculture Index.
TRITON, a fea demigod, held by the ancients to be
an officer or trumpeter of Neptune, attending on him,
and carrying his orders from fea to fea.
TRITURATION, the a£t of reducing a folid body
into a fubtile powder; called alfo pulverifation and levi-
gation.
TRIUMPH, in Roman antiquity, a public and fo-
lemn honour conferred by the Romans on a victorious
general, by allowing him a magnificent entry into the
city.
The greater triumph, called alfo curults, or Amply
the triumph, was decreed by the fenate to a general,
upon the conquering of a province or gaining a fignal
victory. The day appointed for the ceremony being
arrived, fcaffolds were ereCted in the forum and circus,
and all the other parts of the city where they could beft
behold the pomp : the fenate went to meet the con¬
queror without the gate called Capena or Triumphalis,
and marched back in order to the Capitol ; the ways
being cleared and cleanfed by a number of officers and
tipftaffs, who drove away fuch as thronged the paffage
or ftraggled up and down. The general was clad in a
rich purple robe, interwoven with figures of gold, fet-
ting forth his great exploits ; his bufkins were befet
with pearl; and he wore a crown, which at firft was
only laurel, but afterwards gold j in one hand he bore
[ 489 ]
T R O [ 490 ] T R O
'.mpli a branch of laurel, and in the other a truncheon. He
was carried in a magnificent chariot, adorned with ivory
and plates of gold, drawn ufually by two white horfes j
though fometimes by other animals, as that of Pompey,
when he triumphed over Africa, by elephants 5 that of
Mark Antony by lions ; that of Heliogabalus by ty-
gers ; that of Aurelian by deer, &c. His children
were at his feet, and fometimes on the chariot-horfes.
The proceffion was led by the muficians, who played
triumphal pieces in praife of the general : thefe were
followed by young men, who led the vi&ims to the fa-
crifice, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorn¬
ed with ribbands and garlands ; next came the carts
and waggons, loaded with all the fpoils taken from the
enemy, with their horfes, chariots, &c. j thefe were
followed by the kings, princes, and generals, who had
been taken captives, loaded with chains : after thefe ap¬
peared the triumphal chariot, before which, as it palled,
they all along ftrewed flowers, and the people with loud
acclamations called out lo triumphe ! The chariot was
followed by the fenate, clad in white robes \ and the
fenate by fuch citizens as had been fet at liberty or ran-
fomed ; and the proceffion was clofed by the priefts and
their officers and utenfils, with a white ox led along for
the chief vi&im. In this order they proceeded through
the triumphal gate, along the Via Sacra, to the Capitol,
where the vifHms were flain- In the mean time all
the temples were open, and all the altars loaded with
offerings and incenfe ; games and combats w'ere cele¬
brated in the public places, and rejoicings appeared
everywhere.
TRIUMVIR, one of three perfons who govern ab-
folutely, and with equal authority, in a Rate. It is
chiefly applied to the Roman government: Caefar, Pom¬
pey, and Craffus, were the firft triumvirs who divided
the government among them. There were alfo other
officers fo called j as the triumviri or trefviri capitales,
who were the keepers of the public gaol : they had the
office of punifhing malefa&ors ; for which purpofe they
kept eight li&ors under them.
TROAS, a country of Phrygia in Afia Minor, of
which Troy was the capital. When Troas is taken for
the whole kingdom of Priam, it may be faid to contain
Myfia and Phrygia Minor : but if only applied to that
part of the country where Troy was fituated, its extent
is confined within very narrow limits. Troas w'as an¬
ciently called Dardania. See Troja.
TROCHALUS, in profody, a foot confifting of a
long and fhort fyllable.
TROCH ANTER, in Anatomy, See there, N° 58.
TROCHE, in Pharmacy, a fort of medicine made of
glutinous fubftances into little cakes, and afterwards ex-
ficcated. See Materia Medic a Index.
TROCHILUS, Humming Bird, a genus of birds
belonging to the order of picae. See Ornithology
Index.
.TROGLODYTES, in the Ancient Geography, a
people of Ethiopia, faid to have lived in caves under
ground. Pomponius Mela gives a ftrange account of
the Troglodytes : he fays, they did not fo properly
fpeak as ihriek ; and that they lived on ferpents.
TROGUS Pompeius, a Latin univerfal hiflorian to
the time of Auguftus Caefar, of whom we have only an
abridgement by Juftin, flourilhed about 41 B. C.
TROJA, the capital city of Troas, or, according to
. I
others, a country of which Ilium was the capital. It Troja
was built on a fmall eminence near Mount Ida, and the II
promontory of Sigseum, at the diftanee of about four rromP'
miles from the fea-lhore. Dardanus the firft king of
the country built it, and called it Dardania, and from
Tros one of his fucceffors it was called Troja, and from
Hus llion. This city has been celebrated by the poems
of Homer and Virgil ; and of all the wars which have
been carried on among the ancients, that of Troy is the
moft famous.
A defcription of the plain of Troy has been pub-
liftied in French in the 3d volume of the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions of The Royal Society of Edinburgh,
written by M. Chevalier. The city of Troy, accord¬
ing to him, flood on the prefent file of the modern vil¬
lage of Bounarbachi, diftant four leagues from the fea,
and which is the refidence of an aga, ruling with abfo-
lute fway the inhabitants of the Trojan plain and the
inferior ‘agas, to whom they are immediately fubjett.
Bounarbachi is fituated on the fide of an eminence, ex-
pofed to every wind, at the termination of a fpacious
plain, the foil of which is rich and of a blackifti colour.
Clofe to the village is to be feen. a marfli covered with
tall reeds ; and the lituation is impregnable on all fides
except at Erin (Homer’s sgme?), the hill of voildfig-
trees, which extended between the Scman gate and the
fources of the Scamander. Thefe circumftances, agree¬
ing with Homer’s defcriptions, ftrongly fupport M. Che¬
valier’s opinion concerning the fituation of Troy. A
very interefting part of this work is the account of co¬
nical mounds or barrows, feveral of them 100 feet in
diameter at the bafe j and which the author maintains
to be the identical tombs raifed over the alhes of the
heroes of the Trojan war ; fome of them he deems more
ancient. He defcribes particularly the tombs of Efy-
etes, Hus, Ajax, Hedtor, Achilles, Patroclus, and An-
tilochus.
This diflertation, which runs to the length of 92
quarto pages, is replete with erudition and ingenious
reafoning, and is illuftrated and embellilhed by maps of
the plain of Troy and feveral tables of infcriptions. It
has been tranflated with much accuracy and care by
Mr Dalzel profeffbr of Greek in the Univerfity of:
Edinburgh, and accompanied with large notes and il-
luftrations.
TROLLIUS, Globe-flower, or LuckenGowan,
a genus or plants belonging to the clafs of polyandria j
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 26th order,
Multijiliquce. See Botany Index.
TROMP, Martin Hafpertz Van, a celebrated
Dutch admiral, was born at the Bailie, in Holland.
He raifed himfelf by his merit, after having diftinguifli-
ed himfelf on many occafions, efpecially at the famous
engagement near Gibraltar in 1607. He pafled for one
of the greateft feamen that had till that time appeared
in the world ; and was declared admiral of Holland,
even by the advice of the prince of Orange. He in
that charafler defeated a large Spanilh fleet in 1630,
and gained 32 other vi&ories at fea ; but was killed
when under deck, in an engagement with the Engliih
in 1653. ftates-general cauftd medals to be
ftruck to his honour, and lamented him as one of the
greateft heroes of their republic. Van Tromp, in the
midft of the greateft glory, conftantly difeovered a re¬
markable modefty j for he never allumed a higher cha-
rafler
romp
T R O [ 49
rafter tlian tliat of a burgher, and that of being the fa¬
ther of the failors.
TRONAGE, an ancient cuftomary duty or toll, for
weighing of wool. According to Fleta, trona is a
beam to weigh with, mentioned in the flat. Weftm. 2.
cap. 25. And tronage was ufed for the weighing wool
in a ftaple or public mart, by a common trona or beam j
which, for the tronage of wool in London, was fixed at
Leaden-Hall. The mayor and commonalty of London
are ordained keepers of the beams and weights for
weighing merchants commodities, with power to affign
clerks and porters, &c. of the great beam and balance $
which weighing of goods and wares is called tronage ;
and no ftranger fliall buy any goods in London be¬
fore they are weighed at the king’s beam, on pain of
forfeiture.
TRONE-weight, the moft ancient of the different
weights ufed in Scotland ; and, though now forbidden
by feveral llatutes, is ftill ufed by many for home com¬
modities, and that in a very irregular manner *, for the
pound varies in different places, and for different pur-
pofes, from 20 to 24 Dutch ounces. The common al¬
lowance is 2I-& ounces for wool, 20-2- for butter and
cheefe, 20 for tallow, lint, hemp, and hay. It is di¬
vided into 16 of its own ounces, and 16 pounds make a
done.
TROOP, a fmall body of horfe or dragoons, about 50
or 60, fometimes more, fometiines lefs, commanded by
a captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mafter, and three
corporals, wrho are the loweft officers of a troop.
TROPE. See Oratory, N° 52—66.
TROPHONIUS’s CAVE, or Oracle, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a cave near Lebadia in Bceotia, between Heli¬
con and Chaeronea (Strabo) : fo called from Trophonius,
an enthufiaftic diviner who, defending into this cave,
pretended to give anfwers and pronounce oracles 5 and
was hence called Jupiter Trophonius. Such as went
down to this cave never after fmiled •, hence the pro¬
verbial faying of a man who has loft his mirth, I hat he
is come out of Trophonius’s cave. Though Paufanias,
who writes from experience, contradifts this j affirming
that perfons came out of the cave affefted indeed with
a ftupor, but that they foon after recovered themfelves.
See Oracle.
TROPHY (Tropxum), among the ancients, a mo¬
nument of viftory.
TROPIC-Bird. See Phaeton, Ornithology
Index.
TROPICS. See Geography.
TROUBADOURS, poets that flouriflred in Pro¬
vence during the 12th century.
They wrote poems on love and gallantry ; on the il-
luftrious charafters and remarkable events of the times }
fatires which were chiefly direfted againft the clergy
and monks ; and a few didaftic pieces. The trouba¬
dours were great favourites in different courts, diffufed
a tafte for their language and for poetry over Europe,
which was about that time funk in ignorance and rude-
nefs *, they difappeared in the 14th century. A hiftory
of the troubadours in 3 vols I 2mo, was begun by M. de
Sainte Palaie, and finiffied by the abbd Millot. See
Music.
TROUGH, Galvanic. See Galvanism.
later difcoveries in galvanic eleftricity, fee Zinc.
TROVER, in Law, an aftion that a man
]
T R U
Trumpet.
For
hath
againft one that, having found any of his goods, refu- Trover
feth to deliver them upon demand.
TROUT. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index.
TROY. See Troja.
TROY-Weight, one of the moft ancient of the differ¬
ent kinds ufed in Britain. The ounce of this weight
was brought from Grand Cairo in Egypt, about the
time of the crufades, into Europe, and firft adopted in
Troyes, a city of Champagne ; whence the name.
The pound Englifh Troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760
grains. It was formerly ufed for every purpofe j and is
ftill retained for weighing gold, filver, and jewels 5 for
compounding medicines j for experiments in natural phi-
lofophy} and for comparing different weights with each,
other.
Scots TROY-Weight was eftabliffied by James VI. in
the year 1618, who enacted, that only one weight
ffiould be ufed in Scotland, viz. the French Troy ftone
of 16 pounds, and 16 ounces in the pound. The pound
contains 7600 grains, and is equal to 17 oz. 6 dr. avoir¬
dupois. The cwt. or U2lb. avoirdupois, contains only
103 lb. 24 oz. of this weight, though generally reckon¬
ed equal to 104 lb. This weight is nearly, if not ex-
aftly, the fame as that of Paris and Amfterdam 5 and is
generally known by the name of Dutch weight. Though
prohibited by the articles of union, it is ftill ufed iu
weighing iron, hemp, flax, moft Dutch and Baltic
goods, meal, butcher-meat, unwrought pewter and lead,
and fume other articles.
TRUE-love. See Paris, Botany Index.
TRUFFLES, See Lycoperdon, Botany Index,
TRUMPET, a mufical inftrument, the moft noble,
of all portable ones of the wind kind ) ufed chiefly in
war, among the cavalry to direft them in the fervice.
Each troop of cavalry has one. The cords of the trum¬
pets are of crimfon, mixed ivith the colours of the fa¬
cings of the regiments.
As to the invention of the trumpet, fome Greek hif-
torians afcribe it to the Tyrrhenians } but others, with
greater probability, to the Egyptians ; from whom it
might have been tranfmitted to the Ifraelites. The
trumpet was not in ufe among the Greeks at the time
of the Trojan war ; though it was in common ufe in the
time of Homer. According to Potter (Arch. Gra-c.
vol. ii. cap. 9.), before the invention of trumpets, the
firft fignals of battle in primitive wars were lighted
torches ; to thefe fucceeded (hells of fifties, which were
founded like trumpets. And when the trumpet became
common in military ufe, it may well be imagined to
have ferved at firft only as a rough and noify fignal of
battle, like that at prefent in Abyffinia and New Zea¬
land, and perhaps with only one found. But, even
when more notes were produced from it, fo noify an in¬
ftrument muft have been an unfit accompaniment for
the voice and poetry 5 fo that it is probable the trum¬
pet was the firft folo inftrument in ufe among the an-
cicnts*
Trumpet, Articulate, comprehends both t\\e/peak¬
ing and the hearing trumpet, is by much the moft valu¬
able inftrument, and has, in one of its forms, been ufed
by people among whom we ftiould hardly have expe£t-
ed to find fuch improvements.
That the /peaking trumpet, of which the object is t*
increafe the force of articulate founds, fliould have been
known to the ancient Greeks, can excite no wonder ,
3 Q. 2 ai!*
T R U [ 492
^Trumpet. ^ and therefore we eafily admit the accounts which we
v read of the horn or trumpet, with which Alexander
addreffed his army, as well as of the whifpering ca¬
verns of the Syracufan tyrant. But that the natives of
Peru were acquainted with this inftrument, will proba¬
bly furprife many of our readers. The fa£t, however,
feems incontrovertible.
In the Hiftory of the Order of Jefuits, publirtied at
Naples in 1601 by Beritaria, it is faid, that in the year
1595 a fmall convent of that order in Peru, fituated in
a remote corner, was in danger of immediate deftruftion
by famine. One evening the fuperior Father Samaniac
implored the help of the cacique j next morning, on
opening the gate of the monaftery, he found it fur-
rounded by a number of women each of whom carried
a fmall balket of provifions. He returned thanks to
heaven for having miraculoully interpofed, by infpiring
the good people with pity for the diftrefs of his friars.
But when he expreffed to them his wonder how they
came all to be moved as if by mutual agreement with
thefe benevolent fentiments, they told him it was nofuch
thing; that they looked upon him and his countrymen
as a pack of infernal magicians, who by their forceries
had enflaved the country, and had bewitched their good
cacique, who hitherto had treated them with kindnefs
and attention, as became a true worfhipper of the fun;
but that the preceding evening at funfet he had ordered
the inhabitants of fuch and fuch villages, about fix miles
off, to come that morning with provifions to this neft of
wizzards.
The fuperior afkcd them in what manner the governor
had warned fo many of them in fo fhort a time, at fuch
a-diftance from his own refidence ? They told him that
it was by the trumpet *, and that every perfon heard at
their own door the diftinft terms of the order. The fa¬
ther had heard nothing; but they told him that none
heard the trumpet but the inhabitants of the villages to
which it was dire<ffed. This is a piece of very curious
information; but, after allowing a good deal to the ex-
aggeration of the reverend Jefuits, it cannot, we think,
be doubted but that the Peruvians actually poffeffed this
llentorophonic art. For we may obferve that the effedl
defcribed in this narration refembles whztwe now know
to be the effeft of fpeaking trumpets, while it is unlike
what the inventor of fuch a tale would naturally and
ignorantly fay. Fill fpeaking trumpets were really
known, we fhould expeft the found to be equally diffu-
fed on all fides, which is not the cafe; for it is much
ftronger in the line of the trumpet than in any direction
very oblique to it.
About the middle of the 17th century, Athanafius
Kircher turned his attention to the philofophy of found,
and in different works threw out many ufeful and feien-
tific hints on the conftru&ion of fpeaking trumpets (fee
Acoustics and Kircher) ; but his mathematical il-
luftrations were fo vague, and his own charadler of inat¬
tention and credulity fo notorious, that for fome time
thefe works did not attraft the notice to which they
were well entitled.
About the year 1670, Sir Samuel Morland, a gen-
]
T R U
tleman of great ingenuity, fcience, and order, took up Trum
the fubjeft, and propofed as a queftion to the Royal So- '~V
ciety of London, \\'hat is the bell; form for a fpeaking
trumpet ? which he called a ftentorophonic horn. He
accompanied his demand with an accountof his own no¬
tions on the fubject (which he acknowledged to be very
vague and conjectural), and an exhibition of fome inftru-
ments conftruCted according to his views. They were in
general very large conical tubes, fuddenly fpreading at
the very mouth to a greater width. Their effeft was
really wonderful. They were tried in St James’s park-
and his Majefty K. Charles II. fpeaking in his ordinary
colloquial pitch of voice through a trumpet only ^ feet
long, was clearly and molt diftinaiy heard at the diftance
ofa thoufand yards. Another perfon, fele&ed wefuppofe
for the loudnefs and diftinftnefs of his voice, was perfectly
underftood at the difiance of four miles and a half. The
fameof this foon fpread; Sir Samuel IMorland’s principles
were refined, confidering the novelty ofthething, anddif-
fer confiderably from Father Kircher’s. The aerial undu¬
lations, (for he fpeaks very accurately concerning the na-
ture;of found) endeavour to diffufe themfelves in fpheres,
but are flopped by the tube, and therefore reundulate to¬
wards the axis like waves from a bank, and, meeting in
the axis, they form a ftrong undulation a little farther
advanced along the tube, which again fpreads, is again
reflected, and fo on, till it arrives at the mouth of the
tube greatly magnified, and then it is diffufed through
the open air in the fame manner, as if all proceeded from
a very fonorous point in the centre of the wide end of
the trumpet. The author diftinguiflies with great judge¬
ment between the prodigious reinforcement of found in’
a fpeaking trumpet and that in the mufical trumpet,
bugle-horn, conch-thell, &c.; and (hows that the diffe¬
rence confifts only in the violence of the firft {onerous
agitation, which can be produced by us only on a very
fmall extent of furface. The mouth-piece diameter,
therefore, of the mufical trumpet muft be very fmall,
and the force of blaft very confiderable. Thus one
ftrong but fimple undulation will be excited, which muft
be fubjefted to the modifications of harmony, and will
be augmented by ufing a conical tube (a). But a fpeak¬
ing trumpet muft make no change on the nature of the
firft undulations; and each point of the mouth-piece
muft be equally confidered as the centre of fonorous un¬
dulations, all of which muft be reinforced in the fame
degree, otherwife all diftinftnefs of articulation will be
loft. The mouth-piece muft therefore take in the whole
of the mouth of the fpeaker.
When Sir Samuel Morland’s trumpet came to be ge¬
nerally known on the. continent, it was foon difeovered
that the fpeaker could be heard at a great diftance only
in the line of the trumpet; and this ciVcumftance was by
a Mr Caffegrain (Journ.desSfavans, 1672, p. ^^attri¬
buted to a defeat in the principle of its conftrudtion,
which he faid was not according to tfie laws of fonorous
undulations. He propofed a conoid formed by the revo¬
lution of a hyperbola round its affymptote as the beft
form. A Mr Hafe of Wirtemberg, on the other hand,
propofed a parabolic conoid, having the mouth of the
fpeaker
(a) Accordingly the found of the bugle horn, of the mufical trumpet, or the French horn, is prodigieufly
mud, when we confider the fmall paffage through which the moderate blaft is fent bv the trumpeter.
5
T R U [ 493 ] T B. If
mmpet. fpeaker placed in the focus. In this conftru&ion he
■nr**"' plainly went on the principle of a reflexion firailar to
that of the rays of light} but this is by no means the
cafe. The effeft of the parabola will be to give one re¬
flexion, and in this all the circular undulations will be
converted into plane waves, which are at right angles,to
the axis of the trumpet. But nothing hinders their fub-
fequent diffufion j for it does not appear that the found
will be enforced, becaufe the agitation of the particles
on each wave is not augmented.
The fubjeX is exceedingly difficult. We do not fully
comprehend on what circumflance the affeXion or agi¬
tation of our organ, or limply of the membrana tym-
pani, depends. A more violent agitation of the fame
air, that is, a wider ofcillation of its particles, cannot
fail to increafe the impulfe on this membrane. The
point therefore is to find what concourfe of feeble undu¬
lations will produce or be equivalent to a great one.
The reafonings of all thefe reftorers of the fpeaking
trumpet are almoft equally fpecious, and each point out
feme phenomenon which ffiould charaXerife the prin¬
ciple of conftruXion, and thus enable us to lay which is
moll agreeable to the procedure of nature. Yet there
is hardly any difference in the performance of trumpets
of equal dimenfions made after thefe different methods.
The propagation of light and of elaftic undulations
feem to require very different methods of management.
Yet the ordinary phenomena of echoes are perfeXly ex¬
plicable by the acknowledged laws either of optics or
acouftics; ftill however there are fome phenomena of
found which are very unlike the genuine refults of elaftic
undulations. If founds are propagated fpherically, then
what comes into a rqpm by a fmall hole fhould diffufe
itfelf from thaj hole as round a centre, and it fhould be
heard equally well at twelve feet diftance from the hole
in every direXion. Yet it is very fenfibly louder when
the hearer is in the ftraight line drawn from the fonor-
ous body through the hole. A perfon can judge of the
direXion of the founding body with tolerable exaXnefs.
Cannon difcharged from the different fides of a fhip are
very eafily diftinguiftied, which ffiould not be the cafe
by the Newtonian theory •, for in this the two pulfes on
the ear ftiould have no fenfible difference.
The moft important faX for our purpofe is this: An
echo from a fmall plane furface in the midft of an open
field is not heard, unlefs we ftand in fuch a fituation that
the angle of refleXed found may be equal to that of in¬
cidence. But by the ufual theory of undulations, this
fmall furface ffiould become the centre of a new undula¬
tion, which ffiould fpread in all direXions. If we make
an analogous experiment on watery undulations, by pla¬
cing a fmall flat furface fo as to projeX a little above the
water, and then drop in a fmall pebble at a diftance,
fo as to raife one circular wave, we ffiall obferve,
that when this wave arrives at the projeXing plane, it is
difturbed by it, and this difturbance ipreads from it on
all fides. It is indeed fenfibly ftronger in that line which
is drawn from it at equal angles with the line drawn to
the place where the pebble was dropped. But in the
cafe of found, it is a faX, that if w’e go to a very fmall
diftance on either fide of the line of refleXion, we (hall
hear nothing.
Here then is a faX, that whatever may be the nature
of the elaftic undulations, founds are refleXed from a
fmall plane in the fame manner as light. We may avail
ourfelves of this faX as a mean for enforcing found, Trumpet'.,
though we cannot explain it in a fatisfaXory manner. «
We ffiould expeX from it an effeX fimilar to the hear¬
ing of the original found along with another original
found coming from the place from which this refleXed
found diverges. If therefore the refleXed found or echo
arrives at the ear in the fame inftant with the original
found, the effeX will be doubled j or at leaft it will be
the fame with two fimultaneous original founds. Now
we know that this is in fome fenfe equivalent to &
ftronger found. For it is a faX, that a number of voi¬
ces uttering the fame or equal founds are heard at a
much greater diftance than a Angle voice. We cannot
perhaps explain how this happens by mechanical laws,
nor aftign the exaX proportion in which 10 voices ex¬
ceed the efteX of one voice ; nor the proportion of the-
diflances at which they feem equally loud. We may
therefore, for the prefent, fuppofe that two equal voices
at the fame diftance are twice as loud, three voices three,
times as loud, &c. Therefore if, by means of a fpeaking
trumpet, we can make 10 equal echoes arrive at the ear
at the fame moment, we may fuppofe its effeX to be to
increafe the audibility 10 times •, and we may exprefs
this ffiortly, by calling the found 10 times louder or
more intenfe.
But we cannot do this precifely. We cannot by any
contrivance make the found of a momentary fnap, and
thofe of its echoes, arrive at the ear in the fame moment,
becaufe they come from different diftances. But if the
original noife be a continued found, a man’s voice, for
example, uttering a continued uniform tone, the firft e-
cho may reach the ear at the fame moment w'ith the fe-
cond vibration of the larynx *, the fecond echo along
with the third vibration, and foon. It is evident, that
this will produce the fame effeX. The only difterence
will be, that the articulations of the voice will be made.
indiftinX, if the echoes come from very different di¬
flances. Thus if a man pronounce the fyllable /ouy
and the 10 fucceffive echoes are made from places
which are 10 feet farther off, the 10th part of a fecond
(nearly) will intervene between hearing the firft and
the laft. This will give it the found of the fyllable
t/iazu, or perhaps raw, becaufe r is the repetition of (.
Something like this occurs when, ftanding at one end of
a long line of foldiers, we hear the mulkets of the whole
line difcharged in one inftant. It feems to us the found
of a running fire.
The aim therefore in the conftruXion of a ipeaking
trumpet may be, to caufe as many echoes as poflible to
reach a diftant ear without any perceptible interval of
time. This will give diftinXnefs, and fometbing e-
quivalent to loudnefs. Pare loudnefs arifes from the
violence of the fingle aerial undulation. To increafe
this may be the aim in the ccmftruXion of a trumpet j
but we are not fufficiently acquainted with the mecha-
nifm of thefe undulations to bring this about with cer¬
tainty and precifion; whereas we can procure this accu¬
mulation of echoes without much trouble, fince we know
that echoes are, in faB, refleXed like light. We can
form a trumpet fo that many of thefe lines of refleXed
found ffiall pafs through the place of the hearer. We
are indebted to Mr Lambert of Berlin for this Ample
and popular view of the fubjeX ; and ffiall here give an
abftraX of his moft ingenious Differtation on Acouftic
Inftruments, publiffied in the Berlin Memoirs for 1763.
Sound
T R U E 494 ] T R U
Inimpet. Sound naturally fpreads in all diveftions; but we
' jrnww echoes or redeiSted founds proceed aliuoft
flridlly in certain limited diredlions. If therefore we
contrive a trumpet in fuch a way that the lines of echo
(ball be confined within a certain fpace, it is reafonable
to fuppofe that the found will become more audible in
proportion as this diffufion is prevented. Therefore, if
we can oblige a found which, in the open air, would
have diffufed itfelf over a hemifphere, to keep within a
cone of i 20 degrees, we fhould expeft it to be twice as
audible within this cone. This will be aecomplifhed,
by making the refle&ions fuch that the lines of refledled
found ihall be confined within this cone. N. B. We
here fuppofe that nothing is loft in the refledlion. Let
Plate us examine the eftedl of a cylindrical trumpet.
DXXXIX. Let the trumpet be a cylinder ABED, (fig. I.), and
%• let C be a founding point in the axis. It is evident
that all the found in the cone BCE will go forward
without any refledlion. Let CM be any other line of
found, which we may, for brevity’s fake, call a fono-
rous or phonic line. Being refiedled in the points
M, N, O, P, it is evident that it will at laft efcape
from the trumpet in a diredlion PQ, equally diverging
from the axis with the line CM. The fame muft be
true of every other fonorous line. Therefore the echoes
will all diverge from the mouth of the trumpet in the
fame manner as they would have proceeded from C
without any trumpet. Even fuppofing, therefore, that
the echoes are as ftrong as the original found, no advan¬
tage is gained by fuch a trumpet, but that of bringing
the found forward from C to c. This is quite trifling
when the hearer is at a diftance. Yet we*fee that
founds may be heard at a very great diftance, at the end
of long, narrow, cylindrical, or prifmatical galleries. It
is known that a voice may be diftinftly heard at the
diftance of feveral hundred feet in the Roman aque-
dudls, whofe fides are perfectly ftraight and fmooth,
being plaftered with ftucco. The fmooth furface of
the ftill water greatly contributes to this effedl. Cy¬
lindrical or prifmatical trumpets muft therefore be re-
jefted.
Fig. a. Let the trumpet be a cone BCA (fig. 2.), of which
CN is the axis, DK a line perpendicular to the axis, and
DFHI the, path of a refledted found in the plane of the
axis. The laft angle of reflexion IHA is equal to the
laft angle of incidence FHC. The angle BFH, or its
equal CFD, is equal to the angles FHD and FCH}
that is, the angle of incidence CFD exceeds the next
angle of incidence FHC by the angle FCD; that is,
by the angle of the cone. In like manner, FDH ex¬
ceeds CFD by the fame angle FCD. Thus every fuc-
ceeding angle, either of incidence or refleftion, exceeds
the next by the angle of the cone. Call the angle of
the cone a, and let b be the firft angle of incidence
PDC. The fecond, or DFC, is b—a. The third, or
FHC, is b—2 a, &e.: and the nth angle of incidence
or refleftion is b—n «, after n reflections. Since the
angle diminifties by equal quantities at each fubfequent
reflection, it is plain, that whatever be the firft angle of
incidence, it may be exhaufted by this diminution ;
namely, when n times a exceeds or is equal to b. There¬
fore to know how many reflections of a found, whofe
firft incidence has the inclination b, can be made in an
infinitely extended cone, whofe angle is a, divide b by
n ; the quotient will give the number n of reflections,
and the remainder, if any, will be the laft angle of in¬
cidence or reflection lefs than a. It is very plain, that
when an angle of reflection IHA is equal to or lefs
than the angle BCA of the cone, the reflected line
HI will no more meet with the other fide -CB of the
cone.
_ We may here obferve, that the greateft angle of in-
csdence is a right angle, or 90°. This found would
be reflected back in the fame line, and would be in¬
cident on the oppofite fide in an angle =90° a
&-C.
Thus we fee that a conical trumpet is well fuited for
confining the found : for by prolonging it fufficiently,
we can keep the lines of reflected found wholly within
the cone. And when it is not carried to fuch a length
as to do this, when it allows the founding line GH, for
example, to efcape without farther reflection, the diver¬
gency from the axis is lefs than the laft angle of reflec¬
tion BGH by half the angle BCA of the cone. Let
us fee what is the connection between the length and
the angle of ultimate reflection.
-We have fin. b—a : fin. b~.CD : CF, and CF=;
fin. b _     
CD XT T1 ; and fin. b — 2 a : fin. b—azz CF-
fin. b — a -- .
fin. b—a
CH, and CH=CFx~f=^=CDx
fin. b
fin. b — a
fin. b—2,a
, =CDx
fin. b— 2 «
fin. b
fin. b—a
fin. A—-2a
, &c.
Therefore if we fuppofe X to be the length which
will give us n reflections, we fliall have X=CDx
fin. b
"p -g— Hence we fee that the length increafes as
the angle b — n a diminifties; but is not infinite, unlefs
« « is equal to b. In this cafe, the immediately pre¬
ceding angle of reflection muft be a, becaufe thefe
angles have the common diflerence a. Therefore the
laft reflected found was moving parallel to the oppolite
fide of the cone, and cannot again meet it. But though
we cannot aflign the length which will give the nth
reflection, we can give the length which will give the
one immediately preceding, whofe angle with the fide
of the cone is o. Let Y be this length. We have Y
= CD X This length will allow every line of
found to be reflected as often, faving once, as if the
tube were infinitely long. For fuppofe a fonorous line
to be traced backwards, as if a found entered the tube
in the direction i h, and were reflected in the points
d, 3, D, the angles will be continually augmented
by the conftant angle a. But this augmentation can
never go farther than qo0-^ For if it reaches that
value at D, for inftance, the reflected line DK will bt
perpendicular to the axis CN j and the angle ADK
will be equal to the angle DKB, and the found will
come out again. This remark is of importance on ano¬
ther account.
Now fuppofe the cone to be cut off at D by a plane
perpendicular to the axis, KD will be the diameter of
its mouth-piece j and if we fuppofe a mouth completely
occupying this circle, and every point of the circle to
be fonorous, the refle&ed founds will proceed from it in
the fame manner as light would from a flame which
completely
Trumpet,
T ft U [495
umpet. completely occupies its area, and is refle&ed by the in-
fide of the cone. The angle FDA will have the
greateft poffible fine when it is a right angle, and it
never can be greater than ADK, which is rrpo-f-f o.
And fince between 90°-f-i «» ancl 9° — i there muft
fall fome multiple of a ; call this multiple 6. Then, in
order that every found may be refle&ed as often as pof¬
fible, faving once, we muft make the length of it X=
S, b
CDX
o, a
Now fince the angle of the cone is never made very
great, never exceeding IO or 12 degrees, £ can never
differ from 90 above a degree or two, and its fine can¬
not differ much from unity. Therefore X will be very
CD
nearly equal to ——which is alfo very nearly equal to
o? (l
CD
becaufe a is fmall, and the fines of fmall
]
T ft U
fince in this cafe LM is equal to CD, we have DK : Trumpet.
pry* w-y—»
CD=LM (or CD) : CM and CM=^-.
But
and
therefore
2 S,^fl
2
4 S,*fo
i=DK
i=CD
i —DK
CD,
CM }
CM,
And CM
DK
DK • A J
=r—- very nearly. And
4 b,* fa S,* a
fince DK is an inch and a half, we get the length in
inches, counted from the apex of the cone sr —, or
U
3
From this we muft cut off the part CD, which
2 b
DK
or very nearly
DK
meafured in
sS,{
arches are nearly equal and proportional to the arches
themfelves. There is even a fmall compenfation of
errors in this formula. For as the fine of 90° is fome*
what too large, which would give X too great, 2 S, f a
is alfo larger than the fine of a. Thus let a be 12° :
then the neareft multiple of a is 84 or 96°, both of
which are as far removed as poflible from 90°, and the
error is as great as poflible, and is nearly t^e
whole.
This approximation gives us a very Ample conftruc-
tion. Let CM be the required length of the trumpet,
and draw ML perpendicular to the axis in O. It is
evident that S, MCO : rad. ~MO : CM, and CM j or
v MO LM L __ CD , . ,
S, f a 2 S, f a’ 2 S, f a
LM is equal to CD.
If therefore the cone be of fuch a length, that its
diameter at the mouth is equal to the length of the
part cut off, every line of found will have at leaft as
many reflections, fave one, as if the cone were infinitely
long •, and the laft reflected line will either be parallel
to the oppofite fide of the cone, or lie nearer the axis
than this parallel j confequently fuch a cone will con¬
fine all the reflected founds within a cone whofe angle
is 2 a, and will augment the found in the proportion of
the fpherical bafe of this cone to a complete hemifpheri-
cal furface. Defcribe the circle DKT round C, and
making DT an arch of 90, draw the chord DT. Then
fince the circles defcribed with the radii DK, DT, are
equal to the fpherical furfaces generated by the revolu¬
tion of the arches DK and DKT round the axis CD,
the found will be condenfed in the proportion of DK2
to DT*.
This appears to be the beft general rule for con-
ftruffing the inftrument j for, to procure another reflec¬
tion, the tube muft be prodigioufly lengthened, and we
cannot fuppofe that one refleffion more will add greatly
to its power.
It appears, too, that the length depends chiefly on
the angle of the cone ; for the mouth-piece may be
eonfidercd as nearly a fixed quantity. It muft be of a
fixe to admit the mouth when fpeaking with force and
tvithout conftraint. About an inch and a half may be
fixed on for its diameter. When therefore we propofe
to confine the found to a cone of twice the angle of the
trumpet, the whole is determined by that angle. For
oj a b, a 2 b, a
inches, and we muft make the mouth of the fame width
3
2 S, a
On the other hand, if the length of the trumpet is fix¬
ed on, we can determine the angle of the cone. For let
the length (reckonedfrom C) be L j we have 2S,*a=~t
1^3
or S,*a
and S
2L’ ’ ^ 2 L*
Thus let 6 feet or 72 inches be chofen for the length
of the cone, we have S,a=r^/0,14434,
rrfin. 8° 17' for the angle of the cone j and the width at
the mouth is —^— =10,4 inches. This being taken
from 72, leaves 61,6 inches for the length of the trum¬
pet.
And fince this trumpet confines the refleffed founds te
a cone of 160 34', we have its magnifying power
|DT* S,* 4 50 . .
— — ^ 96 nearly.
It therefore con-
“ fDK* — b,*4°8,|
denfes the found about 96 times j and if the diftribution
were uniform, it would be heard \Z^6, or nearly 10
times farther off. For the loudnefs of founds is fuppofed
to be inverfely as the fquare of the diftance from the
centre of undulation.
But before we can pronounce with precifion on the
performance of a fpeaking trumpet, we muft examine
into the manner in which the refleffed founds are diftri-
buted over the fpace in which they are all confined.
Let BKDA (fig. 3.) be the feffion of a conical p.
trumpet by a plane through the axis j let C be the ver¬
tex of the cone, and CW its axis ; let TKV be the
feffion of a fphere, having its centre in the vertex of
the cone ; and let P be a fonorous point on the furface
of the fphere, and P afe/ the path of a line of found
lying in the plane of the feffion.
In the great circle of the fphere take KQzrKP, DR
=DQ^, and KSrrKR. Draw QB Zi; alfo draw Qdn
parallel to DA; and draw PB, P d, PA.
I. Then it is evident that all the lines drawn from
P, within the cone APB, proceed without refleffion,
and are diffufed as if no trumpet had been ufed.
2. All
m
■i
Trumpet.
K U [ 495 ]
2. All tlie fonorous lines which fall from P on KB
T R U
are refle&ed from it as if they had come from £).
3. All the fonorous lines between BP and dP have
fuffered but one refleftion ; for </« will no more meet
DA A' fo as to be reflefted again.
4. All the lines which have been reflefled from KB,
and afterwards from DA, proceed as if they had come
from R. For the lines refle&ed from KB proceed as
they had come from £) j and lines coming from Q
and reflected by DA, proceed as if they had come from
”R. Therefore draw RAo, and alfo draw Rgm paral¬
lel to KB, and draw £)cAy, Qbg, Pc, and V b.
Then,
5. All the lines between b P and c P have been twice
reflefted.
Again, draw SBp, BrR, rw£), S#A, Ry*, Q^y.
6. All the lines between u P and % P have fuffered
three reflections.
Draw the tangents TA/, VB t;, crofling the axis in
7. The whole founds will be propagated within the
cone v W t. For to every fonorous point in the line
-KD there correfponds a point fimilar to £), regulating
the firft reflection from KB $ and a point fimilar to R,
regulating the fecond reflection from DA ; and a point
S regulating the third reflection from KB, &c. And
fimilar points will be found regulating the firft reflec¬
tion from DA, the fecond from KB, and the third
from DA, &e. j and lines drawn from all thefe through
A and B mutt lie within the tangents TA and VB.
8. 1 hus the centres of reflection of all the fonorous
lines which lie in planes pafling through the axis, will
be found in the furface of this fphere 5 and it may be
confidered as a fonorous fphere, whofe founds firft con¬
centrate in W, and are then diffufed in the cone i/W/.
It may be 'demonftrated nearly in the fame manner,
that the fonorous lines which proceed from P, but not
in the plane pafling through the axis, alfo proceed, after
various reflections, as if they had come from points in
the furface of the fame fphere. The only difference in
the demonftration is, that the centres £), R, S of the
fucceflive reflections are not in one plane, but in a fpiral
line winding round the furface of the fphere according
to fixed laws. The foregoing conclufions are therefore
general for all the founds which come in all directions
from every point in the area of the mouth-piece.
I hus it appears, that a conical trumpet is well fitted
for increafing the force of founds by diminifhing their
final divergence. For had the fpeaker’s mouth been in
the open air, the founds which are now confined with¬
in the cone v^N t would have been diffufed over a he-
mifphere : and we fee that prolonging the trumpet mufl
confine the founds ftill more, becaufe this will make the
angle BWA ftill fmaller} a longer tube muft alfo oc-
cafion more reflections, and confequently fend more fo¬
norous undulations to the ear at a diftance placed with¬
in the cone v^Nt.
We have now obtained a very connected view of the
whole effeCt of a conical trumpet. It is the fame as if
the whole fegment TKDV were founding, every part
of it with an intenfity proportional to the denfity of the
points (), R, S, &c. correfponding to the different points
P of the mouth-piece. It is eafy to fee that this cannot
be uniform, but muft be much rarer towards the margin
of tire fegment. It would require a good deal of dif-
cuffion to {how' the denfity of thefe fiCIitious founding Trumps
points ; and we (hall content ourfelves with giving a ‘•“-y—
very palpable view of the diftribution of the fonorous
rays, or the denfity (fo to fpeak) of the echoes, in the
different fituations in which a hearer may be placed.
We may obferve, in the mean time, that this fubfti-
tution of a founding fphere for the founding mouth¬
piece has an exaCt parallel in Optics, by which it will
be greatly illuftrated. Suppofe the cone BKDA (fig.3.) f,v ,
to be a tube poliftied in the infide, fixed in a wall B * 3
perforated in BA, and that the mouth-piece DK is ocl
cupied completely by a flat flame. The effeCt of this
on a fpeClator will be the fame, if he is properly placed
in the axis, as if he were looking at a flame as big as
the whole fphere. This is very evident.
It is eafy to fee that the line S is equal to the line
/efa P ; therefore the reflected founds alfo come to the
ear in the fame moments as if they had come from their
refpeCtive points on the furface of the fubftituted fphere.
Unlefs, therefore, this fphere be enormoufly large, the
diftinCtnefs of articulation will not be fenfibly affeCted,
becaufe the interval between the arrival of the different
echoes of the fame fnap will be infenfible.
_ Our limits oblige us to content ourfelves with exhi¬
biting this evident fimilarity of the progrefs of echo
from the furface of this phonic fphere, to the progrefs
of light from the fame luminous fphere fnining through
a hole of which the diameter is AB. The direCt in-
veftigation of the intenfity of the found in different di-
reClions and diftances would take up much room, and
give no clearer conception of the thing. The intenfity
of the found in any point is precifely fimilar to the in¬
tenfity of the illumination of the fame point \ and this
is proportional to the portion of the luminous furface
feen from this point through the hole direClly, and to
the fquare of the diftance inverfely. The intelligent
reader will acquire a diftinCt conception of this matter
from fig. 4. which reprefents the diftribution of the fo¬
norous lines, and by confequence the degree of loudnefs
which may be expeCled in the different fituations of the
hearer.
As we have already obferved, the effeCI of the cone
of the trumpet is perfeClly analogous to the reflection of
light from a poliflied concave, conical mirror. Such an
inftrument would be equally fitted for illuminating a
diftant objedt. We imagine that thefe would be much
more powerful than the fpherical or even parabolic mir¬
rors commonly ufed for this purpofe. Thefe laft, having
the candle in the focus, alfo fend forward a cylinder of
light of equal width with the mirror. But it is well
known, that oblique refledlions are prodigioufly more
vivid than thofe made at greater angles. Where the
inclination of the refledled light to the plane of the
mirror does not exceed eight or ten degrees, it refledls
about three-fourths of the light which falls on it. But
when the inclination is 80, it does not refledt one-fourth
part.
We may alfo obferve, that the denfity of the refledl-
ed founds by the conical trumpet ABC (fig. 4.) is pre-Fig. 4*
cifely fimilar to that of the illumination produced by a
luminous fphere TDV, ftiining through a hole AB.
There will be a fpace circumfcribed by the cone formed
by the lines IB/ and VA which is uniformly illu¬
minated by the whole fphere (or rather by the fegment
I DV), and on each fide there is a fpace illuminated by
T R U r 497
■unipet. a part of it only, and the illumination gradually de-
creafes towards the borders. A fpe&ator placed much
out of the axis, and looking through the hole AB, may
not fee the whole fphere. In like manner, he will not
hear the whole founding fphere : He may be fo far from
the axis as neither to fee nor hear any part of it.
Affifting our imagination by this comparifon, we per¬
ceive that beyond the point w' there is no place where
a// the re.flefted founds are heard. Therefore, in order
to preferve the magnifying power of the trumpet at any
diftance, it is neceffary to make the mouth as wide as
the fonorous fphere. Nay, even this would be an im¬
perfect inftrument, becaufe its pow'er would be confined
to a very narrow fpace $ and if it be not accurately
pointed to the perfon liftening, its power will be greatly
diminiftied. And we may obferve, by the way, that
We derive from this circumftance a ftrong confirmation
ef the juftnefs of Mr Lambert’s principles ; for the
effeCts of fpeaking trumpets are really obierved to be li¬
mited in the way here defcribed.—Parabolic trumpets
have been made, and they fortify the found not only in
the cylindrical fpace in the direction of the axis, but
alfo on each fide of it, which ihould not have been the
cafe had their effeCt depended only on the undulations
formed by the parabola in planes perpendicular to the
axis. But to proceed.
S- Let BCA (fig. 5.) be the cone, ED the mouth¬
piece, TEDV the equivalent fonorous fphere, and
TBAV the circumfcribed cylinder. Then CA or CB
is the length of cone that is neceffary for maintaining the
magnifying powrer at all diftances. We have two con¬
ditions to be fulfilled. The diameter ED of the mouth¬
piece muff be of a certain fixed magnitude, and the dia¬
meter AB of the outer end muft be equal to that of the
equivalent fonorous fphere. Thefe conditions determine
all the dimenfions of the trumpet and its magnifying
power. And, firft, with relpeCl to the dimenfions of
the trumpet.
The fimilarity of the triangles ECG and BCF gives
CG : ED=CF : AB 5 but CG = BF, AB,"and
CF=CG + GF, =GF+4AB-, therefore *AB : ED
—GF-fT AB : AB, and AB : ED = 2GF+AB :
AB ; therefore 2 GF X ED-|-AB X ED—AB1, and
2GFxED=AB»,
1
T R O
and GF:
ABxAB—ED
AB x ED,=AB x AB—ED,
. And, on the other hand,
2 ED
becaufe AB* — EB X AD =r 2 GF X ED, we have
AB* —ABxED-H;ED*=:2GFx ED + I ED*,
or AB—f ED*=: 2 GF x ED-f-£ ED1, and AB—
GF x ED ED* +4 ED.
Let x reprefent the length of the trumpet, y the dia¬
meter at the great end, and m the diameter of the mouth¬
piece. Then , and y—njix m<\- -f-f m.
Thus the length and the great diameter may be had re¬
ciprocally. The ufeful cafe in praclice is to find the
diameter for a propofed length, which is gotten by the
laft equation.
Now if we take all the dimenfions in inches, and fix
m at an inch and a half, we have 2 x m—3 x, and
=0.5625, and -£/tt=ro,75} fo that our equation be-
fomes *4-0,56254-0,75. The following table
Vol. XX. Part II.
gives the dimenfions of a fufficient variety of trumpets. Trumpe't.
I he firft column is the length of the trumpet in feet j
the fecond column is the diameter of the mouth in
inches j the third column is the number of times that it
magnifies the found j and the fourth column is the num¬
ber of times that it increafes the diftance at which a man
may be diftinflly heard by its means 5 the fifth contains
the angle of the cone.
GF
feet.
1
2
3
4
J
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
21
24
AB
inches.
6.8
9;3
n.2
128
14.2
T5-5
16.6
17.7
18.8
19.8
20.7
21.5
24.
26.2
28.3
30.2
Magnifying.
42.6
77.8
11 2.4
146.6
180.4
214.2
247.7
281.3
314.6
347-7
380.9
414.6
S1S-6
612.3
711.2
810.1
Extending
6-5
8.8
10.6
12.1
i3-4
14.6
I5-7
16.8
17.7
18.6
^■S
20.4
22.7
24.7
26.6
28.5
ACB.
24-53
!8.23
15.18
13-24
12.04
11.05
10.18
9.40
9.08
8.42
8.18
7-58
7-°9
6-33
6.0 ?
5-42
ED in all is =1.5
The two laft columns are conftru£led on the follow¬
ing confiderations: We conceive the hearer placed with¬
in the cylindrical fpace whofe diameter is BA. In this
fituation he receives an echo coming apparently from
the whole furface TGV j and we account the effeft of
the trumpet as equivalent to the united voices of as many
mouths as would cover this furface. Therefore the quo¬
tient obtained by dividing the furface of the hemifphere
by that of the mouth-piece will exprefs the magnifying
power of the trumpet. If the chords ^ E, ^T, be
drawn, we know that the fpherical furfaces T g V,
E D, are refpeftively equal to the circles defcribed
with the radii T g, E g, and are therefore as T g* and
E g*. Therefore the audibility of the trumpet, when
compared with a fingle voice, may be expreffed by
T jo-1 .
Now the ratio of T ,§-* to E^* is eafily obtained.
For if E^/be drawn parallel to the axis, it is plain that
T) A 'p TA
B/ir   , and that E f is to/B as radius to
the tangent of BCF;
Therefore tan. a—- 
2 A?
a. But if the radius CE be accounted 1, T,y is = ^2,
and E^ iss=2 fin. ^ 2
which angle we may call a.
, and thus we obtain the angle
Therefore
E^
and
/- a
2 fin. —
2
the magnifying power of the tritmpet is
3R
4 fin.*—
2
T R U
[ 498 5
T R U
Trumpet
The numbers, therefore, in the third co-
4-
lumn of the table are each =:
2 fin.2-
2
But the more ufual way of conceiving the power of
the trumpet is, by confidering how much farther it will
enable us to hear a voice equally well. Now we fup-
pofe that the audibility of founds varies in the inverfe
duplicate ratio of the diftance. Therefore if the diftance
r/, at which a man may be diftinflly heard, be increafed
to 53, in the proportion of EG to T^, the found will
be lefs audible, in the proportion of T g* to EG*.
Therefore the trumpet will be as well heard at the di¬
ftance z as the fiuiple voice is heard at the diftance d.
Therefore — will exprefs the extending power of the
U m
trumpet, which is therefore rr
\f 2
2 fin.—
2
In this man¬
ner were the numbers computed for the fourth column
of the table.
When the angle BCA is fmall, which is always the
cafe in fpeaking trumpets, we may, without any fenftble
efror, confider EG as = —— —. And TG—TC
, AB , AB
X V2, =— ^2=—
2 v 2
v/ 2’
This
gives a very
eafy computation of the extending and magnifying
powers of the trumpet.
The extending power is 2
The magnifying power is =r 2
m
yx
We may alfo eafily deduce from the premifes, that if
the mouth-piece be an inch and a half in diameter,
and the length x be meafured in inches, the extending
power is very nearly rr | and the magnifying
power x.
An inconvenience ftill attends the trumpet of this
conftru&ion. Its complete audibility is confined to the
cylindrical fpace in the direftion of the axis, and it is
more faintly heard on each fide of it. This obliges us
to direft the trumpet very exactly to the fpot where we
wifh it to be heard. This is confirmed by all the ac¬
counts we have of the performance of great fpeaking
trumpets. It is evident, that by lengthening the trum¬
pet, and therefore enlarging its mouth, we make the
lines TB t and VA ^ expand (fig. 4.) j and therefore it
will not be fo difficult to direft the trumpet.
But even this is confined within the limits of a few
degrees. Even if the trumpet were continued without
end, the founds cannot be reinforced in a wider fpace
than the cone of the trumpet. But it is always advan¬
tageous to increafe its length $ for this makes the ex¬
treme tangents embrace a greater portion of the fonorous
fphere, and thus increafes the found in the fpace where
it is all refle&ed. And the limiting tangents TB, VA,
expand ftill more, and thus the fpace of full effefl is in-
ereafed. But either of thefe augmentations is very fmall
ta comparifon of the augmentation of faze. If the truni'
pet of fig. 5. were made an hundred times longer, its Trumpe
power would not be increafed one half.
We need not therefore aim at much more than to
produce a cylindrical fpace of full effedt ; and this will
always be done by the preceding rules, or table of con-
ftrudions. We may give the trumpet a third or a
fourth part more length, in order to ipread a little the
fpace of its full effedft, and thereby make it more eafily
directed to the intended object. But in doing this we
muft be careful to increafe the diameter of the mouth as
much as we increafe the length ; otherwife we produce
the very oppofite effedt, and make the trumpet greatly
inferior to a ftiorter one, at all diftances beyond a cer¬
tain point. For by increafing the length while the part
CG remains the fame, we caufe the tangents TB and
VA to meet on fome diftant point, beyond which the
found diffufes prodigioufly. The conftrudtion of a
fpeaking trumpet is therefore a problem of fome nicety j
and as the trials are always made at fome confiderable
diftance, it may frequently happen that a trumpet wftiich
is not heard at a mile’s diftance, may be made very
audible two miles off by cutting off a piece at its wide
end.
After this minute confideration of the conical trum¬
pet, we might proceed to confider thofe of other forms.
In particular, the hyperbolic, propofed by Caffegrain,
and the parabolic, propofed by Haafe, feem to merit
confideration. But if we examine them merely as re-
fiedtors of echoes, we ffiall find them inferior to the
conical.
With refpedl to the hyperbolic trumpet, its inaptitude
is evident at firfi: fight. For it muft diffipate the echoes
more than a conical trumpet. Indeed Mr Caffegrain
proceeds on quite different principles, depending on the
mechanifm of the aerial undulations : his aim was to in¬
creafe the agitation in each pulfe, fo that it may make a
more forcible impulfe on the ear. But we are too im-
perfedtly acquainted with this fubjedt to decide a priori;
and experience ftiows that the hyperbola is not a good
form.
With refpedl to the parabolic trumpet, it is certain
that if the mouth-piece were but a point, it would pro¬
duce the moft favourable reflediion of all the founds j
for they would all proceed parallel to the axis. But
every point of an open mouth muft; be confidered as a
centre of found, and none of it muft be kept out of
the trumpet. If this be all admitted, it will be found
that a conical trumpet, made by the preceding rules,
will diffipate the refledted founds much lefs than the
parabolic.
Thus far have we proceeded on the fair confequences
of the well known fadl, that echoes are refledled in the
fame manner as light, without engaging in the intricate
inveftigation of aerial undulations. Whoever confiders
the Newtonian theory of the propagation of found with
intelligence and attention, will fee that it is demonftrated
folely in the cafe of a fingle row of particles \ and that
all the general corollaries refpedting the lateral diffufion
of the elaftic undulations are little more than fagacious
guefies, every way worthy of the illuftrious author, and
beautifully confirmed by what we can moft diftindlly
and accurately obferve in the circular waves on the fur-
face of ftill water. But they are by no means fit for
becoming the foundation of any dodtrine which lays the
fmalleft claim to the title of accurate fcience. We really
know
T R U E 499 ] T R U
mmpet. know exceedingly little of the theory of aerial undula-
-v-—' tjons j and the conformity of the phenomena of found
to thefe gueffes of Sir Ifaac Newton has always been a
matter of wonder to every eminent and candid mathe¬
matician : and no other (hould pretend to judge of the
matter. This wonder has always been acknowledged
by Daniel Bernoulli 5 and he is the only perfon who has
made any addition to the fcience of founds that is worth
mentioning. For fuch we muft always efteem his doc¬
trine of the fecondary undulations of mufical cords, and
the fecondary pulfes of air in pipes. Nothing therefore
is more unwarrantable, or more plainly lhows the pre¬
cipitant prefumption of modern fciolills, than the familiar
ufe of the general theory of aerial undulations in their
attempts to explain the abftrufe phenomena of nature
(fuch as the communication of fenfation from the organ
to the fenforium by the vibrations of a nervous fluid, the
reciprocal communication of the volitions from the fen¬
forium to the mufcle, nay, the whole phenomena of
mind), by vibrations and vibratiunculae.
Such attempts equally betray ignorance, prefumption,
and meannefs of foul. Ignorance of the extent to which
the Newtonian theory may be logically carried, is the
neceflary confequence of ignorance of the theory itfelf.
It is prefumption to apply it to the phenomena of the
intelle&ual worN ; and furely he has an abjefl foul who
hugs and cherilhes the humble thought, that his mind is
an undulating fluid, and that its all-grafping compre-
henfion, and all its delightful emotions, are nothing
more than an etheriai tune.—“ Pol me occidiftis amen-
tes.” This whim is older than Hartley : It may be
found in Robinet’s Systems de la Nature. This by the
bye made its firft appearance as a difcourfe delivered by
Brother Orateur in the lodge of the grand Orient at
Lyons *, from which fource have proceeded all the cof-
mopolitical focieties in Europe, and that illumination by
which reafon is to triumph over revelation, and liberty
and equality over civil government. We crave pardon
of our readers for this ebullition of fpleen; and we hope
for it from all thofe who can read Newton, and who
efteem his modefty.
Thofe who have endeavoured to improve the fpeaking
trumpet on mechanical principles, have generally aimed
at increaftng the violence of the elaftic undulations, that
they may make a more forcible impulfe on the ear.
This is the objefl in view in the parabolic trumpet. All
the undulations are converted into others which are in
planes perpendicular to the axis of the inllrument j fo
that the fame little mafs of air is agitated again and
again in the fame direftion. From this it is obvious to
conclude, that the total agitation will be more violent.
But, in the firft: place, thefe violent agitations muft dir-
fufe themfelves laterally as foon as they get out of the
trumpet, and thus be weakened, in a proportion that is
perhaps impofiible for the moft expert analyft to deter¬
mine. But, moreover, we are not fufficiently acquainted
with the mechanifm of the very firft agitations, to be
able to perceive what conformation of the trumpet will
caufe the reflefted undulations to increafe the firft undu¬
lations, or to check them. For it muft happen, during
the produ61ion of a continued found in a trumpet, that
a parcel of air, which is in a ftate of progreflive agita¬
tion, as it makes a pulfe of one found, may be in a ftate
of retrograde agitation, as it is part of a pulfe of air pro¬
ducing another found. We cannot (at leaft no mathe¬
matician has yet done it) difcriminate, and then com- Trumpet,
bine thefe agitations, with the intelligence and precifion ~
that are neceffary for enabling us to fay what is the ulti¬
mate accumulated effeft. Mr Lambert therefore did
wifely in abftaining from this intricate inveftigation $
and we are highly obliged to him for deducing fuch a
body of demonftrable dodtrine from the acknowledged,
but ill underftood, fadt of the refledlion of echoes.
We know that two founds adlually crofs each other
without any mutual difturbance ; for we can hear either
of them diftindlly, provided the other is not fo loud as
to ftun our ears, in the fame manner as the glare of the
fun dazzles our eyes. We may therefore depend on all
the confequences which are legitimately deduced from
this fad!, in the fame manner as we depend on the fci¬
ence of catoptrics, which is all deduced from a fad! per-
fed!ly fimilar and as little underftood.
But the preceding propofitions by no means explain
or comprehend all the reinforcement of found which is
really obtained by means of a fpeaking trumpet. In
the firft place, although we cannot tell in what degree
the aerial undulations are increafed, we cannot doubt
that the refledlions which are made in diredlions which
do not greatly deviate from the axis, do really increafe
the agitation of the particles of air. We fee a thing
perfedlly fimilar to this in the waves on water. Take a
long flip of lead, about two inches broad, and having
bent it into the form of a parabola, fet it into a large
flat trough, in which the water is about an inch deep.
Let a quick fucceflion of fmall drops of water fall pre-
cifely on the focus of the parabola. We fliall fee the
circular waves proceeding from the focus all converted
into waves perpendicular to the axis, and we fhall fre¬
quently fee thefe ftraight waves eonfiderably augmented
in their height and force. We fay generally, for we
have fometimes obferved that thefe refle6!ed waves were
not fenfibly llronger than the circular or original waves.
We do not exaefly know' to what this difference muft
be afcribed : we are difpofed to attribute it to the fre-
quencykof the drops. This may be fuch, that the in¬
ter vaftof time between each drop is precifely equal, or
at leaft commenfurable, to the time in which the waves
run over their own breadth. This is a pretty experi¬
ment ; and the ingenious mechanician may make others
of the fame kind which will greatly illuftrate feveral
difficult points in the fcience of founds. We may con¬
clude in general that'the reflexion of founds, in a
trumpet of the ufual fliapes, is accompanied by a real
increafe of the aerial agitations; and in fome particular
cafes we find the founds prodigioufly increafed. Thus,
when we blow through a mufical trumpet, and allow
the air to take that uniform undulation which can be
beft maintained in it, namely, that which produces its
mufical tone, where the whole tube contains but one or
two undulations, the agitation of a particle muft then
be very great, and it muft defcribe a very confiderable
line in its ofcillations. When we fuit our blaft m
fuch a manner as to continue this note, that is, this
undulation, we are certain that the fubfequent agita¬
tions confpire with the preceding agitation, and aug¬
ment it. And accordingly we find that the found is
increafed to a prodigious degree. A cor de cbaffe, or a
bugle horn, when properly winded, will almoft deafen
the ear; and yet the exertion is a mere nothing in
comnarifon with what wc make when bellowing with all
1 3 R 2
T R U
^Tiutripfct.. our force, but with not the tenth part of the noife. We
alfo know, that it we {peak through a fpeaking trumpet
in the key which correfponds with its dimenfions, it is
much more audible than when we fpeak in a different
pitchy Thefe obfervations fliow, that the loudnefs of a
fpeaking trumpet arifes from fomething more than the
foie reflection of echoes confidered by Mr Lambert—
the very echoes are rendered louder.
In the next place, the founds are increafed by the vi¬
brations of the trumpet itfelf. The elaftic matter of
the trumpet is thrown into tremors by the undulations
"which proceed from the mouth-piece. Thefe tremors
produce pulfes in the contiguous air, both in the infide
of the trumpet and on that which furrounds it. Thefe
undulations within the trumpet produce original founds,
which are added to the reflefted founds : for the tremor
continues for fome little time, perhaps the time of three
or four or more pulfes. I his muft: increafe the loud¬
nefs of the fubfequent pulfes. We cannot fay to what
degree, becaufe we do not know the force of the tre¬
mor which the part of the trumpet acquires : but we
know that thele founds will not be magnified by the
trumpet to the fame degree as if they had come from
the mouth-piece j for they are reflefted as if they had
come from the furface of a fphere which paffes through
the agitated point of the trumpet. In fliort, they are
magnified only by that part of the trumpet which lies
without them. The whole founds of this kind, there¬
fore, proceed as if they came from a number of concen¬
tric fpherical furfaces, or from a folid {phere, whofe dia¬
meter is twice the length of the trumpet cone.
Ad thefe agitations arifing from the tremors of the
trumpet tend greatly to hurt the diftinftnefs of articu¬
lation 5 becaufe, coming from different points of a large
fphere, they arrive at the ear in a fenfible fucceffion ;
and thus change a momentary articulation to a length¬
ened found,, and give the appearance of a number of
voices uttering the fame words in fucceflion. It is in this
wajr, that, when we clap our hands together near a Ion or
rail, we get an echo from each port, which produces a
chirping found of fome continuance. For thefe reafons
it is found advantageous to check all tremors of the
trumpet by wrapping it up in woollen lifts. This is alfo
neceffary in the mufical trumpet.
With refpeft to the undulations produced by the tre¬
mors of the trumpet in the air contiguous to its outfide,
they alfo hurt the articulation. At any rate, this is fo
much of the fonorous momentum ufelefsly employed •
becaufe they are diffufed like common founds, and re-
*eive no augmentation from the trumpet.
It is evident, that this inftrument may be ufed (and
accprdingly was fo) for aiding the hearing j for the fo¬
norous lines are reflefted in either dire&ion. We know
that all tapering cavities greatly increafe external noifes:
and we obferve the brutes prick up their ears when they
want to hear uncertain or faint founds. They turn them
in Rich dire&ions as are beft fuited for the refleftion of
the found from the quarter whence the animal imagines
that it comes. °
Let us apply Mr Lambert’s principle to this very in-
raj iAC • arid e.xamine whether it be poflible to af-
fift dull hearing m like manner as the optician has affift-
^d impertedt fight.
[ So® ]
T R U
Hearing
trumpet.
The fubjea is greatly fimplified by the circumftances Trump
of the.cafe ; for the founds to which we lifted generally wv-
come in nearly one direction, and all that we have to
do is to produce a conftipation of them. And we may
conclude, that the audibility will be proportional to this
conftipation.
Therefore let ACB, fig. 6. be the cone, and CD its Fig. 6.
axis. 1 he found may be conceived as coming in the
direftion RA, parallel to the axis, and to be refleded
in the points A, c, d, e, till the angle of incidence in-
creafes to 90° 5 after which the fubfequent refle&ions
fend the found out again. We muft therefore cut off a
part of the cone 5 and, becaufe the lines increafe their
angle of incidence at each refle&ion, it will be proper
to make the angle of the cone an aliquot part of 90°,
that the leaft incidence may amount precifely to that
quantity. What part of the cone ftiould be cut off may
be determined by the former principles. Call the angle
ACD, c. We have C =r  , when the
1m. (2 n-j-i) a
found gets the laft ufeful refle&ion. Then we have the
diameter of the mouth AB=2 CA • fin. a, and that of
the other end <?/=C e • 2 fin. a. Therefore the founds
will be conftipated in the ratio of CA* to C ?*, and the
trumpet will bring the fpeaker nearer in the ratio of C A
to C e.
When the lines of reflecled found are thus brought
together, they may be received into a fmall pipe per¬
fectly cylindrical, which may be inferted into the ex¬
ternal ear. This will not change their angles of incli¬
nation to the axis nor their denfity. It may be conve¬
nient to make the internal diameter of this pipe -j of an.
inch. Therefore C e • fin. 0 is = £ of an inch. This
circumftance, in conjundion with the magnifying power
propofed, determines the other dimenfions of the hearing
trumpet. For C and CA
fin. (2 ndf-x a)
6 fin.0 fin. (2 «-f-1) a’
6 fin. * a
Thus the relation of the angle of the cone and the
length of the inftrument is afcertained, and the found is
brought nearer in the ratio of C A to C e, or of fin.
(2 n-f-i) a to fin. a. And feeing that we found it pro¬
per to make (2 1) 0=390°, we obtain this very fim-
ple analogy, 1 : fin. 0=CA : C 0. And the fine of f
the angle ot the cone is to radius as 1 to the approxima¬
ting power of the inftrument.
Thus let it be required that the found may be as au¬
dible as if the voice were 12 times nearer. This gives
CA . . 1 6
-£-j=:12. This gives fin. a =—, and a =4° 47', and
the angle of the cone =9.34. Then CArr- 1
is 24 inches
M4
a ’ —24*
6 fin. * a
Therefore the length of the cone
CA
From this take C e —
length
2, and the
1 2
of the trumpet is 22 inches. The diameter at
the mouth is 2 C 0, —4 inches. With this inftrument
one voice fliould be as loud as 144.
If it were required to approximate the found only
four times, making it 16 times ftronger than the natural
voice
T R U [ 501 ] T R U
ump*t. voice at the fame diftance, the angle ACB muft be
i ^ i 29o. Ae muft be 2 inches, AB muft be i|d inches,
and e f muft be f d of an inch.
It is eafy to fee, that when the fize of the ear-end is
the fame in all, the diameters at the outer end are
proportional to the approximating powers, and the
lengths of the cones are proportional to the magnifying
powers.
We lhall find the parabolic conoid the preferable ftiape
for an acouftic trumpet; becaufe as the founds come
into the inftrument in a dire&ion parallel to the axis,
they are retle&ed fo as to pafs through the focus. The
parabolic conoid muft therefore be cut off through the
focus, that the founds may not go out again by the
fubfequent reflexions; and they muft be received into a
cylindrical pipe of one-third of an inch in diameter.
Therefore the parameter of this parabola is one-fixth of
an inch, and the focus is one-twelfth of an inch from
the vertex. This determines the whole inftrument; for
they are all portions of one parabolic conoid. Suppofe
that the inftrument is required to approximate the found
12 times, as in the example of the conical inftrument.
The ordinate at the mouth muft be 12 times the 6th of
an inch, or 2 inches; and the mouth diameter is four
inches, as in the conical inftrument. Then, for the
J 7- length, obferve, that DC in fig. 7. is -§-th of an inch,
and MP is 2 inches, and AC is ^th of an inch, and
DC* : MP*=r AC : AP. This will give AP = 12
inches, and CP nr: ninths; whereas in the conical
tube it was 22. In like manner an inftrument which
approximates the founds four times, is only i-jd inches
long, and ifd inches diameter at the big end. Such
fmall inftruments may be very exaXly made in the pa¬
rabolic form, and are certainly preferable to the conical.
But fince even thefe are of a very moderate fize when
intended to approximate the found only a few times,
and as they can be accurately made by any tinman,
they may be of more general ufe. One of 12 inches
long, and 3 inches wide at the big end, fhould approxi¬
mate the found at leaft 9 times.
A general rule for making them.—Let m exprefs the
approximating power intended for the inftrument. The
• ^ y.m—1
length of the inftrument in inches is  ^ , and the
diameter at the mouth is —. The diameter at the fmall
3
end is always one-third of an inch.
In trumpets for aflifting the hearing, all reverbation
of the trumpet muft be avoided. It muft be made thick,
of the leaft elaftic materials, and covered with cloth
externally. For all reverbation lafts for a Ihort time,
and produces new founds which mix with thofe that are
coming in.
We muft alfo obferve, that no acouftic trumpet can
leparate thofe founds to which we liften from others that
are made in the fame direXion. All are received by it,
and magnified in the fame proportion. This is fre¬
quently a very great inconvenience.
There is alio another imperfeXion, which we imagine
cannot be removed, namely, an odd confufion, which
cannot be called indiftinXnefs, but a feeling as if we
were in the midft of an echoing room. The caufe feems
to be this: Hearing gives us fome perception of the di-
reXion of the founding objeX, not indeed very precife,
3
but fufficiently fo for moft purpofes. In all inftruments Ti
which we have defcribed for conftipating founds, the
laft refleXions are made in direXions very much inclined
to the axis, and inclined in many different degrees.
Therefore they have the appearance of coming from dif¬
ferent quarters; and inftead of the perception of a Angle
fpeaker, we have that of a founding furface of great ex¬
tent. We do not know any method of preventing this,
and at the fame time increafing the found.
There is an obfervation ivhich it is of importance to
make on this theory of acouftic inftruments. Their
performance does not feem to eorrefpond to the compu¬
tations founded on the theory. When they are tried,
we cannot think that they magnify fo much: Indeed it
is not eafy to find a meafure by which we can eftimat»
the degrees of audibility. When a man fpeaks to us at
the diftance of a yard, and then at the diftance of two
yards, we can hardly think that there is any difference
in theloudnefs; though theory fays, that it is four times
lefs in the laft of the two experiments; and we cannot
but adhere to the theory in this very fimple cafe, and
muft attribute the difference to the impoflibility of mea-
furing the loudnefs of founds with precifion. And be¬
caufe we are familiarly acquainted with the found, we
can no more think it four times lefs at twice the di¬
ftance, than we can think the vifible appearance of a
man four times lefs when he is at quadruple diftance.
Yet we can completely convince ourfelves of this, by
obferving that he covers the appearance of four men at
that diftance. Wre cannot eafily make the fame experi¬
ment with voices.
But, befides this, we have compared two hearing
trumpets, one of which Ihould have made a found as au-'
dible at the diftance of 40 feet as the other did at 10
feet diftance; but we thought them equal at the di¬
ftance of 40and 18. Therefult was the fame in many
trials made by different perfons, and in different circum-i
ftances. This leads us to fufpeX fome miftake in Mr
Lambert’s principle of calculation; and we think him
miftaken in the manner of eftimating the intenfity of the
refleXed founds. He conceives the proportion of inten¬
fity of the fimple voice and of the trumpet to be the
fame with that of the furface of the mouth-piece to the
furface of the fonorous hemifphere, which he has fo in~
genioufly fubftituted for the trumpet. But this feems to
fuppofe, that the whole furface, generated by the revo¬
lution of the quadrantal arch TEG round the axis CG
(fig. 4.), is equally fonorous. We are affured that it is
not : For even if we fhould fuppofe that each of the
points Q, R, and 3 (fig. 3.), are equally fonorous with
the point P, thefe points of refleXion do not Hand lo
denfe on the furface of the fphere as on the lurface of
the mouth-piece. Suppofe them arranged at equal di-
ftances all over the mouth-piece, they will be at equal
diftances alfo on the fphere, only in the direXion of the
arches of great circles which pafs through the centre of
the mouth-piece. But in the direXion perpendicular to
this, in the circumference of fmall circles, having the
centre of the mouth-piece for their pole, they muft be
rarer in the proportion of the fine of their diftance from
this pole. This is certainly the cafe with refpeX to all
fuch founds as have been refleXed in the planes which
pafs through the axis of the trumpet ; and we do not
fee (for we have not examined this point) that any com-
penfation is made by the refleXion which is not in
TRY r 502 ] T U M
Trumpet
II
Tryphiodo-
rus.
planes paffing through the axis. We therefore imagine,
that the trumpet does not increafe the found in the pro-
portion of E* to ^ T1 (fig. 5.), but in that of
p-T*
10 %T-
Mr Lambert feems aware of feme error in his calcu¬
lation, and propofes another, which leads nearly to this
conclufion, but founded on a principle which we do not
think in the leaft applicable to the cafe of founds.
TRUMPET, Marine, is a mulical inftrument confid¬
ing of three tables, which form its triangular bodv. It
has a very long neck with one fingle firing, very thick,
mounted on a bridge, which is firm on one fide, but
tremulous on the other. It is ftruck by a bow with one
hand, and with the other the firing is preifed or flopped
on the neck by the thumb.
It is the trembling of the bridge, when flruck, that
makes it imitate the found of a trumpet, which it does
to that perfeftion, that it is fcarcely poflible to diftin-
guifh the one from the other. And this is what has gi¬
ven it the denomination of trumpet-marine, though, in
propriety, it be a kind of monochord. Of the fix divi-
fions marked on the neck of the inftrument, the firft
makes a fifth with the open chord, the fecond an oc¬
tave, and fo on for the reft, correfponding with the in¬
tervals of the military trumpet.
TRumpeT-Flower. See Bigkonia, Botany Index,
TRUMPETER. See Psophia, Ornithology
Index.
TRUNCATED, in general, is an appellation given
to fuch things as have, or feem to have, their points
cut off; thus, we fay, a truncated cone, pyramid, leaf,
&c.
TRUNCHEON, a ftiort ftaff or baton ufed by
kings, generals, and great officers, as a mark of their
command.
TRUNDLE, a fort of carriage with low wheels,
whereon heavy and cumberfome burdens are drawn.
TRUNK, among botanifts, that part of the herb
which arifes immediately from the root, and is termi¬
nated by fructification } the leaves, buds, and auxiliary
parts of the herb not entering in its defcription.
TRUNNIONS, or Trunions, of a piece of ord¬
nance, are thofe knobs or bunches of metal which bear
her up on the cheeks of the carriage.
I RUSS, a bundle, or certain quantity of hay, ftraw,
&c. A trufs of hay contains 56 pounds, or half an
hundred weight: 36 truffes make a load.
Truss is alfo ufed for a fort of bandage or ligature
made of fleel, or the like matter, wherewith to keep up
the parts in thofe who have hernias or ruptures.
Truss, in a fhip, a machine employed to pull a yard
home to its refpecRive maft, and retain it firmly in that
pofition.
TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money, put
or trufted in his hands for the ufe <*f another.
TRU PH, a term ufed in oppofition to falfehood, and
applied to propofitions which anfwer or accord to the
nature and reality of the thing whereof fomething is af¬
firmed or denied.
1 RYPHIODORUS, an ancient Greek poet, who
lived fome time between the reigns of Severus and Ana-
rffafius. His writings were very numerous ; yet none of
them have come down to us, except an epic poem, on Tiypi C)
which Mr Addifon has made fome entertaining remarks "
in the Spectator, N° 63.
The firft edition of this extraordinary work was pub- Tuni
liihed by Aldus at Venice, with Quintus Calaber’s Pa-w
ralipomena, and Coluthus’s poem on the rape of Helen.
It has been fince reprinted atfeveial places, particularly
at Francfort in 1580 by Frifchlinus 5 who not only cor¬
rected many corrupt pafiages, but added two Latin ver-
fions, one in verfe and the other in profe. That in
verfe was reprinted in 1742, with the Greek, at Oxford,
in 8vo, with an Englilh tranflation in verfe, and Notes,
by Mr Merrick.
TUAM, a town of Ireland, in the province of Con¬
naught, and county of Galway, with an archbiftiop’s
fee. It was once a famous city, though now it is redu¬
ced to a village •, but it ftill retains the title of a city,
as being an archiepifcopal fee. W. Long. 8. 46. N.
tat 53. 33.
TUB, in commerce, denotes an indetermined quan¬
tity or meafure : thus, a tub of tea contains about 6a
pounds ; and a tub of camphor from 56 to 86 pounds.
TUBE, in general, a pipe, conduit, or canal j a cy¬
linder, hollow within-fide, either of lead, iron, glafs,
wood, or other matter, for the air or fome other matter
to have a free conveyance through it.
Auricular Tube, or inftrument to facilitate hearing.
See Articulate TRUMPET.
TUBERCLES, among phyfieians, denote little tu¬
rners which fuppurate and difcbarge pus ; and are of¬
ten found in the lungs, efpecially of confumptive per-
fons.
TUCUMAN, a province of Paraguay, in South A-
merica, bounded on the north by the provinces of Los-
Chicas and Cboco ; on the eaft by Chaco and Rio-de-
la-Plata, on the fouth by the country of Chicuitos and
Pampes, and on the weft by the bifhopric of St Jago.
The. air is hot, and the foil fandy : however, fome pla¬
ces are fruitful enough. The Spaniards poffefs a great
part of this country.
TUFA, a ftone confiding of volcanic allies concret¬
ed together with various other fpecies of ftone. It is of
various colours, blackilh gray, bluifti gray, and yel¬
low ; every colour having a different mixture and foli-
dity : but all of them have the bad quality of moulder¬
ing down on long expofure to the weather 5 notwith-
ftanding which, they have been ufed in buildings both
ancient and modern. The yellow kind refills the air
lefs than any other.
T ULIPA, Tulip 5 a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of hexandria; and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 10th order, Coronarice. See Botany Index;
and for the culture of the tulip, fee Gardening.
TuLIP-Tree, See Liriodendron, Botany Index.
TULL, Jethro, an Oxfordlhire gentleman who
farmed his own land, and introduced a new method of
culture, to raife repeated crops of wheat from the fame
land without the neceffity of manure : the principles of
which he publilhed about 30 years fince, in a Treatife
on Horfe-hoeing Hulbandry.
TUMBRELL, Tumbrellum, or Tarbichetum, is
an engine of puniftiment, formerly employed for the cor-
redlion of fcolds and unquiet women.
i UMEFACTION, the a cl of fw-elling or rifing in¬
to a tumor.
TUMOR,
TUN [
jmor TUMOR, in Medicine and Surgery, a preternatural
II fifing or eminence in any part of the body.
Tumors, in farriery. See Farriery Index.
^ ^ ' TUN, a large veffel or caik, of an oblong form, big-
gelt in the middle, and diminilliing towards its two
ends, girt about with hoops, and ufed for Rowing feve-
ral kinds of merchandife for convenience of carriage j
as brandy, oil, fugar, Ikins, hats, &c.
TuN is alfo the name of a meafure. A tun of wine
is four hoglheads ; of timber, a fquare of 40 folid feet ;
and of coals, 20cwt.
Tun is alfo a certain weight whereby the burden of
fliips, Stc. is eftimated.
TUNBRIDGE, a town of Kent in England, fitu-
ated on a branch of the river Medway, over which there
is a bridge. It is a large well built place, noted for
the mineral waters four or five miles fouth of the town.
E. Long. O. 20. N. Lat. 51. 14.
TUNE. See Music and Tone.
TUNGSTEN, one of the metals. See CHEMISTRY
and Mineralogy Index.
TUNICA, a kind of wailicoat or under garment, in
ufe among the Romans. They wTore it within doors by
itfelf, and abroad under the gown. The common peo¬
ple could not afford the toga, and fo went in their tunics }
■whence Horace calls them populus tumcatus.
Tunica, in Anatomy, is applied to the membranes
which inveff the veffels, and divers others of the lefs fo¬
lid parts 'of the body } thus the inteftines are formed of
five tunics or coats.
TUNIS, a large and celebrated town of Barbary,
in Africa, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name.
It is feated on the point of the gulf of Goletta, about
eight miles from the place ivhere the city of Carthage
Rood. It is in the form of a long fquare, and is about
four miles in circumference, with ten large ftreets, five
gates, and 3 5 mofques. The houfes are all built w ith
Rone, though but one Rory high } but the walls are
very lofty, and flanked with feveral Rrong towers. It
has neither ditches nor baRions, but a good citadel,
S Obferv. built on an eminence on the weR fide of the city. It is
\he City faid to contain 300,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000
■ u™sly are Jews. The divan, or council of Rate, affetnbles in
\ an old palace ; and the dey is the chief of the republic,
Jll^. who refides there. The harbour of Tunis has a very
' w. narrow entrance, through a fmall canal. In the city
^ ^ they have no water but what is kept in ciRerns, except
one well kept for the bafiraw’s ufe. It is a place of
great trade, and is 10 miles from the fea. E. Long..
10. 16. N. Lat. 36. 42.
Tunis, a country of Africa, bounded on the north
and eafi by the Mediterranean fea and the kingdom of
Tripoli, on the fouth by feveral tribes of the A rabs, and
on the wTefi by the kingdom of Algiers and the country
of Efab} being 300 miles in length from eafi to wefi,
and 250 in breadth from north to fouth. f his country
was formerly a monarchy ; but a difference ai ifing be¬
tween a king and his fon, one of whom was for the
proteftion of the ChriRians, and the other for that of the
Turks, in 1574 the inhabitants fliook off the yoke of
both. From this time it became a republic under the
proteflion of the Turks, and pays a certain tribute to the
bafhaw who refides at Tunis. The air in general is
healthy } but the foil in the eaRern parts is indifl'erent
4.
503 ] T U R
for want or water. Towards the middle the tnoun- Tunis
tains and valleys abound in fruits } but the weflern part , II
is the mofi fertile, becaufe it is watered with rivers. , ’lurl:>an'
The environs of Tunis are very dry, upon which ac¬
count corn is generally dear. The inroads of the A-
rabs oblige the inhabitants to fow their barley and rye
in the fuburbs, and to inclofe their gardens with W’alls.
However, there are plenty of citrons, lemons, oranges,
dates, grapes, and other fruits. There are alfo olive
trees, rofes, and odoriferous plants. In the woods and
mountains there are lions, wild beeves, ofiriches, mon¬
keys, cameleons, roebucks, hares, pheafants, partridge^,
and other forts of birds and beafis. The moR remark¬
able rivers arc the Guadilcarbar, Magrida, Magerada,
and Caps. The form of government is arifiocratic }
that is, by a council, whofe prefident is the dey, not
unlike the doge of Venice. The members of the divan
or council are chofen by the dey, and he in his turn is
elefted by the divan ; which is compofed of foldiers,
who have more than once taken off the dey’s head.
The bafiiaw is a Turk, refiding at Tunis} whofe bufi-
nefs is to receive the tribute, and protect the republic :
the common revenues are only 400,000 crowns a-year,
becaufe the people are very poor} nor can they fend above
40,000 men into the field} nor more than 12 men of
war of the line to fea, even upon the moff extraordinary
occafions. There are generally about 12,000 Chriflian
Haves in this country } and the inhabitants carry on a
great trade in linen and woollen cloth. In the city of
Tunis alone there are above 3000 clothiers and weavers.
They alfo have a trade in horfes, olives, oil, foap*
oRriches eggs and feathers. The Mahometans of this
•city have nine colleges for fludents, and 86 petty fchools.
The principal religion is Mahometanifm } but the inha¬
bitants eonfifi of Moors, Turks, Arabs, Jews, and Chrif-
tian (laves. However the Turks, though fewefi in num¬
ber, domineer over the Moors, and treat them little bet¬
ter than Raves.
TUNKERS, a religious fett of BaptiRs in Pennfyl-
vania, fo called from the word tui/ker, to put a morfel
in fauce. They are alfo called tumblers, becaufe in per¬
forming baptifm they plunge the perfon into the water
with the head firfl. As the Germans found the letters t
and b like d and p, the words tunkers and tumblers,
have been fometimes written dunkers and dumplers.
Their church government and difeipline are the fame
with thofe of the Englifii BaptiRs, except that every bro¬
ther is allowed to fpeak in the congregation, and the be.fi
fpeaker is ufually ordained to be their minifler. They
are a harmlefs, well-meaning people.
TUNNAGE. See Tonnage.
TUNNY. See Scomber, Ichthyology Index.
TUNNY-Fishing. See Fishery.
TURBAN, the head-drefs of moR of the eaRern ra¬
tions. It confifis of two parts, a cap and fafli of fine
linen or taffety, artfully wound in divers plaits about the
cap. The cap has no brim, is pretty flat, though round
ifli at top, and quilted with cotton } bui, does not cover
the ears. There is a good deal of art in giving the tur¬
ban a fine air } and the making of them is a particular
trade. The fafli of the Turk’s turban is white linen ;
that of the Perfiansred woollen. Thefearethe diflinguifli-
ino- marks of their different religions. Sophi king of
Psy-fia, being of the fe£t of AH, was the firfl who affumed
T U R C 504 ] T U R
Turban
II
Turgot.
the red colour, to diftinguilh himfelf from the Turks,
Avho are of the fe£t of Omar, and whom the PerfianS
^ efteem heretics.
TURBIN ATED, is a term applied by naturalifts to
{hells which are fpiral, or wreathed conically from a
larger bafis to a kind of apex.
TURBITH or Turpeth mineral. See Mercury,
N° 1720 and 1728 Chemistry.
TURBO, the Wreath, a genus of {hell-fifh. See
t Conchology Index.
TURBOT. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology
Index.
TURCiE or Turci, (Mela) j fuppofed to be the
Tufci of Ptolemy } whom he places between Caucafus
and the Montes Ceraunii. The name is faid to denote,
“ to defolate, or lay wafte.” Herodotus places them
among the wild or barbarous nations of the north.
There is a very rapid river called Turk, running into the
Cafpian fea, from which fome fuppofe the Turks to take
their name. They made no figure in the world till to¬
wards the 7th century j about the beginning of which
they fallied forth from the Portae Cafpiae, laid wafte
Perfia, and joined the Romans againft Chofroes king
of Perfia. In 1042 they fubdued the Perfians, in
whofe pay they ferved, and from whom they derived
the Mahometan religion ; and afterwards pouring forth,
overran Syria, Cappadocia, and the other countries of
the Hither Afia, under diftindt heads or princes, whom
Ottoman fubduing, united the whole power in him¬
felf, which to this day continues in his family, and who
fixed his feat of empire at Prufa in Bithynia. His fuc-
ceflbrs fubdued all Greece, and at length took Conftan-
tinople in 1453 5 which put a period to the Roman em*
pire in the Eaft, under Conftantine the laft emperor. It
is a Handing tradition or prophecy among the Turks,
that their empire will at length be overturned by the
Franks or Chriftians; which feems now to be drawing
on apace towards accomplilhment.
TURCOISE. See Turquoise.
TURCOMANIA, a province of Afiatic Turkey,
anfwering to the ancient kingdom of Armenia.
TURDUS, the Thrush ; a genus of birds belong¬
ing to the order of Pa/feres. See Ornithology
Index.
TURENNE, Viscount. See Tour.
TURF,peat, ablackilh earth ufed in feveral parts of
the world as fuel. Turf, as diftinguiftied from peat,
confifts of mould interwoven with the roots of ve¬
getables.
f URGESCENCE, among phyficians, denotes a
{welling or growing bloated.
TURGOT, Anne Robert James, a celebrated
French financier, was born at Paris in 1727, of a very
ancient Norman family. His father was a long time
provoft of the corporation of merchants •, during which
he was the obje6t of general admiration, on account of
his prudent adminiftration. M. Turgot was the young-
eft of three brothers, and was defti.ned for the church.
He had fearcely attained the age at which reflettion
commences, when he refolved to facrifice all tempo¬
ral advantages to liberty and confcience, and to pur-
iue his ecclefiaftical ftudies without declaring his repug¬
nance to their propofed objeft. At the age of 23 years
he took his degree, and was eledted prior of the Sor-
fconne.
The time when it was neceflary for him to declare
that he would not be an ecclefiaftic was now arrived.
He announced this refolution to his father by letter,
fhowing the motives which induced him to decline the
clerical order. His father confented, and he was ap¬
pointed matter of requefts. M. Turgot prepared himfelf
for this office by particular application to thofe parts of
fcience which are moft connedted with its fundtions and
duties, viz. natural philofophy, agriculture, manufac¬
tures, commerce, &e. About this period he wrote
fome articles for the Encyclopedic, of which the princi¬
pal are Etymology, Exiitence, Expanfibility, Fair, and
Foundation. He had prepared feveral others, but the
perfecution againft the Encyclopedie induced him to de-
cline farther contributions.
In 1761 M. Turgot was,appointed intendant of Li¬
moges, when he gave adtivity to the fociety of agricul¬
ture ; opened a mode of public inftrudlion for female
profeffors of midwifery j procured for the people the at¬
tendance of able phyficians during the raging of epide¬
mic difeafes; eftabliftied houfes of induftry, fupported by
charity (the only fpecies of alms-giving which does not
encourage idlenefs) ; introduced the cultivation of po¬
tatoes into his province, &c. &c. While M. Turgot
proceeded with unremitting adtivity and zeal, in promo¬
ting the good of the people over whom he was placed,
he meditated projedts of a more extenfive nature, fuch
as an equal diftribution of the taxes, the conftrudtion
of the roads, the regulation of the militia, the preven¬
tion of a fcarcity of provifion, and the protedtion of
commerce.
At the death of Louis XV. the public voice called
M. lurgot to the firft offices of government, as a man
who united the experience refulting from habits of bu-
finefs to all the improvement wffiich ftudy can procure.
After being at the head of the marine department only
a fhort time, he was, Auguft 24. 1774, appointed comp¬
troller general of the finances. During his difcharge
of this important office, the operations he carried on are
aftonifhing. He fuppreffed 23 kinds of duties on ne-
ceffary occupations, ufeful contradts, or merited compen-
fations. He aboliftied the corvee, or the labour requi¬
red from the public for the highways, faving the nation
thirty millions of livres annually.—He fet afide another
kind of corvee, which refpedled the carriage of military
ftores and baggage.—He abated the rigour in the ad¬
miniftration of indiredt impofitions, to the great profit
of the contributors, the king, and the financiers ; be-
fide many other effential improvements in political eco¬
nomy.
At length, however, by the artifices of the courtiers,
he was deprived of his offices ; and in retirement he de¬
voted himfelf to the fciences and the belles lettres, which
he had cultivated in his youth. Natural philofophy and
chemiftry were his favourite purfuits ; fometimes he in¬
dulged in poetry. He compofed, U is faid, only one
Latin verfe, intended for a pidture of Dr Franklin.
Eripuit coelo fultnen, mox fceptra tyrannise
He died in 1781.
TURIN, an ancient and populous city of Italy, and
capital of Piedmont, where the fovereign refides, with
an archbiffiop’s fee, a ftrong citadel, and an univerfity.
It is feated on a vaft plain, at the confluence of the ri¬
vers Doria and Po. But the air is unhealthy in the au¬
tumn
,
T U H [ 505 ] T U R
rlo, tumn and winter on account of the thick fogs. One half
I ' key’ of this place is lately built *, and the ftreets are flraight
^ 'r^J and clean, being walked by an aqueduft. It contains
many elegant buildings. When the plague reigned at
Marfeilles in 1720, a great number of artificers with¬
drew to Turin •, infomuch that there are now above
87,000 inhabitants, and 48 churches and convents.
Turin is very well fortified, and extremely ftrong ; as
the French found by experience in 1706, who then be-
fieged it a long while to no purpofe. The citadel, which
is flanked with five baftions, is without doubt a mailer-
piece of architecture. There are fine walks on the ram¬
parts, and fine gardens on the fide of the river Po ; and
the houfe commonly called La Charite is remarkable, as
there is room for 3OOO poor people. The college of the
academy is very large and well built, and has a great
number of ancient infcriptions. In the royal library are
19,000 manufcripts, befides 30,000 printed books. In
December 1798, it was taken pofleffion of by the
French, who in June following were driven out of it by
the Aultrians. But with the reft of Italy it is now un¬
der the dominion of the French. It is charmingly float¬
ed at the foot of a mountain, 62 miles north-eaft of Ge¬
noa, 72 fouth-Weft of Milan, and 280 north-weft of
j Rome. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 44. 50.
■ Si don TURKEY, an extenfive empire, fituated partly in
‘| at extent. Europe, and partly in Alia. It is bounded on the north
by the empire of Ruffia, Hungary, and the Black fea •,
on the weft by the gulf of Venice and the Mediterra¬
nean ; on the fouth by the Mediterranean and Arabia ;
and on the call by Perfia. In its prefent ftate, we may
compute it as extending from the river Unna, in call
longitude about 170, to the mountains which feparate it
from Perfia, in about 50° of call longitude from Green¬
wich, or about 330 from weft to eaft \ while from the moft
foutherly point, a little above Baffora, in north latitude
310, to the confines of European Ruflia, in north latitude
47°,it occupies a range of 160 of latitude. In Britifti miles
itsextent iseftimated at 1750 in length, by a medial breadth
,: j of about xooo, and its area at 652,960 fquare miles.
v| B ions. Turkey is naturally divided into European and Afia-
tic, feparated from each other by the Black fea, the Ar¬
chipelago, and the ftraits by which thefe are connedled.
European Turkey is fubdivided into II provinces, viz.
Moldavia, Bessarabia, Walachia, Bosnia, Ser-
via (partially), Bulgaria, Romelia (including Ma¬
cedonia and Thrace), DALMATIA, ALBANIA (including
Epirus), Croatia (partially), and the Morea, or an¬
cient Greece j while Afiatic Turkey is fubdivided into
feven provinces, viz. Natolia (sfjia Minor), Diar-
Bec [Mefopotamia), Syria (including/«rAe«), Geor¬
gia (/Zwia),TuRC0MANiA {Armenia), Irac-Arabia,
and Kurdistan {Ajfyria). See each of thefe articles
H 3 in the general alphabet.
The iilands belonging to Turkey are extremely nu¬
merous ; comprifing thofe of the Archipelago, or the
Grecian iflands, and feveral in the Levant. The moft
important are Lemnos, Lesbos or Mi/telene, SciO,
Samos, Cos, Rhodes, Cyprus, Candia, Paros, De-
y * e Los, Naxia, Sanctorini, Patmos, Negropont, An-
j Bi DRO *, Colteri or Salamis *, Egina, Zante *, Ce-
phalonia, Leucadia, Corfu, and Cerigo or Cy-
p 4 therea, which fee under their proper heads.
r ofthe Both European and Afiatic Turkey abound in moun-
V* tainous trafts, interfherfed with numerous plains and
Vol. XX. Part li.
valleys, and here and there a defert of confiderable ex- Turkey,
tent. The plains are watered by numerous large ri- ' ' *
vers, and, in the Afiatic part, confift chiefly of pafture
grounds. ^
Among the mountains of European Turkey may be Mountains,
noticed the Carpathian chain, which divides it from the
Auftrian territories j the celebrated mountains of Hae-
mUs j the Acroceraunian mountains j and the claflical
hills of Pindus, Ofla, Pelion, and Athos. The moft im¬
portant mountains of Afiatic Turkey are, Mount Cauca-
fus, dividing it from Ruflia *, Mount Taurus, now called
Thuron ; Olympus; Ida; the mountains of Elivend, and
perhaps Mount Ararat, the refting-place of the Ark,
dividing it from Perfia; and Mount Lebanon, celebra¬
ted in feripture for its cedars. 6
The principal river of European Turkey is the Da-Rivers,
nube, wfith its tributary ftreams, the Save, the Morava,
the Bofna, and the Pruth ; but we may alfo notice the
Mariffa or Hebrus, and the Vardan or Axius. In Afia¬
tic Turkey are feen the Kifil-Irmak or Halys, the Sac-
caria, the Sarabat or Hermus, the Minder or Meander,
the Araxes, the Orontes, the Jordan, and the Euphrates.
The lakes of European Turkey are of little import- Lakes,
ance, and in the Afiatic part there are only three that
merit notice. Thefe are the Dead fea and the lea of
Galilee in Paleftine, and the Van in Armenia. g
The climate in the greater part of the Turkilk em-Climate
pire is delightful, and the feafons mild and genial. The and iealons.
heats of the fummer, except in the deferts of Syria, and
on the fliores of the Black fea, are tempered by the
keen winds that blow from the higher regions, and the
winter is in general extremely mild. The unhealthi-
nefs of the large towns on the coaft of Afiatic Turkey,
is owing much more to the indolent and dirty habits of
the people, than to any infalubrity of the climate. ^
Turkey affords a moft ample field to the naturalift, Natural
whether his tafte lead him to explore the animal, thehiftory.
vegetable, or the mineral kingdom. In the firft of thefe
he will find the lion, a variety of the tiger, the hyena,
the jackal, the ibex, the goat and cat of Angora, and
many other quadrupeds common in Europe. Among
the birds, one of the moft numerous and moft ufeful is
the ftork ; partridges of a large fize, quails, woodcocks,
cranes, and feveral birds of prey, are alfo very common.
The Black fea and the Archipelago abound with excel¬
lent fifti, and contain great variety of curious mollufca,
and other marine animals. Among the infefls, that de-
ftruftive animal the locuft is a frequent vifitant ; and
Sonnini particularifes the tarantula, and a monftrous
fpecies of fpider, which he calls ga/eode araneoide, or
the fcorpion fpider. Of the domeftic animals, the Turks
abound in excellent horfes, affes of a large fize, and that
moft ufeful beaft of burden, the camel.
To enumerate the vegetable productions of Turkey,
would far exceed our fcanty limits. J he forefts of Eu¬
ropean Turkey, though far lefs extenfive than in ancient
times, furnifti abundance of the fineft timber, efpecially
oak, cedar, larch, walnut, chefnut, and beech, while
the olive, the date, the almond, the peach, the mulberry,
the cherry, the lemon, and the orange, are the natural
productions of Afiatic Turkey. Many of the moft va¬
luable drugs employed in medicine, are alfo the produce
of this empire, efpecially opium, rhubarb, myrrh, afafoe-
tida and other fetid gums, fcammony, fenna, galls, and
coloquintida.
3 S Botk
Turkey.
10
Outline of
T U It [ 506
Both gold and filver mines are found in Turkey, but
from the indolence of the natives they are fcarcely ever
■worked. Many of the iflands abound in mineral trea-
fures, efpecially Cyprus, where are found mines of gold,
copper, vitriol, and iron $ and where rock cryftal, jafper,
and feveral precious ftones, are occafionally procured.
The chief mineral produ&ion of Turkey, however, is
its marble, of which it furnilhes feveral of the moll rare
and beautiful varieties. That from the Grecian ifland
Paros, is proverbially excellent.
The people whom we now call Turks, and who form
the Turkifli the great mafs of population of the Turkilh empire, are
hitfcry. generally believed to be the defcendants of the ancient
Scythians. I hefe are fuppofed to have migrated from
the Altai mountains in Tartary, about the middle of
the fixth century, and to have gradually dififufed them-
felves towards the weft, till they reached the lake Mseo-
tis, the modern fea of Azof, near which they fettled in
Armenia Minor or Turcomania. At this time the Pio-
man empire in the eaft was fufficiently ftrong to prevent
the invaders from extending beyond the river Oxus, on the
banks of which they eftabliihed themfelves, and foon be-
came a formidable foe to the emperors of Conftantinople.
Foundation There is little certain or interefting in the hiftory of
of the Ot- thefe barbarians till the reign of the caliph Othman, or
toman em- Ofman, who in the end of the 13th century eftabliftted
a!d oo what from him has been called the Ottoman empire. He
' firft took the title of fultan, and fixed the feat of his go¬
vernment atPrufa,,the capital of Bithynia. His fucceffor
Orkan was a reftlefs, ambitious, and cruel prince, who
12 greatly extended the limits of the empire, took pofieflion
Eftablifh- of Gallipoli, and penetrated into Thrace. Amurath the
ment ot the grandfon of Ofman, in 1362, eftabliftied the famous roi-
Janizanes, iitaj.y bands called jamKaries, which ftill form the chief
J engines and chief moderators of Turkifti defpotifm.
Thefe were firft compofed of young Chriftian flaves
that had been taken in war, and educated in the Mo¬
hammedan religion. 1 hey were inured to obedience
by fevere difcipline, and trained to warlike exercife j
and as every fentiment which enthufiafm can infpire,
and every mark of honour which the favour of the
prince could confer, were employed to animate them
with martial ardour, and excite in them a fenfe of their
own importance, thefe janizaries, (or new foldiers) foon
became the chief ftrength and pride of the Ottoman
arms. On the aflaftination of Amurath in 1389, he was
fucceeded by his fan Bajazet, furnamed Ilderim, or the
Thunderbolt, whefe reign forms one of the moft fplen-
did epochs in the Turkifti hiftory.
Early in this reign, viz. in I39^> the Hungarians
were defeated at Nicopoli in Bulgaria, and in 1402,
An. 13851. was f0Ught the famous battle between Bajazet and Ti¬
mur or Tamerlane, the chief of the Moguls, between
Cefarea and Aneyra, which ended in the captivity of
Bajazet, and the temporary humiliation of the Turks.
See Moguls, N° 19. and 20.
On the death of Bajazet, his fon Moufa became ful¬
tan, and in 1412 defeated the emperor Sigifmund with
great daughter. Moufa was fucceeded by his brother
Mohammed I. by whom he had been affaflinated. The
reign of Amurath II. fucceffor of Mohammed, contri¬
buted greatly to increafe the fplendour of the Turkifh
empire. In this reign Condantinople was attacked, but
for the pTefent efcaped pillage. Amurath was fuccefs-
■ folly oppofed in his hoftilities again ft the Chriftian
]
T U R
. *3
Reign ®f
jBajazet
Turkt
princes, by the Albanian chief George Caftriota, whom
the Turks call Scanderbeg *. '"“•v-
Amurath was fucceeded by Mohammed II. and foon*See ^
after his acceflion, viz. in 1453, city of Conftanti-*^’
nople was taken by the Turks, and has ever finee re-Taking!
mained the capital of their empire. The events of which Co“ftant
we have thus drawn the faint outline, are related at110ple'
fome length in the article Constantinopolitan Hi- An'14
STORY, N° III—168.
Three years after the taking of Conftantinople, Mo-Other ft
hammed laid fiege to Belgrade, from which, after ance^es°f
obftinate refiftance, he was at length repulfed with con-Moha®:
fiderable lofs. Abandoning his attempt on blungary,
the fultan made preparations for an expedition into
Greece, where the princes Thomas and Demetrius,
brothers of the emperor, ftill continued to maintain
their authority. Alarmed at the progrefs of the Turk¬
ifti arms, thefe princes refolved on retiring into Italy,
on which the peninfula was feized by the Albanians,
ft his tube lent a deputation to IMohammed, offering to
give up to him the Grecian cities and fortreffes, provid¬
ed they fnould be allowed to keep the open country 5
but this offer was reje&ed by the fultan. who under the
appearance of affifting the Greeks, entered the country
with a formidable army, defeated the Albanians, took
feveral cities, and carried off great numbers of the in¬
habitants.
Mohammed was fucceeded by his fecund fon Baja-Bajazet
zet II. in 1481, preferred by the janizaries to his ^n'^
elder brother Zizan, who tied for protection to Pope
Alt xander \ I. by whom he is faid to have been poifon-
ed, at the inftigation of Bajazet, and for the reward of
300,000 ducats. Selim, bis youngeft fon and fucceffor, An. iji
was a iuccefsful prince. He conquered Egypt, Aleppo,
Antioch, Iripoli, Damafcus, and Gaza, and defeated
the I erfians. Solyman, furnamed the Magnificent,
one of the moft accompliftied, enterprifing, and warlike,
oi the 1 urkifti princes, afeended the Ottoman throne in
confequence of the death of Selim. 17
Having quelled fome infurreciions in Alia, he com- Solyma"
menced hoftilities againft the European princes, and en- An-I5‘
tering Hungary, made himfelf m-after of Belgrade, then
reckoned the chief barrier of that kingdom againft the
1 urkifti power. He next turned his victorious arms
againft the iftand of Rhodes, then the feat of the knights
of St John of Jerufalem. After incredible efforts of
courage and military conduct, the knights obtained an
honourable capitulation, and retired to the fmall ifland
of Malta, where they fixed their refidence. See Mal¬
ta. Pie afterwards annexed Hungary to the Ottoman
empire. His dominions extended from Algiers to the'
river Euphrates, and from the farther end of the Black
fea to the extremity of Greece and Epirus. During the
fiege of Sigeth, a city of Hungary, before which the
Turks loft above 30,000 men, Solyman expired in the
74th year of his age, and 41ft of his reign. iS
His fon and fucceffor, Selim II. befieged and took Selim H
Gyp rus ^ but in the famous fea fight sit Lepanto, in ^
1
1571, the Turkifli fleet was utterly deftroyed by Don
John of Auftria. Pie afterwards invefted and took Tu¬
nis by ftorm, putting the garrifon to the fword. 19
On his death, Amurath III. afeended the OttomanAmuradj
throne, and extended his dominions on both fides byII!-
the addition of Raab in Hungary, and Tigris in Per- An’I"
fia. His fon, Mohammed III. has no claim to notice
except
T U R
C 507 ]
T U R
21
A rath
rkey. eKcept on account of his barbarity. He began his reign
u v—J ijy ftran'rling 19 of his brothers, and ordering 12 of his
10 father’s wives, whom he fufpe&ed to be pregnant, to be
M mroeci frowned. This m on iter of cruelty had, however, a fuc-
cefsful reign of nine years duration. During the govern-
11 r ment of his fon, Achmet I. the affairs of Turkey under-
A itoi’. went a material change for the worfe *. On his death,
* i Ad- the janizaries and the divan elected his brother Mufta-
vu pha, whom in two months they declared incapable of
reigning, and threw him into prifon 5 after this they
proclaimed his young nephew, Ofman, the fon of Ach-
met, emperor. This prince formed a defign of curbing
the power of the janizaries, for which he was depofed
and murdered ; and Muitapha was again called from
his prifon to the imperial throne, but was foon after
ftrangled.
Under Amurath, or Morad IV. furnamed Gafi, the
Intrepid, every thing again affumed a new' appearance.
A 1622. He was fuccefsful in his wars, and took Bagdat from
the Perfians. A debauch of wine put an end to his life,
and difhonoured his memory. His fon Ibrahim, who
fucceeded hiim had every vice •, he was a weak prince,
and wholly deftitute of courage. He was ftrangled by
four mutes.
.. After a long interval of ina&ivity, the Turks again
mme became formidable to Europe, under PvXohammed I\.
A 1649. who fucceeded him. His grand vifier Kupuli, who at
once directed the councils and conduced the armies of
the Porte, took Candia from the Venetians. After car¬
rying on many wars againft the Germans, the Poles,
the Ruffians, and other European powers, he w'as com¬
pelled to refign the turban to Solyman II. in 1687, a
/ idS?. Prince happy in his domeftic government, but unfuccefs-
ful in his wars. His brother, Achmet II. was likewdfe
f ■ Ad- unfortunate in his wars. In his reign the Turks were
m‘ 'L driven out of Hungary and Tranfylvania f. The accef-
M JL fion of his nephew, Muftapha II. to the Ottoman
II 1 throne, gave a new turn to the affairs of the Porte,
^ 1695. Poffeffed of more vigour than his predeeeffor, he refolv-
ed to command his troops in perfon. He accordingly
took the field, paffed the Danube, ftormed Lippa, feiz-
ed Itul. and falling fuddenly on a body of Imperialifts,
under Veteran!, he killed that officer, difperfed his forces,
and clofed with fuccefs the campaign. He was after¬
wards defeated by Prince Eugene in an uncommonly
bloody battle at Zenta, a fmall village on the weftern
bank of the Thuyfe, in the kingdom of Hungary. A-
bout 20,000 Turks were left dead on the field, and
10,000 were drowned in the river, endeavouring to a-
void the fury of the fword. The magnificent pavilion
of the fultan, and all the ftores, fell into the hands of
Prince Eugene, and foon after this misfortune the
haughty Muftapha was dethroned.
His brother and fucceffor, Achmet III. gave an a-
fylum to Charles XII. king of Sweden, at Bender, a
Turkifh town in Moldavia, after his defeat at the battle
of Pultava. (See Russia, N° 118. and Sweden, N°
140.). Being unfuccefsful in his war againft Kouli
Khan and the Perfians (fee Persia), he was depofed,
and fucceeded by Mohammed V.
From the depofition of Achmet III. till the acceflion
of Muftapha III. in 1754, nothing of importance oc¬
curs in the biftory of the Turkifh empire. During the
reign of this latter fultan was begun and terminated that
deftruftive war with Ruffia, of which the principal events
A .Bet
II
26
; tapha
’ I7S4‘
have been enumerated in the article Russia, N® 143 Turkey,
and 144. ——v—«>
In this reign an extraordinary alarm was excited in Appearance
Turkey by the hidden appearance of a new prophet in0f a new
Upper Alia. This man, whofe name was S’/iuA’ Manfour, prophet in
pretended that he was predoomed by the eternal im--^^**
mutable decrees of heaven to fill up the meafure of di¬
vine revelation to mankind ; and that* as he was to be
the laft, fo he was the greateft of the prophets. The
feene of his miniftry was in the wide and defolate re¬
gions on the borders of the Cafpian fea ; and though
the nrft rumour of his proceedings reprefenled him as at
the head of a multitude of armed enthufiafts, ready to
overturn the eftablilhed government, and the religion of
Mohammed, it was foon difeovered that all the military
fury of his zeal was directed againft the Chriftians. 2s
About the fame time a formidable rebellion broke A rebelliosS
out in Egypt, which, though it has never properly form-in Egyp1*
ed a part of the Turkifti empire, may be confidered as
tributary to the Turks, and as conftituting the granary
of that empire. This rebellion which has been fuffi-
ciently noticed under the article Egypt, N° 125, was
fuppreffed chiefly by the wile condubl and intrepid bra¬
very ot Hoffan Bey, the captain pacha, who at the age
of 70, fought with all the ardour of youth, and all the
fkill of the moft confummate general. That veteran,
however, was recalled before he was able to carry all
his patriotic defigns into execution, that he might aid
the divan with his counfel, in the critical fituation into
which the empire was brought by the arrogant claims
of the court of Ruffia. The refult of the deliberations
was a precipitate declaration of war againft that court,
contrary to the better judgment of the old pacha.
The war commenced in autumn I7^7> ancl hordes
of Tartars which were firft brought into the field, head¬
ed by the new prophet, were everywhere defeated by
the fuperior difeipline of the Ruffian troops commanded
by Prince Potemkin. Some enterprifes which were un¬
dertaken by the Turks againft the ifland of Taman and
the Krimea were attended with as little fuccefs as the
attempts of the Tartars ; while the emperor Joffeph de¬
clared to the Porte, that he would affift his ally the em-
prefs of Ruffia with an army of 80,000 men. Four
Auftrian armies were accordingly affembled •, one at
Carlftadt in Croatia, under the command of General de
Vins ; another at Peterwaradin in Hungary, command¬
ed by General Langlois 5 a third on the borders of Li¬
thuania, under General Febris •, and the fourth in the
Buccowine, under the orders of the prince of Saxe-Co-
bourg. Two other generals, 10 lieutenant-generals,
and 30 major-generals, were all ordered to prepare for
aftive fervice in the frontier armies.
The war between the Turks and Auftrians was car¬
ried on with various fuccefs. At firft the advantage
was evidently on the fide of the Ottomans, anu the im¬
perial Jofeph acquired no warlike renown. His declar¬
ed purpofe was to get poffeffion of Belgrade ; from
which, however, he was repulied with difgrace, The
prince of Saxe-Cobourg in his department of the war
difplayed indeed prodigies of valour 5 but being oppofed
to a fuperior force, he was long obliged to a6t only on
the defenfive. At length being joined by a body of
Ruffian forces under General Soltikoff, preparations were
made for commencing in form the fiege of Choczim,
which was furrendered to the allied armies on Michael-
3 S 2 raas
T U R
Turkey
20
Acceffion
of Selim
m.
An. 178^
3°
Marflial
Laudohn
takes Gra-
difca and
Belgrade.
31
Peace with
Anftria,
An. lypo.
mas day 1788} after a defence which would have done
honour to the ableft general in Europe. Still, however,
fuccefs feemed to lean to the Turks. The grand vizier
made a hidden incurfion into the Bannat, and fpread
confternation and diiinay to the very gates of Vienna.
The Auftrian affairs feemed approaching to a very a-
larming crifis 7 not only the fplendid views of conqueft
which were beheld in the imagined partition of a totter¬
ing empire had totally difappeared, but had left in their
place the fad and gloomy reverfe of a difeontented and
impoverifhed people, an exhaufted treafury, and an army
thinned by peftilence and defertion. The firft campaign
of an invafive war had already produced an impreffion
on the territory of the invader.
In this fituation of affairs Marfhal Laudohn was with
fome difficulty drawn from his retirement to take the
command of the army in Croatia ; and under his aufpi-
ces fortune began to fmile on the Auftrian arms. He
quickly reduced Dubieza and Nevi, though they were
both defended by the moft obftinate bravery. He then
fat down before Turkifh Gradifca j but the autumnal
rains coming on with fuch violence, that the Save over¬
flowed its banks, he was compelled to raife the fiege.
During this period the war in the Bannat raged with
the utmoft violence ; torrents of blood were fhed on
both fides; much defperate valour difplayed on the one
fide, and many brave a&ions performed on the other j
while a very great part of that fine but unfortunate coun¬
try fuffered all the deflation and ruin that fire and fword,
under the dominion of vengeance and animofity, could
inflift. The inhabitants were objects of commiferation ;
but the injuftice with which the emperor had commen¬
ced the war, made his perfonal Ioffes be confidered as
nothing more than the due reward of his eonduft.
In the midft of thefe military operations Achmet IV.
WTas depofed, and fucceeded by Selim III. the late ful-
tan. The new emperor did not want either courage
or prudence, and he continued the war with Ruffia
and Auftria, with great fpirit and refolution. Thofe
events of this war in which the Ruffians were more im¬
mediately concerned, have been already noticed under
the article Russia, N° 156, 158, 160 and 161 j fo
that we have merely to relate the remaining operations
of the Auflrians.
Marfhal Laudohn renewed his attempts upon Gradif-
ca as foon as the feafon would permit, and after a brave
defence it fell into his hands. This, with fome other
fucceffes, roufed the emperor from his ina&ivity, and
made him ferioufly determine on the attack which he
had long meditated on Belgrade. The enterprife was
intrufted to Laudohn, who, with that good fortune
■which feemed conftantly to attend him, made himfelf
mafter of the place in lefs than a month. The reft of
the campaign was little elfe than a feries of the moft
important fuccelfes. While one detachment of Gene¬
ral Laudohn’s forces took poffeffion of Czernilz in Wa¬
lachia, another made itfelf mafter of Cladova in Servia.
Buchareft, the capital of the former of thefe provinces,
fell without oppofition into the hands of Prince Co-
bourg; while Akerman on the Black fea was reduced
by the Ruffians*, and Bender furrendered to-Prince Po¬
temkin, not without fufpicionof finifter praftices, on the
13th of November.
Soon after this, the emperor Jofeph died, and his fuc-
cefi'or Leopold fhewed a defire for peace. After the re-
r 5°8 ]
T U R
Turks
duftion of Orfova, therefore, which happened on the
16th of April 1790, the war was carried on with lan¬
guor on the part of Auftria 5 and in the month of June
a conference was agreed on at Reichenbach, at which
the minifters of Pruffia, Auftria, Britain, and the Unit¬
ed Provinces, aflifted, and at which alfo an envoy
from Poland was occafionally prefent. After a negotia¬
tion, which continued till the 17th of Auguft, it was
agreed that a peace fhould be concluded between the
king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte 5 that the balls
of this treaty fhould be a general furrender of all the
conquefts made by the former, retaining only Choczim
as a feeurity till the Porte fhould accede to the terms of
the agreement, when it alfo was to be reftored.
In the following year the Porte was compelled to con- ann W11
elude a peace with the emprefs of Ruffia, and from that Ruffia.
period till the depofition of Selim in 1807, no event of
confequence has occurred. The Porte has alternately
-been at war with Britain and with France, but in nei¬
ther conteft has fire acquired either honour or territoryj
As the very confined limits to which we are norv rtdu
33
and with
ced forbid us to dwell on thefe minor tranfaftions, we
ftiall haften to conclude this hiftorical outline with an
account of the revolution which placed Muftapha IV,
on the Ottoman empire.
In the fpring 1807, the fpirit of infurreaioh had
fhown itfelf among the janizaries belonging to the gar-
rifons of the Dardanelles, and in the camp of the grand
vizier. In the afternoon of the 25th of May, the gar- 33
rifons of the caftles of the Dardanelles were in a ftate of Depoiition
tumult, on account of the European uniform, the new
n* o_ a 1 andaccef-
tattics, &c. Hali Aga, the commandant of Madfchia-^nof Mu
burna, on the Afiatic Ihore, was murdered. Indfthe ftaphalV,
Bey, commandant of the entrance of the Black fea,
only efcaped the fame fate by flight. The reis effendi
happening to come to infpeft that poft juft at the fame
time, the military immediately rofe upon him as one of
the introducers of the nizam geded. He endeavoured to
fave himfelf in a bark, by paffing over to Buyukdere,
but 100 piftol fhots laid him and his attendants dead.
It feems that the rage of the janizaries had been em¬
bittered again ft him by the recolletticm of a promife he
made to raife their pay, on condition they would adopt
the new difeipline, and which promife he never per¬
formed.
Another circumftance increafed the fpirit of oppofi¬
tion ; the fultan had given notice that the janizaries
were no longer to attend him as ufual to the mofque*
but that this duty was to devolve upon the troops dif-
ciplined after the European manner. Thoufands of
janizaries were now marching to Conftantinople, and
arrived in the fuburb of Pera on the evening of the
28th. T hey fwore to each other to conduct the re¬
volution with the heft order. Any perfon who fhould
in the leaft injure any Frank was to fuffer death.
One individual janizary only met with his fate, for
taking bread from a Greek (a baker), without paying
for it. Behind the janizaries barracks, in the well-
known place called Eimeldan, the janizaries planted
their colours, and took with them their camp kettles; an
infallible fignal of infurre&ion. For a time, the fultan
thought of defending himfelf; and troops, powder, and
cannon, were-brought to the feraglio. Soon after the
mufti, the feimen bafehe, the kaimakan, and the two
kazeakars of Romelia- and Natolia, joined the jani¬
zaries.
TUB. [ 509 X TUB
irkey. zaries. A council vvas held in form, and it was pro-
t -y-—^ pofed as a preliminary, to requell the grand feignior
to abolilhthe new difcipline by a fettiva from the mufti.
The grand feignior, however, thought he Ihould be able
to put a Hop to the infurre6tion before the Hep could
be taken, in confequence of his fending the heads of
Mahmud, Terfana Emin, Hagai Ibrahim, and the kiaga
Mehmtfch Effendi, to the Eimeldan. This meafure
completely failed •, the janizaries were more enraged
than ever ; they did not require the heads of the uni-
verfally efteemed Mahmud Effendi, but that of the Reis
Effendi, then in the camp of the grand vizier.
The janizaries continued to fearch every place for
thofe minifters, who had promoted the adoption of the
European difcipline, and publicly avowed themfelves as
its patrons, namely, Eranlifto, Ibrahim, Juffuf Aga,
Hadfchi Ibrahim, and Achmet Bey, captains of the grand
feignior’s guard, Haffim Aga, Achmet Effendi, and
others, 12 in number, who were all taken, dragged to the
Eimeldan, and there cut to pieces. At this junfture the
swand feignior fent a hatti fcheriff, a letter written in
his own hand, in which he for ever abolilhed the nizam
geded, and pronounced an execration on it. But the
hatti fcheriff was not now accepted 5 the depolition of
the grand feignior was refolved on. The whole force
of the janizaries now proceeded to the feraglio. The
mufti and the ullemas alone entered the haram, while
the reft of the minifters, the agas, the janizaries, and the
people, furrounded the palace.
Muftapha IV. born on the 7th of September 1799,
the eldeft fon of the fultan Achmet IV. fet afide in
1789, was raifed to the Turkilh throne. And accord¬
ing to ancient cuftom, Selim, the former fultan, threw
himfelf at the feet of Muftapha, kiffed the border of his
garment, and immediately repaired to that department
of the feraglio occupied by the princes of the Ottoman
blood who no longer reign. The folemn invitation to
Muftapha, to afcend the throne, was made on the 29th
of May, and on the 3d of June the ceremony of inveft-
ing him with the fabre of the prophet, took place,
iiilariun p°pulation of the whole Turkith empire is ufu-
<iturkey, ally eftimated at 18,000,000. Of thefe, 10,000,000
have been allotted to Afiatic Turkey, and the remain¬
ing 8^,000,000 to Turkey in Europe. A confiderahle
part of this population confilts of Jews and mercantile
Chriftians, from different parts of Europe, who are di-
ftinguilhed by the name of Franks.
The government of Turkey is defpotic, but the
power of the fultan is by no means fo abfolute as we
are generally led to fuppofe. Befides, being itri6tly
fubjeft to the laws of the Koran, and thus to the na¬
tional religion, fuch obftrudlions to his abfolute will are
raifed by the power of the mufti, or chief prieft and judge,
by the frequent infurredtions of the janizaries, and the
ambition of the pachas, or governors of provinces, that
many Chriftian fovercigns are much more defpotic.
The principal title of the fultans is, as we have leen,
grand feignior, and the court of Conftantinople is ufu-
ally ftyled the Porte, or Ottoman Porte, either from the
large gate at the entrance of the feraglio, or, what is
more probable, from the palace of the vizier, where all
the affairs of ftate are tranfadled. The principal mini-
llers of the Porte are the grand vizier or prime minifter,
the mufti, the reis effendi or chief fecretary of ftate,
I
35
vern-
at.
the kiflar-aga or chief of the black eunuchs, and the Turkey,
aga of the janizaries. y—^
The revenues of the whole Turkilh empire are com- geY<f;^ueSi
puted at about 7,000,cool, fterling, while the ufual ex¬
pence does not exceed 5,000,000!. This revenue is partly
derived from the capitation tax on unbelievers and from
the cuftoms, but principally from the tax on land,
amounting to about 6s. per acre. The fultan is alfo
fuppofed to poflefs a confiderable private treafure, but
of this nothing certain is known. 37
T he military ftrength of Turkey is but inconfider- Military
able for fo large an empire. The w hole of the land
forces are fuppufed never to exceed 150,000 men, and
thefe are ill difciplined, and now difpirited by fucceflive '
difaltrous wars. The navy is eftimated at 30 fail of the
line but the Ihips are ill built, badly manned, and wretch¬
edly navigated. In Ihort, the military ftrength of the
Ottoman empire is not improperly faid to be more de-
ftruftive to its own provinces than to any ftate with
which they are at war, and more terrible to its friends
than its enemies.
The eftablilhed religion of Turkey is Mahometanifm, Religion
the tenets of which have been already explained under and laws,
the articles Mahometanism and Alcoran. The
laws of the empire are entirely founded on the Koran ;
but in particular cafes the judges are guided by certain
commentaries on that work, which have acquired the
force of laws. The chief of thefe are the commentaries
of Abou-Hanife.
The mufti, or Mohammedan pontiff, reftdes at Con¬
ftantinople, but his power has feldom interfered with the
civil government. Next to him in rank are the mou-
lahs, who, though efteemed dignitaries of the church,
are in fa£l rather doctors of the law, while the Koran
is alfo a code of civil obfervance. From the moulahs
are feledted the inferior muftis or judges throughout the
empire, and the cadelefquiers, or chief jufticts. The
next clafs of divines includes the imaums, or parilh
priefts, who perform the fervice of the mofques, while
the cadis are judges annually appointed to adminifter
juftice in the towns and villages, and being regard¬
ed as churchmen, like the moulahs, have directed
their chief attention to the judicial part of the Ko¬
ran. From this brief view it will be obferved, that
the eccleliaftical orders of muftis and imaums fomewhat
refemble the Chriftian bilhops and parochial clergy ;
while the other diftinflions arife from the fingularily
of both religion and laws being united in the Koran, fo
that a lawyer or judge muft be at the fame time a Ikil-
ful divine. The Turks have alfo their monks, ftyled
dervifties, of four various orders and inftitulions, dedi¬
cated by folemn vows to religious offices, public prayer,
and preaching. The Greeks, along with their faith,
retain their priefts, biffiops, archbilhops, and patriarchs j
but their church is in the laft ftate of degradation,
and its dignities openly fold by the Turks; this abomi¬
nation, however, it muft be confefftd, partly aiifts from
the miferable ambition and avarice of the Greek ec-
clefiaftics, who think they can atone by idle ceremo¬
nies for the negleft of all the invaluable morality of the
gofpel. . 39
The Turkilh language is of far inferior reputation Language
to the Perfian or Arabic, being a mixture of feveral dia- ^rdehtera'
lefts, and poffefling neither the force, elegance, nor pu- ure‘
rity
T U R [ s
* rity of tliefe two celebrated oriental tongues. Litera¬
ture, however, is not wholly neglefted, and it has been
repeatedly attempted to eftablilh a printing-prefs at
Conrtantinople j but the delign failed from the intereft
of the copyiits, who inferred that this art would deprive
them of their bread. A late traveller informs us that
there are in this capital feveral kuttub-chans, or public
libraries, among which are thofe of St Sophia, and the
Solimanie Jamafy ; but none are fo elegant as that
founded by the grand vizier Raghid, which is wholly
built of marble in the midif of a iquare court, and is fill¬
ed with books chiefly theological. A librarian con-
ftantly attends, and there are convenient feats with car¬
pets and cufhions. In the neighbourhood is a fchool
founded by the fame vizier, in which about 100 boys
are taught to read and write. The market for books is
exteniive, containing many (hops well fupplied with
oriental manufcripts. The Turks have their ancient
poets, hiftorians, and divines; but of little reputation
when compared witli thofe of Perfia and Arabia. The
Hate of education among the Turks may be conceived
to be very low, and ignorance is indeed a chief part of
the national chara&er. The only profeflion which re¬
quires a fhadow of learning is that of the law, which is
intimately connedted with their theology. The cele¬
brated dodlors have difciples, who are trained up to that
department; but there feems nothing that can deferve
the name of college or univeriity.
The Turks cannot be regarded as a commercial peo¬
ple, though they admit of an extenfive commercial in-
tercourfe with the Hates of Europe, through the medium
of Frank and Greek merchants. The chief ports are
Smyrna and Conflantinople, the former of which is the
great centre of the Levant trade, while the latter is
concerned chiefly in the trade with Ruflia, bythe Black
fea. At both thefe ports, and indeed throughout the
Turkifh empire, the trade is nominally carried on by
fadtors from the different European Hates; but it is ma¬
naged more immediately by Jew or Armenian brokers,
who take numerous advantages of the ignorance of the
fadtors, and feldom fail to enrich themfelves at the ex¬
pence of their employers. The commodities exported
from Turkey, chiefly to Britain, Germany, Italy, Hol¬
land, and France, confifl for the mofl part of bees wax,
boxwood, filk, cotton yarn, walnut planks, fponges,
opium, and other drugs enumerated in N°9. madder
root, and other dye Huffs, and various dried fruits, fuch
as figs, raifins, and currants. The imports are chiefly
tin and tin plates, fugar, {balloons, cotton yarn and cot¬
ton goods, inuflin', clocks and watches, cutlery and
glafs ware, indigo, gunpowder, piffols and military fldres,
logwood, rum, coffee, and various fpices, efpecially pep¬
per, ginger, and cinnamon. The exports are principally
from Smyrna, where the trade is carried on almoff en¬
tirely by way of exchange, while at Conflantinople the
imports are generally paid for by cafh or bills. The
exchange is commonly againfl the Turks.
The Turkilh money ufually employed in commerce
is the piaflre, which, according to the exchange or
agio, is rated at from 13 to 17 in the Englifti pound
flerling, fo that the average value of the piaflre is about
is. 6d. Each piaflre is divided into 40 paras, and each
para into three afpers. The principal weight employed
is the kintal, equal to about one cwt. Englilh, divided
into 44 oke, and each oke into 400 draRen.
2
to ]
T U Pt
From their jealoufy with refpeft to ftrangers, it Is cx- Tuf;;?,
tremely difficult to form a true eftimate of the national
character of the Turks. An intelligent writer, who ,
feems well qualified to direfl our judgment in this re-
fpeft, has thus delineated the Turkilh character. “ The Turks
Turks are in general a fagacicms, thinking people ; in
the purfuit of their own intereft, or fortune, their atten¬
tion is fixed on one object, and they perfevere with
great fteadinefs until they attain their purpofe. They
are in common life feemingly obliging and humane, not
without appearances of gratitude : perhaps all or either
of thele, when extended towards Chriftians, are praftif-
ed with a view of lome advantage. Intereft is their
fupreme good ; where that becomes an objed of com¬
petition, all attachment of friendlhip, all ties of confan-
guinity, are diffolved ; they become defperate, no bar¬
rier can flop their purfuit, or abate their rancour to-
■wards their competitors. In their demeanour they are
rather hypochondriac, grave, fedate, and paffive ; but
when agitated by paffion, furious, raging, ungovernable ;
big with diffimulauon ; jealous, fnfph tous, and vindic¬
tive beyond conception j perpetuating revenge from
generation to generation. In matters of religion, tena¬
cious, fupercilious, and morofe
The manners and cufloms of the Turks are diflin-
* Potter’
lAUln~ Oifetva-
guifhed by the peculiarity of their religion from thofer/omoa
of other European nations. On the birth of a child thetlie ReH-
father himfelf gives the name, putting at the fame time'?'0”’ ^
a grain of fait into its mouth. The circumcifion is not ”7^ c‘
performed till the age of 12 or 14. Marriage is only Turit, vo
a civil contraft, which either party tnay break, and isi P-4-
managed by female mediation, the youth feldom feeing
his bride till after the ceremony. The dead art perfum-^j™^’
ed with incenfe, and buried in a cloth, open at top and toms,
bottom, that the deceafed may be able to fit up and an-
fvver the queftions of the angels of death. The burial-
grounds are near the highways, and ftones are often
placed at the heads of the graves, with carved turbans
denoting the fex. As they never intrench upon a for¬
mer grave, the cemeteries are very extenfive. In diet the
Turks are extremely moderate, and their meals are dif-
patched with great hafte. Rice is the favourite food,
and is dreffed in three ways. In boiling, the meat is
cut into fmall pieces, and in roafting ftill fmaller, a bit
of meat and an onion being placed alternately on a very
long fpit. The fiffi of the Archipelago are excellent,
and the beef tolerable, except that of the buffalo, which
is very hard. The hare«, partridges, and other game,
are of fuperior flavour. The meal is ufually Ipread on a
low wooden table, and the mafter of the houfe pro¬
nounces a ffiort prayer. The frugal repaft is followed
by fruits and cold water, which are fucceeded by hot
coffee and pipes with tobacco. Thehoufesof the Turks
are feldom expenfive; the chief furniture is the car¬
pet which covers the floor, and a low fofa on one fide
of the room. In regard to drefs, Tournefort obferves
that the ufe of the turban is unhealthy. The Ihirt is
of callico, and the loofe robe is fattened by a girdle, in
which is ftuck a dagger, while the tobacco box, pocket-
book, &c. are worn in the bofom. T he robe is gene¬
rally of European broad cloth, trimmed with various
furs. The ffioes or flippers are flight, and unfit for
much exercife. The drefs of the women differs little
from that of the men, the chief diftinftion being the
head-drefs j that of the fair fex confifting of a bonnet
like
T U R t 511 ] T U R
irkey like an inverted balket, formed of pafteboard covered
II with cloth of gold, with a veil extending to the eye-
rn;ng‘ brows, while a fine handkerchief conceals the under part
u the face. The perfonal cleanlinefs of both fexes is
highly laudable 5 but the European eye is not pleafed
with the female cuftom of ftaining the nails with a red
tin&ure. The amufements of the Turks partake of
their indolent apathy, if we except hunting, and thofe
of a military defcription. To recline on an elegant car¬
pet, or in a hot feafon by the fide of a ft ream, and fmoke
the delicate tobacco of Syria, may be regarded as their
chief amufement. Chefs and draughts are favourite
games5 but thofe of chance are confidered as incompa¬
tible with ftrift morals. The coffee-houfes and baths
furnilh other fources of amufement; and the bairam, or
feftival which follows their long lent, is a feafon of uni-
*■ 'nker- ver^a^ diffipation *.
u nGe‘m It appears to be a miftaken notion, that the pra&ice
s by. of eating opium, to procure intoxication, is general a-
mong the Turks. We are affured by a late traveller,
that this pra&ice is confined to a few individuals, who
are regarded by the majority of their countrymen with
as much contempt as drunkards are in the more polilhed
focieties of Europe.
Turkey. See Meleagris, Ornithology Index.
TURMERIC. See Curcuma, Botany Index.
TURNEP, afpeciesof Brassica. See Botany/«-
dex; and for the culture, fee Agriculture Index.
TURNEP-Bread. See Bread.
Turnep-F/i/. See Chrysomela, Entomology
Index.
TURNING, the art of forming hard bodies, as wood,
ivory, iron, into a round or oval fliape, by means of a
machine called a lathe.
This art was well known to the ancients, and feems
to have been carried by them to a very great degree of
perfection; at leaft, if we believe the teftimony of Pliny
and feveral other authors, who tell us, that thofe preci¬
ous vafes enriched with figures in half relief, which ftill
adorn our cabinets, were turned on the lathe.
The art of turning is of confiderable importance, as
it contributes efl'entially to the perreCtion of many other
arts. The architeft ufes it for many ornaments, both
within and without highly finiftied houfes. I he ma¬
thematician, the aftronomer, and the natural philofo-
pher, have recourfe to it, not only to embellilh their
inftruraents, but alfo to give them the neceffary dimen-
fion and precifion. In ftiort, it is an art abfolutely ne¬
ceffary to the goldfmith, the watchmaker, the joiner,
the fmith.
Turning is performed by the lathe, of which there
are various kinds, and feveral inftruments,. as gouges,
chifels, drills, formers, fcrew tales, uied for cutting what
is to be turned into its proper form as the lathe turns
„ round. The following is a Ample kind of lathe (fig. I.).
)XL ^hich a is the footftool, b the cord, c the ^framc of
ig. 1. the lathe, d r/ the puppets, ee the points, y the fpanging-
tree.
The lathe fhould be fixed in a place very well light¬
ed ; it fhould be immoveable, and neither too high
nor too low. The puppets fhould neither be fo low
as to oblige the workman to ftoop in order to fee his
work properly, nor fo high that the little chips, which
he is continually driving off, (hould come into his eyes.
The piece to be turned ftiould be rounded (if it be
wood) before it be put on the lathe, either with a ftnail Turning,
hatchet made for the purpofe, or with a plane, or with
a file, fixing it in a vice, and (having it down till it is
everywhere almoft of an equal thicknefs, and leaving it
a little bigger than it is intended to be when finiftied off.
Before putting it on the lathe, it is alfo neceffary to find
the centres of its two end furfaces, and that they fhould
be exa&ly oppofite to each other, that when \.\ut points
of the puppets are applied to them, and the piece is
turned round, no fide may belly out more than another.
To find thefe two centres, lay the piece of wood to be
turned upon a plank; open a pair of compaffes to almoft
half the thicknefs of the piece; fix one of the legs in
the plank, and let the point of the other touch one of
the ends of the piece, brought into the fame plane with
the plank on which the compaffes is fixed and very near
the fixed leg. Defcribe four arches on that end at equal
diftances from each other at the circumference of the
end, but interfeCting one another within; the point of
interfeClion is the centre of the end. In the fame man¬
ner muft the centre in the other end be found, ^fter
finding the two centres, make a imall hole at each of
them, into which inffrt the points of the puppets, and.
fix the piece fo firmly as not to be ihaken out, and yet
loofe enough to turn round without difficulty.
The piece being thus fixed, it is neceffary in the next
place to adjuft the cord, by making it pafs twice round
the piece, and in fuch a manner that the two ends of
the cord, both that which is fixed to the fpang and to
ihc foot-board, come off on the fide on which the turner
ftands, that the piece may move againft the edge of the
cutting-tool and be turned. If the lathe be moved by
a wheel, the manner of adjufting the cord needs no di¬
rections.
If the workman does not choofe to be at the troubl©
to find the two centres of the piece in the manner de-
fcribed above, let him lay, as nearly as he can, the cen¬
tre of one end upon the point of the left hand puppet,.
and then let him pufh forward the right hand puppetr
ftriking it with a mallet till its point is as near as be can
in the centre of the other end of the piece ; and then
fixing the right hand puppet by a gentle blow of the
mallet on the key, let him turn round the piece to fee
by the eye if the centres have been properly found. If
any part of it bellies out, let him ftrike that part gently
with the mallet till it goes properly ; then let him ftrike
one of the puppets pretty fmartly to drive the points in¬
to the piece, and afterwards fix the puppet by ftriking
the key. If the v/orkman cannot judge by the eye
whether the piece be turning propeily round its centre^
or not, be ftiould apply gently the point of an inftru-
ment called a triangular graver, leaning it on the ref,
and it will mark by a line the place where the piece is
out of its centre ; and by ftriking upon this line with a
mallet, the piece can eafily be placed properly. The
ref, of which we have juft fpoken, ought to be placed
upon the two arms of the lathe, and fixed with fcrews
as near the piece as the workman pleafes.
The piece being fixed between the two points of the
puppets (or, as they are called in Scotland, the heads),
the cord adjufted, and the ref fixed as near the work as
poffible without touching it ; the workman is now to
take a gouge (fig-2. in which a is the mouth and b the F;g. a<(
handle) of a proper fize in his left hand, and hold it by
the handle a little inclined, keeping the back of the
hand_
T U R [ 5
Turning, hand lowermoft. With his right hand, the back of
•which is to be turned upwards, he is to grafp it as near
the end as poffible on this fide of the re/?; then leaning
the gouge on the re/?, he is to prefent the edge of it a
little higher than the horizontal diameter of the piece,
fo as to form a kind of tangent to its circumference $
then putting the right foot on the foot-board, and turn¬
ing round the wheel, and holding the gouge firmly on
the re/?, the piece will be cut neatly. In the fame man¬
ner are the chifels, formers, and other inftruments to be
ufed, taking care that the wood be cut equally, and that
the inftrument be not pulhed improperly, fometimes
ftronger than at others ; and taking care alfo that the
inftrument ufed do not follow the work, but that it be
kept firmly in the hand without yielding.
The young turner ought to endeavour to acquire the
management of the gouge and the chifel, which are
the inftruments by far the moft frequently ufed, and the
moll neceffary in this art: by them, almoft entirely,-
are the foil woods turned; but as for hard woods and
other things, as box, ebony, horn, ivory, and the me¬
tals, they are hardly ever turned except by ^having off.
In that cafe gravers are to be ufed with fquare, round,
pig. 4, triangular mouths (fig. 3, 4, 5.). They fliould be
and 5. held horizontally while applied to the wood, and not
. obliquely as dire&ed for the gouge and the chifel.
After the work is completely turned, it is next to be
poliftied •, and this cannot be done with the inftruments
hitherto mentioned. Soft woods, as pear-tree, hazel,
maple, ought to be poliihed with ftiark-fkin or Dutch
rulhes. There are different fpecies of (harks ; fome of
which have a grayifti, others a reddifti (kin. Shark-lkin
is always the better to be a good deal ufed •, at firft it is
too rough for polifhing. The Dutcli-rujh (equifetum
hyemale'), which grows in moift places among moun¬
tains, and is a native of Scotland. The oldeft plants
are the beft. Before ufing them they (hould be moif-
tened a little, otherwife they break in pieces almoft im¬
mediately, and render it exceedingly difficult to polifti
with them. They are particularly proper for fmoothing
the hard woods, as box, lignum vitae, ebony, &c. Af¬
ter having cleaned up the piece well, it (hould be rub¬
bed gently either with wax or olive-oil, then wiped
clean and rubbed with its own rafpings or with a cloth
a little worn. Ivory, horn, filver, and brafs, are polifti-
ed with pumice-ftone finely pounded and put upon lea¬
ther or a linen cloth a little moiftened : with this the
piece is rubbed as it turns round in the lathe $ and to
prevent any dirt from adhering to any part of it, every
now and then it is rubbed gently with a fmall brufli dipt
in water. To polifti very finely, the workmen make
ufe of tripoli, a particular kind of earth, and afterwards
of putty or calx of tin. Iron and fteel are poliihed with
very fine powder of emery j this is mixed with oil, and
put between two pieces of very tender wood, and then
the iron is rubbed with it. Tin and filver are polifhed
with a burniftier and that kind of red (tone called in
France /anguine dune. They may be poliflied alfo with
putty, putting it dry into (hamoy-ikin, or with the
palm of the hand.
To fucceed in turning iron, it is neceffary to have a
dathe exceedingly ftrong in all its parts, and exceeding¬
ly well fixed. The puppets ftiould be Ihort, and the
■ctft well fixed very near the work : the back of the re/i
12 ] T U Ft
ftiould be two or three lines lower than the iron to be
turned.
The lathe and other inftruments being prepared, it is
neceflary to determine the length and thieknefs of the
iron to be turned according to the defign which is to be
executed, and to make a model of it in wood a little
thicker than it ought to be : Then one exactly like this
is to be forged of the beft iron that can be procured}
that is to fay, it mutt not be new, but well prepared
and well beaten with hammers it muft have no flaws,
nor cracks, nor pimples. New iron, which has not
been w:ell beaten, often contains round drops of call
iron, called by the workmen grains, which blunt the
edges of the gouges, chifels, and other inftruments ufed
for cutting, break them, or make them Hide. The
iron being forged according to the model, it (hould be
annealed, that is, heated red hot and allowed to cool
(lowly on the-coals till the fire go out of itftlf. Some
people, to foften the iron, cover it over with clay and
allow it to cool. The iron cylinder being thus made, it
is next to be put upon the lathe, finding the centres as
formerly direded, and boring a fmall hole in them that
the iron may not efcape from the points.
The points (hould be oiled from time to time to pre-.
vent their being exceflively heated and fpoiled while the
iron is turning. A crotchet is then to be applied to the
iron to be turned, a little above its centre, pretty gently,
and by this means the inequalities of the cylinder will
be taken off. Other inftruments are then to be applied
to mould the iron according to the model; and whenever
any of them grow hot, they are to be plunged into a
bafon of water lying befide the workman. If the iron,
after being properly turned, is to be bored like a gun-
barrel, one of the puppets is to be removed and another
fubftituted in its place, having a fquare hole through it,
into which the collar of the iron is to be fixed firmly,
fo as not to (hake ; then borers are to be applied, like
thofe which lockfmiths ufe to bore keys; and beginning
with a fmall one, and afterwards taking larger ones, the
hole is to be made as wide and deep as neceffary ; great
care muft be taken to hold the borers firm on the rejl,
otherwife there is danger of not boring the hole ftraight.
The borer muft be withdrawn from time to time to oil
it and to clean the hole. Since it is difficult to make a
hole quite round with borers alone, it is neceffary to
have alfo an inftrument a good deal fmaller than the
hole, one of the fides of which is (harp, very well tem¬
pered, and a little hollow in the middle. This inflru-
ment being fixed in a pretty long handle, is to be ap¬
plied with fteadinefs to the inner furface of the hole, and
it will entirely remove every inequality that may have
been there before its application.
To cut a fcrew upon the cylinder, fome perfons ufe
an inftrument confifting principally of a female fcrew;
but this is rather an improper inftrument; for if one
preffes too violently, or inclines it ever fo little to the
right or left, he runs the greateft rilk of fpoiling the
fcrew. To avoid this danger, fome ufe it only to trace
out the lines of the fcrew, and afterwards finilh it with
a file. But the following is a much better way. Take
a tap for making a female fcrew, the threads of which
have been cut very accurately, and exa&ly of -the fize
of the fcrew which you want; and having put it in the
opening which you have traced in the collar of the
Tumi,
.
T U R ' [5
-1 ning. axis on which the fcrew is to be cut, folder it with tin,
<- fal-ammoniac, and rofin, as exactly correfponding to
the axis as poffible. Take then a puppet with a hole
cut into a correfponding female fcrew, into w'hich the
male fcrew is to be put. The axis on which the fcrew
is to be cut mutt be placed exadly horizontally between
the two puppets. The rejl is then to be brought as
near as poffible to the place where the fcrew is to be
cut, and a fmall hollow Ihould be cut in that part of it
which is exadly oppofite to the place where the fcrew
is to be cut, to hold your inftrument firmly and prevent
it from (baking. The inftrument with which the fcrew
is to be cut fhould be very iharp, and its point ihould
make an angle of 6o° with the fcrew to be cut ; and if
you wifh the fcrew to be cut very deep, it ihould make
an angle a little larger. The lathe being now put in
motion, the tap fixed at the end of the axis will move
gradually through the female fcrew in the puppet \ and
your inftrument in the mean time will trace a fimilar
male fcrew on the axis fixed in the lathe. Many per-
fons, after having in this manner drawn the outlines of
the fcrew, finifti it with a fcrew-tale of three teeth cor¬
refponding exadly to the fize of the fcrew, or with a
triangular file j but this laft method is rather improper.
For turning ovals, a lathe of fomewhat a different
conftrudion is ufed. The axis or fpindle, having on it
the pulley over which the band-cord paffes for turning
the lathe, is fixed between the two puppets fo as to turn
round eafily : one end of it pafles through one of the
puppets, and to it is firmly fixed a circular plate of
brafs, fo that it turns round along with the fpindle.
Up on this plate two brazen fegments of circles are faft-
ened, the circumferences of which correfpond to the
circumference of the plate: their chords are parallel,
and equally diftant from the centre of the plate, fo that
they leave a diftance between them. They have a
groove in each of them : in thefe grooves another plate
is placed which exadly fills up the fpace between the
two grooves, but is fhorter than the diameter of the
large circular plate on which it is laid. This plate is
made to Aide in the grooves. To its centre is fixed a
fhort fpindle, on which the piece of wood to be turned is
fixed. When the lathe is fet a going, the circular plate
moves round, and carries the piece along with it; the
plate of brafs on which the piece is fixed being fixed
loofely in the grooves already defcribed, Aides down a
little every time that the grooves become perpendicular
to the Aoor (and there are particular contrivances to
prevent it from Aiding down too far) ; and by thefe two
motions combined, the circular one of the large plate,
and the flraight one of the fmall, the circumference of
the piece of wood to be turned neceflarily defcribes an
oval *, and gouges or other tools being applied in the
ufual manner fupported on the reft, it is cut into an oval
accordingly. The fmall plate may be made to Aide
either more or lefs in the grooves j and by this con¬
trivance the tranfverfe diameter of the oval, or rather
ellipfe, may be made longer or fhorter at pleafure.
I. The method of moulding boxes offtjeil and horn. —-
In the firft place, form a proper mould, which muft con-
fift of two pieces, viz. of a circle about half an inch
thick, which Amuld Aope a little in order to draw out
the moulded Aiell the more eafily *, and a ring fitted to
the outfide of the circle, fo that both together make the
Aiape of a box. Tfrefe two pieces being adj.nfted. it is
Vol. XX. Part II.
3 ] T U R
neceffary to round the (hell to be moulded of fuch a fize Turning,
that when moulded, it will be a little higher than the l“*
ring of the mould, that there may be no deficiency.
Ihe mould is then to be put into a prefs on a plate of
iron, exadfly under the fcrew of the prefs ; put then
the fiiell upon the circle of the mould, fo that its centre
alfo is exactly oppofite to the fcrew of the prefs : then
take a piece of wood formed into a truncated cone, and
not fo thick as the diameter of the circle of the mould,
noi fo deep as the ring : then put a plate of iron above
the cone, and fcrew down the prefs gently and cautiouAy
till the whole is well fixed : then plunge the whole into
a cauldron of boiling water placed above a fire. In 8
or 10 minutes the fiiell or horn will begin to foftenj
ferew the prefs a little firmer that the wooden cone may
fink into the foftened fhell : repeat this from time to
time till the cone is quite funk in the mould j then take
out the prefs and plunge it into cold water. When it
is cold, take the box now formed out of the mould, and
put into the infide of it a new mould of tin exaftly of
the form you with the infide of the box to be ; do the
fame with the outfide, put it again into the prefs and
plunge it into boiling water; fcrew the prefs gradually
till the box receive the defired form.
2. Method of preparing green wood fo that it will not
fplit in the turning.—Cut the wood into pieces of a pro¬
per fize, put them into a veflel full of potafh ley. Boil
them about an hour j take the cauldron from the fire,
allow the ley to cool j and take out the wood and dry it
in the fiiade.
3. Method of giving an ebony black to hard and fne
woods.—After forming the wood into the deftined
figure, rub it with aquafortis a little diluted. Small
threads of wood will rife in the drying, which you will
rub off with pumice-ftone. Repeat this procefs again,
and then rub the wood with the following compofition;
Put into a glazed earthen veffel a pint of ftrong vinegar,
two ounces of fine iron-filings, and half a pound of
pounded galls, and allow them to infufe for three or
four hours on hot cinders. At the end of this time
augment the fire, and pour into the veflel four ounces
of copperas, and a chopin of water having half an
ounce of borax and as much indigo diffolved in it $ and
make the whole boil till a froth rifes. Rub feveral
layers of this upon the wood 5 and when it is dry,
polifh it with leather, on which you have put a little
tripoli.
3. Method of giving to plum-tree the colour of brazil
wood.—Slake lime with urine, and bedaub the wood
over with it while it is hot: allow it to dry ; then take
off the coat of lime, and rub it with fhamoy fkin well
oiled. Or, fteep the wood in water, having a quan¬
tity of alum diffolved in it: then, having allowed brazil
wood to diffolve in water five or fix hours, fteep the
wood in it, kept lukewarm during a night ; and when
it is dry, rub it, as before dire£led, with fhamoy fkin
well oiled.
5. Method of giving a fne black colour to wood.—
Steep the wood for two or three days in lukewarm
water in which a little alum has been diffolved j then
put a handful of logwood, cut fmall, into a. pint of wa¬
ter, and boil it down to lefs than half a pint. If you
then add a little indigo, the colour will be more beauti¬
ful. Spread a layer of this liquor quite hot on the
wood with a pencil, which will give it a violet colour.
3 X When
T U R
Turning, When it is dry, fpread on another layer ; dry it again
Turnltone. antj give it a third : then boil verdegrife at diferetion in
^ "J’—* its own vinegar, and fpread a layer of it on the wood :
when it is dry, rub it with a brulh, and then with oiled
fhatnoy fidn. This gives a fine black, and imitates per-
feiflly the colour of ebony.
6. Method of cleaning and whitening hones before
nfing them.—Having taken off with a faw the ufelefs
ends of the bones, make a ftrong ley of alhes and quick¬
lime, and into a pailful of this ley put four ounces of
alum, and boil the bones in it for an hour j then take
the veffel containing the ley off the fire, and let it
cool ; then take out the bones and dry them in the
iliade.
7. Method of foldenngClean the two fides of
the fhells which you with to join together j then, having
joined them, wrap them up in linen folded double and
well moiftened j then heat two plates of iron pretty
hot that they may keep their heat for fome time 5 and
putting the (hells rolled up between them under a
prefs, which you muff ferew very tight, leave them
there till the whole is cold, and they will be folder-
ed. If you do not fucceed the firft time, repeat the
procefs.
8. Method of moulding fields.—Put fix pints of water
into a kettle ; add to it an ounce of olive or other
oil ; make the water boil; then put in your {hell, and
it will grow foft. Take it out and put it into a mould
under a prefs, and it will take the figure you want.
This muft be done quickly ; for if the fhell cool ever
fo little, the procefs will fail. It will not require much
preffure.
9. Method of tinging hones and ivory red.—Boil
fhavings of fcarlet in water. When it begins to boil,
throw in a quarter of a pound of afhes made from the
dregs of wine, wThich will extra6I the colour : then
throw in a little rock alum to clear it, and pafs the wa¬
ter through a linen cloth. Steep the ivory or bone in
aquafortis, and put it into the water. If you wilh to
leave white fpots, cover the places deftined for them
with wTax.
10. To tinge ivory hlacle.—Steep the ivory during
five or fix days in water of galls with alhes made with
dried dregs of wine and arfenic ; then give it two or
three layers of the fame black with which plum-tree
is blackened, in order to imitate ebony. Or, diffolve
fdver in aquafortis, and put into it a little rofe-water.
Bub the ivory with this, and allow it to dry in the fun.
11. Method of hardening wood to make pulleys.—Af¬
ter finilhing the pulley, boil it feven or eight minutes
in olive oil, and it will become as hard as copper.
12. To ?nake Chinefe varnifi.—Take of gum lac in
grains four ounces } put it into a flrong bottle with
a pound of good fpirit of wine, and add about the bulk
of a hazel nut of camphor. Allow them to mix in
fummer in the fun, or in winter on hot embers for
24 hours, (baking the bottle from time to time. Pafs
the whole through a fine cloth, and throw away what
remains upon it. Then let it fettle for 24 hours, and
you will find a clear part in the upper part of the
bottle, which you muft feparate gently, and put into
another vial, and the remains will ferve for the firft
layers.
TURNSTONE. SccTringa, Ornithology In¬
dex.
T U S
TURPENTINE, a tranfparent vifeous fubftance,Turpent
flowing either naturally or by incifion from feveral refi- il
nous trees ; as the terebinthus, pine, larch, fir, &c. See L Tulcatl
Pinus, Botany Index. See alfo Chemistry and Ma-
TERIA Medica Index.
Oil of Turpentine. See Chemistry and Mate¬
ria Medica Index.
TURPETH, the cortical part of the root of a fpe-
cies of convolvulus. See Materia Medica Index.
TURQUOISE, is the tooth of an animal penetrated
with copper ore.
TURRITIS, Tower-mustard ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs tetradynamia j and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 39th order, Siliquofae. See
Botany Index.
TURTLE. See Testudo, Erfetology Index.
Turtle-Dovc. See Columba, Ornithology In¬
dex.
TUSCAN order, in ArchiteBure. See Archi¬
tecture, N° 42.
T use AN Earth, a yellowifti kind of bole found in
many parts of Italy, and particularly about Florence,
where there is a ftratum eight or ten feet thick, at the
depth of five or fix feet from the furface. It is fuppofed
to have an aftringent property.
TUSCANY, a duchy of Italy, which makes part of
the ancient Hetruria, and, excepting fome detached
parts, is encompaffed by a part of the Mediterranean,
called here the Tufcan fea ; the ecclefiaftical date j the
duchy of Modena ; and the republic of Lucca ; its ex¬
tent from north to fouth being about 116 Englifli miles,
and from eaft to weft about 80.
Though fome parts of it are mountainous, yet both
the hills and dales are covered with vines, olives, citron,
lemon, and orange trees, &c. The mountains yield
alfo copper, iron, alum, &c. and fome of the fined
marble. Here is alfo plenty of corn, rice, faffron, ho¬
ney, wax, wool, flax, hemp, with mineral waters, rich
pafture, falt-pits, fulphur, alabafter, calcedony, lapis la¬
zuli, borax, amethyfts, carnelians, jafpers, cryftals and
black (late. In fome places the elms and allies yield
manna.
The principal river in Tufcany is the Arno, which
has its fource in the Apennine mountains, and falls in¬
to the fea below Pifa. There are fome other fmaller
rivers.
This duchy fell under the dominion of the Romans
about 455 years before Chrift. The Oftrogoths poffef-
fed themfelves of it in the fifth century, and after them
the Lombards, who were expelled by Charlemagne
anno 800 •, in confequence of which it became fubjeft
to the German emperors, who appointed governors over
it. At laft the cities of Florence, Pifa, Sienna, and
fome others, during the contentions between the pope
and the emperor, and their refpeftive adherents, the
Guelphs and Gibbelines, withdrew themfelves from the
dominion of both, and erefred themfelves into feparate
commonwealths. In that of Florence, John de Medi-
cis, a popular nobleman, fo infinuated himfelf into the
favour of his countrymen, that they invefted him with
fovereign power. Pope Pius V. conferred the title of
grand duke on Cofmo de Medicis anno 1570, in whofe
family the duchy continued until the death of Gallon de
Medicis, who died anno 1737. The duchy was then
transferred to the duke of Lorrain, afterwards the em¬
peror
[ sh ]
T Y M
[ 5
, ,any pel.or Francis I. in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which,
li by the peace of 1736, was given to King Staniflaus du-
1 ijjan. r- hjg life, and then was to be annexed to France.
u r“,J Leopold, the fecond fon of Francis I. and afterwards
emperor of Germany, fucceeded to this duchy. It is
now enjoyed by Leopold’s fecond fon, brother to the
prefent emperor of Germany, Francis II. The grand
duke’s annual revenues are computed at about 500,000!.
fterling, arifing chiefly from the tenths of alleftates that
are fold or alienated, and the ground rents of the houfes
in Leghorn, and the duties on almoll all manner of
provifions. Fufcany now forms part of the kingdom
of Italy fubjeft to France.
TUSK, or Torsk. See Gadus, Ichthyology
Index.
TUSSILAGO, Colt’s-foot ; a genus of plants,
belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia ; and in the natural
fyftem ranging under the 49th order, Compojitce. See
Botany Index.
TUTENAG, an alloy of zinc. See Chemistry
Index.
TUTOR, in the civil law, is one chofen to look to
the perfons and eftates of children left by their fathers
and mothers in their minority. The different kinds of
tutory eftablifhed among the Romans, and the powers and
duties of tutors, are defcribed in Inji. leg. 1. tom. xiii.
fe£h 1. and 2. to which the reader is referred. See alfo
the article Guardian.—For the nature and effects of
tutory in the Scotch law, which is founded on that of
the Romans. See Scots LATV, Part III. Se6L 7*
Tutor is alfo ufed in the Englifh univerfities for a
member of fome college or hall, who takes on him the
inftruftion of young ftudents in the arts and faculties.
TUTTY, an impure ore of zinc, employed as an
unguent and abforbent. See Materia Medica In¬
dex.
TWEED, a river of Scotland, which rifes on the
confines of Clydefdale, and running eaftward through
Tweedale, and dividing the (hire of Merfe from Te-
viotdale and Northumberland, falls into the German
fea at Benvick. It abounds with falmon. See Ber¬
wick.
TWEEDALE, or Peebles, a county in the fouth
of Scotland. See PeEBLES-SHIRE,
TWELFTH-DAY, the feftival of the Epiphany, or
the manifeftation of Chrift to the Gentiles; fo called,
as being the twelfth day, exclufive, from the nativity
or Chriftmas-day.
TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the morning
before funrife, or in the evening after funfut, fuppofed
to begin and end when the leaft liars that can be feen
by the naked eye ceafe or begin to appear.
TWINKLING of the Stars. See Optics, N
21.
TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth, by
an animal which ordinarily brings forth but one.
TWITE. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index,
TYGER, or Tiger. See Felis, Mammalia In¬
dex.
TYLE, or Tile, in building, a thin laminated
brick ufed on the roofs of houfes.
TYMP AN, among printers, a double frame belong¬
ing to the prefs, covered with parchment, on which the
blank Iheets are laid in order to be printed off* See
Printing-Prefs.
15 1 T Y P
TYMPANUM, in Mechanics, a kind of wheel pla-Lympr>num
ced round an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top of 11
which are two levers or fixed Haves for the more ea-
fily turning the axis in order to raife a weight re¬
quired.
'Tympanum, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, N° 141.
TYMPANY, or Tympanites, in Medicine. See
Medicine, N° 337, and Surgery Index.
TYNDALE, William, a zealous Englilh reform¬
er, and memorable for having made the firft Engliih
verfion of the Bible, was born on the borders of Wales
fome time before 1500. He was of Magdalene-hall in
Oxford, where he diftinguilhed himfelf by imbibing
early the doctrines of Luther, and by as zealoully pro¬
pagating them. Afterwards he removed to Cambridge,
and from thence went to live with a gentleman in Glou-
cefterlhire in the capacity of tutor to his children.—
While he continued there, he {bowed himfelf fo furious
for Luther, and fo inveterate to the pope, that he rvas
forced, merely for the fecurity of his periott, to leave the
place. He next endeavoured to get into the fervice of
Ton Hall bilhop of Durham, but did not fucceed. His
zeal for Lutheranifm made him defirous to tranllate the
New Teftament into Englilh; and as this could not
fafely be done in England, he went into Germany,
where, fetting about the work, he finilhed it in 1527.
He then began with the Old Teilament, and finilhed
the five books of Mofes, prefixing difcourfes to each
book, as he had done to thofe of the New Teftament.
At his firlt going over into Germany, he went into
Saxony, and had much conference with Luther j and
then returning to the Netherlands, made his abode
chiefly at Antwerp. During his peregrinations from
one country to another, he luffered Ihipwreck upon the
coaft of Holland, and loll all his books and papers.
His tranllations of the Scriptures being in the mean
time fent to England, made a great noife there *, and,
in the opinion of the clergy, did fo much mifchief, that
a royal proclamation was iffued, prohibiting the buying
or reading them. But the clergy were not fatisfied
with this, they knew Tyndale capable of doing infinite
harm, and therefore thought of nothing lefs than remo¬
ving him out of the way. For tjiis purpofe one Philips
was fent over to Antwerp, who infinuated himfelf into
his company, and under the pretext ot friendlhip be¬
trayed him into cultody. He was fent to the caille ot
Filford, about 18 miles from Antwerp ; and though
the Englilh merchants at Antwerp did what they could
to procure his releafe, and letters were alfo fent from
Lord Cromwell and others out of England, yet Philips
beftirred himfelf fo heartily, that he was tried and con¬
demned to die. He was firft ftrangled by the hands of
the common hangman, and then burned near Filford
caftle, in 1536. While he was hing to the flake, he
cried with a fervent and loud voice, “ Lord, open the
king of England’s eyes.”
TYPE (tvwoi), an impreflion, image, or repreienta-
tion of fome model, which is termed the antitype In
this fenfe the word occurs often in the writings of di¬
vines, who employ it to denote that prefiguration of the
great events of man’s redemption which they have found
or fancied in the principal tranfadlions recorded in the
Old Teftament. . r
Type, among letter-founders and printers, the lame
w!th letter. ^ ^
T Y R [ s
Type is alfo ufed to denote tlie order obferved in the
intenfion and remiffion of fevers, pulfes, &c.
TYPHA, Cat’s-tail •, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafsof monoecia, and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 3d order, Calamarice. See Botany Index.
TYPHON. See Whirlwind.
Tyfhon, the devil of the ancient Egyptians. See
Polytheism, N° 29.
TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing. See Print¬
ing.
TYRANT, among the ancients, denoted limply a
king or monarch ; but the ill ufe which feveral pexfons
inverted with that facred charadler made of it, has al¬
tered the import of the word } and tyrant now conveys
the idea of an unjuft or cruel prince, who rules in a
more defpotic manner than the laws allow.
TYRE, formerly a celebrated city of Alia, on the
coaft of Syria, lituated under the 54th degree of eaft
longitude, and 3 2d of north latitude. It was built, ac¬
cording to fome writers, 2760 years before the Chrif-
tian era. There were two cities of that name ; the one
called Palcetyrus, fituated on the continent 5 and the
other the city of Tyre, built on an illand about half a
mile from the fhore. It was about 19 miles in circum¬
ference, including Palastyrus ; the town on the illand
was about four miles round. The buildings of Tyre
were very magnificent $ the walls were 150 feet high,
and broad in proportion. This city was at one period
the moft famous commercial city in the world. Of its
commercial tranfa&ions, the moft particular account
16 ] T Y R
that is to be found in any ancient writer has been given
by the prophet Ezekiel, which at the fame time con¬
veys a magnificent idea of the extenlive power of that
ftate. It refilled Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon for
13 years ; at the end of which, wearied with fruitlefs
efforts, the inhabitants refolved to place the fea be¬
tween them and their enemy, and paffed accordingly in¬
to the illand. The new city Hood out againft Alexan¬
der the Great for feven months ; and before he could
take it, he was obliged to fill up the ftrait which fepa-
rated the illand from the continent. It was repaired af¬
terwards by Adrian, and became the metropolis of the
province. It afterwards fell into the hands of the A-
rabs ; and after being taken by Baldwin II. king of Je-
rufalem, it was deftroyed by the fultan of Egypt in
1289, and abandoned. An excellent account of its
modern ftate may be found in Volney’s Travels, vol. ii.
It now confifts of a fmall village, compofed of fiiher-
men’s huts, and containing about 50 or 60 poor families.
TYRIAN dye. See Murex, Conchology In¬
dex.
TYRONE, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulfter, 46 miles in length and 37 in breadth j bounded
on the north by Londonderry, on the eaft by Armagh
and Lough-Neagh, on the fouth by Fermanagh, and
on the weft by Donnegal. It is a rough and rugged
country, but tolerably fruitful ; contains 12,683 houfes,
30 parilhes, 4 baronies, 4 boroughs, and formerly fent 10
members to the Irilh parliament. The principal town is
Dungannon.
Tyre
Tyrone,
U, V.
T T or u, the 20th letter and 5th vowel of our alpha-
9 bet, is formed in the voice by a round configu¬
ration of the lips, and a greater extrufion of the under
one than in forming the letter o, and the tongue is alfo
more cannulated. The found is Ihort in curd, muji, tun,
tub ; but is lengthened by a final e, as in tune, tube, &c.
In fome words it is rather acute than long 5 as in brute,
flute, lute, &.c. It is moftly long in polyfyllables •, as
in union, curious, &c. j but in fome words it is obfeure,
as in nature, venture, &c. This letter in the form of
V or v, is properly a confonant, and as fuch is placed
before all the vowels j as in vacant, venal, vibrate, &c.
Though the letters v and u had always two founds, they
had only the form v till the beginning of the fourth
century, when the other form was introduced, the in¬
convenience of expreffing two different founds by the
fame letter having been obferved long before. In nu¬
merals V ftands for five 5 and with a daih added at top,
thus v, it fignifies 5000^
In abbreviations, amongft the Romans, V. A. flood
for veterani aflignati; V. B. viro bono; V. B. A. viri
bom arbitratu ; V. B. F. vir bonce fidei; V. C. vir con-
Jularis ; V. C. C. F. vale, conjux cliariffime, feliciter;
V. D. D. voto dedicatin'; V. G. verbigratia ; Vir. Ve.
virgo veflalisi VL. videlicet j V. N. quinta nonarum.
VACCINIUM, the Whortle-berry, or Bilberry, Vacc;n;UE
a genus of plants belonging to the clafs o£landria, and ||
arranged in the natural fyftem under the 18th order, Vadium.
Bicornes. See Botany Index. y—r
VACUUM, in Philofophy, denotes a fpace devoid of
all matter or body.
It has been greatly difputed whether there be in na¬
ture a perfect vacuum, or fpace void of all matter 5 but
if bodies confift of material folid atoms, it is evident
that there muft be vacuities, of motion would be im-
poffible (See Metaphysics, N° 193.). We can even
produce fomething very near a vacuum in the receiver
of an air-pump and in the Torricellian tube (fee Pneu¬
matics, paflimfl
VADIUM, a pledge in law, is either vivum or mur*
tuum.
VADIUM Vivum, or Living Pledge, is when a man
borrows a fura (fuppofe 200I.) of another ; and grants
him an eftate, as of 20I. per annum, to hold till the
rents and profits (hall repay the fura fo borrowed. This'
is an eftate conditioned to be void as foon as fuch fura.
is raifed. And in this cafe the land or pledge is faid
to be living : it fubfifts, and furvives the debts ; and,
immediately on the difeharge of that, reverts to the
borrower.
Valium,
v A L [5
VADIUM Mortuum, or Dead Pledge. See Mort¬
gage.
VAGABOND, or VAGRANT, one who wanders il¬
legally, without a fettled habitation. Such perfons are
cognizable by the laws. See IDLENESS.
VAGINA, properly fignifies a (heath or fcabbard j
and the term vagina is ufed in archite£lure for the part
of a terminus, becaufe refembling a (heath out of which
the (latue feems to iffue.
Vagina. See Anatomy Index.
VAILLANT, John Foy, a phyfician and great
medaliit, to whom, according to Voltaire, France was
indebted for the fcience of medals, and Louis XIV. for
one half of his cabinet, was born at Beauvais in 1632.
Through the means of the minifter Colbert he travelled
into Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Perfia, to colleft medals
for the royal cabinet •, and returned with fo many as
made the king’s cabinet fuperior to any in Europe. In
one of his voyages the (hip was taken by an Algerine
corfair. After a captivity of near five months he was
permitted to return to France, and received at the fame
time 20 gold medals which had been taken from him.
He embarked in a velfel bound for Marfeilles, and was
carried on with a favourable wind for two days, when
another corfair appeared, which, in fpite of all the fail
they could make, bore down upon them within the
reach of cannon (hot. Mr Vaillant, dreading the mi-
feries of a frefli (lavery, refolved, however, to fecure the
medals which he had received at Algiers, and therefore
fwallowed them. But a hidden turn of the wind freed
them from this adverfary, and call them upon the coait
of Catalonia, where, after expelling to run aground,
every moment, they at length fell among the fands at
the mouth of the Rhone. Mr Vaillant got to (here in
a (kiff, but felt himfelf extremely incommoded with the
medals he had fwallowed, which might weigh alto¬
gether five or fix ounces, and therefore did not pafs like
Scarborough waters. He had recourfe to a couple of
phyficians ; who were a little puzzled with the fingula-
rity of his cafe \ however, nature relieved him from time
to time, and he found himfelf in poffeflion of the great-
eft part of his treafure when he got to Lyons. Among
his colleftion was an Otho, valuable for its rarity.—He
was much carefled on his return •, and when Louis XIV.
gave a new form to the academy of infcriptions in 1701 >
Mr Vaillant was firft made affociate, and then penfion-
ary. He wrote feveral works relating to ancient coins,
and died in 1706.
VAIR, or Vaire, a kind of fur,, formerly ufed for
lining the garments of great men and knights of renown.
It is reprefented in engraving by the figures of little
bells reverfed, ranged in a line. See HERALDRY,
Chap. II. Se£L 2.
VAIRY, in Heraldry^ expreftes a coat, or the bear¬
ings of a coat, when charged or chequered with vairs.
VALAIS, a valley in Swifferland, which.extends
from the fource of the river Rhone to the lake of Ge¬
neva. It is near 100 miles in length, but of unequal
breadth. It is bounded on the north by the Alps,
which feparate it from the cantons of Berne and Uri, on.
the eaft by the mountains of Forche, on the fouth by
the duchy of Milan and the Val d’Aofte, and on the
weft by Savoy and the republic of Geneva. I. he inha¬
bitants profefs the Roman Catholic religion, and are fub-
&a,to. the fwelling of the throat called brotichocele}
4*
7 ] 'Val
and idiots are faid to abound among them more than
in any other place of the globe. They are naturally
hardy, enterprifing, and good-natured. Valais is fur-
rounded on all (ides by very high mountains, moft of
which are covered with perpetual fnow. The foil is
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits. The mufcat-wine,
which is produced here is excellent, and well known
all over Europe. This country comprehends 55 large
parilhes, with one biftiop. The religion is the Roman
Catholic.
VALANTIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polygamia, and in the natural fyftem arranged un¬
der the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See Botany Index.
VALENCIA, a province of Spain, which has the
title of a kingdom 5 and is bounded on the eaft and fouth
by the Mediterranean fea, en the north by Catalonia
and Arragon, and on the weft by New Caftile and the
kingdom of Murcia. It is about 165 miles in length,
and 63 in breadth. It is one of the moft populous and
agreeable parts of Spain, enjoying almoft a perpetual
fpring. The great number of rivers wherewith it is wa¬
tered renders it extremely fertile, particularly in fruits"
and wine. There are very rugged mountains in it,
which contain mines of alum and other minerals.
Valencia, a city of Spain, and capital of the king¬
dom of the fame name. It contains about I2,oco
houfes, befides thofe of the fuburbs and the fummer-
houfes round it. It has an univerfity, and an archbi-
(hop’s fee ; and was taken from the Moors by the
Chriftians in the 13th century. The town is handfome,
and adorned with very fine itrudlures. It is not very
ftrong, though there are fome baftions along the fides
of the wTalls. They have manufactures in wool and filk,
which bring in great fums to the inhabitants.- It is
feaied on the river Guadalaviar, over which there are
five handfome bridges ; and it is about three miles from
the fea, where there is a harbour, no miles north of
Murcia, and 165 eaft by fouth of Madrid. This city
furrendered to the earl of Peterborough in the year
1705 *, but it was loft, again in 1707‘ W. Long. 0.
10. N. Lat. 39. 27.
VALENCIENNES, am ancient, ftrong, and con--
ftderable city of France, in the department of the North '
and late province of Hainault, containing about 20,000'
fouls. The Scheldt divides it into two parts. It is a
very important place : the citadel and fortifications, the
work of Vauban, were conftrufted by order of LouisXIV.'
who took this town from the Spaniards. It was con¬
firmed to him by the treaty of Nimeguen, in 1678. In
1793, it furrendered to thfe allies after a fevere fiege,
but was afterwards abandoned ^ and is now in pofiefllon
of the French'. B^fides lace, this city is noted for ma-
nufaftories of woollen duffs and very fine linens. It is
20 miles weft-fouth-weft of Mens, 17 north-eaft of Cam-
bray, and 120 north-eaft by north of Paris-. E. Long.,
3. 37. N. Lat. 50. 21. ■
VALENS, Flavius; emperor of the Eaft, a great-
patron of the Arians. Killed by the Goths in the year
379. See Constantinople, N° 76.
VALENTIN I AN I. emperor of the Weft, a re¬
nowned warrior, but a tyrant over. his fubje&s. Sce-
Rome, N° 523.
Valentinian II. emperor of the Weft, a prince ce¬
lebrated for his virtues, and above all for his modera¬
tion 5 yet a confpiracy was formed againft him by Ar~
bogafteSj
V A C, [ 5
- bogaftes, the commander in chief of his afmies ; and he
was ftrangled in the year 392. See Rome, N° 536.
VALENTINIANS, in church hiftory, a left of
Chriftian heretics, who fprung up in the fecond century,
and were fo called from their leader Valentinus.
The Valehtinians were only a branch of the Gnoftics,
who realifed or perfonified the Platonic ideas concern¬
ing the Deity, whom they called Pleroma or Plenitude.
Their fyftem was this : the firft principle is Bythos, i. e.
Depth, which remained many ages unknown, having
with it Ennoe or Thought, and Sige or Silence ; from
thefe fprung the Nous or Intelligence, which is the only
fon, equal to and alone capable of comprehending the
Bythos j the filler of Nous they called Aletheia or
Truth; and thefe conftituted the firlt quaternity of
aeons, which were the fource and original of all the
reft : for Nous and Aletheia produced the World and
Life ; and from thefe two proceeded Man and the
Church. But befides thefe 8 principal aeons, there were
22 more *, the laft of which, called Sophia, being de-
firous to arrive at the knowledge of Bythos, gave her-
felf a great deal of uneafinefs, which created in her
Anger and Fear, of which was born Matter. But the
Horos or Bounder Hopped her, preferved her in the
Pleroma, and reftored her to Perfeffion. Sophia then
produced the Chrift and the Holy Spirit, which brought
the aeons to their Jaft perfection, and made every one of
them contribute their utmoft to form the Saviour. Her
Enthymefe, or Thought, dwelling near the Pleroma,
perfeded by the Chrift, produced every thing that is in
the world by its divers paflions. The Chrift fent into
it the Saviour, accompanied with angels, who delivered
it from its paflions, without annihilating it: from thence
was formed corporeal matter. And in this manner did
they romance concerning God, nature, and the myfteries
of the Chriftian religion.
VALERIAN, or Valerianus, Publius Licinihs,
emperor of Rome, remarkable for his captivity and
cruel treatment by Sapor I. king of Perfia. See Rome,
N° 491.
VALERIANA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs triandria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 48th order, Aggregates. See Botany and Materia
Medic a Index.
VALERIUS Maximus, a Latin hiftorian, fprung
from the families of the Valerii and Fabii, which made
him take the name of Valerius Maximus. He ftudied
polite literature, and afterwards followed Sextus Pom-
pey to the wars. At his return he compofed an account
of the aCtions and remarkable fayings of the Romans
and other great men ; and dedicated that work to the
emperor Tiberius. Mapy of the learned think that this
is the fame that is now extant, and bears the name of
Valerius Maximus j but others maintain, that what we
have now is only an abridgment of the work written by
this celebrated hiftorian, and that this abridgment was
made by one Nepotian of Africa. However, this work
is well written, and contains a great number of memor¬
able aClions performed by the Greeks and Romans that
are worthy of being read.
VALET, a French term, ufed as a common name
for all domeftic men fervants employed in the more fer-
vile offices, as grooms, footmen, coachmen, &c. But
"with us it is only ufed in the phrafe valet de chambre^
5
8 ] VAN
which Is a fervant whofe office is to drefs and undrefs ValJt
his mailer, &c» ||
VALETTA, a city of Malta, and capital of the Vailtrug!i
ifland (fee Malta, N° 26.). It is fituated in E. Long,
14. 34. N. Lat. 35. .54.
VALETUDINARY, among medical writers, de¬
notes a perfon of a weak and fickly conftitution, and fre¬
quently out of order.
VALID, in Law, an appellation given to aCts, deeds,
tranfaCUons, &c. which are clothed with all the forma¬
lities requifite to their being put into execution, and to
their being admitted in a court of juftice.
VALLADOLID, an ancient, large, and handfome
city of Spain, in Old Caftile, and capital of a principa¬
lity of the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee and an uni-
verfity. It is lurrounded with ftrong walls, embellifhed
with handfome buildings, large public fquares, piazzas,
and fountains 5 containing 11,000 houfes, with fine
long and broad ftreets, and high houfes, adorned with
balconies. There is a fquare in the middle of the city,
furrounded with handfome brick houfes, having under
them piazzas, where people may walk dry in all
weathers. Within thefe piazzas merchants and tradef-
men keep their (hops. All the houfes are of the fame
height, being four ftories j and there are balconies at
every window, of gilt iron. In the whole there are 70
monafteries and nunneries ; the fineft of which is that of
the Dominicans, remarkable for its church, which is
one of the moft magnificent in the city. The kings re-
fided a long while at this place ; and the royal palace,
which ftill remains, is of very large extent, though but
two ftories high j within are fine paintings of various
kinds, and at one of the corners a curious clock, made
in the fame manner as that of Straflmrg. The envi¬
rons of the city are a fine plain, covered with gardens,
orchards, vineyards, and meadows. It is feated on the
rivers Efcarva and Pefuerga, in W. Long. 4. 47. N»
Lat. 41. 42.
VALUE, in Commerce, denotes the price or worth
of any thing.
VALVE, in Hydraulics, Pneumatics, &c. is a kind
of lid or cover of a tube orveflel, fo contrived as to open
one way, but which, the more forcibly it is prefled the
other way, the clofer it (huts the aperture j fo that it
either admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube or
veflTel, and prevents its return ; or admits its efcape, and
prevents its re-entrance.
Valve, in Anatomy, a thin membrane applied on fe-
veral cavities and veflfels of the body, to afford a paflage
to certain humours going one way, and prevent their
reflux towards the place from whence they eame.
VAMPYRE, a fpecies of bat. See Vespertilio,
Mammalia Index.
VAN, a term derived from the French avant or a-
vaunt, fignifying before or foremoft of any thing: thus
we fay, the van-guard of the army, &c.
VANBRUGH, Sir John, a celebrated Englilh dra¬
matic writer and architeft, was defeended of a family in
Chelhire which came from France, though by his name
he appears to have been originally of Dutch extraflion*
He was born about the middle of the reign of Charles
II. and received a liberal education. His firft comedy,
called the Relapfe or Virtue in Danger, was adled in the
year 1697 with great applaufe $ which gave him fuch
_ encouragement,
VAN [51
T ,bnigh encouragement, that he wrote eleven more comedies.
|| ' fif, was the friend of Mr Congreve, whofe genius was
' adyck. naturally turned for dramatic performances 5 and thefe
^ V—' tw0 gave new life to the Englifti ftage, and rellored its
finking reputation. Sir John was alfo efteemed an able
architeft. Under his dire&ion was raifed Blenheim-
Jioufe in Oxfordlhire. He died in 1726.
VANDELLIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs didynamia. See Botany Index.
VAN-Diemen’s land. See Diemen.
VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, a celebrated painter,
was born at Antwerp in the year 1599. After giving
early proofs of his genius, he became the difciple of the
illuftrious Rubens. In the church of the Auguftines at
Antwerp, at the high altar, is a celebrated picture of
.Rubens, reprefenting, in one part, the Virgin Mary
fitting with the child Jefus in her lap, and in another
part feveral faints, male and female, Handing. The
bread of one of thefe, St Sebaftian, is faid to have been
painted by Vandyck when he was only a difciple of
Rubens. This great matter being engaged one day
abroad, his difciples went into his painting-room, where,
after having been fome time employed in admiring his
works, they began to play or romp in fuch a manner,
that the bread; of St Sebeftian, which was not yet dry,
was brulhed away by a hat thrown at random. This
accident put an end to their play: they were very
anxious to reltore it, fearing that if Rubens difcovered
it they diould all be difcarded. At length it was
agreed that Anthony flrould undertake to mend the
faint’s bread. In (hort, taking his mader’s pallet and
brulhes, he fucceeded fo well that his companions ima¬
gined Rubens would overlook it. They were midaken;
for Rubens at his return knew immediately that fome
one had touched upon his performance : calling his dif¬
ciples, he aficed them why any one had dared to meddle
with his painting ? They were fome time doubtful
whether they Humid confefs or deny the fadt. Threats
at length prevailed : they owned that Vandyck had
thrown his hat upon it. Upon this, clofeting \ andyck,
indead of chiding him, he told him, that “ it was pro¬
per and even neceffary for him to travel into Italy, the
only fchool that produced excellent painters.” By this
advice, and with the affidance of his mader, he fet out
for Italy, about the year 1621, being then about 21 or
22 years of age. Having daid a du>rt time at Rome,
he removed to Venice, where he attained the beautiful
colouring of Titian, Paul Veronefe, and the Venetian
fchoal.
After a few years he returned to Flanders, with fo
noble, fo eafy, and natural a manner of painting, that
Titian himfelf was hardly his fuperior: and no other
mailer could equal him in portraits. Soon after his re¬
turn, he accidentally met with D. Teniers, who accod-
ed him with great politenefs,,and alked him whether he
had much bufinefs fince he came from Rome ? “ What
bufinefs, think you, can I have had time to do (replied
Vandyck) ? I am only jud arrived here. Would you
believe, that I offered to draw that fat brewer’s picture
who jud paffed by us for two pidoles, and that the
looby laughed in my face, faying it was too dear r* I af-
fure you, that if the cards do not turn up better, I (hall
make no long day at Bruffels.” Soon after this, he
painted thofe two famous piffures, the Nativity and a
9 1 VAR
dying Chrid j the fird in the parilh-chureh, the fecond Vainlyer;
in that of the Capuchins, at Termond. r 11
Vandyck, finding he could not make a fortune in his Tar'‘ltlon',
own country, took a refolution of going over into Eng¬
land. Accordingly he borrowed fome guineas of Te¬
niers, and fet out, furnidied with letters of recommenda¬
tion. His fuperior genius foon brought him into great
reputation 5 and above all, he excelled in portraits,
which he drew with an inconceivable facility, and for
which he charged a very high price, according to the
indrudlions which had been given him on that head.
It is affirmed, that for fome of them he received 400
guineas apiece. He foon found himfelf loaded with
honours and riches j and as he had a noble and gener¬
ous heart, he lived equal to his fortune. He married
a daughter of the lord Ruthven, earl of Gorvry ; and
though die had but little fortune, maintained her in a
dyle fuitable to her birth. He generally kept a mag¬
nificent equipage, and a numerous retinue. He dledin
1641, at the age of 42, leaving property, it is faid, to
the amount of 40,000!. derling.
VANE, a thin dip of bunting hung to the mad-
head, or fome other confpicuous place in the diip, to
fhow the diredlion of the wind. It is commonly fewed
upon a wooden frame called the Jlock, which contains
two holes whereby to dip over the fpindle, upon which
it turns about as the wind changes.
VANILLA, or Vanillo. See Epidendrum,
Botany Index.
VAPOUR, in Philofoply, the particles of bodies
rarefied by heat, and thus rendered fpecifically lighter
than the atmofphere, in which they rife. See Evapo¬
ration and Heat, Chemistry Index.
Vapours, in Medicine, otherwife called IiypocJion-
druifis or fpleen. See Medicine, N° 276 and 321.
VA P 0 UR -Bath, in Chemijlry, a term applied to a
chemid’s bath or heat, in which a body is placed fo as
to receive the fumes of boiling water.
We alfo ufe the term vapour-bath, ivhen a fick per-
fon is made to receive the vapours arifing from fome
liquid matter placed over a fire. Many contrivances
have been propofed for this purpofe ; and their expedi¬
ency and utility are bed known to thofe who are con-
verfant in this bufinefs. A late writer has fuggeded a
new condruftion of vapour baths; and the whole, ap¬
paratus is reduced to- a tin-boiler, tin pipes wrapped in
flannel, and a deal box with a cotton cover, for the re¬
ception of the body and circulation of the vapour.
VARI, in Medicine, little, hard, and ruddy tumors,
which frequently infed the faces of young perfons of a
hot temperament of body.
VARIATION of the Compafs, is the deviation of
the magnetic or mariner’s needle from the meridian or
true north and fouth line. On the continent it is call¬
ed the declination of the magnetic needle; and this
is a better term, for reafons which will appear by and
by.
We have given the general fafts relating to magne¬
tic variation under the article Magnetism, N° 19* ?
and under the articles COMPASS, and Azimuth COMFASS,
we have noticed the methods of afeertaining the varia¬
tion at any particular time or place. We fliall here
only give a diort hidorical account of the progredive
difcoveries refpecting magnetic variation, and notice
VAR l 520 ] VAR
Variation, tne explanations that have been offered to account for
l" ' v this phenomenon.
About the time that the polarity of the magnet was
firft obferved in Europe, the magnetic direction, both in
Europe and in China, was nearly in the plane of the
meridian. It was therefore an ineftimable prefent to the
mariner, giving him a fure direction in, his courfe
through the pathlefs ocean. But by the time that the
European navigators had engaged in their adventurous
voyages to far diflant fliores, the deviation of the needle
from the meridian was very fenfible even in Europe.
The fon of Columbus pofitively fays, that it was obfer¬
ved by his father in his firft voyage to America, and
made his companions fo anxious left they ftiould not
find the way back again to their own country, that they
mutinied and refufed to proceed. It is certain that
Gonzales Oviedo and Sebaftian Cabot obferved it in
their voyages. Indeed it could not poflibly efcape
them ; for in fome parts of their feveral tracks the
needle deviated above 250 from the meridian ; and the
rudeft dead reckoning, made on the fuppofition of the
needle pointing due north and fouth, muft have thrown
the navigators into the utmoft confufion. We know
that fpherical trigonometry was at that time abundantly
familiar to the mathematicians of Europe, and that no
perfon pretended to take the command of a Ihip bound
to a diftant port that was not much more informed in
this fcience than moft mafters of fhips are at prefent.
The deviation of the compafs, however, was not gene¬
rally allowed by mathematicians, who had not yet be¬
come fenfible of the neceflity of quitting the Ariftote-
lian trammels, and inveftigating nature by experiments.
They chofe rather to charge the navigators with inac-
1 curacy in their obfervations than the fchoolmen with
errors in principles. Pedro de Medina at Valladolid,
'in his Arte de Naviggar, publifhed in 1545, denies the
variation of the compafs. But the concurring reports
of the commanders of ftiips on diftant voyages, in a few
years, obliged the landfmen in their clofets to give up
the point; and Martin Cortez, in a treatife of naviga¬
tion, printed at Seville before 1556, treats it as a thing
completely eftabliftied, and gives rules and inftruments
for difcovering its quantity. About the year 1580
Norman publiftied his difcovery of the dip of the needle,
and fpeaks largely of the horizontal deviation from the
plane of the meridian, and attributes it to the attraction
of a point, not in the heavens, but in the earth, and
defcribes methods by which he hoped to find its place.
To the third, and all the fubfequent editions of Nor¬
man’s book (called the New AttraSiive), was fubjoined a
dilfertation by Mr Borroughs, comptroller of the navy,
on the variation of the compafs, in which is recorded
the quantity of this deviation in many places ; and he
laments the obftacle which it caufes to navigation by its
total uncertainty previous to obfervation. The author
indeed offers a rule for computing it a priori, founded
on fome conjecture as to its caufe j but, with the mo-
• defty and candour of a gentleman, acknowledges that
this is but a guefs, and intreats all navigators to be afli-
duous in their obfervations, and ready in communicat¬
ing them to the public. Accordingly obfervations were
liberally contributed from time to time, and were pub¬
lifhed in the fubfequent treatifes on navigation.
But in 1635 the mariners were thrown into a new
and great perplexity, by the publication of a D if courfe
Mathematical on the Variation of the Magnetical Needle W t'
by Mr Henry Gillebrand, Grefham profeffor of aftrono-
my. He had compared the variations obferved at Lon¬
don by Burroughs, Gunter, and himfelf, and found
that the north end of the mariner’s needle was gradual¬
ly drawing more to the weftward. For Norman and
Burroughs had obferved it to point about 114 degree*
to the eaft of north in 1580 j Gunter found its devia¬
tion only 6^ in 1622, and he himfelf had obferved
only 40 in 1634 ; and it has been found to deviate more
and more to the weftward ever fince, as may be feen
from the tables given under Magnetism.
Mr Bond, teacher of mathematics in London, and
employed to edit and improve the impreflions of the po¬
pular treatifes of navigation, about 1650, declared, in a
work called the “ Seaman’s Kalendar,” that he had
difcovered the true progrefs of the deviation of the com¬
pafs j and publilhed in another work, called “ the Lon¬
gitude Found,” a table of the variation for 50 years.
This was, however, a gratuitous prognoftication, not
founded on any well-grounded principles $ and though
it agreed very well with the obfervations made in Lon¬
don, which Ihowed a gradual motion to the weftward at
the rate of—.12'annually, by no means agreed with
the obfervations made in other places. See Phil. Tranf.
1668.
But this news foon loft its credit : for the inconfift-
ency with obfervation appeared more and more every
day, and all were anxious to difcover fome general rule,
by which a near guefs at leaft might be made as to the
dire&ion of the needle in the moft frequented feas.
Halley recommended the matter in the moft earneft
manner to the attention of government; and, after
much unwearied felicitation, obtained a ftiip to be fent
on a voyage of difcovery for this purpofe. He got the
command of this ftiip, in which he repeatedly traverfed
the Atlantic ocean, and went as far as the 50th degree
of fouthern latitude. See his very curious fpeculations
on this fubjeCt in the Phil. Tranf. 1683 and 1692.
After he had colleCled a prodigious number of obfer¬
vations made by others, and compared them with his
own, he publiftied in 1700 a fynoptical account of them
in a very ingenious form of a fea chart, where the ocean
was croffed by a number of lines palling through thofe
planes where the compafs had the fame deviation.
Thus, in every point of one line there was no variation
in 1700 j in every point of another line the compafs
had 20° of eaft variation ; and in every point of a third
line it had 20° of weft variation. Thefe lines have
fince been called Halleyan lines, or curves. This chart
was received with univerfal applaufe, and was undoubt¬
edly one of the moft valuable prefents that fcience has
made to the arts.
The polarity of the magnetic needle, and a general
though intricate conneCb'on between its pofitions in all
parts of the world, naturally makes the philofopher fpe-
culate about its caufe. We fee that Cortez aferibed it
to the attraction of an eccentric point, and that Bond
thought that this point was placed not in the heavens,
but in the earth. This notion made the balls of the fa¬
mous Theory of Magnetifm of Hr Gilbert of Colchef-
ter. See Magnetism, N° 71.
Gilbert’s theory may be underftood from the follow- pjt((.
ing general propofition. DXl.
Let NS (fig. i.) be a magnet, of which N is the fig.*'
north
A R
[ 52i ] VAR
tion. north and S the fouth pole : Let « j- be any oblong
—' piece of iron, poifed on a point c like a compafs needle.
It will arrange itfelf in a pofition ?ics precifely the
fame with that which would be affumed by a compafs
needle of the fame fize and fhape, having n for its north
and s its fouth pole. And while the piece of iron re¬
mains in this pofition, it will be in all refpedls a magnet
fimilar to the real compafs needle. The pole n will at-
traft the fouth pole of a fmall magnetifed needle, and
repel its north pole. If a paper be held over ns, and
fine iron-filings be ftrewed on it, they will arrange
themfelves into curves iffuing from one of its ends and
terminating at the other, in the fame manner as they
will do when ftrewed on a paper held over a real com¬
pafs needle. But this magnetifm is quite temporary 5
for if the piece of iron x be turned the other way,
placing n where s now is, it will remain there, and will
eshibit the fame phenomena. We may here add, that
if«x be almoft infinitely fmall in comparifon of NS,
the line n s will be in fuch a pofition that if x a, x b, be
drawn parallel to Nr, Sr, we fhall have s a to s b, as
the force of the pole N to the force of the pole S.
And this is the true caufe of that curious difpofition of
iron-filings when ftrewed round a magnet. Each frag¬
ment becomes a momentary magnet, and arranges itfelf
in the true magnetic direflion, and when fo arranged,
attrafts the two adjoining fragments, and co-operates
with the forces, which alfo arrange them. We throw
this out to the ingenious mechanician as the foundation
of a complete theory of the magnetical phenomena.
When the filings are infinitely fine, the curves N r S
have this property, that, drawing the tangent nc s, we
always have x o : s b zz force of N : force of S j and
thus wre may approximate at pleafure to the law of mag¬
netic attraftion and repulfion. The theory, of which
an outline is given under Magnetism, is founded on
this principle, and applies with fuccefs to every pi.eno-
menon yet obferved.
Now, to apply this theory to the point in hand.—
.Let n x (fig. 2.) be a fmall compafs needle, of which n
is the north and x the fouth pole : let this needle be
poifed horizontally on the pin cd; and let nr s' be the
pofition of the dipping needle. Take any long bar of
common iron, and hold it upright, or nearly fo, as re-
prefented by AB. The lower end B will repel the
pole n and will attraft the pole x, thus exhibiting the
properties of a north pole of the bar AB. Keeping B
in its place, turn the bar round B' as a centre, till it
come into the pofition ArB'nearly parallel to n' s'.
You will obferve the compafs needle n x attradl the end
B' with either pole n or x, when B'A' is in the pofition
B' ct perpendicular to the diredtion n' s' of the dipping
needle : and when the bar has come into the pofition
B' A', the upper end B' will fhow itfelf to be a fouth
pole by attracting n and repelling x. This beautiful ex¬
periment was exhibited to the Koyal Society in 1673
by Pv'Irs Hind (haw.
From this it appears, that the great magnet in the
earth induces a momentary magnetifm on foft iron pre¬
cifely as a common magnet ivould do. Therefore (fays
Dr Gilbert) it induces permanent magnetifm on magne-
tifable ores of iron, fuch as loadftones, in the fame man¬
ner as a great loadftone would do 5 and it affeCts the
vnagnetifm already imparted to a piece of tempered fteel
preciiely as any other great magnet would.
VojL XX. Part II.
Therefore the needle of the mariner’s compafs in Variation,
every part of the world arranges itfelf in the magnetic v"""—J
direction, fo that if poifed as a dipping needle ftiould be,
it will be a tangent to one of the curves NcS of fig. r.
The horizontal needle being fo poifed as to be capable
of playing only in a horizontal plane, will only arrange
itfelf m the plane of the triangle NcS. That end of it
which has the fame magnetifm with the fouth pole S of
the great magnet included in the earth will be turned
towards its north pole N. Therefore what we call the
north pole of a needle or magnet really has the magne¬
tifm of the fouth pole of the great primitive magnet.
If the line NS be called the axis, and N and S the
poles of this great magnet, the plane of any one of
thefe curves NcS will cut the earth’s furface in the
circumference of a circle, great or fmall according as
the plane does or does not pafs through the centre of the
earth.
Dr Halley’s firft thought was, that the north pole of
the great magnet or loadftone which was included in the
bowels of the earth was not far from Baffin’s bay, and
its fouth pole in the Indian ocean fouth-weft from New
Zealand. But he could not find any pofitions of thefe
two poles which would give the needle that particular
pofition which it was-obferved to affume indifferent
parts of the world ; and he concluded that the great
terreftrial loadftone had four irregular poles (a thing not
unfrequent in natural loadftones, and eafily producible at
pleafure), two of which are ftronger and two weaker.
When the compafs is at a great diftance from the two
north poles, it is affefted fo as to be directed nearly in
a plane palling through the ftrongeft. But if we make
it approach much more to the weakeft, the greater vici¬
n'. y will compenfate for the fmaller abfolute force of the
weak pole, and occafion confiderable irregularities. The
appear&nces are favourable to this opinion. If this be
the real conftitution of the great magnet, it is almoft a
defperate talk to afcertain by computation what will be
the pofition of the needle. Halley feems to have de-
fpaired ; for he was both an elegant and a moft e* pert
mathematician, and it would have coft little trouble
to afcertain the places ( two poles only, and the di¬
rection which thefe would have given to the needle.
But to fay what would be its pofition when acted on by-
four poles, it was neceflary to know the law by which
the magnetic ation varied by a variation of diftance •,
and even then, the computation would have been ex¬
ceedingly difficult.
In order to account for the change of variation, Dv
Halley fuppofes this internal magnet not to adhere t«
the external fhell which we inhabit, but to form a nu ¬
cleus or kernel detached from it on all fides, and to be.
fo poifed as to revolve freely round an axis, the pofition
of which he hopes to difcover by obfecvation of the
compafs. Dr Halley imagined that the nucleus revol¬
ved from eaft to weft round the fame axis with the earth.
Thus the poles of the magnet would change their po¬
fitions relatively to the earth’s furface, and this w'ould
change the dire£Iion of the compafs needle.
The great Euler, whofe delight it was always to en¬
gage in the moft difficult mathematical refearches and
computations, undertook to afcertain the pofition of the
needle in every part of the earth. His difiertation on
this fubjeft is to be feen in the 13th volume of the Me¬
moirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin, and is exceed-
3 U ingly
VAR [52
xngly beautiful, abounding in thofe analytical tours d"1-
adreffe in which he furpaffed all the world. He has re¬
duced the computation to a wonderful fimplieity.
He found, however, that four poles would engage
him in an analyfis which would be exceflively intricate,
and has contented himfelf with computing for two on¬
ly ; obferving that this fuppolition agrees fo well with
obfervation, that it is highly probable that this is the
real conftitution of the terreftrial magnet, and that the
coincidence would have been perfect if he had hit on
the due politicos of the two poles. He places one of
them in lat. 76° north, and long. 96° weft from Tene-
riffe. The fouth pole is placed in lat. 58° fouth, and
long. 1 58° weft from Teneriffe. Thefe are their fitua-
tions for 1757-—Mr Euler has annexed to his differta-
tion a chart of Halleyan curves fuited to thefe affump-
tions, and fitted to the year 1757.
It muft be acknowledged, that the general courfe of
the variations according to this theory greatly refembles
the real ftate of things 5 and we cannot but own ourfelves
highly indebted to this great mathematician for having
made fo fine a firft attempt. He has improved it very
confiderably in another differtation in the 22d volume
of thefe memoirs. But there are ftill fuch great dif¬
ferences, that the theory is of no ufe to the navigator,
and it only ferves as an excellent model for a farther
profecution of the fubjedl. Since that time another
large variation chart has been publilhed, fitted to a
late'period ; but the public has not fufficient informa¬
tion of the authorities or obfervations on which it is
founded.
The great objeft in all thefe charts is to facilitate the
difcovery of a (hip’s longitude at fea. For the lines of
variation being drawn on the chart, and the variation
and the latitude being obferved at fea, we have only to
look on the chart for the interfeflion of the parallel of
obferved latitude and the Halleyan curve of obferved
variation. This interfedlion muft be the place of the
(hip. This being the purpofe, the Halleyan lines are
of great fervice *, but they do not give us a ready con¬
ception of the direction of the needle. We have always
to imagine a line drawn through the point, cutting the
meridian in the angle correfponding to the Halleyan
line. We ftiould learn the general magnetic affeflions
of the globe much better if a number of magnetic me¬
ridians were drawm. Thefe are the interfe£tions .of the
earth’s furface with planes pafling through the magne-
tical axis, cutting one another in angles of 50 or lo°.
This Avould both (how us the places of the magnetic
poles much more clearly, and would, in every place,
(how us at once the direftion of the needle. In all thofe
places where thefe magnetic curves touch the meridians,
there is no variation; and the variation in every other
place is the angle contained between thefe magnetic
meridians and the true ones.
The program of a work of this kind has been pub-
lifhed by a Mr Churchman, who appears to have en¬
gaged in the inveftigation with great zeal and confider-
able opportunities. It is pretty certain that the north
magnetic pole (or point, as Mr Churchman calls it) is
not far removed from the ftations given it by Halley
and Euler ; and there feems no doubt but that in the
countries between Hudfon’s bay and the weftcrn coafts
of North America the needle will have every pofition
with refpeiT to the terreftrial meridian, fo that the north
5
2 ] VAR
end of a compafs needle will even point due fouth in fe- VariitiQ
veral places. Almoft every thing that can be defired'"■"■y*
in this inquiry would be obtained by a few well-chofen
obfervations made in thofe regions. It would be of im-
menfe advantage to have the dips afcertained with great
precifion. Thefe would enable us to judge at what
depth under the furface the pole is fituated ; for the
well-informed mechanician, who will ftudy ferioufiy
what we have faid about the magnetical curves, will fee
that a compafs needle, when compared with the great
terreftrial magnet, is but as a particle of iron-filings
compared to a very large artificial magnet. Therefore,
from the pofition of the dipping needle, we may infer
the place of the pole, if the law of magnetic action be
given ; and this law may be found by means of other
experiments, which we could point out. See Magne¬
tism, N° 80, et Jeq.
Mr Churchman has adopted the opinion of only two
poles. According to him, the north pole was (in 1800)
in Lat. 58° N. and Long. 1340 W. from Greenwich,
very near Cape Fairweather ; and the fouth pole lies in
Lat. 58° S. and Long. 165° E. from Greenwich. He
alfo imagines that the north pole has moved to the eaft-
ward, on a parallel of latitude, about 65 fince the be¬
ginning of the 19th century (from 1600), and concludes
that it makes a revolution in 1096 years. The fouth-
ern pole has moved lefs, and completes its revolution in
2289 years. This motion he afcribes to fome influences
which he calls magnetic tides, and which he feems to
confider as celeftial. This he infers from the changes of
variation. He announces a phyfical theory on this fub-
jecl, which, he fays, enables him to compute the varia¬
tion with precifion for any time pad or to come ; and
he even gives the procefs of trigonometrical computa¬
tion illuftrated by examples. But as this publication
(entitled The Magnetic Atlas'), publiftied for the author,
by Darton and Harvey, 1794, is only a program, he
exprefies himfelf obfcurely, and fomewhat enigmatically,
re(pe<5Hng his theory. He fpeaks of the influence of
one pole being greater than that of the other \ and fays,
that in this cafe the magnetic equator, where the needle
will be parallel to the axis, will not be in the middle
between the poles. This is true of a common magnet.
He muft therefore abide by this fuppofition in its other
confequences. The magnetic meridians muft be planes
pafling through this axis, and therefore muft be circles
on the furface of the earth. This is incompatible with
the obfervations $ nay, his charts are fo in many places,
particularly in the Pacific ocean, where the variations
by his chart are three times greater than what has been
obferved.—His parallels of dip are ftill more different
from obfervation, and are incompatible with any phe¬
nomena that could be produced by a magnet having
but two poles. His rules of computation are exceed¬
ingly exceptionable. He has in fad! but one example,
and that fo particular, that the mode of computation
will not apply to any other. This circumftance is not
taken notice of in the enunciation of his firft problem }
and the reader is made to imagine that he has got a rule
for computing the variation, whereas all the rules of
calculation are only running in a circle. The variation
computed for the port of St Peter and Paul in Kamtf-
chatka, by the rule, is ten times greater than the truth.
For our own part, we have little hopes of this pro¬
blem ever being fubjedled to accurate calculation. We
believe,
VAR [523
ltion. believe, Indeed, that there Is a cofmlcal change going
'on in the earth which will produce a progreffivechange
in the variation of the needle j and we fee none more
likely than Dr Halley’s motion. There is nothing re¬
pugnant to our knowledge of the univerfe in the fuppo-
fuion of a magnetic nucleus revolving within this earth;
and it is very eafy to conceive a very fimple.motion of
revolution, which (hall produce the very motion of the
fenfible poles for which Mr Churchman contends. We
need only fuppofe that the magnetical axis of this nu¬
cleus is not its axis of revolution. It may not even bi-
feft that axis ; and this eircumftance will cauie the two
poles to have different degrees of motion in relation to
the (hell which furrounds it.
But this regular progrefs of the magnet within the
earth may produce very irregular motions of the com-
pafs needle, by the intervention of a third body fufcep-
tible of magnetifm. The theory of which we have juft
o-iven a hint comes here to our aftiftance. Suppofe NS
(%• 3-) t() reprefent the primitive magnet in the earth,
and n s to be a ftratum of iron ore fufceptible of mag¬
netifm. Alfo let ri s' be another fmall mafs of a fimilar
ore ; and let their fituations and magnitudes be fuch as
is exhibited in the figure. The fa£t will be that n will
be the north pole and s the fouth pole of the great ftra¬
tum, and n1 and ft will be the north and fouth poles of
the fmall mafs or loadftone. Any perfon may remove
all doubts as to this, by making the experiment with a
magnet NS, a piece of iron or foft tempered fteel n s,
and another piece n! ft. I he well-informed and atten¬
tive reader will eafily fee, that by fuch interventions
every conceivable anomaly may be produced. . Vv hile
the great magnet makes a revolution in any direction,
the needle will change its pofition gradually, and with
a certain regularity ; but it will depend entirely on the
fize, ftiape, and fituation, of thefe intervening maffes of
magnetifable iron ore, whether the change of vaiiation
of the compafs (hall be fuch as the primitive magnet
alone would have produced, or whether it inall be of a
kind wholly different.
Now, that fuch intervening difturbances may exift,
is pad contradiction. We know that even on the film
of earth which we inhabit, and with which only we are
acquainted, there are extenfive ftrata or otherwife dif-
pofed maffes of iron ores in a ftate fufceptible of magne¬
tifm ; and experiments made on bars of hard tempered
fteel, and on bits of fuch ores, affure us that the magne¬
tifm is not induced on fuch bodies in a moment, but
propagated gradually along the mafs.— I hat fuch di¬
fturbances do aHually exift, we have many relations.
There are many inftances on record of very extenfive
magnetic rocks, which affeft the needle to very conii-
derable diftances. The ifland of Elba in^the Mediter¬
ranean is a very remarkable inftance of this. 1 he ifland
of Cannay alfo, on the weft of Scotland, has rocks
which affetfl the needle at a great diftance. _
A fimilar effecl is obferved near the Feroe iftands in
the North fea ; the compafs has no determined direc¬
tion when brought on fhore. Journ. des Sfavans, 1679,
p. 174.
In Hudfon’s ftraits, in latitude 63°, the needle has
hardly any polarity. Ellis'1 s Voyage to Hudfon's Bay.
Bouguer obferved the fame thing in Peru. Nay, we
believe that almoft all rocks, efpecially of whin or
ferappe Hone, contain iron in a proper ftate.
] VAR
All this refers only to the thin cruft through which Variation.^
the human eye has occafionally penetrated. Of what "1
may be below we are Ignorant ; but when we fee ap¬
pearances which tally fo remarkably with what would
be the effedts of great maffes of magnetical bodies, mo¬
difying the general and regularly progreflive a£Hon of
a primitive magnet, whofe exiftence and motion is in-
confiftent with nothing that we know of this globe, this
manner of accounting for the obferved change of varia¬
tion has all the probability that we can defire. Nay,
we apprehend that very confiderable changes may be
produced in the diredlion of the compafs needle, even
without the fuppofition of any internal motion. If the
great magnet refembles many loadftones we are ac¬
quainted wdth, having more than two poles, we know
that thefe poles Avill a£l on each other, and gradually
change each othex-’s force, and confequently the direc¬
tion of the compafs. This procefs, to be fure, tends to
a ftate of things which will change no more.—But the
period of human hiltory, or of the hiftory of the race
of Adam, may make but a fmall part of the hiftory
of this globe ; and therefore this objeflion is of little
force.
There can be no doubt of the operation of the gene¬
ral terreftrial magnetifm on every thing fufceptible of
magnetic properties ; and we cannot hefitate to ex¬
plain in this way many changes of magnetic diredlion
which have been obferved. Thus, in Italy, Father de
la Torre obferved, that during a great eruption of Ve-
fuvius the variation was 160 in the morning, at noon it
was 140, and in the evening it was io°, and that it
continued in that ftate till the lava grew fo dark as no
longer to be vifible in the night; after which it ftowly
increafed to 13^, where it remained. Daniel Bernoulli
found the needle changed its pofition 45' by an earth¬
quake. Profeffor Muller at Manheim obferved that the
declination of the needle in that place was greatly af¬
fected by the earthquake in Calabria. Such ftreams of
lava as flowed from Hecla in the laft dreadful eruption
nmft have made a transference of magnetic matter that
would confiderably affeCl the needle. But no obferva-
tions feem to have been made on the occafion ; for A\e
know that common ironftone, which has no effeCl on
the needle, will, by mere cementation with any inflam¬
mable fubftance, become magnetic. In this way Dr
Knight fometimes made artificial loadftones.—But thefe
are partial things, and not conneaed with the general
change of variation now under confideration. ^
We have faid fo much on this fubjea, chiefly with
the view of cautioning our readers againft too fanguine
expeaations from any pretenfions to the folution of this
oreat problem. We may certainly gather from thefe
obfervations, that even although the theory of the va¬
riation fhould be completed^ wemuft expea (by what
we already know of magnetifm in general) that the di¬
fturbances of the needle, by local caufes intervening be¬
tween it and the great influence by which it is chiefly
direaed, may be fo confiderable as to affba the pofition
of the compafs needle in a very fenfible manner : for we
know that the metallic fubftances in the bowels of the
earth are in a ftate of continual change, and this to an
extent altogether unknown. .
There is another irregularity of the mariner s needle
that we have noticed under Magnetism, page 365,
namely, the daily variation. This was firft obferved
3 U 2 by
v A R [ .524 ] VAR
n’ by Mr George Graham in 1722 (Plulofophlcal Tranf-
“ aftions, N°383.), and reported to the Royal Society of
London. It ufually moves (at lead in Europe) to the
weft ward from 8 morning till 2 P. M. and then gra¬
dually returns'to its former fituation. The diurnal va¬
riations are feldom lefs than o° 5', and often much
greater. Mr Graham mentions (Philofophical Tranf-
aftions. N° 428.) fome obfervations by a Captain
Hume, in a voyage to America, where he found the
variation greateft in the afternoon. This being a gene¬
ral phenomenon, has alfo attracted the attention of phi-
iofophers. The moft detailed accounts of it to be met '
with are thofe of Mr Canton (fee Magnetism), in
Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. li. part 1. p. 399, and
thofe of Van Swinden, in his Treatife on Ele&ricity
and Magnetifm.
Mr Canton attempts to account for thefe changes of
pofition, by obferving that the force of a magnet is
weakened by heat. A fmall magnet being placed near
a compafs needle, ENE from it, fo as to make it de-
deft 450 from the natural pofition, the magnet was co¬
vered with a brafs veffel, into which hot water was
poured. The needle gradually receded from the mag¬
net 45', and returned gradually to its place as the water
cooV:d. This is confirmed by uniform experience.
The parts of the earth to the eaft ward are firft heated
in the morning, and therefore the force of the earth is
weakened, and the needle is made to move to the weft-
ward. But as the fun warms the weftern fide of the
earth in the afternoon, the motion of the needle muft
take the contrary dire<ftion.
But this way of explaining by a change in the force
«f the earth fuppofes that the changing caufe is acling
in oppofition to fome other force. We do not know of
any fuch. The force, whatever it may be, feems fimply
to produce its own effe<R, in deranging the needle from
the dire&ion of terreftrial magnetifm. If Aipinus’s
theory of magnetic aftion be admitted, we may fuppofe
that tl^c fun a<5Is on the earth as a magnet afts on a
piece of foft iron, and in the morning propels the fluid
in the north-weft parts. The needle direfts itfelf to
this conftipated fluid, and therefore it points to the eaft-
ward of the magnetic north in the afternoon. And (to
abide by the fame theory) this induced magnetifm will
be fomewhat greater when the earth is warmer ; and
therefore the diurnal variation will be greateft in fum-
mer. This change of pofition of the conftipated fluid
muft be fuppofed to bear a very frnall ratio to the whole
fluid, which is naturally fuppofed to be conftipated in
one pole of the great magnet in order to give it magne¬
tifm. I hus we (ball have the diurnal variation a very
fmall quantity. This is departing, however, from the
principle of Mr Canton’s explanation ; and indeed we
cannot fee how the weakening the general force of the
terreftrial magnet fhould make any change in the needle
in refpect to its direction * nor does it appear probable
that the change of temperature produced by the fun will
penetrate deep enough to produce any fenfible effeft on
the magnetifm. Ard if this be the caufe, we think
that the derangements of the needle ftiould vary as the
thermometer varies, which is not true. The other me¬
thod of explaining is much better, if Aipinus’s theory
®f magnetic attraftinn and repulfion be juft 5 and w’e
way fuppofe that it is only the fecondary magnetifin
1
^e* tjat tlie magnetifable minerals) that is fenfibly
affected by the heat j this will account very well for
the greater mobility of the fluid in fummer than iu win
ter.
A great objeaion to either of thefe explanations is
the prodigious diverfity of the diurnal variations in dif¬
ferent places. 1 his is fo very great, that we can fcarce-
ly afcribe the diurnal variation to any change in the
magnetifm of the primitive terreftrial magnet, and muft
rather look for its caufe in local circumftances. This
conclufion becomes more probable, when we learn that
the deviation from the meridian and- the deviation from
the horizontal line are not affefted at the lame time.
Van Swinden afcribes them folely to changes produced
on the needles themfeives. If their magnetifm be
greatly deranged by the fun’s pofition, it may throw
the magnetic centre away from the centre of the nee¬
dle’s motion, and thus produce a very fmall change of
pofition. But if this be the caufe, we (hould exptft
differences in different needles. Van Swinden lays,
that there are fuch, and that they are very great j but-
as he has not Ipecified them, we cannot draw any con¬
clufion.
But, befides this regular diurnal variation, there is
another, which is fubjeded to no rule. The aurora bo¬
realis is obferved (in Europe) to difturb the needle ex¬
ceedingly, fometimes drawing it fevera] degrees from
its pofition. It is always obferved to increafe its devia¬
tion from the meridian, that is, an aurora borealis makes-
the needle point more wefterly. This difturbance fome¬
times amounts to fix or feven degrees, and is generally
obferved to be greateft when the aurora borealis is molt
remarkable.
I he observation of the connection of the polarity of
the needle with the aurora borealis occurred to the late;
Profeffor Robifon in 1759? when a midfhipman on board
the Royal William in the river St Lawrence. The-,
point of the heavens to which all the rays of light con¬
verged was precifely that which was oppofite to the-
fouth end of the dipping needle.
1 his is a very curious phenomenon, and we have not
been able to find any connection between this meteor-
and the pofition of a magnetic needle. It is to be ob-s
ferved, that a needle of copper or wood, or any fub-
ftance except iron, is not affeCted. We long thought-
it an eleCtric phenomenon, and that the needle was af¬
feCted as any other body balanced in the fame man¬
ner would be } but a copper needle would then be af¬
feCted.
We fee the needle frequently difturbed both from its-
general annual pofition, and from the change made on
it by the diurnal variation. This is probably the tffeft
of aurorae boreales which are invifible, either on ac¬
count of thick weather or daylight. Van Swinden fays,
he feldom or never failed to obferve aurorae boreales im¬
mediately after any anomalous motion of the needle 5
and concluded that there had been one at the time,
though he could not fee it. Since no needle but a mag-*
netic one is affeCIed by the aurora borealis, ive may
conclude that there is fume natural conneClion between
this meteor and magnetifm. This {hould farther incite
us to obferve the circumftance above mentioned, viz^
that the fouth end of the dipping needle points to that
part of the heavens where the rays of the aurora appear
t®
arnifli.
V A R t s
ariarioB to «>nvErge. We wi(h that this were diligently obfer-
ved in places which have very different variation and
dip of the mariner’s needle.
For the diurnal and this irregular variation, confult
the Differtations of Celfius and of Hiorter, in the Me¬
moirs of Stockholm ; Wargenlin, Philofophical Tranf-
aflions, vol. xlviii. ; Braun (Comment. Petropol. Novi,
tom. v. vii. ix.) ", Graham and Canton as above.
VARIETY, a change, fucceflion, or difference, in
the appearance or nature of things j in oppofition to uni¬
formity.
Variety, in Botany, is a change in fome lefs efftn-
tial part or quality 5 as colour, lize, pubefcence or age.
.—Externally ; by the plaiting or interweaving of the
branches—by bundling or uniting of feverai llalks into
one broad flat one *, by the greater breadth, or narrow-
nefs, or curling of leaves—by becoming awnlefs, or
fmooth, or hirfute. Internally, by becoming mutila¬
ted in the corolla j or having one larger than ordinary
by luxuriancy, multiplication, or fulm fs—by beco¬
ming proliferous, or crefled—by bearing bulbs inltead
of feeds—or being viviparous.
The ufual caufes of variation are, climate, foil, ex-
pofure, heat, cold, winds, culture.
VARIOLA, the Smallpox. See Medicine, N°
222—224.
VARIX, in Medicine, the dilatation of a vein, ari-
fing from the too great abundance or thicknefs of the
blood.
VARNISH, a clear limpid fluid, capable of harden¬
ing without lofing its tranfparency, ufed by painters,
gilders, &c. to give a luftre to their works, to preferve
them and defend them from the air.
A coat of varnifh ought to poffefs the following pro¬
perties : 1. It muff exclude the affion of the air ; be-
eaufe wood and metals are varnifhed to defend them
from decay and ruft. 2. It mult refift water ; for
otherwife the effedf of the varnifh could not be perma¬
nent. 3. It ought not to alter fuch colours as are in¬
tended to be preferved by this means. It is neceflary
therefore that a varnifh fhould be eafily extended or
fpread over the furface, without leaving pores or cavi¬
ties •, that it fhould not crack or fcale; and that it
fhould refift; water. Now refins are the only bodies that
poffefs thefe properties. Refins confequently muft be
ufed as the bafes of varnifh. The quelfion which of
courfe prefents itfelf muft then be, how to difpofe them
for this ufe ? and for this purpofe they muft be diflol-
ved, as minutely divided as poflible, and combined in
fuch a manner that the imperfeflions of thofe which
might be difpofed to fcale may be corre&ed by others.
Refins may be diflolved by three agents. I. By fix¬
ed oil. 2. By volatile oil. 3. By alcohol. And ac¬
cordingly we have three kinds of varnifh : the fat or
oily varnifh, eflential varnifh, and fpirit varnifh. Be¬
fore a refin is diffolved in a fixed oil, it is neceflary to
render the oil drying. For this purpofe the oil is boiled
with metallic oxides ; in which operation the mucilage
of the oil combines with the metal, while the oil itfelf
unites with the oxygen of the oxide. To accelerate the
drying of this varnifh, it is neceffary to add oil of tur¬
pentine. The eflential varnifhes confift of a folution of
refin in oil of turpentine. The varnifh being applied,
the eflentia! oil flies off, and leaves the refin. I his is
ufed only for paintings When vefins are diffolved in
25 ] VAR
alcohol, the varnifh dries very fpeedily, and is fubjeflf Varnifh'.
to crack 5 but this fault is correfted by adding a fmall
quantity of turpentine to the mixture, which renders it
brighter, and lefs brittle when dry.
We fhall now give the method of preparing a num¬
ber of varnifhes for different purpofes.
A Varnijh for Toilet-boxes, Cafes, Fans, &c.—JDif-
folve two ounces of gum maftich and eight ounces of
gum fandarach in a quart of alcohol j then add four
ounces of Venice turpentine.
A Varnifh for Wairtfcots,. Cane-chairs, Iron-chairs,
Orates. Qiffolve in a quart of alcohol eight ounces of
gum fandarach, two ounces of feed lac, four ounces of
rofin ; then add fix ounces of Venice turpentine. If
the varnifh is wifhed to produce a red colour, more of
the lac and lefs of fandarach fhould be ufed, and a lit¬
tle dragon's blood fnould be added. This varniih is fo
thick that two layers of it are equal to four or five of
another.
A Varnijh for Fiddles, and other Muf.cal Inf rumen!:.
—Put four ounces of gum fandarach, two ounces of
lac, two ounces of gum mafticb, an ounce of gum
elemi, into a quart of alcohol, and hang them over a
flow fire till they are diflblved 5 then add two ounces of
turpentine.
Varr.ifh in order to employ Vermilion for painting*'
Equipages.—-Diftolw in a quart of alcohol fix ounces of
fandaracb, three ounces of gum lac, and four ounces of
rofin ; afterwards add fix ounces of the cheapeft kind of
turpentine j mix with it a proper quantity of vermilion
when it is to be ufed.
Gold-coloured Varnifh.—Pound feparately four ounces
of flick lac, four ounces of gamboge, four ounces of
dragon’s blood, four ounces of anotta, and one ounce of
faifron : put each of them feparately into a quart of al¬
cohol, and expofe them for five days in a narrow¬
mouthed bottle to the fun, or keep them during that
time in a very warm room, fnakingtbem every now and
then to haften the folution. When they are all melted,
mix them together. More or lefs of each of thefe in¬
gredients will give the different tints of gold according
as they are combined. In order to make filver imitate
gold exaffly xvhen covered with this varnifh, the quan¬
tity of ingredients muft be fomewhat greater. The me¬
thod of gilding filver-leaf, &c. with this varnifti is as
follows : The filver-leaf being fixed on the fubjeft, in
the fame manner as gold-leaf, by the interpofition of
proper glutinous matters, the varnifh is fpread upon the
piece with a brufh or pencil. The firft coat being dry,
the piece is again and again waftied over with the var¬
nifh till the colour appears fuffieiently deep. What is'
called gilt leather, and many pi&ure frames, have no
other than this counterfeit gilding. Wafhing them with
a little re&ified fpirit of wine affords a proof of this •, the
fpirit diflblving the varnifh, and leaving the filver-leaf
of its own whitenefs. For plain frames, thick tinfoil
may be ufed inftead of filver. The tin-leaf, fixed on
the piece with glue, is to be burnifhed, then polifhed
with emery and a fine linen cloth, and afterwards with
putty applied in the fame manner : being then lacquer¬
ed over with the varnifh five or fix times, it looks very
nearly like burnifhed gold. The fame varnifh, made
with a lefs proportion of the colouring materials, is ap¬
plied alfo on works of brafs •, both for heightening the
colour .of the metal to a refemblance with that of gold,'
and
"Vi'.vnifh.
VAR [ 526
and for preferving it from being tarniflxed or corroded
by the air.
Oil Varnijhes.—Gum copal and amber are the fub-
flances principally employed in oil varniflxes 5 they pof-
fefs the properties neceffary for varnilbes, folidity and
tranfpareney.—The. copal being whiteft, is ufed for
varniihing light, the amber for dark colours. It is bell
to diflblve*them before mixing them with the oil, be-
caufe by this means they are in lefs danger of being
fcorched, and at the fame time the varniflx is more beau¬
tiful. They flxould be melted in a pot on the fire 5
they are in a proper ftate for receiving the oil when
they give no refiftance to the iron fpatula, and when
they run off from it drop by drop. The oil employed
fhould be a drying oil, and perfeftly free from greafe.
It (hould be poured into the copal or amber by little
and little, conflantly ftirring the ingredients at the
fame time with the fpaiula. When the oil is well
mixed with the copal or amber, take it off the fire ; and
when it is pretty cool, pour in a greater quantity of the
eflence of turpentine than the oil that was ufed. After
the varnifh is made, it fhould be pafled through a linen
cloth. Oil varnifhes become thick by keeping •, but
when they are to be ufed, it is only neceffary to pour in
a little effence of turpentine, and to put them for a lit¬
tle on the fire. The turpentine is necelfary in oil var-
nithes to make them dry properly ; generally twice as
much of it is ufed as of oil. Lefs is neceffary in fum-
mer than in winter. Too much oil hinders the varnilh
from drying ; but when too little is ufed, it-cracks and
does not fpread properly. We fhall fubjoin the mofl
ufeful oil varniflies :
White Copal Var?iijh.—On 16 ounces of melted co¬
pal pour four, fix, or eight ounces of linfeed oil, boiled
and quite free from greafe. When they are well mixed,
take them off the fire (not forgetting to dir them pro¬
perly) ; and when pretty cool, pour in 16 ounces of
the effence of Venice turpentine. Pafs the varnifh
through a cloth.—Amber varnifh is made in the fame
way.
Black Varnijh for Coaches and Iron Work.—This var-
nifh is compofed of bitumen of Palefline, rofin, and am¬
ber, melted feparately, and afterwards mixed ; the oil
is then added, and afterwards the turpentine, as direfl-
ed above. The ufual proportions are, 12 ounces of
amber, two ounces of rofin, two ounces of bitumen, fix
of oil, and 12 of theeffence of turpentine.—Golden-co¬
loured varnifh may be made alfo by fubflituting linfeed
oil for alcohol.
EJfential Oil Varnijhes.—The only efiential oil var¬
nifhes ufed are for pidlures. Pi&ure varniflxes fhould be
white, light, and quite tranfparent, which will preferve
the colours without giving them any difagreeable tint j
and it fhould be poflible to take them off the pifture
without injuring it. They are ufually made of gum
maftich and turpentine diffolved together in fome effen-
tial oil. The varnifh is paffed through a cloth, and al¬
lowed to clarify. It is applied cold to the piflure.
Varnifh for Glafs, in order to preferve it from the
Rays of the Sun.—Pulverife a quantity of gum adra-
gant, and let it diffolve for 24 hours in the white of
eggs well beat up ; then rub it gently on the glafs with
a brufh.
Varnifhes before they are ufed flxould be carefully
Ikept from duff, which would fpoil them j and they
1
VAR
fliould be kept in a veffel quite clean and dry. When
ufed, they fliould be lifted lightly with a brufh, and’
fpread upon a ground altogether free from dirt and
moifture. The fubftance, after being varniflxed, fhould
be expofed to the heat of the fun, or placed in a warm
room covered with a glafs cafe, to keep out all filth.
Oil varnifhes require more heat than alcohol varniflxesi
The varnifh fhould be put on very quickly, making
great flrokes with the pencil or bruffi, taking care that
thefe ftrokes never crofs one another ; it fhould be fpread
equally, and never thicker than a leaf of paper j a fe-
cond coat fhould never be put on till the firft is quite
dry. If the varnifh, after being put on, becomes dull
and uneven, it mufl be taken off entirely, and new var¬
nifh put on.
When xvainfcot is to be varnifhed, it is firft painted
of a wooden colour. This colour is made by infufing in
water either red or yellow ochre (according to the co¬
lour xviftxed for), terra ombria (a kind of ochre) and
white lead ; into this as much as neceflary is put of
parchment pajle. Two thin coats of this are to be put
on, and, after they are quite dry, the varnifh.
Varnifhes are poliftxed with pumice-ftone and tripoli
earth. The pumice-ftone muft be reduced to an impal¬
pable powder, and put upon a piece of ferge moiftened
with water ; with this the varnifhed fubftance is to be
rubbed lightly and equally. The tripoli muft alfo be
reduced to a very fine powder, and put upon a clean
woollen cloth moiftened with olive oil, with which the
polifhing is to be performed. The varnifh is then to be
wiped xvith foft linen, and, when quite dry, cleaned
with ftarch or Spanifh white, and rubbed with the palm
of the hand or with a linen cloth.
To recover colours or varnilh, and to take off the
dirt and filth which may adhere to them, a ley is ufed
made of potafh and the allies of kes of wine. Take 48
ounces of potafh, and 16 of the above-mentioned afhes,
and put them into fix quarts of water, and the ley is
made : inftead of the afhes an equal quantity of potafh
would probably do as well. To clean dirty colours,
dilute fome of this ley with four times its quantity of
water, and rub the pidlure with it ; then wafh it with
river water ; and when dry, give it a coat or two of
varnifh. In order to take off a varnifh, wafh it with
the above-mentioned ley, then with water, and then lift
it off the fubftance on xvhich it xvas xvith any iron in-
ftrument.—We ftxall finifh this article with a defcrip-
tion of the famous Chinefe varnifh.
The Chinefe varnifh is not a compofition, but a refm
xvhich exudes from a tree called in China//f-cZ/zq “var-
nifh tree.” This tree grows in feveral provinces of the
fouthern parts of China. The Chinefe take the follow¬
ing method of propagating this tree : In fpring they
choofe a vigorous (hoot about a foot in length, which
proceeds immediately from the trunk ; and coat over
the lower part, by which it adheres to the tree, with a
kind of yellow earth, at leaft three inches in thicknefs.
This coat is carefully covered with a mat, to defend it
from rain and the injuries of the air. Towards the au¬
tumnal equinox they detach a little of the earth, to ob-
ferve in what condition the fmall roots are, which begin
to fpring forth from the ftxoot. If they find that thp
filaments which compofe them are of a reddifh colour,
they judge it is time to make an amputation ; but they
defer it if the roots are white, beeaufe this colour fhows
that
arniO?,
VAR, [ 527 ] VAR
arvlih, that they are yet too tender : they then clofe up the
-V—' coat again, and wait till the fpring following. When
the ihoot is feparated from the trunk of the tree, it is put
into the earth; but in whatever feafon it is planted, whe¬
ther in fpring or autumn, great care mult be taken to put
plenty of cinders into the hole prepared for it; without
this precaution the ants would deftroy the yet tender
roots, or at lead deprive them of all their moifture, and
caufe them to decay.
The Chinefe do not procure varnifh from the tfi-chu
until its trunk is nearly five inches in diameter, which
fke it feldom attains to before feven or eight years.
Varnifh extrafted from a tree fmaller or of lefs. age
would not have the fame body and fplendour. This li¬
quor diftils only in the night time, and during the fum-
xner feafon. To caufe the gum to flow, they make feve-
ral rows of incifions round the trunk, the number of
which is proportioned to the vigour of the tree. The
firfl; row is feven inches from the earth, and the refl are
at the fame diftance one from the other, and continue
to the top of the trunk, and even fometimes on the
boughs which are of fufKcient ftrength and fize. . The
Chinefe life a crooked iron for making thefe incifions,
which muft run a little obliquely, and be equal in depth
to the thicknefs of the bark} they make them with one
hand, and with the other hold a fhell, the edges of which
they infert into the opening, where it remains without
any fupport. Thefe incifions are made towards evening,
and next morning they colleft the varnifh which has
fallen into the fhellsj the followingevening they are again
inferted, and this operation is continued until the end of
fummer. A thoufand trees yield almofl: in one night
20 pounds of varnifh.
While the varnifti diftils, it exhales a malignant va¬
pour, the bad effefts of which can only be prevented by
prefervatives and great precaution. The merchant who
employs the workmen is obliged to keep by him a large
vafe filled with rape-oil, in which a certain quantity of
thofe fleftiy filaments have been boiled that are found in
hug’s lardj and which do not melt. When the work¬
men are going to fix the ftiells to the trees, they carry
fome of this oil along with them, and rub their face and
hands with it, which they do with greater care when
they colled! in the morning the varnifh that has diftxlled
during night. After eating, they wafti their whole bo¬
dies with warm water, in which the bark of the cheinut
tree, fir wood, cryftallized faltpetre, and fome other
drugs, have been boiled. When they are at woric near
the trees, they put upon their heads a fmall cloth bag
in which there are two holes, and cover the fore part of
their bodies with a kind of apron made of doe-fkin,
which is fufpended from their necks with firings, and
tied round them with a girdle. T hey alfo wear boots,
and have coverings on their arms, made of the fame
kind of fkin. The labourer who ftiould attempt to col¬
led! varnifh without ufing this precaution, would foon
be punifhed for his raftinefs, and the moft dreadful ef-
fedts would enfue. The diforder (hows itfelf by tetters,
which become of a bright red colour, and ipread in^ a
very fhort time ; the body afterwards fwells, and ine
fkin burfts and appears covered with an univerfal lepio-
fy. The unhappy wretch could not long endure the
excruciating pain which he feels, did lie not find a
fp.eedy remedy in thofe prefervatives which are ufcd
again!! the malignant and noxious exhalations of the
varnifh.
The feafon of colledling varnifti being ended, the mer¬
chant puts it into fmall calks clofely flopped. A pound
of it newly made cofts him about one {hilling and eight
pence fterling ; but he gains cent, per cent, upon it,
and fometimes more, according to the diftance of the
place to which he tranfports it.
Befides the luftre and beauty which that varnifh gives
to many of the Chinefe manufa6tures, it has alfo the
property of preferving the wood upon which it is
laid, efpecially if no other matter be mixed with it.
It prevents it from being hurt either by dampnefs or
Worms.
Every workman has a particular art and method of
ufing the varnifh. This work requires not only much
fkill and dexterity, but alfo great attention, to obferve
the proper degree of fluidity which the gum ought to
have, as it muft be neither too thick nor too liquid when
it is laid on. Patience above all is neceffary in thofe who
wifh to fucceed. To be properly varnifhed, a work muft
be done at leifure j and the whole fummer is fearcely
fufficient to bring it to perfedtion. It is therefore rare
to fee any of thofe cabinets which are imported to us
from Canton fo beautiful and durable as thofe maim-
fadtured in Japan, Tong-king, and Nang-king, the
capital of the province of Kiang-nan : not that the
artifts do not employ the fame varnifti *, but as they
work for Europeans, who are more eafily pleafed, they
do not take the trouble of giving the pieces which
come from their hands all the polifh they are capable of
receiving.
There are tivo methods of laying on the varnifti j
the fimnleft is, when it is immediately laid on the wood.
The work is firft poliftied, and then daubed over with
a kind of oil which the Chinefe call tong-yeou. When
this oil is dry, it receives two or three coats of varnifh ^
which remain fo tranfparent, that all the ftiades and
veins of the wood may be feen through them. If the
artift is defirous of entirely concealing the fubftance on
which they are laid, nothing is neceflary but to add a
few more coats ■> thefe give the work a fhining furface,
the frnoothnefs of which equals that of the moft beautiful
ice. When the work is dry, various figures are painted
upon it in gold and filver, fuch as flowers, birds,. tree?,
temples, dragons, &c. A new coat of varnifti is then
fometimes laid over thefe figures, which preferves them,
and adds much to their fplendour. The fecond method
requires more preparation. The Chinefe workmen fix
to the wood by means of glue a kind of pafteboard, com-
pofed of paper, hemp, lime, and other ingredients, well
beaten, that the varnifti may incorporate with them. Oi
this they make a ground perfectly fmooth ?wd folid, over
which the varnifh is laid in thin coats, that are left to
Varmik.
dry one after the other.
It often happens, that the luftre of varniftied tables
and other pieces of furniture is infenfibly deftroyed by
tea and warm liquors. “ The fecret of reftoring to var¬
nifh its fhining black colour (fays a.Chinefe author) is
to expofe it for one night to a white hoar-froft, or to
cover it fome time with fnow.” For a method of imi¬
tating Chinefe varnifh., fee Turning. .-
Varnish alfo fignifies a fort of ftiining coat, where¬
with potters-ware, delft-ware, china-ware, &c. are co-
r vered,
Varnrfli,
V arro.
ver^d winch gives them a fmoothnefi, and luftre. Melt- and other critics confound them
ed lead is generally ufed for the firfl, and fmalt for the
fecond. See Glazing.
_ Varnish, among medalids, fignifies the colours an¬
tique medals have acquired in the earth.
The beauty which nature alone is able to give to me¬
dals, and art has never yet attained to counterfeit, en¬
hances the value of them : that is, the colour which
certain foils in ivhich they have a long time lain tinges
the metals withal : fome of which are blue, almoit as
.beautiful as the turquoife j others with an inimitable
vermilion colour •, others with a certain ftiining polilhed
brown, vaftly finer than Brafil figures.
The moll ufual varnifh is a beautiful green, which
hangs to the fineft ftrokes without effacing them, more
accurately than the fineft enamel does on metals.
No metal but brals is fufceptible of this; for the
green ruft that gathers on filver always fpoils it, and it
muft be got off with vinegar or lemon fuice.
l alfifiers of medals have a falfe or modern varnifh,
which they ufe on their counterfeits, to give them the
appearance or air of being antique. But this may be
difcovered by its foftnefs ; it being fofter than the natu¬
ral varnifh, which is as hard as the metal itfelf.
Some depofite their fpurious metals in the earth for
a confiderable time, by which means they contradt a
fort of varnifh,- which may impofe upon the lefs know-
. ing ; others ufe fal ammoniac, and others burnt paper.
VARRO, Marcus Terentius, the moft learned of
all the Romans, was born 28 years B. C. He was a
ienator of the firft diftindlion, both for birth and merit j
and bore many great offices. He was an intimate
friend of Cicero 5 and thisfriendftiip was confirmed and
immortalized by a mutual dedication of their learned
Words to each other. Thus Cicero dedicated his Aca¬
demic Qyieftions to Varro j and Varro dedicated his
•.reatife on the Latin tongue to Cicero. In the civil
wars he was zealoufly attached to Pompey j but after
his defeat foon fubmitted to CEefar, who was reconciled
to him. ^Afterwards he applied his whole time to let¬
ters, and had the charge of the Greek and Latin libra¬
ries at Rome. He was above When Antony profcri-
bed him ; however, he found means - to efcape and fave
his life, though he could not fave fome of his works and
his library from being plundered by the foldiers. After
this ftorm was over, he purfued his ftudies as ufual; and
f liny relates, that he continued to ftudy and to write
when he was 88 years of age. He was 80 when he
wrote his three books De re Rujlica, which are ftill ex¬
tant. Five of his books De lingua Latina, which he
addreffed to Cicero, are all extant. There remain, too,
divers fragments of his works, particularly of his Menip-
pean Satires, which are medleys of profe and verfe ; and
Scaliger has collected fome of his epigrams from among
the Cat ale Da Virgilii. His books De lingua Latina, and
De re Rujiica, were printed with the notes of Jofeph
Scaliger, Furnebus, and Vi&orius, by Henry Stephens
at Paris, 1573, in 8vo, and have been publilhed fepa-
rately fince among the AuDores de lingua Latina, and
the AuDores de re Rujiica.
There was another Varro of antiquity, called Ataci-
nus, who was born about 10 years after the firft, at a
imad town near Narbonne. Though infinitely below
the Roman m learning, he was at leaft as good, if not a
is*' tter, poet j which perhaps has made Lillius Gyraldus
  Pie compofed many Varr*
works in verle ; iome fragments of which were colIett- II
ed, and publiftied with thofe of other ancient poet« at Vaudo's-
Lyons in 1603. His chief works were, A poem’on'—^
the war with the Sequani, a people of Gaul ; and the
Aftronomics, that went under the name of Planciades
the grammarian. -But the ^rgonautics, in four books
was what gained him the greateft reputation: and
though indeed nothing but a tranfiation of Apollonius
Rhodius, yet was fo well done as to be commended bv
Quintilian. J
VARRONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs pentandria, and arranged in the natural fyftem
under the 41ft order, Afperifolue. See Botany Index.
VASCULAR, fomething confifting of divers veffels
as arteries, veins, &e.
VASE, a term frequently ufed for ancient veffels
dug from under ground, or otherwife found, and pre-
ferved in the cabinets of the curious. In architeaure
the appellation vafe is alfo given to thofe ornaments
placed on corniches, fochles, or pedeftals, reprefenting
the veffels of the ancients, particularly thofe ufed in fa-
crifice, as incenfe-pots, flower-pots, See. See PORT¬
LAND- Vafe.
VASSAL, in our ancient cuftoms, fignified a tenant
or feudatory ; or perfon who vowed fidelity and homage
to a lord, on account of fome land, Sec. held of him in
fee; alfo a flave or fervant, and efpecially a domeftic
of a prince.—Vajfailus is faid to be quaji inferior fo-
c:us; as the vaffal is inferior to his matter, and muft
ferve him ; and yet he is in a manner his companion, be-
eaufe each of them is obliged to the other. See Feodal
System.
VATICAN, a magnificent palace of the pope in
Rome, which is faid to confift of feveral thoufand rooms:
but the parts of it moft admired are the grand ftaircafe
the pope’s apartment, and efpecially the library, which is’
one of the richeft in the world, both in printed books
and manuferipts.
VAUBAN, Sebastian le Prestre, Seigneur
UE, marflial of France, and the greateft engineer that
country ever produced, was born in 1633. He difplay-
ed his knowledge of fortification in the courfe of many
fieges, andhisfervices were rewarded with the firft mi¬
litary honours. He was made governor of Lifie in
1668, commiffary general of the fortifications of France
in 16.78, governor of the maritime parts of Flanders in
1689, and a marlhal of France in 1703. He died in
1707, after having brought the arts of attacking and
defending fortified places^ to a degree of perfection un¬
known before. His writings on thefe fubje£ts are in
great efteem.
VAUDOIS, "Valdenses, or Wuldenfes, in ecclefi-
aftical hiftory, a name given to a fed! of reformers, who
made their firft appearance about the year 1160.
I he origin of this famous fed!, according to Mo-
ftieim, was as follows : Peter, an opulent merchant of
Lyons, furnamed Valdenfis, or Validifms from Vaux or
V aldum, a town in the marquifate of Lyons, being ex¬
tremely zealous for the advancement of true piety and
Chriftian knowledge, employed a certain prieft called
Stephanas de Evifa, about the year 1160, in tranfiating
from Latin into French the four Gofpels, with other
books of Holy Scripture, and the moft remarkable fen-
tences of the ancient dodters, which were fo highly
efteemed
V
U B I
^ idols efleemed in tills century. But no fooner had he perufed
1 thefe facred books with a proper degree of attention',
u ulta‘ than he perceived that the religion which was now
J |s‘ , taught in the Roman church, differed totally from that
which was originally inculcated by Chrift and his apo-
ftles. Struck with this glaring contradi&ion between
the doCtrines of the pontiffs and the truths of the Gofpel,
•and animated with zeal, he abandoned his mercantile
vocation, diftributed his riches among the poor (whence
the Waldenfes were called poor men of Lijons'), and
forming an affociation with other pious men, who had
adopted his fentiments and turn of devotion, he began in
the year uSoto affume the quality of a public teacher,
and to inftruCt the multitude in the doftrines and pre¬
cepts of Chriftianity.
Soon after Peter had affumed the exercife of his mi-
niftry, the archbilhop of Lyons, and the other rulers of
the church in that province, vigoroufly oppofed him.
However, their oppofition was unfuccefsful j for the
purity and fimplicity of that religion which thefe good
men taught, the fpotlefs innocence that {hone forth in
their lives and aClions, and the noble contempt of riches
and honours, which was confpicuous in the whole of their
oonduCl and converfation, appeared fo engaging to all
fuch as had any fenfe of true piety, that the number of
their followers daily increafed.—They accordingly for¬
med religious affemblies, firft in France, and afterwards
in Lombardy, from whence they propagated their fed
throughout the other provinces of Europe with incredible
, rapidity, and with fuch invincible fortitude, that neither
fire, nor fword, nor the moff cruel inventions of mercilefs
perfecution, could damp their zeal, or entirely ruin their
caufe.
VAULT, in Architefture, an arched roof, fo contrived
that the Hones which form it fuftain each other.
Vaults are on many occafions to be preferred to foffits
or flat ceilings, as they give a greater height and eleva¬
tion, and are befldes more firm and durable.
VAYER. See Mothe.
VAYVODE, or Vaivode. See Wayvvode.
USES, Sx, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Eftremadura, feated on a bay of the Atlantic
ocean, 21 miles fouth of Lilbon. It {lands on an emi¬
nence, with a very ftrong caftle built on a rock. The
foil around is fertile in corn, wine, and fruits •, and it is
furnilhed with good fifli from the lea, and a fmall lake in
the neighbourhood. Here great quantities of fine fait
are made, which is carried to the American plantations.
E. Long. 8. 54. N. Lat. 38. 22.
UBIQiUITARI ANS, formed from ubique, “ every¬
where,” in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fe£t of Lutherans
which rofe and fpread itfelf in Germany •, and whofe
dillinguifliing doftrine was, that the body of Jefus Chrift
is everywhere, or in every place.
Brentins, one of the earlieft reformers, is faid to have
firft broached this error, in 1560. Luther himfelf, in
his controverfy with Zuinglius, had thrown out fome
unguarded expreflions, that feemed to imply a belief of
the omniprefence of the body of Chrift j but he became
fenfible afterwards, that this opinion was attended with
great difficulties, and particularly that it ought not to
be made ufe of as a proof of Chrift’s corporal prefence
in the eucharift. However, after the death of Luther,
this abfurd hypothefis was renewed, and dreffed up in
& fpecious and plaufible form by Brentius, Chemni-
Vol. XX. Part II.
[ 529 1
V E E
tins, and Andrceas, who maintained the communica- Ubiquita-
tion of the properties of Chrift’s divinity to his human r‘®ns
nature. It is indeed obvious, that every Lutheran who VeW
believes the do&rine of confubftantiation (fee SUPPER ■ - " --
of the Lord), whatever he may pretend, muft be an Ubi*
quitarian.
UBIQUITY, Omnipresence*, an attribute of the
Deity, ivhereby he is always intimately prefent to all
things ; gives the effc to all things j knows, preferves,
and does all in all things.
UDDER, in comparative anatomy, that part in
brutes wherein the milk is prepared, anfwering to the
mammee or breafts in w'omen. See Anatomy, Com¬
parative.
VEDAS, the facred books of the Hindoos, believed
to be revealed by God, and called immortal. They are
confidered as the fountain of all knowledge human and
divine, and are four in number j of which we have the
following account in the firft volume of the Afiatic Re-
fearches: the Rigveda confifts of five fe£lions ; the Ya-
jurveda of eighty-fix: the Samaveda of a thoufand ; and
the At'harvaveda of nine *, with eleven hundred fac'ha's,
or branches, in various divifions and fubdivifions. The
Vedas in truth are infinite j but have been long reduced
to this number and order : the principal part of them is
that which explains the duties of man in a methodical .
arrangement} and in the fourth is a fyftem of divine
ordinances.
From thefe are reduced the four Upavedas, the firft of
which was delivered to mankind by Brahma, IndRA,
DlIANWANTARI, and five other deities ; and comprifes
the theory of diforders and medicines, with the practical
methods of curing difeafes.
The fecond confifts of mufic, invented for the pur-
pofe of railing the mind by devotion to the felicity of
the Divine nature j the third treats of the fabrication
and ufe of arms ; and the fourth of fxtyfour mechani¬
cal arts. Of however little value we may efteem the
mechanical arts of the Hindoos, and however defpicable
their theological fyftem may really be, the Upaveda,
W'hich treats of difeafes and the method of curing them,
furely deferves to be ftudied by every European phyfi-
cian pradlifing in India. There are indeed a great
number of medical books in the Shanfcrit language
worthy of attention *, for though the theories of their
authors may be groundlefs and whimfical, they contain
the names and defcriptions of many Indian plants and
minerals, with their ufes, difcovered by experience, in
the cure of difeafes.
VEDETTE, in iVar, a centinel onhorfeback, with
his horfe’s head towards the place whence any danger is
to be feared, and his carabine advanced, with the butt-
end againft his right thigh. When the enemy has en¬
camped, there are vedettes polled at all the avenues,
and on all the riling grounds, to watch for its fecurity.
To VEER and Haul, to pull a rope tight, by draw¬
ing it in and flackening it alternately, till the body t«
which it is applied acquires an additional motion, like
the increafed vibrations of a pendulum, fo that the rope
is ftraitened to a greater tenfion with more facility and
difpateh. This method is particularly ufed in hauling
the bowlines.
The wind is faid to veer and haul when it alters its
direction, and becomes more or lefs fair. Thus it is
faid to veer aft and to haul forward.
3 X Veer,
Veer
V E G
Veer, Ter-Veer, anciently Camp-Veer, a town of
ye* Zealand in the United Provinces, Handing at the mouth
—y—~ °- Eaft Schelde, about four miles from Middle-
burgh, and eight from Flufhing. Veer, in Dutch, fig-
nifies a paffage or ferry over an arm of the fea or a
river ; and as there vras once a ferry here over the
Scheloe to the village of Compen, on the ifland of
North Beveland, the town thereby got the name of
Veer, Camp-Veer, and Ter-Veer. It is well fortified,
and formerly enjoyed a good trade, efpecially to Scot¬
land 5 the natives enjoying particular privileges here.
.1 he harbour is very good, and the arfenal the bell fur-
niihed in the world. Hence the Veres, anciently earls
of Oxford, are faid to have derived both their origin
and name.
VEERING, or Wearing, the operation by which
a fhip, in changing her courfe from one board to the
other, turns her Hern to windward. Hence it is ufed
in oppofition to I aCKING, wherein the head is turned to
the wind and the Hern to leeward. See Seamanship.
VEGA, Lopez DE, a celebrated Spanifh poet. He
was the ion of Felix de Vega and Francifca Fernandez,
vyho were both defeended from honourable families, and
lived in the neighbourhood of Madrid. Our poet was
born in that city on the 25th of November 1 562. He
was, according to his own expreffion, a poet from his
cradle ; and beginning to make verfes before he had
learned to write, he ufed to bribe his elder fchool-fel-
lows with part of his breakfall, to commit to paper the
lines he had compofed. Having loft Iris father while he
was yet ftill a child, he engaged in a frolic very natural
to a lively boy, and wandered with another lad to vari-
ous parts of Spain, till, having fpent their money, and
being conducted before a magiftrate at Segovia for of¬
fering to fell a few trinkets, they were fent home again
to IVLidi id. ooon after this adventure, our young poet
was taken under the protection of Geronimo Manrique,
biftiop of Avila, and began to diftinguifh himfelf by his
dramatic compofitions, which w'ere received with great
appmuie by the public, though their author had not yet
completed his education : for, after this period, he be¬
came a member of the univerfrty of Alcala, where he
devoted himfelf for four years to the ftudy of pbilo-
fophy. He was then engaged as fecretary to the duke
of Alva, and wrote his Arcadia in compliment to that
patron: who is frequently mentioned in his occafional
poems. He quitted that employment on his marriage
with Ifabel de Urbina, a lady (lays his friend and bio¬
grapher Perez de Montalvan) beautiful without arti¬
fice, and virtuous without affeNation. His domeftic
happinefs was foon interrupted by a painful incident :
Having written fome lively verfes'in ridicule of a perfon
who had taken fome injurious freedom with his charac-
'.e!, he received a challenge in confequence of his wit ;
and happening, in the duel which enfued, to give his
advenary a dangerous wound, he was obliged to fly
from his family, and fhelter himfelf in Valencia. Fie
refided there a.confiderable time ; but connubial affec-
tion recalled him to Madrid. His wife died in the year
of his return. His affli£lion at this event led him to re-
linquifh his favourite ftudies, and embark on board the
Armada which was then preparing for the invafion of
ngland. He had a brother who fervecl in that fleet as
a leutenant $ and being fhot in an •engagement with
V E G
^orn>e Nutch velTels, las virtues were celebrated by our yfr7
afmcied poet, whole heart was peculiarly alive to every Vegeui y
generous a fie (ft ion. After the ill fuccefs of the Armada, i
the difeonlolate Lopez de Vega returned to Madrid^ l*^r'
and became fecretary to the marquis of Malpica, to
whom be has addreffed a grateful fonnet. From*the
fervice of this patron he palled into the koufehold of the
count of Lemos, whom he celebrates as an inimitable
poet. Pie was once more induced to quit his attendance
on the great, for the more inviting comforts of a mar¬
ried life. His fecond choice was Juana de Guardio, of
noble birth and Angular beauty. By this lady he had
Uvo children, a Ion who died in his infancy, and a
daughter named Vehciaiui, who furvived her father.
11m death of his little boy is laid to have haftened that
or Ids wife, whom he had the misfortune to lofe in about
feven years after his marriage. Having now experi¬
enced the preearioufnefs of all human enjoyments, he
devoted himfelf to a religious life, and fulfilled all the
uuties of it with the moil exemplary piety : ftill conti¬
nuing to produce an aftenifiling variety of poetical com¬
pofitions. His talents and virtues procured him many
unfolicited honours. Pope Urban VIII. fent him the
trots of Malta, with the title of Dodlor in Divinity,
and appointed him to a place of profit in the Apoftolic
Chamber : favours for which he exprefied his gratitude
by dedicating his Corona Tragic a (a long poem on the
fate of Mary queen of Scots) to that liberal pontiff. In
his 73d year he felt the approaches of death, and pre¬
pared himfelf for it with the utmoit compofure and de¬
votion. His laii hours were attended by many of his
intimate ^riends, and particularly his chief patron the
duke of Seffa, whom he had made his executor •, leaving
him the care ci nis daughter Feliciana, and of his vari¬
ous manuferipts. I lie manner in which he took leave
of thofe he loved was moft tender and affeUing. He
faid to his ciiieiple and biographer Montalvan, That true
fame confifted in being good : and that he would will¬
ingly exchange all the applaufes he had received to add
a fingle deed of virtue to the aeftions of his life. Hav-
ing given his dying benediflion to his daughter, and
performed thelall ceremonies of his religion, he expired
on the 25th of Auguft 16^5.
‘VEGEI ABLE Physiology.—Under the article
Botany, and alfo under Plant, we have already de¬
livered fome of the commonly received doctrines on this
iobject. But as fome late inveftigatiens feem to lead
to new views with regard to the ftrudlure and nature of
vegetables, w7e have thought it necefiary to refume the
fubjeff, and to give as full a detail of the experiments and
obfervalions to which we allude as our limits will per¬
mit : we fliall firft treat of the ftrmilure, and fecond-
ly of the phyfiology of plants.
I. Structure of Plants.—In confideringthellruc-
ture or anatomy of plants, we fliall treat, ill, of the
root; 2d, of the ftem and branches ; 3d, of the leaves5
and 4th, of the flowers 3 in the order in which they are
now enumerated.
1. 'Ike ROOT.— I he root is that organ belonging to
vegetables by which they are fupplied with nourifhment,
and oy which they are fixed to a commodious fituation.
It was formerly fuppofed to be compofed of outer and
inner bark, of wood, and of path 3 but Mrs Ibbetfon, who * tf,ch- , |
has lately communicated * to the public the refults of an Jour. **
elaborated-aDd I
334-
[ 5 5° 1
v E G , [ 53
Vs :able elaborate feries of experiments on this fubject, thinks
t pir logy-that it is wholly compofed of the rind much thickened,
•" AVJth perhaps a very little of the outer bark, but no inner
bark; of a quantity of wood, hardly any pith, and no
fpiral veflels. Mrs Ibbetfon fearched in vain for the
larger velTels of the inner bark, till it occurred to her that
the want of this bark accounted for there being no
leaves on the root. Mrs Ibbetfon had often been af¬
fined that roots were found bearing leaves, but on dif-
fe£tion of thefe fuppofed roots, {he found that they were
branches which crolfed the root.
The root confifts of the caudex, flock or main body,
and of the radiculae or fibres which arife from the cau¬
dex, and are the organs by which the moifture is imme¬
diately imbibed.
In botanical terminology, we generally confider all
that part of a plant which is Under ground as the root;
but Linne comprehends under his definition, what we
term the body or trunk of the plant; and he wrfcnt fo
far as to call the ftems of trees “ roots above ground
but as Dr Smith juftly remarks, this feems paradoxical
and fcarcely corredl. Dr Smith adds, that perhaps it
would be more accurate to call the caudex a fubterra-
neousJlem; although he is rather inclined to think that
it has fundlions diftinft from the Hem, analogous to di-
geftion; for there is evidently a great difference in many
cafes, between the fluids of the root, at leal! the fecret-
ed ones, and thole of the reft of the plant.
In botanical phyfiology, by the'term root, is often un-
derftood the parts only which ferve to keep the plants
firm in the ground: thus the bulbous and flefhy roots
as they are called, are, ftri£lly fpeaking, not roots; the
radiculae or fibres being the real roots. The duration
of roots is various; they are either annual, biennial, or
perennial.
1. The Stems and Branches.—Linne long ago di¬
vided the ftems of trees into four parts; the rind, the
bark, the wood, and the pith: and nearly afimilar divi-
fion has been adopted by moft vegetable phyfiologifts
till the prefent time.
Mrs Ibbetfon (aided by a powerful folar microfcope),
however, thinks that nature points out a more regular
divifion, a divifion marked not only by the form, but
by the difference of the juices, with which the parts are
fwelled.
Mrs Ibbetfon divides the ftem of trees into fix parts:
i. The rind; 2. The bark and inner bark; 3. The
wood; 4. The fpiral nerves; 5. The nerves or circle ox
life (corona of Hill) ; and, 6. The pith.
Of the rind.—Mrs Ibbetfon conceives the rind to
be merely an outward covering to the tree, which pre¬
vents its juices from being evaporated by the influence
of the fun’s heat. The rind is continued under ground:
but it may be as ufeful there to prevent the entrance of
the dull and earth, the preffure of ftones, or the injury
of infefts.
The rind is compofed of two rows of cylinders, with a
Angle line to divide them. The cylinders are filled
With a pellucid liquor. There are feldom more than
four or five layers of yeffels in the rind; but it is in ge¬
neral fo covered with parafitic plants, as powdery li¬
chens, &c. that its thicknefs is often more than dou¬
bled.
1 he rind does not appear to be neceffary to plants in
general, as there are many in which the bark ferves
i ] V E G
as a covering in its ftead; but it feems to form an effen- Vegetable
tial part of trees. Phyfiology..
2. Of the barb and inner barb.—Thefe parts, though "" *
certainly different as to form, contain the fame kind of
juice; and being fo nearly allied, may be treated of as
one. From the bark and inner bark the leaves take
their origin, as will be fhovn when we come to treat of
the formation of the leaf-bud. Mrs Ibbetfon conceives
that the juice of the bark is the blood of the tree.
In the bark alone are produced the gums, the refins,
the oil, the milk, &c. ; in fnort all that belongs to the
tree; gives tafte to it; all that makes one plant differ
from another, and all its virtues, if the expreffion may
be ufed. The bark is generally green; the inner bark
white, yellow, or green. The former confifts of veffeis
crofting each other; the latter of bundle? of veffeis of
two fizes. The large veffeis confift of broad cylinders,
having a bottom with a hole in it, through which the
liquid paffes, though not with perfedl eafe.
Mrs Ibbetfon fays that on expofing feveral pieces of
the inner bark to the folar microfcope* the moment ftte
turned the light on the fpecimen, the juice, which had
before proceeded up the pipes rather {lowly, was fudden-
ly propelled forward with a force truly aftonifhing.
When the heat and light were inereafed by caufing
the focus of the rays to fall on the veffeis, the fide divi-
fions of the veffeis were broken through, thus inundat¬
ing the fpecimen ; but when a proper degree of light
and heat was kept up, it was curious to obferve the li¬
quid palling from pipe to pipe, in one regular and eafy
flow, making only a fliort Hop as it iffued through the
ftraitened apertures at the bottom of the veffeis. Mrs
Ibbetfon has often flood for more than an hour watch¬
ing the current, (which paffes, however, much flower
than the fap does), nor could fne perceive while the
heat and light were on it, that it required any addi¬
tional expedient to haften its momentum; but during
the cold and darknefs of night, {he fuppofes that thu
preffure of the baftard grain mentioned by Mr Knight,
may very likely aflift its flow, as it is at night that the
baftard grain is prefied againit the cylinders.
The baftard grain is found however only in the wood ;
but the contraction at the bottom of the large veffeis of
the inner bark, may probably ferve the fame purpofe,
the impetus of the current being increafed by the leffen-
ing of the apertures of the veffeis.
The veffeis of the inner bark are very thick in pro¬
portion to their fize, and there is placed in them a pe¬
culiar circular body, which refembles a cullender full of
holes fo fmall that no liquid could pafs them. In view¬
ing the thick juice which runs through thefe pipes, Mrs
Ibbetfon obferved many bubbles of air, the fize of which
was increafed or diminifhed according to the tempera¬
ture ; and as their fize varied, fo was the flow of the
liquid accelerated or retarded. T o fee thefe veffeis
well, the fpecimens may be placed in a ba{ket which is
to be faftened in a running ftream for fome time, or
boiled thoroughly, and then thrown into green wax
perfectly melted. .
Mirbel fays that “ fome plants have the fame juices
in every part ofthem:” but Mrs Ibbetfon does not coin¬
cide with his idea, for file did not find it to be fo; though
the potent fmell of the liquid belonging to the bark
often extends to other parts of the plant, yet^it general¬
ly vanilhes if kept feparate for a day, or becomes fo
1 3X2 faint
v E G [ 532 3 V E G
Vegetable faint in companion with the real liquid of the bark as
IjMQbgy. to prove tj5ai. jt not form an ingre(]ient of thefe
parts. Mirbel fays that the cylinders of the inner bark
are merely vacancies of the ordinary vefiels ; but Mrs
Ibbetfon Hates that they are exa&ly the fame as thefe
veffels, and occupy the fame place.
They have a peculiar lliape, being unlike any other
veffels of the tree, and they perform a particular of¬
fice.
1 he veffels of the bark are fmaller, and more fimple
than thofe of the inner bark, and are divided by a line
or two, running longitudinally between them.
3. Of the WOOD.—This is a very obvious part. Place
the Item of any plant in a coloured liquid, and every
veffel which conveys the fap from the earth to the top
of the tree will be tinged.
The fap is a thin watery liquor, probably medicated
from the earth, in order to become fuitable for the life
of vegetables.
Mrs Ibbetfon fuppofes that the fap may vary with the
foil, though on trial the has never found that change
which might have been fufpe&ed.
If we make a tranfverfe feflion of the ftem of a tree,
two different kinds of layers prefent tbemfelves in the
wood $ fome running in a circular manner, which tim¬
ber merchants call the fiver grain ; and others from the
circumference to the centre, which they denominate the
bafard grain. Linne long ago believed that one of
the circular layers was added to the tree each year.
This opinion has often been controverted, and among
others by Duhamel and Mirbel ; but Mrs Ibbetfon has
had an opportunity of verifying the accuracy of Linne’s
opinion. She alfo obferved that the layer was large
or (mail according to the expofure of the tree, and
the favourablenefs of the feafon : thus in expofed fitu-
ations, the circles taken as a whole, were much narrow¬
er than in trees not expofed. In fome trees flie noticed
only half a circular layer.
Mrs Ibbetfon thinks the baflard ftripe confifts of two
lines or firings with a little fcale between them ; and
they appear from their extreme fufceptibility to be form¬
ed of the fame leather-like fubflance as the fpiral veffels,
which we are immediately to notice.
Mr Knight merely calls them fcales; but as he
mentions their preffing dole (which they certainly do)
to the cylinders at night, and during cold weather, it
is obvious (whichever of the opinions we adopt) that
the baftard grains are capable of fupplying the place of
the fun’s rays, by their preffure.
1 he wood-veffels are far more fimple in ftru&ure
that thofe of the bark j they are very narrow cylinders,
and the two rows next to the corona are covered by the
fpiral veffels.
It is indeed difficult to determine the exaft extent of
the fpiral veffels even with the affiftance of the folar
microfcope, for it is by unwinding them alone that they
can be known ; and their extreme finenefs confufes, in
confequence of which they have been taken for fap vef¬
fels. Neither Mr Knight nor Mirbel was led into this
miftake, and Mrs Ibbetfon thinks that there can be no
doubt that thefe veffels (formerly fo called) are folid
firings which hold no liquid.
1 he veffels of the wood may be beft feen in flices of
Items of young trees j and if not very vilible when
recently cut, they will foon become fo if the flices are Vegetal
kept in a dry place. Phylidog;
If the wrood-veffels are cut longitudinally and obferv-
ed with a high magnifier, as foon as the light is permit-
ted to come on the glafs, the flow of fap will be acceler¬
ated, and with perfect eafe will run up veffels fo dimi¬
nutive that to meafure them is almoft impoffible.
A few of the wood-veffels are feparated and run with
the fpiral veffels to each leaf, in order to nourifh it, as
will be more particularly noticed, when we come to
treat of the leaf-bud.
But little of the fap, however, paffes off in this way
from the principal current, which flows on j its chief
purpofe being to form the flamen and the pollen apper¬
taining to it, and afterwards to lend its principal aid to
the formation of the fruit and feed.
4. The fpiral veffels are a quantity of folid firings
coiled up into a fpiral form. Mrs Ibbetfon fuppofes
them to be formed of a leather-like fubflance, and, as
already mentioned, to be rolled round the wood. In this
fpiral manner they run up the Hems of trees and plants
of every kind (with a few exceptions), and from thence
into every leaf and flower. Thefe fpiral cords are fingly
too fmall to be obferved by the naked eye. They run
into every fibre of the leaf, and are faflened to its edges,
thus crofling among the veffels in every diredlion like
a fpider’s web j by which difpofition they can draw
the leaves in any way that is neceffary for them.
The larger of the interior wood-veflels are each fub-
plied with fets of ten or twelve fpiral cords, but the
fmaller of thefe have only three or four to each.
In the cabbage leaf and in the burdock, the fpiral
cords may be found in bundles almoff as thick as a
packthread, but in fmaller leaves they are proper¬
ly proportioned. Thefe fpiral cords, Mrs Ibbetfon
thinks, are the caufe of the motions of plants. See
Plant, p. 601, wrhere thefe cords are called «/r-vef-
fels.
5. Of the corona or circle of life.—The next part to
be noticed is the fmall circle of veffels fituated between
the wood and the pith, the importance of which, in the
formation of the feed, will be noticed under Impregna¬
tion of the Seed; where are alfo related flrong proofs to
fhow that a plant cannot exiff a day without the corona,
and that if a young plant be deprived of this part, it
will not grow again, though it will certainly do fo if
the plant be fome what old. It is very curious that al-
moft every botanical anatomifl fhould have figured this
part, without giving it a name, or noticing it particu¬
larly 5 and that thefe anatomifls fhould have attributed
all its powers to the pith, which, from the fl)ort term
of its exiflence, and its being perpetually impeded in
its progrefs to make way for the flower-bud, can evi¬
dently have but little influence. The circle of life,
however, has not efcaped the notice of Hill, who term¬
ed it the corona.
The circle of life confifis of rows of little cylinders
which have their own peculiar juice, generally of an
auflere quality. From the corona all branches take
their rife, and from it all wood threads grow. The cy¬
linders of which it is compofed run up into all flower-
buds, but never approach the leaf-bud as is reprefented
by fig. 1. and 2. j when thefe cylinders enter the flower- Plate
bud, they make their way diflindlly to each feparate DXi ■
flowe?, hs‘
V E G
^ etable flower, forming the piftil, and after depofiting in each
F wlogy fjde the line, which is the tirft origin of life, they are
u afterwards impregnated, or acquire the power of giving
life by the juice of the ftamen, which runs through the
fame firing into the feed.
That the principal vitality of the plant refides in the
corona, we think is proved by the experiments and ob-
fervations of Mrs Ibbetfon under Impregnation of Seed,
and feems to be farther confirmed by the following re¬
marks.
When a branch is cut from a tree, or a tree is torn
up, the corona or circle of life is the firft part that dies ;
and if, after a fudden froft, we examine the flowers of a
fruit tree, we fhall find that neither the calyx, the co¬
rolla, the ftamina, nor the feeds are hurt, but that the
piftilla are deftroyed. And if we now obferve the piftils
with care, we fhall fee that it is the line of life which is
decayed, and that this is the firft part in which morti¬
fication commences. The peculiar liquor of the piflil
acquires a blood-red colour, and the veffels which run
up to the ftigma become black, inftead of their natural
yellow colour.
If in wood, this line is injured (either by the decay
of the bark or other means) the circle will undulate into
a thoufand forms, for the purpofe of regaining a healthy
fituation in which it may purfue its courfe.
Mrs Ibbetfon, to prove the power of the circle of
life, relates the following obfervations refpedling the
poa reptans.
She had often meafured in winter, feven or eight
yards of this grafs, which appeared perfeftly dead ; and
yet in May or June, fhe perceived life in it at the moil
diftant end from the ftalk. Next fpring (he took up
two of thefe creeping branches which were much alike ;
and on diffedling one of them through its whole length,
fhe found in it a colledtion of little veffels not thicker
than a very fine thread.
This colle&ion of veffels had run about half way
the length of the branch, which was about three
yards.
Mrs Ibbetfon having merely opened the cover of the
grafs, laid it down again, and the little veffels continued
increafing till they reached the end of the branch, when
they made a flop, and it was perceived that the grafs
began to thicken } and at the end nearefi: the roots, the
dead part became inflated with juice, loft by degrees
its dead appearance, thickened about the joints within,
and at laft ftiot forth frefh leaves and frefti roots from
every joint.
Mrs Ibbetfon has fince watched with the greateft
care, and found that the fine thread which runs through
the grafs protedled by the dead fcale, was the circle of
life. When this thread is flopped by the covers decay¬
ing, it waits till the feafon permits the reft of the plant
to grow. From what has been faid, it is evident that
the dead matter may be inflated with a living juice, and
live itfelf again, provided the life near the ftem of the
plant be not extinguiftied. Mrs Ibbetfon has obferved
this to happen in many plants, as in hydrangea, in which
the {talks apparently lie down and are inflated again, or
at leaft a part of them.
6. Pith.—Linne confidered the pith of plants as of
equal importance with the fpinal marrow of animals j
but Mrs Ibbetfon thinks this part of but little confe-
quence, and transfers this importance to the circle of
C 533 ]
V E G
life, which ftie compares to the brain and fpinal mar- Vegetable
row. She conceives that the pith forms merely a ^yfiology.
fource of moifture for the plant when required. The
pith flops with every flower-bud, and begins again to
grow as foon as the bud is paft ; it decreafes as the
ftrength and fize of the tree increafe j it is the only
part of the tree which is devoid of veffels j it is merely
a net, not a bundle of cylinders, and is commonly of a
remarkably fpltndid or filver white colour.
It has been faid that the pith affumes a variety of fi¬
gures, but Mrs Ibbetfon thinks this is a miftake, though
Are admits a few different forts.
All young trees and fhrubs are provided with pith j
but in the progrefs of their growth they need it no iongw
er, the wood being a good fubftitute. On the fame ac¬
count, in general, we find no pith in water plants, which
have a hollow ftem, and rarely fuller from drought,
Linne thought that the pith was the feat of life
and the fource of vegetation j or in a word, the primary
part of the plant. Duhamel confidered it as of but little
importance at all. Wildenow and Knight concur with
Mrs Ibbetfon in regarding it as a refervoir of moifture
for the young plants j and Dr Smith holds a medium
opinion between that of Linne and the other authors
juft named.
He fays “ there is in certain refpedls an analogy be¬
tween the medulla of plants, and the nervous fyftem of
animals; it is no lefs afliduouily protefted than the fpi¬
nal marrow j it is branched off and diffufed through the
plant, as nerves through the animal. Hence it is not
abfurd to prefume that it may in like manner give life
and vigour to the whole, though by no means, any more
than nerves, the organ or fource of nouriftiment *See Fig..
We were fomewhat furprifed to find that Mrs Ibbet-3. 4. and 5.
fon had not particularly noticed the cellular tiffue as a
diftinft part to be feen in the ftems of trees, as it has
been long known j we fliall therefore fubjoin a defcrip-
tion of it. It is a fucculent cellular fubftance, general¬
ly of a green colour, at leaft in the leaves and branches.
Duhamel long ago called it envellope cellulaire, and
Mirbel, more lately, tijfue herbace.
Duhamel fuppofed that the cellular tiffue formed the
cuticle, or epidermis ; but this is not very probable, as
his own experiments ibow that when the cuticle is re¬
moved, the cellular integument exfoliates, at leaft in
trees, or is thrown off in confequence of the injury, and
a new cuticle, covering a new layer of the cellular tif¬
fue, is formed under the old one. This fubftance is
very univerfal, even in moffes and ferns. Leaves confift
almoft entirely of a plate of this fubftance, covered on
each fide by the cuticle. The ftems and branches both
of annual and perennial plants are invefted with it; but
in woody plants it is dried up, and reproduced almoft
continually, fuch parts only having that reproductive
power. The old layers remain, are puflied outward by
the new ones, and form at length the rugged dry dead
covering of the old trunks of trees. The cellular inte¬
gument is a part of plants of the greateft importance j
for in it the juices of plants are operated on by light,,
air, &c. • , ,
With regard to the branches of trees, it has been al¬
ready noticed, that they derive their origin from the
corona ; and they are compofed exaClly of the fame
parts as the trunks from which they arife.
3. The Leaves,—Mrs Ibbetfon has* with the aflHU-
ance
V E G [ 5
ance ^ie ^ar microfcope, and by great attention to
f Jl ^'°gy this natural procefs, been enabled to give feme new and
interefting views on this fubjeft. Her opinion refpeft-
ing the formation of the leaf-bud is, “ That leaves are
formed or woven by the vefiels or cotton that is gene¬
rally fuppofed by botanifts (to be) placed there to de¬
fend the bud from the feverities of winter 5 that thefe
veffels (or cotton) are a continuation of thofe of the bark
and inner bark in the Item of the plant; that thefe vef¬
fels compote the various interlacing branches of the leaf,
which are loon filled up by the concentrated and thick¬
ened juices of the inner bark, which form the pabulum
of the leaf.”
Mrs Ibbetfon fays the truth of her affertion may be
eafdy ieen by dLTetf ing early buds, in which, except
two or three, nothing but the cotton-like veffels will
be found. She alks then what could be the ufe of thefe
veffels ? and anfwers, that to put them within the bud
to keep the outfide warm is againft nature, for it is con¬
trary to nature. The leaf-bud in its firft ft ate confifts
of two or three fcaies, inclofing a parcel of veffels, which
appear like very moift coarfc cotton, but when drawn
out and placed in the tolar microfcope, they Ibew them-
felves to be merely the veffels of tire bark and inner
bark elongated and curled up in various forms.
Thefe veffels are of three kinds like the bark, &c.
Title, .three or four Ihort thick ones which appear to
grow from the larger veffels of the inner bark, and
through which the thickened juice flows, but with this
difference, that the holes are not there.
Then there are two fmaller fized veffels, which ex¬
actly refemble the fmaller veffels of the bark.
^ Mrs Ibbetfon has always found the Ihort thick kind
of veffels to form the mid-rib of the leaves, and the
fmaller-fized veffels to compofe the interlacing fibres (or
veffels) of the other parts of the leaves 5 and from often
comparing the full-grown leaf with the leaf of the bud,
lire feels the molt thorough conviction that the latter
takes its origin as above noticed. The pabulum of the
leaf which lies between the veffels, is compofed of that
1 nick juice which runs in the bark or inner bark of the
tree, and which does not exift in any other part of it.
The pabulum differs effentially from the fap, and may
be called the blood of the tree, as it poffeffes peculiar
properties in dmerent trees j thus it is of a gummy na¬
ture in one, of a refinous in a fecond, and of an oily na¬
ture in a third, &c.
Mrs Ibbetfon is not certain whether the pabulum
both flows forwards and in a retrograde dire&ion ; but
Ihe is convinced that the greateft part of it is taken up
in forming the leaves. The pabulum of the leaf, after
the veffels are arranged and croffed, grows over in blad¬
ders, making alternate layers with the frnaller pipes
(veffels), and with the branches of the leaf.
Mrs Ibbetfon ftates, that Ihe does not know any tree
which gives a more convincing proof of the formation
of toe leaves in the bud, than may be feen in the horfe
chefnut (afcuius hippocajlanum) about the month of
^November or Oecember.
Several different mid-ribs may be taken out at once
fiom the fame leaf-bud, which have an innumerable
number of extremely fine filken veffels faftened to or
growing up from each fide of them. When thefe veflHs
have become fufficiently interlaced with each other, the
14 ] V E G
pabulum will begin to grow over them, in form of Vegeta p
imall bladders full of a watery-juice j and then larger pM»logy.
veffels will crofs over them, which will foon be follow- t.
ed by another row of bladders, and a fimilar procefs
will go on until the leaf has attained its proper thick-
nefs. The leaves thus formed are very fmall, but when
once their fhape is completed every part of them con¬
tinues to increafe in fize. Fig. 6. reprefents the leaf- p; c
bud of the horfe-chefnut, as it was examined by Mrs ^ ’
Ibbetfon about the month of January.
Mrs Ibbetfon next notices the arrangement of the
leaves in the buds of different trees 5 but we fliallconfi-
der them by and bye.
The rolling, folding, or plaiting, &c. of the leaf-
bud, it is obferved, does not merely take place at
once-, but to complete the procefs of budding, it ap¬
pears that this arrangement of the leaves is repeat¬
ed feveral times. During this arrangement the bud-
leaves are immerfed in the glutinous liquor which runs
in the bark (and forms the pabulum) ; and the preffure
of the leaves is very great. Ey this preffure and the
rolling, &c. the leaves are completed ; for if a leaf be
taken from the bud before this procefs commences, it
may be compared to a piece of cloth before it is dreffed ;
for its back will be obfeured by the ends of veffels,
which, had it remained In fitu, would have been all rub¬
bed off, except the hairs which remain on many plants.
We come now to the formation of the edge of the
leaf, a curious and beautiful procefs.
The bud if opened will appear full of the glutinous
liquor which forms the pabulum, and the leaves arran¬
ged in the manner proper to the particular tree from
which the bud is taken. If one of the leaves be taken
out, the edges (in whatever manner folded) will exhi¬
bit a perfe£l double row of bubbles, following the fcol-
lop of the edge of the leaf; and it will appear as if it
were fet with brilliants.
Things being in this ftate, all that is wanting for the p11
completion of the leaf is the formation of the pores,
now to be mentioned. Mrs Ibbetfon ftates that in
many hundred forming leaves which the expofed to
the folar microfcope, (lie had never once been able to
fee the pores ; which fhe has often obferved after the
leaves have completely quitted the bud 5 and the is un¬
certain whether this is owing to the greater thicknefs of
the young leaf, and its being covered with more hairs
than it is afterwards, which obfeure or conceal the poresj
or whether it be caufed by the upper net-work of the
leaf growing laft. While the upper and under cuticles
of the leaf are growing, the edge of it is completing $
for the bubbles generally divide, and partly dry up,
leaving horny points in their ftead. When the edges
of the leaves are completely formed, they burft from the
bud and affume a different afpedt.
I he veffels of the leaves (thofe confined within the
mid ribs and fide ribs of the leaves) are of two forts,
the fpiral, and the nourifhing. The fpiral veffels are
thofe corkferew-like wires which furround the two lalt
rows of the fap veffels. The nouriftung veffels are the
only parts formed of the wood. They convey the fap
neceffary for the fupport of the leaves, and run on each
fide of the fpiral veffels.
i o prove that (lie has given a fair and accurate
account of the formation of the leaf, Mrs Ibbet-
fofl
V E G
V stable £)n E(]^s the following remarks. The colour of leaves,
FI obferves, is not to be found in their fubftance, but
^ 1 in the liquid with which it is filled. The darkeft green
leaf that can be procured, has both its upper and under
cuticles of a perfect white colour. In the cuticle the
[ 535 1
V E G
pores
are to be found.
FI
A leaf has rather a thicker net below than it has a-
bove: but this does not fufficiently account for the va¬
rieties of tints in different leaves.
The under net (or cuticle) does not lie fo clofe to
* the pabulum of the leaf as the upper one; which may
account for the colour not piercing fo much through.
When the two nets (or cuticles) are taken olf, then the
pabulum of the leaf appears.
The pabulum is formed of little bladders, filled with
a dark-green liquid, and interlaced with veffels. When
the pabulum is removed, a bed of large veffels prefents
itfelf; then a colleftion of bladders5 which is followed
by the larger lines (or veins) of the leaf. We next
meet with another bed of bladders, which is covered
by the under cuticle. Though the bladders differ in
fize and colour as well as in thicknefs in different leaves,
yet the general arrangement is the fame in mofl plants j
but there are exceptions, as the firs, gruffes, or thofe
graffy leaves of early fpring, which we have in the iris,
crocus, fnow-drop, &c. for their lerves are of a differ¬
ent nature.
But we (hall now refer to the figures,-which will
ferve to illuffrate the mode of formation, &c. of the
leaf-bud.
Ficr . S. 9. Fig. 7. 8. 9. exhibit the commencement of the forma¬
tion and growth of leaves j a, a, a, a, the mid rib ;
b, b, the young veffels appearing like cotton *, c, c, the
fpiral nerves; d, the fmaller veffels crofling each other.
Fig. 10. thews the formation of the pabulum; e,e, the
fine veffels growing up each fide of the mid rib ; J', the
pabulum. Fig. 11. bud of the lime-tree (ti/ia Euro¬
pe a).
4. Of the FLOWERS, including the calyx, corolla, fia-
tnina, and pif ilium.—Linne long ago expreffed his opi¬
nion that each of thefe parts was formed from a particu¬
lar part of the ftem ; thus the calyx was formed by the
bark, the corolla by the inner bark, the (lamina by the
wood, and the piilffla by the pith. Linne alfo rec¬
koned the pith of a plant (which he confidercd to be of
equal importance with the fpinal marrow of animals),
as the foie formative organ of the whole vegetable
kingdom.
Linne’s idea refpefling the formation of the calyx,
corolla, &c. has been often refuted ; but Mrs Ibbetfon
comes forward to defend the opinion oi the iilullrious
author with a little modification. She does not, as al¬
ready noticed, eonfider the pith as of great importance;
file therefore fays, that the corona or circle of life
forms the piftil, not the pith ; and thinks that each part
of the ftem has, when it arrives near the flower ftalk, its
peculiar juice.
Mrs Ibbetfon, as a ftrong proof that the circle of life
forms the piftil, fays that it is to be found in all thefe
leaves that bear the flower either on the middle or on
their fide ; but in no other leaves.
She firft obferved this in the butcher’s broom, where
this circle leads diretlly up to the flower; then in fco-
lopendrums, and afterwards in xylophyllos.
I he leaves of fuch plants are more wopdy than any Vegetable
others, as every one may know on breaking them. In Physiology,
fuch plants alfo, the circle of life may be traced as lead- v-“—v"—”*'
ing from one flow'er to another.
Mrs Ibbetfon alfo thinks that all thofe parts whicli
concur in forming the flower alfo join in forming the
fruit and feed.
Mrs Ibbetfon then adverts to the opinion of Wildc-
now, when he fays, “ we find in the fpringing flower,
elongations of air-veffels, but we never fee the elonga¬
tions from each particular part, one forming the future
calyx, another the corolla, and fo forth.” “ For in-
ftance, in the common fun-flower (heliantlius annuus),
where in an immenfe large receptacle, numerous fmall
flowers are placed, how fhould thefe elongations be able
to unfold themfelves into florets from the bark, inner
bark, &c. through fuch a receptacle ? There would
arife a confufion amongft thefe fmall parts which is never
met with.”
“ Flow fhould, befides, the ftamina be formed in
herbs, which are not ligneous, or the piftil in plants
which have no pith ? Every one may thus eafily con¬
ceive that all thefe opinions are mere hypothefes, which
may be refuted, even without the aid of anatomical dif-
fedlion.
Mrs Ibbetfon attacks Wildenow’s opinion, and fays
that he adduces the fyngenefian clafs to prove the accu¬
racy of it, the clafs which contains the very plants that
would have proved the miftake of his argument, had he
diffedled them.
Mrs Ibbetfon then propofes the following queftions
to Vvikienow. Why, if the nourifliment of each part
of the ftem be not confined to each different part of the
flower, does the whole arrangement of the parts alter,.
the moment it gets to the flower-ftalk.
Why are there particular veffels to confine and carry
the juice to each peculiar part, if it were not of confe-
quence that this juice fhould touch no other places ?
For what purpofe is the curious and artificial manage¬
ment in the bottom and top of a feed-veffel, which en¬
ables the difteClor to fay, that “ there are five divifions
of little veffels proceeding from the wood ; I know,
therefore (though I do not fee it), that this mufl be a
pentandrian flower ; here is but one middle veffel pro¬
ceeding from the circle of life (for the pith flops), it is
therefore of the order monogynia ; here are five divi-
fions of little veffels proceeding from the inner bark, it
muft therefore have five petals ;i” Mrs Ibbetfon wiflies
others to be convinced of thefe faffs as well as herfelf. If
a cut be made above or below the feed-veffel of a lily, a
violet, or a tulip, (lie thinks conviffion of her accuracy
will follow. Why in cutting above or below the feed-vef¬
fel of a fyngenefian flower can you direffly tell, whether
it belong to the order fuperflua, asqualis, or fegregata ?
Look at the bottom of the feed-veffel of the fonchux ;
every pin-hole of the veffel of the male is carried up by
correfponding veffels in the outward cuticle ot the feed,
till if meets and joins the ligature of the males ; and the
female liquor is protruded through the infide of the
feed, and is perhaps one of the ftrongeft proofs of the
impregnation of the female. In the fyngenefian clafs
(fee fig. 1 2.), the delicacy of the veffels, which may be
flippofed too fmall for a liquid to flow through them,
muft not impede the belief that it does fo, when we con^
fider
V E G [ 536 ] V E G
Vegetable fijcr the circulation of blood in the diminutive animal
I%fiology. that
torments the body of the flea or loufe. Mrs Ib-
betfon fays (he has feen the liquor run up with the ut-
moft celerity through the upper cuticle of a very fmall
iced of a plant belonging to the fyngenefian clafs, till it
met the male and continued its courfe. It is to be un-
derftood that the juice from the corolla flows in the reft
J i 12 13 t^e cut*c^e> and that the largeft veffels are thofe for
b- • ■’’the male liquor. See fig. 12. 13.
II. Physiology of Plants.—In treating this part
of the fubjeft, we propofe to confider, firft, the impreg¬
nation of feeds, and, fecond, the irritability of vegeta¬
bles.
I. The impregnation of the feed.—The inveftigation
of what is included under this title, forms one of the
moft beautiful and interefting purfuits of the vegetable
phyfiologift. Mrs Ibbetfon has communicated fome
curious obfervations on this fubjefl. Provided with a
powerful folar microfcope for opaque objefls, fhe pro¬
ceeds to an examination of the feed, and the firft {hoot¬
ing of the infant plant, or rather of the germ or veffel
which precedes it; and flie remarks that it is almoft im-
poflible to afcertain the exaft time when the feed is firft
formed in the pericarp j but that fhe has always found
it in the winter buds when they were large enough
for diffe&ion.
It is curious to obferve the veffels, which, {he fays,
may properly be called the life, tracing their way to
each flower-bud ; for a feed may be faid to depend for
perfedlion on two feparute moments: the one in which
the life frjl enters the feed, when the whole outward
form appears to be perfected •, and the fecond, when the
impregnation of the feed takes place, by the ripening
of the pollen.
But when the life enters, it leaves a little firing, and
remains for a long time afterwards in a torpid ftate.
This firing crofles the corculum, or heart of the feed,
fo called becaufe it is the cradle of the infant plant.
She then ftates that the feed is attached to the feed-vef-
fel by two diftinft organs, termed by the firft botanifts
the umbilical cord, but as Ihe thinks improperly, fince
they do not convey nourifhment to the infant plant,
which is wholly the office of the fecond fet of veffels.
We cannot agree with Mrs Ibbetfon in her opinion *, for
although the umbilical cord of an infant contains nour-
ifhing veffels, it alfo contains nerves, and yet we would
never think of reftrifting this term alone to the arteries.
The firft of the connefting organs Mrs Ibbetfon con¬
ceives to be the circle of life, firft, becaufe without it
the plant dies, and, fecond, becaufe although every
other part be eradicated by degrees and the circle of
life be uninjured, the plant will grow again.
She has made thefe experiments many thoufand times
and with the above refults. The circle of life confifts
of delicate fimple veffels, which carry a juice of a parti¬
cular nature, and may be traced in every part lying be¬
tween the wood and the pith. Thefe veffels are not to
be found in the leaf-bud j for they pafs by it to the
female flower, where they eftablifli a new life in the
feed : a life which will enable it to grow, but not to Vegetal,
give life without impregnation. Thefe veffels are the pMology.
life, therefore, from which all flower branches grow'~v**w
and all root-threads proceed. In calling thefe veffels
the circle of life, Mrs Ibbetfon fays {he only expreffes
what its office feetns to denote.
Mrs Ibbetfon goes on to deferibe the next (or fecond)
organ by which the feed is attached to the feed-veffei.
It confifts of the nourithing veffels, which flie is incli¬
ned to think proceed from the inner bark ; at leaft they
may certainly be traced thence after the infant plant has
left the feed. When introduced, they enter not the
feed at the fame place as the life does; they come not
into the corculum, but pafs it, and fpread themfelves over
a fmall fpot below it, which is vifibly of a different na¬
ture from the reft of the feed. In farinaceous plants
this fpot is yellow, and yields a milk-white juice ; but
in other feeds it is white, and gives a glutinous water
of a fweetilh tafte. Mrs Ibbetfon thinks it probable
that the nouriftiing veffels come from the fruit filled
with this juice, which medicated with that part of the
feed (which very apparently diffolves), they together
form a nourifhment fuited to the infant plant. When
the feed is fo far perfefted, it remains in an almoft tor¬
pid ftate, or growing very little ; while the flower ex¬
pands daily, and the ftamens are haftily advancing to
their perfefl ftate.
It is now that by an almoft imperceptible contraclion
of the lower part of the piftil, the juice is raifed to the
ftigma (a) en which it may be feen hanging in a
large glutinous drop, which never falls off. As foon,
however, as the mid-day heat abates, this juice, which
is peculiar to the piftil, retires again within the tube,
the contraction ceafing with the heat that caufed it.
The fame procefs goes on daily, till the ftamina are
ripe and ready to give out their interior powder to the
piftil, which is always fo placed as to receive the greater
part of it j and as the anther (b) requires only moifture
to burft it, it foon yields that fine and imperceptible
duft, which quickly melting and mixing with the before-
mentioned liquid, forms a combination of fo powerful and
Jlimulating a quality, that it no fooner runs down the
interior of the ftyle, and touches the nerve of life in the
heart of the feed, than this veffel {hoots forth in the moft
furprifing degree, forming diredly a fpecies of circular
hook within the void; which in lefs than two days is of¬
ten completely filled, though it had perhaps for many
weeks before lain in an abfolute torpor. This circular
nerve is foon covered by an excrefcence that hides it •,
but if the corculum be divided with a fine lancet, the
circular hook is difcoverable, until the young plant is
near leaving its cradle or feed. At the turn of the hook
the cotyledons grow, and the root {hoots from the co¬
vered end. The plant may be now faid to lie in the feed
in a contrary direction from that in which it will at a
future time grow, fince the root is above, and the ftem
below : but nature has provided for their change of
place, fince it is effeCted as they leave the feed. It has
been already noticed that the nouriftmaent of the infant
plant
(a) In the journal it is faid “ to the pointal j1’ but certainly ftigma is meant, for piftil and pointal are
fynonymous.
■(b) In the journal it is called pollen, but anther muft be meant, ■
v E G C 537- ] V E G
Vege le plant Is medicated between the juice brought in the
Phy1'11 ;y* nourifliing veffels, and the peculiar fpot in the feed,
ta""’’y‘^forming a liquid which continues to abound ; indeed
the infant plant may be faid to repofe in it, till the root
has opened the whole or part of the feed. The root
then changes its-diredlion, and runs into the earth, foon
forming a number of ftringy hairs, which ferve as fo
many fuckers to draw the liquid nourilhraent from the
earth, while the plant quickly {hews, by the rapid pro-
grefs it makes, the advantage it receives from its change
of diet; for it foon raifes itfelf from its proftrate pofture,
emerges from the feed, and is now feen in its proper di¬
rection. The above account, ivo think Mrs Ibbetfon
juftly remarks, affords a complete confirmation of the
fexual fyftem.
In the fyngenefian orders, the piflil being moftly Tin¬
gle, runs up from the feed ; and the juice of the piftil has
no other way of reaching the pointal (fb’gma muft be
here meant), but by pafhng through the feed, which it
does without producing any effeCl, or filling up the va¬
cancy at the top of the ccrculum. But as foon as the
juice of the piftil becomes mixed with the pollen, which
diffolves in it, the void of the corculum is filled, the
hook is foon afterwards formed, and the plant is roufed
to life. Mrs Ibbetfon relates fome experiments which
fhe made to afcertain whether the umbilical cord was,
or was not, the life of the plant. She placed a bean
In the earth, and when the infant plant was ready
to leave the feed fhe opened it with a fine lancet, and
cut off the cotyledons, juft where they join the heart
and the circular hook which have been before defcribed.
She then tied a piece of very fine thread round the
bean, and replaced it in the earth. The cotyledons
grew again, though higher up, but they appeared very
weak and fickly for fome time. She cut off the root
of another bean which had been placed in the earth,
and which was of the fame age as the above, and found
that the root grew again in a few days and appeared
quite healthy.
In a third experiment fhe feparated and cut off the
nourifhing veffels from each fide of the bean % but a
great number of hairs grew from the wounded part,
which, by attaining moifture from the earth for nourith-
ment, fupplied the place of the veffels cut off; fo that
it was not afeertained whether or not the bean would
live independent of thefe veffels, which wTas the object
of the experiment. We obferve here, however, a grand
provifion of nature for the embryo plant: hairs being
formed to fupply it with moifture when the nourifhing
veffels are deftroyed. Mrs Ibbetfon next took a bean
which had been about four days in the earth, and open¬
ing it with great care took out with a fine lancet the
part which fire efteems the cord of life, that is the part
which croffes the corculum and ftiot forth on the firfl:
: 1 s. impregnation of the plant, o o, fig. 14. and 15. reprefent
the nourifhing veffels of a bean ; L to h two feminal
leaves or cotyledons ; // the cord of life, which is more
eafily feen in the feed of the lily, fig. 15. // crofting the
empty part of the corculum. Mrs Ibbetfon took a
flower of the lilium genus, as having a large veffel
eafily attained *, and being careful not to feparate it
trom the nourifhing veffels, fhe divided the line of life
fig. 16. //, cutting each thread between the feeds, and
Vol. XX. Part IL
fo cutting off their communication j but did not touch Vegetable
0 0, which five thinks is the nourlftiing veffel. Phyfiology.
The confequence was, that the feeds of this flower
were never impregnated. Mrs Ibbetfon next tried tho
effe£l of taking the nerve of life from the chefnut, the
walnut, acorn, &c.; firft opening a feed without touch¬
ing the nerve, that fhe might be certain that the open¬
ing was not the caufe of its death. Fig. 1 y. reprefents the Fig. 17.
heart taken out of a feed of the chefnut; / is the circu¬
lar hook already defcribed*, 00 the nourifhing veffels,
and / / the line of life, which was taken out from fome
feeds where it croffes the heart at m. Fig. iS. is the Fig. iS,
feed of the goofeberry 0 the nourifhing veffels, e the
line of life, and m the corculum or heart.
She found that all thofe feeds from •which fhe took
the nerve of life died 5 and that the others, which had
been merely laid open, lived. She remarks that it is
only at the beginning of life, that the plant can be
killed by this procefs 5 for vrhen older, if the nerves
of life decay, they ftioot out above the declining part,
and run into any part of the ftem that is pure, to pre-
ferve themfelves. Mrs Ibbetfon then ftates that this
nerve is the fource of life in very decayed trees j and is
alfo the caufe of a double pith, or at leaf! the appear¬
ance of it, in many trees.
To obferve this line of life, feeds muft be examined
in their firft formation ; for when it has done its office,
it detaches itfelf. When the feed is boiled, the line of
life and nourifhing veffels mark themfelves by becoming
of a dark colour.
2. Irritability cf vegetables.-—In entering upon this
fubjeft, we ought to warn our readers, that very oppo-
fite opinions have been entertained refpedting it j fome
phyfiologifts of the greateft eminence allowing that we
have fatisfaftory proofs of the irritability of vegetables'
in a 'variety of plants, but more particularly in the mo¬
tions of the mimofae, dionea, &c.; while others of no
lefs refpeftability aferibe thefe motions to the influence
of light, heat, or fome other mechanical agent.
As neither mufcles nor nerves have ever been demon-
ftrated in the vegetable ftrudlure, of courfe the proofs of
the irritability of vegetables are drawn from the intimate
analogy which feems to exift between the motions of fome
plants and thofe of animals. Some phyfiologifts, from ob-
ferving the fimilarity of motions in the two kingdoms,
were naturally led to aferibe them to the fame caufe j
others, from not being able to obferve the fame motive
organs, namely, mufcles, in both kingdoms, denied that
plants could poffefs irritability *, a third fet, waving the
idea of irritability in the vegetable kingdom, have la¬
boured to ftiew that the motions of plants depend on
mechanical caufes alone.
We ffiall firft notice the obiervations of Mrs Ibbet¬
fon, who aferibes the motions of plants to the fpiral
wires which we have defcribed. Her opinion is found¬
ed upon a number of new obfervations made with the.
folar microlcope, which we ihall proceed to relate.
1 ft, The fpiral veffels are not to be found in any
plants to which motion is un'ileceffary.
She could not obferve thefe veffels in any of the
firs, in any of the plants which fpread their leaves upon
the furface of the water, in any of the fea weeds (c),
of the lichens, or of the graffes } and ffie does not think
3 Y that
(c) She afterwards excepts the conferva., which have motion.
V E G [ 538 ] V E G
Vegetable that they exift in the fcolopendrums or lemnas. We
Phyfiology. here obferve that if thefe obfervations were com-
pletely true, they would certainly afford a ftrong proof
m confirmation of her opinion j but we fufpedt that they
are not altogether juft, efpecially as we obferve a difcre-
pancy in the papers of Mrs Ibbetfon. Thus atone part
fhe has given us a very minute defcription of the fpiral
veffels in the runners of the poa reptans, and now fhe
fays they are not to be found in the grafles (d).
Mrs Ibbetfon’s fecond argument is, that if a plant
ivhofe leaves prefent their faces to the light, be turned
fo that the backs are to the fun, the leaves in a few
hours will regain their former pofition ; but if this be
often repeated, although the plant will not fuffer, yet
the leaves will be longer at every repetition in return¬
ing to their former fituation, or will ceafe to move at
all. She accounts for this by faying, that the fpiral like
elaftie veflels are relaxed by the operation, and lofe their
power of coiling into their ufual form.
Others would account for the above fa6l by faying
that the irritability of the plant was exhaufted by thefe
repealed and unnatural actions; in the fame manner as
the mimofa becomes gradually lefs fenfible to impreflions
when too often renewed.
Mrs Ibbetfon’s third argument is, that thofe leaves
which have moft motion, are provided with moft fpiral
veffels, and have thefe veffels moft twifted j as in the
populus tremula.
Fourth proof. Mrs Ibbetfon divided the fpiral vef¬
fels of a vine leaf while growing, without touching the
nouritbing veftels; and from that moment it never con-
trafted, and when placed with its back to the light,
it did not alter its pot/iion, though it was long before it
decayed. Both ele£lricity and galvanifm caufe thefe
leaves to contraft, by affe<fting the fpiral wires (not the
cuticle), for when the leaf is deprived of thefe veffels
it does not contraift at all.
We would here remark that we fufpeft much, in the
above experiment, that more than the fpiral veffels wras
divided : at any rate there is very great difcordance be¬
tween Mrs Ibbetfon’s experiments and that of M. Ca-
landrini, who found that vine leaves turned to the light
when they were feparated from the ftem and fufpended
by a thread.
Fifth argument. Mrs Ibbetfon obferved, when fhe
placed fome of the fpiral veffels taken from a cabbage
leaf upon one end of a long netting needle, and caufed
a candle to approach, that, they w'ere much agitated, and
at laft flung themfelves off the needle. We think no
conclufion can be drawn from what is here ftated.
The frefti water conferva and the dodder tribe, are
the only plants, without leaves, that Mrs Ibbetfon is
acquainted with, which have fpiral veffels.
M rs Ibbetfon fays that the fpiral veffels are fo very
tough, and fo very tightly coiled, in the leaf ftem
(petiole') of the geranium cordifolium, that (he has by
means of them'been enabled to draw up the leaf j but it
is difficult to be done.
The fixth proof is drawn from the effeft produced by
moifture on Captain Kater’s hygrometer, which will be
Hoticed foon.
General Obfervations.—Mrs Ibbetfon fays the fpiral Vestal
wires may be confidered as a fecondary caufe of motion ph>fiolo
as they are primarily afted upon by light and moifture!
By means of the fpiral wire, all the movements of plants
are made * by it, flowers open in the morning and Unit
in the evening ; the leaves turn, and the creeping plants
wind in their regular order. Mrs Ibbetfon fays, the
opening of the flower at a different time of the day, or
its turning in a different manner, does not militate a-
gainft the above ftatement; as ftrong light and dry
weather produce a contraftion of the wire, while dark-
nefs and moifture effedt a dilatation of it. It depends
wholly upon the pofition in which the fpiral wire is
placed, whether by its dilatation the flowers fhall be
opened or Ihut, as in mechanics the fame fpring may be
made to turn to the right or to the left, to open or to
ftrut a box. Moft of the flowers which Mrs Ibbetfon
has obferved to clofe at noon, have an extremely limber
corolla, formed only of a double cuticle without pabu-
lum ; and hence they are foon overcome by heat, and
relaxation diredily takes place; as in the convolvulus
nil, the evening or tree primrofe, &c.
We muft add, however, that we regard this account
of the fpiral veffels with fome degree of doubt. We
fufpedl that the fpiral veffels, if they have the power of
opening or (hutting a flower, will always aft in one
uniform manner 5 i. e. if they are able to open it, they
will always do fo, and vice verfa.
The nymphea alba raifes itfelf out of the W'ater, and
expands, about feven o’clock in the morning ; and clofes
again, repofing upon the furface, about four in the even¬
ing. Now its petals are much thicker than thofe of
the leontodon taraxacum, which (huts up its flowers be¬
tween eight and nine in the evening.
We could multiply inftances j but we conceive we
have faid enough to (hew, that the flowers with the
moft (lender corolla are not uniformly thofe which
fooneft clofe.
Mrs Ibbetfon fays, contrary to the opinion of Mir-
bel, that the cafe in which the fpiral veffels are inclofed
is capable of being ftretched j indeed it is formed of fo
thin (or rather fo loofe) a fubftance, as plainly to be
intended to dilate and contraft. The cafe is compofed
of a very few thin veffels, interlaced with an extremely
fine fpiral wire 5 while the large fpiral veffels fill up the
cafe in an irregular manner, the nourilhing veffels form
a regular circle of tubes around it. See fig. 29. and 30.
Of the Indian grafs {andropogon contortum of Lin-
ne), of which Captain Kater’s hygrometer is formed.
■—The chief part of it is made with the fpiral awn of
an Indian grafs, which readily untwifts in a moift at-
mofphere, and vice verfa. Now' Mrs Ibbetfon a(ks, if
the moft trifling change of moifture can untwift one fort
of vegetable fibre, and by this means manage an inftru-
ment, why (liould not a quantity of fimilar formed fibres
or fpiral veffels produce the fame effeft on leaves and
flowers ? She fays, Captain Kater’s hygrometer moves
very fenfibly if a finger be placed within half an inch
of the fibre (awn.) Now, the moft fenfitive plant we
have will not move but with the touch.”
We are quite aware of the effefts of moifture on fome
vegetables.
(d) She found the fpiral veffels alfo in the andropogon (ontortum.
V E G
[ 539 1
V E G
Vef bl« vegetables. We have ftrong proofs of it in fume of the
Phyl ogy* mofles, as in the bryum hygrometricum, which, if the
^ “^fruitftalk be moiftened at the bottom, makes three or
four revolutions \ if the upper part be moiftened, it turns
the contrary way. , . , , r .
We can fcarcely compare thete motions with thole ot
the mimofte; for it is quite evident that they are pro¬
duced by moifture: but as we are to fpeak of the motions
of the mimofae in a little, we would only obferve, that
when Mrs Ibbetfon fays “ the fenfitive plant will not
move but with the touch,” Ihe argues againft herfelfj
for this (hews-that it is a£led upon by the fame caufes
as animal mufcles, and that it is not governed by moif¬
ture alone.
The only fenfitive part of the Indian grafsis the awn,
which is formed of a leather-like fubftance, infinitely
thicker and ftronger than the ufual fpiral veffels in
plants. The awn is formed of two apparently flat
pieces, with a cylindric hollow running through the
middle, which is filled with a thick fpiral wire.. Fig.
21. 22. 23. and 24. Each fide of the awn is briftled J
but the bridles, do not add to its fenfibility.
Of the Nettle.—The awn or fling of the nettle is
a long pipe with a bag at the end divided into two
partsj the fmaller contains the poifon, and the larger
Is fituated below it. This bag feems alfo to be compo-
fed of a leather-like fubflance, and is likewife affe&ed
by light and moifture.
The moment the upper part of the pipe is touched,
the under part of the bag whirls up, breaks the poifon
bladder, and throws its contents violently up the pipe,
burning the perfon who touches it.
Light thrown upon the bag by means of the fol.ar
microfcope, produces the fame effedt as touching it.
The poifonous liquor is protruded up the pipe with
great force, till it iffues out at the minute aperture at
the point j but before it does fo, the pipe is bent down
with a jerk, by means of the fpiral wire.
The fpiral wire winds round the bag at the bottom of
the pipe j and it is by the adtion of this wire that the
bag is made to contra£f. The nettle lays down its
flings every evening, juft as the fenfitive plant does its
branches. See fig. 19, and 20.
Mimofa Senjitiva.—The motions of this plant are re¬
gulated not only by the fpiral wire, but alfo by a bag
of a leather-like fubftance, which is capable of contrac¬
tion and dilatation.
We (hall next give Mrs Ibbetfon’s plate refpedling
the ftrufture of this plant, with her defcriptiom
Fig. 25. is a reprefentation of the fprings which go¬
vern each leaf*, c?, d is the ftalk. Each leaf has a
bafe c, c, which ferves to concentrate the fpiral wires.
Thefe pafling over in every diredlion, being drawn
through the narroweft parts of the ftem b b b b, prefs
the ftem together 5 and, when touched, lay the leaves,
one on the other, the whole way down the leaf-ftalk.
But, before the ftimulus is applied, the ftem is flat¬
tened in a contrary diredfion. T he ball of the leaf
is hollow and filled with oil. The parts e e and pp
F, 16. (fig. 26.) are made of that leathery fubftance, which
forms the cuticle, and is contracted by the light in
the folar microfcope. The parts e e contain the oil
which ferves to lubricate the knots (we fuppofe), and
enable them to flip over each other j befide, probably,
F;g y
afting fome important part in the formation of the va- VegctabI#
rious gaffes and juices in the compofition of the plant. Phyfiolqgy,
When touched, the whole firing relaxes at 00, and
lets the branch fall. This it would alfo do at m, if it
w'ere not fupported by the wood-veffels turning into the
leaf. Fig. 27. is the part e epp uncut, and in its na¬
tural ftate. Mrs Ibbetfon thinks that not only the mo¬
tions of this plant, but of all others, depend upon the
fpirai wires which contrad and dilate by the aCtion of
light and moifture. She adds, that there are no fpiral
wires in the feminal leaves of the mimofa fenfitivay and
that the feminal leaves have no motion whatever.
In farther illuftration of this fubjed, we (hall next pre-
fent our readers with fome obfervations by Mr Lyall,
lately publifhed in Nicholfon’s Journal *, refpefting * Vol. xxv,
the irritability of the mimofa pudica, and fome other 92*
plants.
“ It is well known (he obferves), if wTe take a leaf
of this plant, fimilar to what is reprefented (fig. 31.),
and then, by means of a pair of iciftars (completely
dry), cut off half the pinnula A, this pinnuia will
contraft at its joint, either immediately, or in a few fe-
condsj its neighbour, or oppofite pinnula, B, doling
at the fame time, or foon after.
“ The pinnulae A and B having come into contaCt,
there is a paufe, or a ftiort ceffation, of motion j but
in the courfe of a few more feconds, the next pair of
pinnulae, CC, will alfo Ibut up, and the fame will hap¬
pen with every pair of pinnulae of that pinna fuccef-
fively j only with this difference, that the intervals be¬
tween the {hutting up of each pair of pinnuloe will be
ftiorter, the farther it is from the pinnula that was cut.
After the whole of the pinnulae of this pinna have com¬
pletely clofed, and a little interval, then the joint D
will bend fo as to allow the pinna to drop confider-
ably. # > ,
“ Neverthelefs, the motion is often not fo obvious in
this joint, as in that to be mentioned.
“ A longer paufe will now' intervene, in fome cafes
fo long as to make us fuppofe that all motion is at an
end; but at length the joint E fuddenly bends, and
aftoniftres the beholder.
“ The petiole F now, inftead of forming an acute
angle with the ftem above the joint, forms a very ob-
tufe angle with it.
“ We fhall now have another ceffation of motion, and
then the joint, H, will flightly bend ; then another
paufe, then a {hutting up of the pair of pinnulae, II,
and fo on with the other pinnulae, till the whole pinna
is clofed. The motions, however, will not be fo regu¬
lar in this pinna as they wTere in the other ; for as the
pinnulae II approach, they prefs forward the next paii,
and fo on with all the reft.”
Thefe motions, the author fuppofes, are not occalion-
ed by impulfe j for a bit of the pinnula may be cut oft
aim oft without producing any motion. .
But, allowing that a little motion were produced, it
comes naturally as a queftion, Why does the motion
become fo extenfive? how is the impulfe communicated
to the origin of the petiole? The author does not think
that thefe queftions will ever be fatisfaftonly anfwered
upon mechanical principles. . . .
He admits indeed, that a ftruaure exifts in the mi- .
mofa fenfitiva, correfponding to what Mrs I^tfon has
V E G [ 540
Vegetable defcribed ; although he feems to have Tome doubts re-
, ^ 10 0^-v‘ fpefting it. He then proceeds to inquire, whether by
fuch a ftru&ure, a&ed upon by heat, light, or moif-
ture, -tve could poffibly explain the motions of the mz~
mofa pudica. “ On the experiments above related, (he
obferves), I prefume no one would fay, that moifture
was the caufe of motion, as the fciffars were quite
dry.”
It is to be remembered alfo, that this plant will per¬
form its motions under water.
As there was no change of light, confequently this
had no thare in the effedh Befides, when moifture is
produced (Mr Lyall certainly means darknefs) in con-
lequence of the abftra&ion of light, all the pinnulce
fhut up at the fame time j not, however, in the regular
order mentioned in the experiment. Neither does the
motion take place from change of temperature, for the
temperature was not altered.
A great many queltions will here fuggeft themfelves,
as, How does it happen that the motion is produced ?
how does it become fo extenfive ? how comes it that
there are regular motions and paufes, &c. ?
The author concludes, by faying, that it is vain to at¬
tempt any mechanical folution of the phenomenon men¬
tioned above, “ which would feem to depend on an ex-
quifite irritability in the plant itfelf.”
Dioncva Mufcipula.—Mr Lyall does not think that
the motions of this plant are to be explained in the
manner fpoken of by Brouffonet, who afcribed them to
the evacuation of a fluid from the leaf, which will be
noticed when we fpeak of the drofcrce. For the leaf
may be touched without caufing any efflux of fluid
whatever, and yet it will contract completely,
Comparetti’s explanation refpedfling the motion of
this plant is not admitted ; becaufe it feems improbable,
is contrary to analogy, and inadequate to explain the
phenomenon.
Of the Drofera Longifolia and Rotund folia.—As ma¬
ny of the mufcles of the animal fyftem, as the heart,
diaphragm, &c. aft quite independent of the will, and
as thefe parts are highly irritable, Mr Lyall wiflies to
ihow, that a voluntary command of a mufcular force
fhould not be taken into the definition of the word irri¬
tability, .as has been done by fome. Mr Lyall fays,
“ % irritability, I underfund, that property inherent
in fome bodies (or rather parts of bodies), by which,
when a ftimulus is applied, they are enabled to con-
trad!.
'Ihe leaves of the drofera rotundifolia, when proper¬
ly unfolded, lie round the ftem in a flellated manner*
The footftalks of the leaves vary in length from half an
inch to an inch and a half. The leaves are covered on
their upper furface by a number of haks, varying alfo
in length from one line to three-eighths of an inch, and
are each terminated by a little gland, which gland is
covered by a tranfparent vifcid fluid, prefenting a fine
appearance.
The chief difference between the drofera longifolia
and rotundifolia is in the lhape of the leaves ; thofe of
the former being obovate, while thofe of the latter are
of an orbicular fhape.
1 V E G
Mr Whately and Mr Gardom had obferved fome in- VWetal
fedls imprifoned in the leaves of this plant, and hence
were led to prefs with a pin the centre of other leaves'
in their natural and expanded form, when they very
fuddenly contracted, and, as it were, encircled the
pin.
lioth had noticed, in 1779, that the leaves of the dro-
ferse moved, when irritated. He placed an ant upon
the middle of a leaf of the drofera rotundifolia, but fo
as not to difturb the plant. The ant endeavoured to
efcape, but was held faft by the clammy juice of the
points of the hairs,, which was drawn out by its feet
into fine threads; in fome minutes the ftrort hairs on
the diflc of the leaf began to bend, then the long hairs'
and laid themfelves upon the infeft. After a while the5
leaf itfelf began to bend, and in fome hours the end of
the leaf was fo bent inwards as to touch the bafe. The
fame happened when the experiments were made on the
drofera longifolia, but more rapidly.
Roth alfo found that the hairs bent themfelves when
he touched them with the point of a needle, with a
hog’s brittle, or when he placed a very fmall piece of
wood the weight of an ant upon the leaves..
Mr Lyall next gives us an account of his own expe¬
riments. He fays, “ that for five months, he almott,
every day, had the fpecies of drofene under his eye, ei¬
ther at home or in the country j” and he confeffes, that
he never faw fuch a rapid contraction of the leaves of
the drofera rotundifolia, as had been noticed by Meffrs
Whately and Gardom : but in all his experiments the
contraction was gradual., though it feldom failed to hap¬
pen, if the plant 'was in good condition. In moft of
his experiments an hour was neceffary for the complete
bending of all the hairs 5 and it required fome hours for
the peifedt (hutting up of the leaves. Hence it is evi¬
dent, that whoever has a witti to notice the motions of
the droferae, mutt not fet out with the expectation of
feeing a rapid motion, fimilar to what happens in the
mimofie, follow the application of a ftimulus 5 but, to
o.bferve the ultimate effeCts, mutt watch with ah atten¬
tive eye, for at leaft 20 minutes.
In accounting for the manner in which thefe motions
are performed, various opinions have been held. Srouf-
fonet fufpeCts that the difengagement ■ of fome fluids
influences them. He fays, that the inleCt, by abforbing
the fluid ivhich is on the points of the hairs, empties the
veffels of the leaf, which folds upon itfelf; and the
quicknefs of the aCtion is proportional to the numbeV of
hairs touched by the infeCt.
Our author obferves, that “ this theory, at firft fight,
does-not appear even to be plaufible ; for., how is it poffi-
ble that an infeCt can abforb a thick tenacious fluid ? No
doubt, however, part of this fluid will be attached to
the part of the infeCt which touches it; but this feems
quite unconnected with the contraction of the leaf. On
the 30th of July, Mr Lyall brought from the country a
number of plants of the drofera rotundifolia, and, on
infpeCting them, he found many of the hairs of the
leaves deprived of their vifcid fluid j but yet both they
and the leaf remained quite expanded and in g' .od con¬
dition. Next day, about faur o’clock, he placed a
1iT T ii n . „ uinun. ixcAt uay, aoouL xaur o'ciock, ne piacea a
Mr Lyall mentions the obfervations of Mr Whately, fmall bit of fulphate of copper, in the diik of one of
who,.11 would appear was the firft in tins kingdom who thefe expanded leaves, and by fix o’clock moft of the
defcribed the contractions of the droferae when irrita- hairs on one fide of the leaf, even the outermott, had
C ’ b«nt themfelves over the bit of copper ; this feems
to
V E G r 541 ] V E G
vetable to prove tlie inaccuracy of Brouflfonet’s theory. In
j (iology. other experiments, he placed fmall bits of bread or
u WOod, on three or four of the central hairs, without
touching the other hairs, or the vifcid fluid on their
ends; and in a few hours he found that all the hairs
had contracted around the foreign body. In fome
plants, the fulphate of copper was placed upon fome of
the fmall hairs in the dilk of the leaf, without touch¬
ing the leaf itfelf j yet the bending of the hairs and
leaf was complete.
“ We have here proof (he adds), lit, That the
leaves do not contraft when deprived of their vifcid
fluid, which ought to have been the cafe if Broulfonet’s
theory had been true. 2dly, That the contraction
takes place even when the vifcid fluid does not cover
the little glands. 3dly, That the contraction follows,
although the foreign body is not brought into contaCl
with all the hairs.
The opinion of Sennebier, who appears to have
afcribed the motions of the droferae to the effeCt of pref-
fure is next examined. “ Sennebier feems (it is ob~
ferved) fenfible, that the contractions of the leaves take-
place even when light bodies are placed on them, which
circumftance of itfelf would lead us to fufpeCt, that prei-
fure is not alone the eaufe.
“ I know (it is added), that, if we prefson the centre
of a leaf with a pin, &c. we may caufe its margin to ap¬
proximate the pin ; and this certainly would be owing to
a mechanical caufe. But, fuppofe we fee the contraction
take place, as I have done, when a body fpecifically
lighter than the leaf itfelf is placed in the centre, as a
bit of rotten wood •, fnould we be ftill inclined to afcribe
it to a mechanical caufe ? Admit that it is the cafe.
Suppofe, then, we place the fame bit of wood on the
margin of the leaf, what effeCt ought to follow ? If it
were owing to a mechanical caufe, or the weight of the
foreign body, as in the laft-mentioned cafe, then we
Ihoufd expeft, that the part of the margin of the leaf,
on which the bit of wood refled, would be depreffed ;
which undoubtedly is not the cafe : but, on the con¬
trary, the margin rifes, and then contracts towards the
foreign body, or towards the footftalk of the leaf.
“ That this motion does not depend on preffure, may
be ftill better illuftrated, by placing a fly, or fome
other body, on the apex of a leaf of the drofera longifo-
lia. The hairs near the foreign body will contraCt
around it, and then the apex of the leaf will rhe up¬
wards, and turn inwards, until it touches-tHe bafe. Or,
if the offending body is fmall, the leaf will become
convoluted around it.”
From the refult of his experiments, the author thinks,
that the motions of the leaves of the droferae cannot be
explained on mechanical principles. He conceives, that
thefe motions are performed, if not by mufcles, at kaft
by fomeihihg which is equivalent to rnufcles in the ani¬
mal body.
It appears that the leaves of the drofera rotundifolia
and longifolia remain completely expanded during the
hotteft funftrine and drieft weather ; during the coldeft
and wetteft weather } during the greateft darknefs, and,
finally, during the brighteft light of day. This, how¬
ever, is to be taken in a limited fenfe, i. e. only during
the expanfion of the leaves, not during the ©old of win¬
ter. “ Here, then, neither heat, cold, drynefs, dampnefs,
darknefs, nor light in general, at all affeCl the leaves j
3
but, if a foreign body be applied to the leaf fo as to fli- Vegetable
mulate, then it will fhut up” in the manner we have
already deferibed. Y
EXPLANATION of PLATES DXLI. DXLII.
and DXLIII.
[Note, that foine errors in the references to figures in
the text may be corrected by this explanation^ which is
accurately
Fig. 1. Part of a branch, (hewing the manner in
which the line of life, cc, enters into the flower-bud,
0, and paftes by the leaf, b b.
Fig. 2. A flower-bud, fhowing the line of life, c c,
running up to each flower, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, and the
pith terminating at b.
Fig. 3. SeCtion of the item of a tree 5 0, the rind ;
b, the bark } 0, the inner bark j </, the wood ; e, the
fpiral nerves 5 f the corona or line of life j g, the pith }
h, //, the filver grain ; 0, o, 0, the baftard grain.
Fig. 4. Cylinders of the inner bark.
Fig. 5. Cylinders of the wood.
Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9. Commencement of the growth of
leaves, exhibited in different ftages. 0, a, a, «, The
mid-rib ; b, b, b, the young veffels appearing like cot¬
ton ; c, c, the fpiral nerves; d, the fmaller veffeb crof-
fing each other. Fig. 9. alfo ihews e, e, the fine vef¬
fels growing up each fide of the mid-rib ; and f the
pabulum.
Fig. 10. Leaf-bud of the lime-tree. .
Fig. 11. Leaf-bud of the horfe-chefmit about Ja¬
nuary.
Fig. 12. A feed-veffel of the clafs fyngenefia ; 0, the
calyx ; b, female florets ; c, male and female florets.
Fig. 13. Seftion juft above the feed-veflel of the di-
anthus. ti, the calyx proceeding from the bark ; b,
the corolla, from the inner bark •, 0,' c, c, c, ten ftamina
from the wood •, d, the feed-veflel; e, the piflil from
the corona or circle of life.
Fig. 14. Reprefentation of the bean. 0, 0, the nou-
riftiing veffels ; L to », the feminal leaves, or cotyle¬
dons 5 /, to /, the embryo.
Fig. 15. 0, The nourifliing veffels; //, the embryo
in the feed of the lily, crofling the empty part of the
corculum.
Fig. 16. Shews /, /, the line of life; 0, 0, the nou-
rilhing veffels.
Fig. 17. Reprefents the heart taken out of the feed
of a ehefnut. /, the circular hook ; 0, 0, the nourifh- ■
ing veffels ; /, 7, the line of life, which was taken out
where it croffes the heart at tn.
Fig. 18. Thedeed of the goofeberry. 0, the nourifliing
veffels ; /, the line of life ; m, the corculum or heart.
Fia. 19. The fling of the nettle, as viewed with the
folar microfcope ; 52, the bag of poiion ; the fpiial
wire. , .
Fig. 20. The fling after the poifon has been thrown
to the point; x, the fpiral wire contracted.
Fig. 21. Indian grafs greatly magnified) fhowing the
manner in which it is formed.
Fig. 22. Awn of the grafs.
Fig. 23. and 24. The grafs twilled.
Fig. 2 5. Leaf of the mimofa fenfitiva.
Fig! 26. A longitudinal feCtion of the leaf-ftalk of
the mimofa fenfitiva, the middle part containing five
cafes of fpiral wire, and each extremity only three.
Fig-
V E L [ 542 3 YEN
Vegetable Fig. 27. The extremity of the uncut leaf-ltalk, which
i'hyfiology -g (Jiyi^d z\. pp in fig. 26.
Velez, F’S* k°rizontal feiSion of the item of the mi-
Fig. 29. A cafe full of the fpiral wire much magni¬
fied.
Fig. 30. Spiral wire ftill more magnified.
Fig. 31. Leaf of the mimofa pudica.
VEGETATIVE soul, among philofophers, denotes
that principle in plants, by virtue of which they vege¬
tate, or receive nourilhment and grow.
VEHICLE, in general, denotes any thing that car±
xies or bears another along ; but is more particularly uft d
in pharmacy for any liquid ferving to dilute fome medi¬
cine, in order that it may be adminiftered more commo-
dioufly to the patient.
VEII, in Ancient Geography, a city of Etruria, the
long and powerful rival of Rome ; diftant about ICO
ftadia, or 12 miles, to the north-weft •, fituated on a
high and fteep rock. Taken after a fiege of 10 years
by Camillus, fix years before the taking of Rome by the
Gauls: and thither the Romans, after the burning of
their city, had thoughts of removing j but were difluaded
from it by Camillus (Livy). It remained Handing after
the Punic war; and a colony was there fettled, and its
territory aftigned to the foldiers. But after that it de¬
clined fo gradually, as not to leave a fingle trace Hand¬
ing. Famous for the flaughter of the 300 Fabii on the
Cremera (Ovid). The fpot on which it flood lies near
Ifola, in St Peter’s patrimony (Holftenius).
VEIL, a piece of fluff, ferving to cover or hide any
thing.
In the Romifti churches, in time of Lent, they have
veils or curtains over the altar, crucifix, images of faints,
&c.
A veil of crape is worn on the head by nuns, as a
badge of their profeflion : the novices wear white veils,
but thofe who have made the vows black ones. See the
article Nun.
VEIN, in Anatomy, is a veffel which carries the
blood from the feveral parts of the body to the heart.
See Anatomy, N° 123.
Vein, among miners, is a fiflure in the horizontal
ftrata which contains ore, fpar, cauk, clay, chert, croil,
brownhen, pitcher-chert, cur, which the philofophers
call the mother of metals, and fometimes foil of all co¬
lours. When it bears ore, it is called a quick vein ;
when no ore, a dead vein.
VELA, a remarkable cape on the coaft of Terra
Firma, in South America. W. Long. 71. 25. N. Lat.
12. 30.
VELARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the court of
the Roman emperors, being a kind of ufher, whofe poll
was behind the curtain in the prince’s apartment, as that
of the chancellor’s was at the entry of the balluftrade ;
nnd that of the oftiarii at the door. The velarii had
a fuperior of the fame denomination, who commanded
them.
VELEZ-DE-GoMARA,atown of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Fez, and in the province of Eriff. It is the an¬
cient Acarth. With a harbour and a handfome caftle,
where the governor refides. It is feated between two
high mountains, on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea.
W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 35. 10.
3
VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of ancient Velite;
foldiery, who were armed lightly with a javelin, a cafk, It
cuirafs, and fhield. Vereering,
VELLEIUS Paterculus. See Paterculus. ’^
VELLUM, is a kind of parchment, that is finer,
evener, and more white than the common parchment.
The word is formed from the French velin, of the Latin
vitulinus, “ belonging to a calf.”
VELOCITY, in Mechanics, fwiftnefs j that affec¬
tion of motion whereby a moveable is difpofed to run
over a certain fpace in a certain time. It is alfo called
celerity, and is always proportional to the fpace moved.
See (Quantity, N° ii and 14, &c.
VELVET, a rich kind of fluff, all filk, covered on
the outfide with a clofe, ftiort, fine, foft ftiag, the other
fide being a very ftrong clofe tiffue.
The nap or Ihag, called alfo the velveting, of this
fluff, is formed of part of the threads of the warp, which
the workman puts on a long narrow-channelled ruler or
needle, which he afterwards cuts, by drawing a ftiarp
fteel tool along the channel of the needle to the ends of
the warp. The principal and beft manufactories of
velvet are in France and Italy, particularly in Venice,
Milan, Florence, Genoa, and Lucca : there are others
in Holland, fet up by the French refugees j whereof
that at Haerlem is the moft confiderable : but they all
come ftiort of the beauty of thofe in France, and ac¬
cordingly are fold for 10 or 15 per cent. lefs. There
are even fome brought from China j but they are the
worft of all.
VENAL, or Venous, in Anatomy, fomething that
bears a relation to the veins. This word is alfo ufed for
fomething bought with money, or procured by bribes.
VENEERING, Vaneering, or Fineering, a kind
of marquetry, or inlaying, whereby feveral thin flices
or leaves of fine wood, of different kinds, are applied
and faftened on a ground of fome common wood.
There are two kinds of inlaying : the one, which is
the more ordinary, goes no farther than the making of
compartiments of different woods $ the other requires
much more art, and reprefents flowers, birds, and the
like figures. The firft kind is what we properly call
veneering ; the latter we have already defcribed under
Marquetry.
The wood intended for veneering is firft fawed out
into flices or leaves, about a line thick : in order to faw
them, the blocks or planks are placed upright in a kind
of vice or fawing prefs : the defcription of which may
be feen under the article juft referred to. Thefe flices
are afterwards cut into flips, and fafliioned divers ways,
according to the defign propofed j then the joints being
carefully adjufted, and the pieces brought down to their
proper thicknefs, with feveral planes for the purpofe,
they are glued down on a ground or block of dry wood,
with good ftrong Englifh glue. The pieces thus joined
and glued, the work, if fmall, is put in a prefs ; if large,
it is laid on the bench, covered with a board, and preffed
down with poles, or pieces of wood, one end whereof
reaches to the ceiling of the room, and the other bears
on the boards. When the glue is quite dry they take
it out of the prefs and finifh it j firft with little planes,
then with divers fcrapers, fome whereof referable rafps,
which take off dents, &c. left by the planes. When
fufficiently fcraped, the work is poliflied with the Ikin of
a
Vegetable Physiology.
PLATE DALI.
e.mu,'
Fig. i6.
Fg. 13.
Fig. //.
Fig. 18.
■ v , > ;A
Fy.2g.
Fig. Si.
Vegetable Physiology.
Fig. 30.
PLATE /)A /J!/
Fig .26.
£. Liilchdijcalji'
V E N
i
i lation
; boun-
5 es.
a
sin.
MS*-
3
abiifli-
nt of a
I :e or
ce.
n. (Jpy,
4 .
ir with.
! empe-
f'harle-
gne.
•n. 765.
a fea dog, wax, and a brufli and poliftier of {kave-grafs:
which is the laft operation.
VENEREAL, fomething belonging to venery J as
the /ues venerea, &c. See Medicine Index.
VENERY, is commonly ufed for the aft of copula¬
tion, or coition, between the two fexes j it has alfo been
employed by old writers as applicable to hunting or the
chace, as beajis of venery.
VENESECTION, or Phlebotomy, in Surgery.
See Surgery Index.
VENETIAN Bole, a fine red earth ufed in paint¬
ing, and called in the colour (bops Venetian red.—It is
dug up in Carinthia, and fent from Venice to all parts
of the world j but the ufe of it is much fuperfeded by
a bright colcothar of vitriol.
VENICE, STATE OF, a celebrated republic, which
for nearly ten centuries formed one of the moft porver-
ful of the maritime Rates of Europe. Its dominions lay
chiefly along the coaRs at the head of the Adriatic fea,
comprehending not only a confiderable traft round the
city of Venice, but feveral diflrifts both to theeaR and
wcfl of that fea, together with the iflands of Corfu,
Zante, Cephalonia, Cerigo, and fome others of lefs note,
in the Archipelago. It was bounded to the north by
the Alps, to the weR by the duchy of Milan, and to
the eaR by Croatia, a province of Turkey in Europe.
The republic of Venice is faid to have taken its rife
from a fmall Italian colony, who in the middle of the
5th century were driven by Attila king of the Huns
from the cities of Aquileia, Verona, Mantua, &c. and
took refuge in the group of fmall iflands where now
Rands the city of Venice. Here they eRablifhed them-
felves, and formed a fmall independent Rate, adopting
the confular form of government which had folong pre¬
vailed at Rome. By the end of the 5th century they
had become of confequence, and were able to raife and
maintain a fleet and a fmall army. They engaged in
a war with the Lombards, and diRinguiftied themielves
againfl the Iflrian pirates, and the inhabitants of the
neighbouring port of Triefle. They alfo affiRed Jufli-
nian in his contefl with the Goths, and received from
him and his general Narfes, many marks of favour and
diflinftion.
About the year 697, the tribunitian power, which had
prevailed in Venice from the end of the 5th century,
was aboliflied, and the Rates elefted a fupreme magi-
flrate, whom they called doge, or duke. He was to
reprefent the honour and majefly of the Rate •, to aflem-
ble and prefide at the great council, where he had a
caRing vote in all difputed points j to nominate to all
offices, places, and preferments, and to enjoy the fame
authority in the church as in the Rate. Excepting a
fliort intermiffion of about five years, the power of the
doges continued till the fall of the republic.
Under the doges, the power and wealth of the repub¬
lic continued to increafe. In 765* Heraclians and
Gezulans, fubjefts of the republic, revolted, and thiew
themfelves on the proteftion of the emperor Charle¬
magne. That emperor fettled them for the prefent at
Malamoe, in the neighbourhood of the Venetian capi¬
tal •, but from this afylum they were quickly driven by
the forces of the republic. Tncenfed at this aff ont com¬
mitted againfi his authority, Charlemagne ordered his
fon Pepin to declare war again A the Venetians j but as
t 543 ]
YEN
ARolphus king of the Lombards was then laying wafle Venice,
the territories of the, church, the troops of Pepin were, y——'
by the intreaties of the pope, difpatched againfl that
powerful monarch j and though, on the defeat of Aflol-
phus they marched againfl the Venetians, it does not
appear that the enterprife was produftive of either ho¬
nour or fuccefs. The war with Pepin was renewed in
804, on occafion of Obelerio, the doge of Venice,
fliewing an inclination to favour the Greek emperor Ni-
cephorus againfl Pepin. Obelerio was related to the
French monarch, having married his fifler 5 and as on
this account the Venetians were jealous of the attach¬
ment of their doge, he was fuperfeded, and Valentin
nominated commander in his place. Pepin had colleft-
ed a numerous and well appointed army, and had fitted
out a fleet to aft againfl the Venetians by fea. With
this formidable force he advanced direftly to Venice,
but here he was oppofed with all the valour of indepen¬
dent citizens fighting for their liberties. 5.
The Venetians, however, notwithRanding the moft
obftinate defence, the moR vigorous fallies, and their ye.
felling every inch of ground at an incredible expence ofnetians.
blood, -were at length reduced to that part of the city An. 804.
fouth of the Rialto (fee the next article') ; this Rream and
their own bravery, being now their only defence. While
Pepin was preparing to throw a bridge over the canal,
they refolved, as a laft effort, to attack Pepin’s fleet, and
to vanquifti or die in defence of their liberty. Embark¬
ing all the troops they could fpare, they bore down
with the advantage of the wind and tide, upon the ene¬
my, and began the attack with fuch fury, as obliged
the French admiral to give way. The lightnefs of their
(hips, and the knowledge of the foundings, gave the
Venetians every advantage they could wiih : the ene¬
my’s fleet was run aground, and the greater part of
their troops periihed in attempting to efcape : the fliips
were all to a few either taken or deftroyed. During
this aftion at fea, Pepin refolved to affault the city by
land, not doubting but the garrifon was fo weakened by
the number of forces they had fent on board the fleet,
as to be able to make but a flight refiflance. Having
for this purpofe thrown a bridge over the Rialto, he was
marching his troops acrofs it, when he found himfelf at¬
tacked on every fide by the Venetians from their boats,
and others who had pofted themfelves on the bridge.
The battle was long, bloody, and doubtful, until the
Venetians employed all their power to break down the _
bridge ; which at laft yielding to their obftinate endea¬
vours, a prodigious flaughter of the French enfued ; they
fought, however, like men in defnair, feeing no hopes of
fafety but in viftqry 5 but all communication being cut
off with the troops on ftiore, they were to a man either
killed or drowned. The number of flain was fo great,
that the fpace between the Rialto and Malamoe was co¬
vered with dead bodies, and has ever fince gone by a
name expreflive of the prodigious flaughter. Pepin was
fo ft ruck with the intrepidity of the Venetians, that he
raifed the fiege, abandoned the enterprife, and conclud¬
ed a peace with the republic. _ 6
In 839, the Venetians engaged in an offenfive and Venetian
defenfive alliance againft the Saracens, with the Greek fleet dc-
emperor Michael, to whofe affiflance they fent a fleet of^
60 galleys. In an engagement which took place be- cens
tween the allied fleets and that of the Saracens, the for- An. 8,39.
mer
V E N [ 544 1 "v E N
Venice, mer were completely defeated, and almoft all the Vene-
fjan galleys were either taken or deftroyed. On the
news of this defeat, the capital was thrown into the
greateft confternation, juftly dreading £n attack from
the victorious Saracens. This alarm, however, foon
fubfided, on finding that the barbarians had turned off
on the fide of Ancona. The city now became a prey
to internal dilfenfion. Popular tumults were frequent,
and in one of thefe the doge was murdered. By the
prudent and vigorous adminiffration of a fucceeding
doge, Orfo Participato, .good order was re-eftablifhed,
and at the commencement of the 10th century, the re¬
putation of the republic for military prbwefs was much
advanced by a viftory gained over the Huns, who had
^ invaded Italy, and defeated Berengarius.
Increafcd Towards the -clofe of the 11 th century, Venice began
power of to make a confiderable figure among the dates of Europe,
rePu')* having acquired the fovereignty of Dalmatia and Cro-
An. 10S4. at*a’ IS^4 theY were formally invefted
8 by the Conftantinopolitan emperor.
Take an About this time a crufade, or holy war againlt the
active part Saracens, was preached up by the emiliaries of the pope,
faclesf ClU" anc* ^ie Venetian republic engaged in the undertaking
An, iop5. with fuch ardour, as to'equip a fleet of £00 fail, under
the command of the doge Vitalis‘Michael. Before he
failed for the coaft of Alia, however, the doge found it
necefiary to chaftife the Pifans, whom he defeated in a
terrible engagement. He then failed for Alkalon, at
that time befieged by the Chriftian forces, and it was
chiefly by his valour that that city, as well as Caipha
and Tiberias, fell into the hands of the ^Chriftians.
From thefe vi&ories he was recalled to repel an invafion
of Dalmatia by the Normans, whom he alfo defeated,
carrying off confiderable booty. His fucceffor aflifted
Baldwin in the conqueft of Ptolemais, but was defeat¬
ed and killed in attempting to quell a rebellion of the
Croatians.
Difpute Under the government of Domenico Micheli, who
with the fucceeded Ordelapho, the pope’s nuncio arrived at Ve-
Greek em- nice, and excited fuch a fpirit of enthufiafm among all
peror, ranks and degrees of men, that they drove whofe names
fhould be firfl enrolled for the holy war. The doge,
having fitted out a fleet of 60 galleys, failed with it to
Joppa, which place the Saracens were at that time be-
fieging. The garrifon was reduced to the laft extre¬
mity when the Venetian fleet arrived, which furprifed
and defeated that of the enemy with great daughter j
foon after which the Saracens raifed the fiege with pre¬
cipitation. Tyre was next befieged, and foon was ob¬
liged to capitulate j on which occafion, as well as on the
taking of Afcalon, the Venetians (hared two-thirds of
the fpoils. While the doge was abfent on thofe im¬
portant affairs, the emperor of Conffantinople, jealous
of the growing power of the Venetians, refolved to
take advantage of their apparent incapacity to refill
an attack at home. The Venetians, however, had timely
notice of his approach, and inftantly recalled the doge,
who on his return laid wafle and deflroyed the country
round Chios, feized on the iflands of Samos, Lelbos, and
Andros, then belonging to the emperor, and reduced
I0 feveral places in Dalmatia which had revolted,
and with In H73> n'public ventured to oppofe Frederick
Barbarofla. Barbaroffa in his attack on the pope. Frederick, after
‘An. 1173. a haughty reply to an embaffy fent him by the Vene¬
tians, difpatched againft them his fon Otho, who foon
arrived before the city with 75 galleys. The doge Venb.
■Sebaftiano Ziani failed out with the few veffels he h'ad
got equipped, to give the enemy battle. The fleets
met off the coall of Iftria, and a terrible engagement
enfued, in which the imperial fleet was totally defeated
Otho himfelf taken prifoner, and 48 of his flaps de¬
ftroyed. On the doge’s return, the pope went out to
meet him, and preiented him with a ring, faying,
“ Take this, Ziani, and give it to the fea, as a teftimony
of your dominion over it. Let your fucceffors annually
perform the fame ceremony, that pofterity may know
that your valour has purchased this prerogative, and
fubjedted this element to you, even as-a hulband fub-
jecleth his wife,” Otho was treated with the refpecl
due to his rank, and foon conceived a great friendlhip
for Ziani. At laft, being permitted to vifit the impe¬
rial court, on his parole, he not only prevailed on his
father to make peace with the Venetians, but even to
vifit their city, lb famed for its commerce and naval
power. He was received with all poflible refpect, and
on Iris departure attended to Ancona by the doge, the
fenate, and the whole body of the nobility. During
this journey he was reconciled to the pope ; and both
agreed to nay the higheft honours to the doge and re¬
public.
In the beginning of the 13th century, the Venetians They gain
in conjundion with the French, befieged and took Con- podeffion (
llantinople, as has been related under the article Con- (eDftant‘-
stantinofolitan History, N° 144—146, which
they held till the year 1261.
In the mean time the Genoefe, by their fuccefsful War wirii
application to commerce, having raifed themfelves intheGe*
fach a manner as to be capable of rivalling the Vene-1106*®*
tians, a long feries of wars took place between the re¬
publics ; in which the Venetians generally had the ad¬
vantage, though fometimes they met with terrible over¬
throws. Thefe expenfive and bloody quarrels undoubted¬
ly contributed to weaken the republic notwithflanding
its fucceffes. In the year 1348, however, the Genoefe An< I34$,
were obliged to implore the protedion of Vifconti duke
of Milan, in order to fupport them againlt their implaca¬
ble enemies the Venetians. Soon after this, in the year
1352, the latter was utterly defeated with fuch lofs,
that it was thought the city itfelf mull have fallen into
the hands of the Genoefe, had they known how to im¬
prove their vidory. This was in a ftiort time followed
by a peace •, but from this time the power of the repub¬
lic began to decline. Continual war with the Hates of
Italy, with the Hungarians, and their own rebellious
fubjeds, kept the Venetians employed, fo that they had
no leifure to oppofe the Turks, whofe rapid advances
might have alarmed all Europe. After the deftrudion
of the eallern empire, however, in 1453 the Turks be¬
gan more immediately to interfete with the republic.
Whatever valour might be Ihewn by the Venetians, or
whatever fucceffes they might boall of, it is certain the
Turks ultimately prevailed; fo that for feme time it
feemed fcarcely poffible to refill them. What alfo con¬
tributed greatly to the decline of the republic, was the
difeovery of a paffage to the Ealt Indies by the Cape of
Good Hope in 1497. Till then the greatell part of the
Eall India goods imported into Europe palled through
the hands of the Venetians ; but as foon as the Cape was
difeovered, the conveyance by the way of Alexandria
almoll entirely ceafed. Still, however, the Venetian
power
V E N t S45 ] V E K
power was ftrong; and m the beginning of the 16th lity had a feat. The nobility
ice- X , .
century they maintained a war againft almoft the whole
1 force of France, Germany, and Italy, aflbeiated againft
3 them in what has been called the League of Cambray.
* ^ ° Soon after, however, we find them entering into an al¬
liance with the king of France againft the emperor.
After this, nothing of importance occurs in the hif-
tory of the Venetian republic till the year 1645, when
the republic was involved in a new and fanguinary con-
flift with the Turks, in defence of the important illand
of Candia. The tranfaclions to which this war gave rife,
and the Ipirit and bravery displayed by the Venetians,
in defending their colonial poffeffions, are amply de¬
tailed under the article Candia.
At the end of the 17th century, the Venetians ob¬
tained an important acquifition of territory by the con-
quelt of the Morea, which at the peace of Carlowitz
in 1699, was formally ceded by Turkey to the ftate of
* S Tlod ^en^ce *•
During the war of the Succeffion, the ftates of Venice
•voL vii. obferved a drift neutrality. They confidered that dif-
pute as unconnefted with their interefls 5 taking care,
however, to keep on foot an army on their frontiers in
Italy, of fufficient force to make them refpefted by the
belligerent powers. But foon after the peace of U-
trecht, the Venecians were again attacked by their old
^ enemies the Turks, who beholding the great European
1 'footl
^ reft,..
!u Ter r.
An.
-of li¬
bra
An 50®-
l
a vars
■wit he
Tut
An '45*
Tfr ene-
tiar on-
que be
Mo ;
'S-
The ite
’efV ice
beer :s a
Ler powers exhaufted by their late efforts, and unable to af-
i to fift the republic, thought this the favourable moment
for recovering the Morea, which had been fo lately ra-
viflied from them. The Turks obtained their objeft,
and at the peace of Paffarowitz in 1715, which termi¬
nated this unfuccefsful war, the Venetian ftates yielded
up the Morea j the grand feignior on his part reftoring
to them the fmall iflands of Cerigo and Cerigetto, with
feme places which his troops had taken during the
courfe of the war in Dalmatia.
From the peace of Paffarowitz to the conclufion of
the 18th century, the affairs of Venice ceafed to form
prov e of an interefting part of the hiffory of Europe. Ever fince
ufj* the league of Cambray, the republic, weakened by its
continual ftruggles with Turkey, had declined in powrer
and in confequence, and was incapable of oppofing a
barrier to the encroachments of its more powerful neigh¬
bours. During the firff war which the French republic
maintained againft the emperor in Italy, the ftates of
Venice afforded a tempting objeft to each of the con¬
tending parties ; and in May 1797, the capital was oc¬
cupied by a body of French troops, who under pretence
of quelling a tumult that had arifen in the city, took
pofleflion of the forts, and fubverted the exifting autho¬
rities. By the treaty of Campo Fortnio, concluded be¬
tween the emperor and the French republic in Oftober
of the fame year, the French confented that the em¬
peror fhould take poffeffion of the Venetian territory,
with the iflands in the Archipelago, which had been
fubjeft to the Venetian republic j and by the fubfe-
quent treaty of Luneville in 1801, this acceflion of ter¬
ritory to the houfe of Aultria was confirmed, fo that
the Venetian republic muff now be confidered as an
Auftrian province,
lt ^ is not neceffary for us.to be very minute in our ac-
^ count of the late conftitution and government of Venice.
i. The government was ftriftly ariftocratical, being veiled
m the great council or fenate, in which each of the nobi-
Vol. XX. Part II.
Ah.
Gonft .
lion,
verni
&c.<
late 1
Me.
1 • ,  j were extremely numerous.
being comrmted at not fewer than 2000, whereas the
no e population of the ftate did not exceed 2,500,000.
L 1 the great council, or il conftglio grande^ there
were four others ^ one competed of the doge and fix
counfellors, called lafignoria ; another called ilconjigho
du pregodeonfifting of about 250 of the nobility j a
third united to lajignarta, confilting of 28 affeffors, or
great fages, which gave audience to ambailadors j and a
fourth, compofed ot 10 counfcllers, who took cogni¬
zance ot all criminal matters, and before whom even
the doge himfelf muft appear, if accuied. The fccret
bufinefs of the itate was often carried on by fpies and in¬
formers j and there were in the ducal palace feveral fta-
tues of lions with open mouths, which formed fo many
receptacles for fecret and anonymous information.
1 he office and privileges of the doge of Venice have
been already mentioned under the article Doge. Of
late this office was little more than nominal j and the
doge was a mere ftate puppet, without authority and
without power. His eftablifhment, however, was fplen-
did, and his revenue not contemptible The mode of
elefting the doge deferves notice, as it was well calcu¬
lated to prevent bribery, or the exertion of party influ¬
ence. He was elefted by a plurality of voices, and held
his dignity for life. In his eleftion they made ufe of
gold and filver balls, which were put into a veffel, and
ferved for balloting. Thofe who drew nine golden
balls, firft elefted 40 counfellors, who drew 12 others,
and elefted 25 in addition. Of this number nine per-
fons, who had drawn golden balls, chofe 40 more j 11
of thofe, appointed in the fame way, chofe 41 counfel¬
lors, who finally proceeded to the eleftion, till 25 votes
or more fell upon the fame perfon, who was then de¬
clared doge. After this eleftion they placed the ducal
cap upon his head, upon which he took poffeffion of the
doge’s palace. He never uncovered his head to any
perfon, becaufe he did not wear the cap in his own name,
but in that of the republic.
The military ftrength of the Venetians confifted of
nearly 30,000 land forces, under the command of a ca-
pitano, who was always a foreigner of diftinftion j be-
fides a confiderable fleet, which they boafted could, in
time of war, be increafed to 60 men of war, and above
100 galleys. The ordinary revenues of the ftate have
been computed at rather more than i,ooo,oool. fterling,
a confiderable part of which arofe from the cuftoms, and
the duty on fait made at Corfu and Chiofa.
VENICE, the city which W'as the feat of government
of the Venetian republic, is built on 72 fmall iflands at
the head of the Adriatic or gulf of Venice, about fiv©
miles from the main land. That part of the gulf which
lies between the city and the continent forms a kind of
laguna or lake, which, at low water, is very (hallow,
and on the oppofite fide of the iflands there are nume¬
rous (hallows, the channels between which are marked
by (takes, to direft (hips in entering the port. The la-
gunes that lie betwreen the iflands form fo many canals
that interfeft the city in all direftions, and over thefc
the ftreets communicate by not fewer than 500 bridges.
The principal or great canal is broad, and has a ferpen-
tine courfe through the middle of the city, but the
others are narrow and crooked. The ftreets are. alfo
narrow and winding, but clean and neat. The houfes
are built on piles, and have each a door opening to the
3 Z adjacent
Venice
YEN [ 540 ] YEN
Venice adjacent canal, and another to the ftreet. As the nar-
Vent-Ltor rowne^s ^ie ftreetfi but ill adapts them for walking in,
. ^ the only places of refort on land are the Rialto, a noble
bridge acrofs the great canal, bordered with booths and
Iho] >s, and the great fquare of St Mark, or Piat&Ka di
St Marco, an irregular quadrangle, formed of feveral
buildings, fome of which are magnificent. Of thefe,
the ducal palace, where the bufinels of the Hate uled to
be tranfafted 5 the patriarchal church of St Mark ; the
fteeple of St Mark, at a little diitance from the church }
the church of St Geminiano 5 and the new and old
Procuraries, are molt deferving the notice of travellers.
The canals form the great medium of communication,
as well as the principal fcene of relaxation and amufe-
ment to the inhabitants. Here ply numerous gondolas,
(fee Gondola, and Macgill's Travels, vol. i.) which
are rowed with admirable fpeed and dexterity by the
gondoliers 5 and here are occafionaily held races, or ra¬
ther rowing matches. As the canals are, of neceflity,
the receptacles of all the filth of the city, they become,
in hot weather, very offenfive j while, in winter, from
their free communication with the gulf, they are fre¬
quently agitated by the Adriatic florms. The whole
city i.‘ about fix miles in circumference, and the inha¬
bitants are eftimated at 160,000.
The inhabitants of Venice carried on a flourifhing
trade in filk manufactures, gold lace, mirrors and other
articles of glafs, beiides military ttores and implements
of war. At fome dillance from the city there is a large
and commodious lazaretto, where (hips coming from the
Levant unload their goods, and perform quarantine
from 20 to 40 days.
This celebrated city, once the feat of power, opu¬
lence and the fine arts, whofe carnival revelries have
been the fubjedl of fo many animated defcriptions, lias
undergone a melancholy change. Her ftreets and ca¬
nals no longer refound with the ftrains of the mufician
and the ferenades of watchful lovers, and her gay gon¬
dolas, which were formerly occupied by fafhionable
groups and parties of pleafure, are now become the •ve¬
hicles of trade, or ferve for the accommodation of the
foldier and the mechanic. The trade of the city, which
had long declined, has, fince the ceflion of the Venetian
territory to Auftria, been almoft entirely transferred to
Triefte. Venice is 72 miles E. by N. of Mantua 5115
N. E. of Florence *, 140 E. of Milan •, 212 N. of Rome,
and 300 N. by W. of Naples. E. Long. 120 33'. Ni
Lat. 450 26'.
VENIRE facias, in Law, is a judicial writ lying
where two parties plead and come to iffue, direfted to
the (heriff, to came 1 2 men of the fame neighbourhood
to meet and try the fame, and to fay the truth upon the
ifiue taken.
VENTER, fignifies the belly ; but it is alfo ufed for
the children by a woman of one marriage : there is in
law a firll and fecond venter, &c. where a man hath
children by feveral wives j and how they (hall take in
defcents of lands.
VENTILATOR, a machine by which the noxious
air of any clofe place, as an hofpital, gaol, Ihip, cham¬
ber, &c. may be difcharged and changed for frefh.
I he noxious qualities of bad air have been long
known ; and no one has taken greater pains to fet the
mifchiefs arifing from foul air in a juft light than Dr
Hales } who has alfo propofed an eafy and effectual re-
1
medy by the ufe of his ventilators 5 his account of which Ventilate
was read to the Royal Society in May 1741. In the U“Y’--
November following M. Triewald, military architeft to
the king of Sweden, informed Dr Mortimer fecretary
to the Royal Society, that he had in the preceding fprir,<f
invented a machine for the ufe of his majefty’s men of
war, in order to draw out the bad air from under their
decks, the leaft of which exhaufted 36,172 cubic feet
in an hour, or at the rate of 21,732 tons in 24 hours.
In 1742 he fent one of them, formed for a 60 gun fhip
to France ; which was approved of by the Roval Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris 5 and the king of France or¬
dered all the men of war to be furniftied with the like
ventilators.
The ventilators invented by Dr Hales confift of a piate
fquare box ABCD (fig. r.) of any fize j in the middle DXllv
of one fide of this box a broad partition or midriff is fix- 1*
ed by hinges X, and it moves up and down from A to
C, by means of an iron rod ZR, fixed at a proper di-
ftance from the other end of the midriff, and palling
through a fmall hole in the cover of the box up to II.
Two boxes of this kind may be employed at once, and
the two iron rods may be fixed to a lever EG (fig. 2.) Fig. 2.
moving on a fixed centre O ; fo that by the alternate
railing and prelTmg down of the lever EG, the midriffs
are alfo alternately raifed and depreffed, whereby thefe
double bellows are at the fame time both drawing in air,
and pouring it out, through apertures with valves made
on the fame fide with, and placed both above and be¬
low the hinges of the midriffs. In order to render the
midriffs light, they are made of four bars lengthwife,
and as many acrofs them breadthwife, the vacant fpapes
being filled up with thin pannels of fir board j and that
they may move to and fro with the greater eafe, and
without touching the fides of the boxes, there is an iron
regulator fixed upright to the middle of the end of the
box AC (fig. I.) from N to L, with a notch cut info
the middle of the end of the midriff at Z ; fo that the
midriffs, in riling and falling, fuffer no other fricliou
than what is made between the regulator and the notch.
Moreover, as the midriff ZX moves with its edges only
one-twentieth of an inch from the fides of the box
ABCDFE, very little air will efcape by the edges j
and, therefore, there will be no need of leathern fides as
in the common bellows. The end of the box at AC is
made a little circular, that it may be better adapted
between A and C to the riling and falling midriff; and
at the other end X of the midriff a flip of leather may
be nailed over the joints if needful. The eight large
valves through which the air is to pafs, are placed at
the hinge-end of the boxes BK (fig. 2.) as at 1, 2, 3,
&c. The valve I opens inw7ard to admit the air to
enter, when the midriff is depreffed at the other end
by means of the lever EG. And at the fame time the
valve 3 in the knver ventilator is Unit by the comprefled
air which paffes out at the valve 4. But when that
midriff is raifed, the valve 1 flmts, and the air paffes
out at the valve 2. And it is the fame with the valves
5, 6, &c. of the other box 5 fo that the midriffs are al¬
ternately riling and falling, and two of the ventilators
drawing in air, and two blowing it out ; the air enter¬
ing at the valves 1, 3, 6, 8, and pafling out at the valves
2, 4, 5, 7. Before thefe laft valves there is fixed to the
ventilators a box (^QNM (fig. 3.) as a common recep-Fig-3>
tacle for all the air which comes out of thefe valves;
which
.
V E N [ 547 ] V E R
V tilator ^vhicli air paffes off by the trunk P, through the wall
II of a building. See Defcription of Ventilators by Ste-
nus’ phen Hales, D. D. Lond. 1743, 8vo. •, and for the me-;
thod of freeing mines, fbips, prifons, &c. from noxious
air by means of fire-pipes, fee Pneumatics, N° 371.
VENTR1 Infpiciendo, is a writ to fearch a woman that
faith Ihe is with child, and thereby withholdeth lands
from the next heir : the trial whereof is by a jury of
women.
VENTRICLE, properly denotes any little cavity ;
but is more particularly ufed by phyficians and anato-
mifts for the ftomach and certain cavities of the heart
and brain.
VENTRILOQUISM, an art by which certain
perfons can fo modify their voice, as to make it appear
to the audience to proceed from .any diftance, and in
any direftion. See Physiology Index.
VENUS, in Pagan worlhip, the goddefs of love and
beauty. Cicero mentions two other deities of this name.
Venus, ftyled Urania and CeleJUs ; and the Venus Pan¬
demos or Popu/aris, the wife of Vulcan, and the god¬
defs of wanton and effeminate love. To the firft the
Pagans afcribed no attributes but fuch as were agree¬
able to the ftri&eft chaftity and virtue ; and of this dei¬
ty they admitted no corporeal refemblance, (he being
only reprefented by the form of a globe, ending coni¬
cally. Her facrifices were termed nepJia/ia, on account
of their fobriety. To her honey and wine were offered,
and no animal except the heifer } and on her altars the
wood of figs, vines, or mulberries, was not fuffered to
be burnt. The Romans dedicated a temple to this god¬
defs, to whom they gave the name of Verticordia ; be-
caufe (he turned the hearts of lewd women, and infpired
them with modefty and virtue.
But the mod famous of thefe goddeffes is the wife of
Vulcan *, who is reprefented as fpringing from the froth
raifed by the genitals of Saturn, when cut off by Jupi¬
ter and thrown into the fea. As foon as {he wTas form¬
ed, (lie was laid in a beautiful (hell embellifiied with
pearl, and wafted by gentle zephyrs to the ille of Cy-
therea, whence fhe failed to Cyprus. At her landing,
flowers rofe beneath her feet •, fhe was received by the
Hours, who braided her hair with golden fillets ; and
then wafted her to heaven, where her charms appeared
fo attraflive, that mod of the gods defired her in mar¬
riage ; but Vulcan, by the advice of Jupiter, gained
poffeflion by putting poppies into her neftar. As Ve¬
nus was the goddefs of love and pleafure, the poets have
been lavifh in the defcription of her beauties 5 and the
painters and datuaries have endeavoured to give her
the mod lovely form. Sometimes die is reprefented
clothed in purple, glittering with gems, her head
crowned with rofes, and drawn in an ivory car by
fwans, doves, or fparrows j at others (he dands attend¬
ed by the Graces •, but in all pofitions, her fon Cupid
is her infeparable companion. She was honoured as
the mother of Hymeneus, Cupid, i^Eneas, and the
Graces, and was paflionately fond of Adonis and An-
chifes.
• This goddefs was principally wordiipped at Paphos
and Cyprus; and the facrifices offered to her were white
goats and fwine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey.
Her vi£fims were crowned ivith flowers, or wreaths of
myrtle.
Venus, one of the planets. See Astronomy In- Venus
dex. Il
VENUS'1 S Ply-trap. See DlONJEA Mufcipula. Bota- ,Vcrdltx
NY Index. V
Venus, a genus of fliell-fifh. See Conchology In¬
dex.
VEPRECULHL, diminutive from vepres, “ a briar
or bramble j” the name of the 3 id order in Linnaeus’s
Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany Index.
VERA-Cruz, a fea-port town of North America,
New Spain, with a very fecure and commodious har¬
bour, defended by a fort. Here the flotilla annually
arrives from Spain to receive the produce of the gold
and filver mines of Mexico 5 and at the fame time, a
fair is held here for all manner of rich merchandife
brought from China and the Ead Indies by way of the
South fea, and for the merchandife of Europe by the way
of the Atlantic ocean. This town is not two miles in
circumference; and about it there is a wall of no great
drength on the land-fide. The air is unwholefome ;
and there are very few Spaniards here unlefs when
the flotilla arrives, and then it is crowded with people
from all parts of SpanRh America. It is 200 miles
fouth-ead of Mexico. W. Long. 37. 25. N. Lat. 19.
12.
VERAGUA, a province of New Spain, bounded on
the ead by that of Coda Rica, on the wed by Pana¬
ma, on the north by Darien and the gulf of Mexico,
and on the fouth by the South fea. It is about 125
miles ifi length from ead to wed, and 60 in breadtli
from north to fouth. It is a mountainous barren coun¬
try 5 but has plenty of gold and filver. Conception is
the capital town.
VERATRUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polygamia, and in the natural fydem arranged un¬
der the 10th order, Coronarice. See Botany and Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
VERB, in Grammar. See Grammar, chap. iv.
VERB ASCUM, a genus of plants of the clafs pent*
andria, and in the natural fydem arranged under the
28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
VERBENA, a genus of plants of the clafs of dian-
dria, and in the natural fydem arranged under the 40th
order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
VERD, Cape, a promontory on the wed coad of
Africa, 40 miles north-wed of the mouth of the river
Gambia. W. Long. 17. 38. N. Lat. 14. 45.
The iflands of Cape de Verd are feated in the Atlan¬
tic ocean, about 400 miles wed of the Cape. They are
between the 13th and 19th degree of latitude ; and the
principal are 10 in number, lying in a femicircle. Their
names are, St Antony, St Vincent, St Lucia, St Nicholas,
the ijle of Sal, Bona Vifla, Mayo, St Jago, Fuego, and
Brava.
VERDICT, (Vcre diSum), is the anfwer of the jury
given to the court concerning the matter of faft, in any
cafe civil or criminal, committed by the court to their
trial and examination. See Law, N° clxxxvi. 51. and
Trial.
VERDIGRISE, the aeetate of copper, much ufed
by painters as a green colour. See Copper, Chemi¬
stry' Index.
VERDITER, or Verdater, a preparation of cop¬
per, fometimes ufed by painters, &c. for a blue ;
3 Z 2 but
Vttrditer
tl .
Vermin.
v E R [ 548 ] V E R
but more usually mixed ’.vith a yellow for a green co¬
lour. See Copper, C^riEMiSXRY Index, and COLOUR-
Making, N° 28.
VERGE {Vir'gttta), in Law, fignifics the compafs of
the king’s courV, which bounds the j-urifdi&ion of the
lord fteward of the houfehold ; and which is thought to
have been 12 miles round.
I he term verge is alfo ufed for a flick or rod, where¬
by one is admitted tenant to a copyhold eftate, by hold¬
ing it in his hand, and fwearing fealty to the lord of the
manor.
\ ERGERS, certain officers of the courts of king’s
bench and common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to carry
white wands before the judges. There are alfo vergers
of cathedrals, who carry a rod tipped with filver before
the bifhop, dean, &c.
VERGIL, Polydore. See Virgil.
VERJUICE, a liquor obtained from grapes or apples,
unfit for wine or cyder 5 and chiefly ufed iu fauces, ra¬
gouts, &c.
VERMES, the fixth clafs of animals in the Lin-
naean fyflem, comprehending five orders. See Natu¬
ral History, and Conchology and Helmintholo¬
gy Index.
VERMICELLI, or Vermichelly, a compofition
of flour, cheefe, yolks of eggs, fugar, and faffron, redu¬
ced to a pafte, and formed into long flender pieces like
worms, by forcing it with a pifton through a number of
little holes. It was firft brought from Italy j and is
chiefly ufed in foups and pottages.
VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that
bears a relation or refemblance to ivorms.
VERMIFORMIS, Anatomy, ■3l\.zxvc\ applied to va¬
rious parts in the human body, bearing fome refemblanee
to worms.
VERMILION, a bright and beautiful red colour,
compofed of quickfilver and fulphur, in great efteem
among the ancients under the name of minium. See
Chemistry, N° 1701, and 1713 • but what goes by
the name of minium amongft us, is a preparation of lead,
known alfo by the name of red~lead. See Chemistry
N° 1832, ’
VERMIN is a general term, denoting thofe animals
which are either direftly or indirectly injurious to man¬
kind, the inferior animals, or the fruits of the earth ; as
fleas, caterpillars, flies, worms, &c.
Vermin, Dejb'udhon of. As we propofe in this article
to point out the means of deftroying fome of thofe ani¬
mals that arc hurtful or troublefome to man, we fhall
employ the term vermin, in a more extended fenfe, in¬
cluding alfo under it, mice, rats, moles, &c. We {hall
endeavour to collea the moft ufeful obfervations that
have been made on the means of diminifliing or extir¬
pating fueh animals as are obvioufly injurious. We
cannot avoid here remarking, that although the feem-
ingly exceffive increafe of one fpecies of animals is hurt¬
ful or inconvenient to another, or to man himfelf, and
their exiftence is attended with great lofs and damage,
by their mfefiing and deftroying grains and other fruits
of the earth deftined for the food of man or thofe ani¬
mals that are fubfervient to him 5 we are not of opinion
thcjt this excels ought to be confidered merely as a
ulelefs excrefcence in the great fcale of being': nor are
we of opinion that their numbers ought not to be reduced,
became we are too ffiort-flighted to comprehend the wife
5
purpofes for which they are called into life. We have
heard fuch a doftrine held up, although we are inclined
to fufpect that it is founded on a love of Angularity or
Indolence, rather than proceeding from pure motives of
benevolence. But we muft abftain from fuch difcuf-
fions, and occupy the limits allotted to the proper fubjeft
of confideration.
Rats and Mice.—Various methods have been propof-
ed for the deftruttion of thefe vermin. The following
preparation has been recommended as very effeftual.
Take of the feeds of ftavefacre {delphinium JlapJiifagrid)i
or of loufewort {pedicularispalujlris'), powdered, more
or lefs as the occafion requires, one part j of oat meal,
three parts : mix them well, and make them up into a
pafte with honey. Lay pieces of this pafte in the holes,
and on the places where mice and rats frequent; and it
will effeftually kill or rid the places of thofe kind of
vermin by their eating of it.
Some time ago the fociety for encouraging arts pro-
pofed a premium of 50I. for a preparation capable of
alluring or fafcinating rats fb that they might be taken
alive. In confequence of this, a great number of new
traps, &c. were invented, and the following methods of
alluring the ratsfto a certain place were publiflied. One
of the methods which is moft eafily and efficacioufly
praftifed, is the trailing of fome pieces of their moft fa¬
vourite food, which Ihould be of the kind which has the
ftrongeft fcent, fuch as toafted cheefe or boiled red her-
rings, from the holes or entrances of the clofet to their
receffes in every part of the houfe or contiguous build¬
ing. At the extremities, and at different parts of the
courfe of this trailed track, fmall quantities of meal, or
any other kind of their food, fhould be laid to bring
the greater number into the tracks, and to encourage
them to purfue it to the place where they are intended
to be taken ^ at that place, when time admits of it, a
more plentiful repaft is laid for them, and the trailing
repeated for two or three nights.
Betides this trailing and way-baiting, fome of the
moft expert of the rat-catchers have a fihorter, and per¬
haps more effectual method of bringing them together;
which is the calling them, by making fuch a whittling
noife as refembles their own call} and by this means,
with the affiftance of the way-baits, they call them out
of their holes, and lead them to the repaft previoufly
prepared for them at the places defigned for taking
them. But this is much more difficult to be praftifed
than the art of trailing 5 for the learning of the exadl
notes or cries of any kind of beafts or birds, fo as to
deceive them, is a peculiar talent which is attained on¬
ly by few.
In pra&ifmg either of thefe methods of trailing or
calling, great caution muft be ufed by the operator to
fupprefs and prevent the fcent of his feet and body from
being perceived •, which is done by overpowering that
fcent, by other fcents of a ftronger nature. In order
to do this, the feet are to be covered with cloths
rubbed over with afafcetida, or other ftrong fmelling
fubftances j and even oil of rhodium is fometimes ufed
for this purpofe, but fparingly, on account of its high
price, though it has a very alluring as well as difgufting
effe£L If this caution of avoiding the fcent of the ope¬
rators feet, near the track, and in the place where the
rats are propofed to be collefled, be not properly ob-
ferved, it will very much obftruft the fuccefs of the at*
- tempt
4
4
v E R [ 549 ] V E R
rmin. tempt to take them j for they are very fhy of coming
■\ 1 where the fcent of human feet lies very frelh, as it inti¬
mates to their fagacious inftindl the prefence of human
creatures, whom they naturally dread. To the above-
mentioned means of alluring by trailing, way baiting
and calling, is added another of very material efficacy,
which is the ufe of oil of rhodium, which like the tnarum
Jyri<icum and valerian in the cafe of cats, has a very ex¬
traordinary fafcinating power on thefe animals. This oil,
as it is extremely dear, is therefore fparingly ufed. It is
exalted in a fmall quantity in the place, and at the en¬
trance of it, where the rats are intended to be taken,
particularly at the time when they are to be laft brought
together, in order to their deftrudtion ; and it is ufed
alfo by fmearing it on the furface of feme of the imple¬
ments ufed in taking by the method below defcribed 5
and the effect it has in taking off their caution and
dread, by the delight they appear to have in it, is very
extraordinary.
It is ufual, likewife, for the operator to difguife his
figure as well as fcent, which is done by putting a fort
of gown or cloak, of one colour, that hides the natural
form, and makes him appear like a poll, or fome fuch
inanimate thing, which habit mull likewife be feented
as above, to overpower the fmell of his perfon •, and be-
fides this, he is to avoid all motion till he has fecured
his point of having all the rats in his power.
When the rats are thus enticed and collected, where
time is afforded, and the whole in any houfe and out¬
buildings are to be cleared away, they are fuffered to
regale on what they moll like, which is ready prepared
for them, and then to go away quietly for two or three
nights; by which means thofe that are not allured the
firft night, are brought afterwards, either by their fel¬
lows, or the effe£ts of the trailing, &c. and will not
fail to come duly again, if they are not difturbed or
molefted. But many of the rat-catchers make ffiorter
work, and content themfelves with what can be brought
together in one night *, but this is never effectual, unlefs
where the building is fmall and entire, and the rats but
few in number.
The means of taking them when brought together are,
various. Some entice them into a very large bag, the
mouth of which is fufficieptly capacious to cover nearly
the whole floor of the place where they are collected ;
which is done by fmearing fome veffel, placed in the
middle of the bag, with oil of rhodium, and laying in
the bag baits of food. This bag, which before lay fiat
on the ground with the mouth fpread open, is to be
fuddenly clofed when the rats are all in. Others drive
or frighten them, by flight noiles or motions into a bag of
a long form, the mouth of which, after all the rats are
come in, is drawn up to the opening of the place by
which they entered, all other ways of retreat being fe¬
cured. Others, again, intoxicate or poifon them, by
mixing with the repafi prepared for them, the coculus
indicus, or the nux vomica. They dire£! four ounces
of coculus indicus, with 12 ounces of oat-meal, and two
ounces of treacle or honey, made into a moift palle
with ftrong beery but if the nux vomica be ufed, a
much lefs proportion will ferve than is here given of the
eoculus. Any fimilar compofition of thefe drugs, with
that kind of food the rats are molt fond of, and which
has a ftrong flavour to hide that of the drugs, will
•qually anfwer the end. If indeed coculus indicus
be well powdered, and infufed in ftrong beer for fome Vermin-,
time, at leaft half the quantity here direfted will ferve
as w'ell as the quantity before mentioned. When the
rats appear to be thoroughly intoxicated with the cocu¬
lus, or lick with the nux vomica, they may be taken
with the hand and put into a bag or cage, the door of
the place being firft {hut, left thofe who have ftrength •
and fenfe remaining ffiould efcape.
In deftroying rats, advantage may be taken of that
remarkable degree of inftinft which they poffefs of de-
ferting one place, where they find themfelves difturbed
or haraffed, and retiring to new haunts. It is well
known, that after one or two rats are poifoned, or ta¬
ken in traps, or wounded or otherwife injured, and af¬
terwards permitted to efcape, the w’hole colony immedi¬
ately difappears. The praftice, however, of deftroying-
rats that frequent dwelling-houfes, by poifon, ffiould be
as much as poffible avoided ; for they retire to places
behind the wainfeot, &c. from which, after death, their
putrid bodies emitting a moft offenfive fmell cannot be
removed. But it is far lefs difficult than is generally
imagined to fecure the different apartments of a dwell¬
ing houfe, and even the cellars, from the inroads of rats
and mice, and thus to prevent their unwelcome vifit?,
by ffiutting up the paffages through which they enter.
Stone and lime, when they can be applied, are effec¬
tual ; but common plafter, by introducing pieces of
broken pottery ware or glafs, along with it, will alfo
anfwer the purpofe $ and even a piece of cork, with a
pin or two ftuck through it to prevent then from eating
it away, is a complete barrier to mice entering througli
a hole in wood, and may even prevent the entrance of
rats.
We have feen this method of ffiutting up the holes, as
foon as they were opened by the induftry of the enemy,
fteadily purfued for fome time, attended with the fulleft
fuccefs, even in an old heufe of confiderable extent, and
finiffisd from top to bottom with wood, fome of which
was much decayed-
Often for the fake of food, rats and mice frequent
gardens, fields, and woods, in the fummer feafbn; but, ,
on the approach of wdnter, they return to their former
haunts in the habitations of man j and, accordingly, it
is obferved, that houfes which are free from thofe ver¬
min during the fummer, fwarm with them about the
end of harveft. Attention to this circumftance in the
habits of thefe animals, may be the means of fecuring
us from their vifits and depredations •, for if, at the time
alluded to, every hole and cranny through which rat or
moule can enter, be ffiut up, and carefully kept clofe
and fecure, the perfeverance of the foe is exhaufted and
overcome by repeated and conftant refiftance, and thus, •
he is forced to abandon thd unequal conteft, and to re¬
tire to other haunts where his motions are lefs. inter¬
rupted.
Various other methods have- been propofed for the
deftruftion of rats j and although we have thrown out
a hint againft the ufe of arfenic for this purpofe, in
dwelling houfes } yet where it can be employed with'
perfeft fafety, and without rilk of the nuifance alluded
to, as in cellars and outhoufes, it is undoubtedly one of
the moft effedlual to which we can have recourfe.
Suffocating thefe vermin by means of the fumes of
fulphur, as on board of {hips, in granaries and other
buildings which can be ffiut up, is femetimes alfo fuc-
ce&fully
V E R [ 550 ] V E R
Vermin, cefsfully pra&ifed. Rats and other vermin have alfo
' been effeftually deftroyed and eradicated by burning
wood in clofe apartments, thus producing fixed air or
carbonic acid gas, by which they are alfo fuffocated.
Moles.—Various methods have been propofed for
the deftruftion of thefe animals. But the following ob-
fervations on this fubjefl, which we lhall give in the
words of the author, feem to be more fatisfaftory than
any thing we have met with.
“ The great damage (fays he) which moles occafion
in cultivated land, and particularly gardens, is well
known; and the belt means of remedying this evil is by
deltroying all thofe that make their appearance, as far
as poflible. The fecrets which quacks fell for extirpating
thefe deftrudlive animals are of very little avail ; and
even poifon produces no effefl, as the mole does not
drink, and lives only on roots and worms. In regard
to gins and traps, the moles mull be enticed to them by
fome kind of bait, which does not always produce the
intended effe6t. Buffon advifes a trench to be dug a-
round the hills under which they conceal themfelves,
and thus to cut them off from all communication with
the neighbouring ground. This method requires three
or four people to dig trenches; and though it may prove
effectual, it is attended with too much trouble. The
other methods propofed by different naturalifts are nei-
, ther eafier nor more certain.
“ It is well known that this animal lives under the
.earth ; and if at any time it comes forth from its holes,
it is only when compelled to do fo, in confequence of
large quantities of water accumulated after the heavy
rains which fall in fummer, or when the earth is fo much
parched and dried by the continued drought, that it can
no longer continue its labour; but it again creeps back
into the earth when it finds a fpot convenient for its pur-
pofe.
“ This animal, as already remarked, feeds upon roots
and worms, and for this reafon is generally found in rich
fertile foil; but never in that which is marlhy or ftony.
In the winter time it retires to elevated places, becaufe
it is there beft fecured from inundations. In fummer,
however, it defcends to the low hillocks and flat land,
and above all makes choice of meadows for the place of
its refidence ;becaufe it finds the earth there freflier and
fofter for it to dig through. If the wreather continues
long dry, it repairs to the borders of ditches, the banks
of rivers and ftreams, and to places contiguous to hedges.
“ 1 he mole breeds generally at the beginning of win¬
ter, and the months when they are found big with voung
are January and February. In the. month of April a
great many of their young may be feen. Among 122
caught in the month of May by my method, there were
only four big with young. This animal cannot live
without digging ; it is obliged' to find its nourifhment
in the bowels of the earth; and on that account is un¬
der the neceflity of making thofe long fubterranean paf-
fages which are found between one mole-hill and ano¬
ther. In general it begins to dig five or fix inches un¬
der the furface; it fcrapes the earth before it on one fide
till the quantity becomes too great for it to labour with
eafe ; it then works towards the furface ; and by pufli-
ing with its head, and the afliftance of its nervous paws,
gradually raifes up the earth which incommodes it, and
which produces thofe fmall hills fo common in fields.
After getting rid of the earth in this manner, it pro¬
ceeds forwards, and continues its labour as before. The Vermin,
farther it goes the more hills are produced. At each 'T**'
period of its labour it throws up four or five.
“In places overgrown with grafs and ihrubs, the mole
is often contented with only forcing a paffage through
between the roots : and when the earth in gardens has
been newly watered, it keeps itlelf at the depth of
fcarcely half an inch under the furface. This animal
(hews an equal averfion to great cold and violent heat;
and in order to avoid both, it forces its way, when either
prevail, to the greateft depth in the earth.
“ It continues its labour at all times, becaufe it is ne-
ceffary for it to procure nourifhment. It is abfolutely
falfe that it fleeps throughout the winter, as fome natu-
ralifts have afferted ; for it throws up the earth in the
coldefi: feafon, as well as during the fummer. It is moll
bufily employed towards the end of winter, and at that
period forms the greatefl: number of hills. To this it is
impelled by more than one reafon. In the firlt place, it
mull provide nourifhment for its young; fecondly, it
finds it eafiefi: at that time to dig its way through the
earth ; and laftly, as the air begins to be milder, the
animal then recovers that Urength which it had loft dur¬
ing the intenfe cold. At this feafon, therefore, it is moll
proper to purfue means for extirpating this animal, as it
can be deftroyed with greater eafe W’hileemployed at its
labour.
“ The male is much ftronger than the female, and the
hills thrown up by the former are much larger as well
as more numerous. The periods when the mole is moll
bufily employed in digging are in the morning, at fun-
rife, at noon, and at funfet. In dry 'weather moles are,
obferved to throw up the earth for the moft part only at
funrife, and in rvinter when the earth has been fome-
what heated by the fun’s rays.
“ A perfon may eafily difcover how many moles are
contained in a certain fpace of ground, by counting the
frefti raifed mole-hills which have no communication
with each other. I mull remark alfo, that this animal
has very bad fight, being almoft totally blind; but its
hearing, on the other hand, is fio much the more acute.
“ I ftiall now proceed to the method of deftroying
them. Immediately at day-break it will be neceffary to
make a tour round the garden or meadow’, from which
it is w’ifhed to extirpate the moles; for at that time they
will be all found at work, as may be feen by the hills
newly thrown up. If the perfon is then clofe to the hill,
he mull proceed as the gardeners do, and turn up with
a ftroke of the fpade the hill together w ith the digger.
The paffage is then cut through before the animal is a-
w’are of the attack, and therefore it has not power to
efcape. If the mole-hill be frefti, even though the ani¬
mal may not be throwing up earth, the perfon ought not
to lofe his time in waiting, but ftiould immediately pro¬
ceed to the operation above mentioned.
“ If you find a frefti hill Handing by itfelf, which
feems to ftiew by its fituation that it has no communica¬
tion with any other, which is always the cafe when the
mole, has worked from the furface downw’ards in endea¬
vouring to procure a more convenient habitation, after
the hill has been turned up with the fpade, a bucket of
water ftiould be poured over the mouth of the paffage.
By thefe means the animal, which is at no great diftance,
will be obliged to come forth, and may be eafily caught
with the hand.
“ You
v E R [S5i] V E R
■rmin. « You may difcover alfo whether a hill has any com-
  1 nninication with another, if you apply your ear toil,,
and then cough or make aloud rioife. If it has no com¬
munication with the neighbouring hills, you will iiear
the terrified animal make a noife by its motion. It will
then be impoflible for it to efcape ; and you may either
pour water into the hole, or turn up the hill with a
fpade until the mole is found ; for in general it never
goes deeper into the earth than from fifteen to eighteen
inches.
“ When any of the beds in a garden have been new¬
ly watered, the mole, attracted by the eoolnefs and moi-
fture, readily repairs thither, and takes up its refidence in
them, making a palTage at the depth of fcarcely an inch
below the furface. in that cafe it may be eafily caught.
When you fee it at work, you need only tread behind
the animal with your feet on the paffage to prevent its
retreat, and then turn up the hill with a fpade 5 by which
means vou will be fure to catch it.
“ When you dig after it with a fpade, the animal
forces its way downwards into the earth in a perpendi¬
cular direftion, in order that it may better efcape the
threatened danger. In that cafe it will not be neceflary
to dig long, but to pour water over the place, which
will foon make the animal return upwards.
“ People in general are not aware of the great mif-
chief occafioned in fields and gardens bv thefe animals.
We are, however, informed by Buffon, that in the year
1740 he planted 1 5 or 16 acres of land with acorns,
and that the greater part of them were in a little time
carried away by the moles to their fubterranean retreats.
In many of thefe there were found half a bufhel, and in
others a bufhel. Buffon, after this circumftance, caufed
a great number of iron traps to be conitrufted, by which
in lefs than three weeks he caught 1300. To this in-
itance of the devalta'cion occafioned by thefe animals,
we may add the following : In the year 1742 they were
fo numerous in fome parts of Holland, that one far¬
mer alone caught between five and fix thoufand of them.
I he deftrudlion occafioned by thefe animals is, how¬
ever, no new phenomenon. We are informed by hi-
ftory, that the inhabitants of the ifland of Tenedos,
the Trojans, and the Hlolians, were infefted by them
in the earlieft ages. For this reafon a temple was erect¬
ed to Apollo Smynthius, the deftroyer of moles.
Infecis.—Many infefts, in the different Hates of exift-
ence through which they pafs, are exceedingly trou-
blefome and deftrudlive. Sometimes they fpread their
devaftations in the date of larva or grub, and fometimes
in that of perfedt infedh
Of the coleopterous infedts, the grub of the cock-
chaffer, which is a brownish or chefnut-coloured beetle,
coinmifes the greateft ravages. This beetle appears du-
r"lng great part of the fummtr, the moft plentiful in May
or June, and hence called the May bug. It flies only
in the, evening, and lodges during the day under the
leaves of trees, which it devours, and is fometimes in
fuch numbers, as to defoliate whole woods. The bee¬
tle depofits its eggs in the earth, and from thefe are
hatched white or bluifh grubs, that feed on the roots of
grafs, corn, and other vegetables, during the whole fum-
mer. In the winter they lie deep in the earth j but in
the fpring, as vegetation advances, they rife to the fur-
face, and renew their work of deftrudfion. In this ftate
they continue for four, five, or fix years, before they
change to the chryfalis ftale, in which they remain till Vermin,
the month of May, when the perfedl infedt appears. v "
As thefe infedts require fo many years to affume the
perfedt form, they only appear oceafionally fufficiently
numerous to be extenfively deftrudtive to the crops of
grain, or vegetables in general. Their numbers, howr-
ever, have often produced great alarm, and even excited
the attention of governments to offer rewards for an ef-
fedtual method of dertroying them.
In the fpring feafon, if the weather prove warm,
when the land is ploughed, up, thele grubs are generallv
lo near the iurtace as to be turned up with the plough $
and being thus expofed, they are picked up and devour¬
ed by various birds, which, it is fuggefled, fliould not
be diflurbed or driven away in this falutary labour.
When thefe grubs infeft meadow land, it has been pro-
pofed to drown them in their holes by overflowing it.
But it is fuppofed that this plan would not be fuccefsful,
even where it is pradlicable, unlefs there is a bed of clay
immediately under the foil, to retain the water for a
fuflicient length of time. A more efficacious way is
recommended to prevent the increafe of the grubs, by
deftroying the flies in May or June, before they have
depofited their eggs. This may be done by {baking and
beating the trees and hedges in the middle of the day 5
and, as this is a work which may be performed by chil¬
dren, it is a lefs difficult talk than would at firft
fight be imagined. Domeftic fowls are remarkably
fond of thefe beetles, fo that a double objeiff is thus
gained, the deftru&ionof the beetles and the procuring
of food for the poultry.
Some fpecies of the dermeftes, and alfo of the genus’
ptinus, are exceedingly deftrudive in the cabinets of na-
turalifls, and alfo to furniture. Various methods have
been recommended to flop their ravages. We believe
the moft effe&ual is fpirit of turpentine, when it can be'
properly applied. A folution of corrofive fublimate is
fometimes employed, but it fliould be recolleded that it
feldom fails in time to produce fome chemical change
on animal and vegetable matters. Objeds of natural
hiftory, as birds, animals, &c. are fometimes expofed to
the moderate heat of an oven, or before a fire, for feve-
ral hours ; but this method will alfo be attended with
injurious effeds, unlefs pradifed with great care. In-
feds which infeft furniture have been deftroyed by the
application of oil, and allowing it to remain for a day
or two, before the furniture is rubbed up. Japanned
or varnithed furniture may be fecured from the effeds
of thefe infeds, by re-coating it, when they are in the
larva ftate, by which they are deprived of air. Railing,
and other works out of doors, which are expofed to the
weather, are fometimes eaten with infeds, and particu¬
larly by fome of the larvae of the genus curculio. The
wood thus attacked may be prevented from farther ra¬
vages, by a freth coat of paint.
The earwig is a deftrudive infed in the flower,
kitchen, and fruit garden. To prevent their depreda¬
tions, it has been recommended to take them by the
hand, when they come out during the night in fearch of
food. They may be taken alfo by rolling up a piece of
paper, and hanging it up on the plants which they in¬
feft; for in thefe places they take fhelter through the
day. Another method of deftroying them has been
mentioned, and that is to vvatch them towards morn¬
ing with the view of difcovering the haunts to which
V E R I 552 J V E R
■ Vermin, tliey refort during the day j and this difcovery being
W“V-— made, which may perhaps be a melon frame, dunghill,
or heap of rubbith, the removing of which will deitroy
the greater number of thefe troublefome infefts.
The fmall inlect which commits fuch depredations
among turnips, by eating the feedling leaves as loon as
they appear, as frequently to deftroy whole crops, is
-fuppoi'ed to be a fmall black poliihed beetle, belonging
to the genus chm/ome/a. It does not feem to be well
afcertained whether this fmall beetle, which is better
known by the name of turnip fly, commits iti^ravages
in the larva or in the beetle ftate. It is faid that it
prefers the leaves of the common radilh to thofe of the
turnip, and it is therefore recommended to fow radifhes
along with the turnips, to prevent the deitrudtion of the
-latter.
Of the infefls belonging to the order Tiemiptera,
there are fome which are exceedingly deltruftive. The
cock-roach, a native of the warmer parts of America
.and the Weft Indies, is a very troublefome, and a very
voracious infeft. It has been introduced into this coun¬
try, and particularly into the feaport towns, in confe-
quence of commercial intercourfe. It comes out to
■feed in the night-time, and eats almoft of every thing
that comes in its way. Cock-roaches are eafily taken by
the following method. Cover the outlide of a deep glafs
or bafon with paper 5 introduce fome bits of bread or
fugar into the bafon. or glafs, and fet it in a place fre¬
quented by the cock-roaches. They creep up by means
of the paper on the outfide, and drop into the veffel 5
but in confequence of its fmooth polifhed furface, they
cannot effedt their efcape. In the fame way crickets
and beetles may be taken and deftroyed. It is quite
unnecefiary to fpeak of the means of deftroying the my¬
riads of locufts which not unfrequently infeft eaftern
countries, and particularly Egypt and Syria} for no
means are likely to be devifed, which promife to refill
the effects of fuch an hoft of foes, by whofe ravages
every green thing is confumed } but the inleft itfelf be¬
comes, among the poorer inhabitants of thofe countries,
-a partial fubftitute for the fruits of the earth which it
has deftroyed. The infefts are taken, reduced to
powder, and converted into a kind of meal.
The common or the bed-bug is a very troublefome,
and a very common inmate in the crowded houfes of
many large towns in this country. Its ufual haunts are
the crevices of wood, and particularly thofe pieces of
-furniture which are ufually kept in the warmeft corners
of the apartment. Cleanlinefs will perhaps be found
the beft preferyative again!! the introduction and in-
creafe of thefe infefts} but fometimes even the greateft
care and attention are ineffectual in keeping houfes en-
, tirely free from them. When it can be conveniently
done, they are completely deftroyed by immerfing the
furnitm-e in boiling water, or by baking it in an oven;
and by filling up the crevices or holes which were their
haunts, with glaziers putty, their return and increafe
will thus be prevented. But a very effeflual method of
deftroying bugs, is to walh the places which they fre¬
quent with fpirit of turpentine, and then filling up the
holes as already mentioned. It is a curious circum-
ftance in the hiftory of thefe infefls, that forae perfons
entirely efcape from their attacks, while to others they
are exceedingly troublefome and diftrefling. It is faid
that lavender-water, fprinkled over the bed-clothes,
often prevents their approach. How far this U the Vermis
cafe, we have had no opportunity of alcertaining. y—
The fmall moth, which in the caterpillar Hate com¬
mits fuch ravages on woollen cloths, furs, and other ani¬
mal fubftances, which remain for any length of time in
dark undifturbed places, may be deftroyed with the
greateft certainty and facility, by expofing the fubftances
on which they are ful'peifted to make their depreda¬
tions, to the vapour of fpirit of turpentine, or brulhing
them with a brufti dipped into the fame fluid. This
lliould be done about -the months of September or Octo¬
ber } but their effects may be prevented by placing the
-cloths, furs, &c. which are likely to become their re-
fidence, in an airy lituation, about the months of July
and Auguft.
The different kinds of lice are very numerous. Every
animal has its peculiar fpecies, and even mankind are
not free from this pell. It is often tire confequence of
indolence and naftinefs, and it is obferved that the lice
which infeft any animal increafe prodigioully when that
animal becomes languid and fickly. We believe that
the application of fpirits of turpentine, already fo often
recommended, would alfo be effedtual in this cafe 5 but-
mercurial preparations afford a certain remedy againft
thefe infects. For this purpofe a very fmall quantity of
what is called mercurial ointment may be employed.
At the fame time it ought to be recollected, that clean¬
linefs is the beft prefervative, A Angular notion pre¬
vails in this country, and even among perfons who are
by no means in the loweft rank of life, that it is a good
fign of health when children’s heads are infelted with
thefe animals} and on this account they are not very
anxious in having them entirely eradicated. A mo¬
ment’s refledion may ftiow the abfurdity of fuch an opi¬
nion, fo that it would be a wafte-of time to adduce feri-
ous arguments againft it.
It is perhaps more difficult for mankind to fecure
themfelves and their habitations from the vilits of the
common flea. Cleanlinefs, however, may do much even
in effeding this j and in particular it appears to us, that
it would be extremely ufeful, frequently to rub up with
a piece of cloth the more inaccelfible parts of furniture
or apartments, or perhaps it would anfwer better to em¬
ploy a fnrall hard brufti. By the lefs acceffible places
we mean the corners and crevices of rooms and furniture
where dull is apt to colled, and efpecially the canvas
part of a bed. We are perfuaded that fpirits of turpen¬
tine might alfo be found ufeful for the deftrudion of
thefe very troublefome infeds. The Scotch myrtle
(tnyrica ga/e, Lin.) a plant very common in low and
moift moorifli places in this country, is faid to be an ex¬
cellent remedy, in confequence of its powerful aromrtie
odour, againft the attacks of thefe animals. For this
purpofe, the plant is ftrewed about the apartment or
bed which is infefted with fleas.
The following method of deitroying or driving array
all kinds of noxious vermin from fields and gardens, it is
faid, has been proved by experience to be effedual. It
is recommended by M. Socoloff, and the account of it
is taken from the Peterftmrgh a ranfadions *. As the * ^,7,
deltrudive power of quicklime (fays the author), height- Mag- i-
ened by a fixed alkali, which corrodes, difiblves andde-ify.
ftroys all the tender parts of animals, has been long
known, I thought this mixture would be the beft means
for accomplilhing the objed I had in view, I took
three
V E R [ 553 i V E R
V, tin. three parts, therefore, of quicklime, newly made, and
two parts of a faturated folution of fixed alkali in water,
and thence obtained a fomewhat milky liquor fufficiently
cauftic, highly hoftile and poifonous to earthworms and
other fmall animals j for as foon as it touched any part
of their bodies, it occafioned in them violent fymptoms
of preat uneafinefs. If this liquor be poured into thofe
holes in which the earthworms refide under ground, they
immediately throw themfelves out as if driven by fome
force5 and, after various contortions, either languifh or
die. If the leaves of plants or fruit-trees, frequented
by the voracious caterpillars, which are fo deftrudive to
them, be fprinkled over with this liquor, thefe infeds
fuddenly contrad their bodies, and drop to the ground.
For, though nature has defended them tolerably well
by their hairy Ikins from any thing that might injure
their delicate bodies, yet, as foon as they touch with
their feet or mouths leaves which have, been moiftened
by this liquor, they become as it were ftupefied, inftant-
ly contrad themfelves, and fall down*
“ I had not an opportunity of trying a like experi¬
ment on locufts ; yet we may conclude, and not with¬
out probability, from their nature, and the general de-
Itrudive qualities of the above liquor, that they, in like
manner, may be driven from corn-fields, if it be pof-
fible to fprinkle the corn with the liquor by means of a
machine.
“ With regard to plants or corn, thefe fuftain no in¬
jury from the liquor, becaufe it has no power over the
produdions of the vegetable kingdom, as I have fully
learned from experience ; or, if any hurt be fuf-
peded, all the danger will be removed by the firft
fliower that falls. This liquor may be procured in a-
bundance in every place where lime is burnt. If the
lime be frelh, one part of it infufed in about feventy
parts of common water will produce real lime-water.
The want of the fixed alkali may be fupplied by boil¬
ing wood-alhes in water, and thickening the ley by
evaporation.
“ The liquor might be employed alfo to kill bugs and
other domeftic infeds which are noxious and trouble-
lome; but on account of its ftrong lixivious fmell, which
difpofes the human body to putridity, I dare not recom¬
mend the ufe of it in houfes that are inhabited. Befides,
bugs may be eafily got rid of, as I have repeatedly
found from experience, by the oily pickle that remains in
calks in which failed herrings have been packed. To
this liquor they have a ftrong averfion j and, if they are
* Pi; moiftened rvith it, they die in a very fhort time
rtf' fy- For deftroy ing infeds and caterpillars, which infeft
. fruit-trees, the following method is recommended as
having been fuccefsfully pradifed. The author obferves
that “ The prefent year, for inftance, (1805), offers a
fingularity which I have not before perceived. In fome
diftrids the cherry tree has experienced, at the time of
its blolfomihg, colds and winds which have prevented it
from fetting; but another plague, not lefs difaftrous, has
attacked the cherry-trees and plum-trees over feveral
diftrids in France. Great fwarms of little animals re-
fembling vwe-fretters, but which are not fo in reality,
eftablilhed their habitations at the extremity of the
branches of the cherry-trees. As foon as a branch was
attacked, the leaves curled, and the juice Was dried up.
On opening- the leaf, a confiderable number of ants was
Vol. XX. Part II.
difcovered, which, jointly with the infed which began Ver
the ravages, fucked the branch, and made it wither.
What I have remarked is, that ufually, when the vine-
fretters attack any tree, the neighbouring tree very
foon experiences the fame fate ; but the attack of this
year is only partial. In an alley of cherry-trees which
I poffefs, feren trees have been attacked, but not thole
which are next each other. One tree was placed be¬
tween two which were very much damaged by thefe
infeds, and yet this one was not hurt.
“ On thefe vermin the fmoke of tobacco had no ef-
fed at all : this convinces me that they are different
from the ordinary kind.
“ Plum-trees, when attacked by the fame infed, do
not lofe their fruit like the cherry-trees 5 but the little-
animals cover them with more rapidity, fo as to extir¬
pate even the appearance of fruit.
“ Having effedually watered a plum-tree, I covered
it with afhes, in the manner We treat beans and cab¬
bages, and the vermin were deftroyed : but this is only
pradicable with a tree of low height.
“ I made one remark, which I think is effential to
communicate : it is, that plum-trees planted in ground
which is not neceffarily watered, are lefs attacked by
thefe tfnfeds than thofe which have experienced a hu¬
midity communicated by the plants in their neighbour¬
hood, to which watering is abfolutely neceffary. I had
one planted in a bed of artichokes: we know very well
that this plant requires plenty of water; and the tree,
was entirely covered with infeds. Its leaves withered,
and the fruit fell off; while two other plum-trees, in
ground not watered at all, were much lefs attacked.
This convinces me that thefe were not the ordinary ver¬
min abundant in dry feafons.
“ I was only able to proted my cherries a little, by
cutting off the extremities of the damaged branches.
“ Several people had recourfe to fulphur; but I did
not follow that method. The fmoke of fulphur deftroyi
the infed, I admit, but it is at leaft equally dangerous
to the tree ; I always prefer an afperfion of the tree with
foap-fuds. This very year I experienced the good effeds
of it. I faw my plum-trees look green again, and the
infeds abandon them. The afperfion is very eafily ma¬
naged, by means of watering-pots or fmall garden-en¬
gines. I have alfo employed a ley of wood allies with
the fame fuccefs as foap and water.
“ An obfervation equally important which I have
made is, the great damage done this feafon in all orchards
by the caterpillar. As foon as they devoured the young-
leaves, they attacked the fruit. In fpite of the great
care taken in fpring to get rid of them, the number of
thefe infeds is incredible. I have feen them unite ots
the large branches, fix their nefts to them, and proted
them by means of the downy matter which covers the
buds of the enfuing feafon. Whatever precaution is
taken, it is almoft impoftible not to deftroy thefe buds.
It is only neceffary to take off thefe nefts and bum
them ; and this is the only way of getting rid of the
coveys. I employed the fame afperfion for my apple-
trees, and by that means got rid of their enemies alio *. * Phil.
“ The following methods are pradifed in Germany
for freeing granaries from mites or weevils:
“ 1. Cover completely the walls .and rafters, above
and below, of the granaries which are infefW by wee-
* 4 A vils,
V E 11 [ 554 ] V E R
Vermin.
* Phil.
Mag. xxvi.
S»i.
vils, with quicklime flaked in water in which trefoil,
wormwood, and hyffop have been boiled. This com-
poiition ought to be applied as hot as poffible.
“ 2. A very fagacious farmer has fucceeded in de-
flroying weevils by a very eafy procefs. In the month of
June, when his granaries were all empty, he collected
great quantities of the largeft-fized ants in facks, and
then fcattered them about the places infefled with the
weevils. The ants immediately fell upon and devoured
every one of them *, nor have any weevils lince that
time been feen on his premifes.
“ 3. Another method, not lefs efficacious, but which
requires a great deal of care and attention in the appli¬
cation of it, is the following :—Place in your granaries
a number of chafing-diihes filled with lighted pieces of
wood. Every aperture muft then be carefully clofed,
in order to prevent any frefh air from entering. The
carbonic acid gas, produced from the burning wood
proves fatal to the infers. Rats and mice, alfo, are fo
ftrongly affefted by it, that they are feen running out of
their holes, and dying in all direflions. The perfons em¬
ployed to manage this procefs mult take great care of
their own fafety, by keeping a current of air around
them until the burning wood is properly placed. An¬
other danger may arife from the premifes taking fire ;
but this alfo may be avoided by proper caution, particu¬
larly if they are paved with brick or ftone*.”
Grain, it is faid, has been preferved from weevils and
other deftrudtive infedts, by covering the heaps with
pieces of hemp cloth dipped in water and wrung out.
At the end of two hours the weevils are found adhering
to the cloths, which are to be removed carefully and
plunged in water for fome time to drown. A plant of
henbane placed in the middle of a heap of grain is faid
alfo to drive away the infefts. They mud then be
watched and deftroyed as they attempt to efcape.
Sulphur or flower of brimltone is recommended as be¬
ing an excellent remedy againft the effects of infers on
plants. It may be applied by dulling the leaves affect¬
ed, either by tying it up in muffin cloth, or with a puff
for hair powder, or with a dredging box. But the ful-
phur not only deftroys the worms and infefts which in-
feit trees ; it feems alfo to render the trees more healthy
and vigorous. I his was particularly the cafe with fome
peach trees on which it was fprinkled.
1 he following method, difcovered by M. Catin, is
propofed for deltroying earth-fleas, bugs, ants, &c.
“ lake black foap, of the bell kind, one pound three
quarters, the fame quantity of flowers of fulpbur, mufh-
rooms two pounds, and fixty meafures of river or rain¬
water. Divide the water into two parts, one of which
mud be poured into a veffel dedined for that purpofe :
fuffer the foap to diffolve in it, and add the mudirooms
after they have been a little pounded. Boil the other
half of the water in a kettle, and tie up the fulphur in
a bit of rag or piece of fine linen, and fufpend from it a
fufficient weight in order that it may fink in the water.
During the time the water 'is kept boiling, which mud
be at lead twenty minutes, dir it continually with a dick,
and prefs the bag containing the fulphur, that the latter
may be forced out into the water, and communicate to it
the neceffary drength and colour.
When the liquor is taken from the fire, pour it di-
reftly inf o the calk, and dir it round for a confiderable
time . the procefs of dirring muft be repeated daily till
it acquire a fetid fmell. Experience has fhown that the Vertl
more fetid the mixture is, its aClivity is the greater. Each u~v J
time that the mixture is fibred, the cafk muft be flop¬
ped immediately after. When you with to ufe the liquid,
nothing is neceffary but to fprinkle a little of it on the
plants which you are defirous of preferving, or to dip
their branches in it. It will be better, however, to make
ufe of a fyringe, having at the end a head, an inch or
an inch and a half in diameter, pierced with fmall holes.
This inftrument may be ufed for tender plants j when
you apply the liquid to trees, a fyringe with larger holes
mull be employed.
“ Caterpillars, beetles, earth-fleas, bugs, and the tree-
lice which infeft orange trees, will be dellroyed by the
firfl application of the liquid. Infects which refide be¬
low the earth, fuch as wafps, hornets, ants, &c. require
that the liquid fhould be fquirted out gently, and with¬
out intermiffion, that it may better penetrate to their
nefts. Ants nefts, according to their fize, require from
two to three meafures of liquid, and in many cafes it
muft be applied for twenty-four hours. When the ants
affemble in another place, the procefs muft be repeated.
Two ounces of nux votm'ca may be added to the mixture,
and boiled along with the fulphur. This fubftance, par¬
ticularly when yrou with to deftroy ants, will be of great
fervice. When the whole of the liquid in the calk has
been ufed, the refiduum muft be buried in the earth to
prevent domeftic animals from eating it*.” 1
The ufe of elder as a prefervative to vegetables againft
the depredations of infedts is detailed in the following1^'
obfervations.
“ Common elder has appeared to me ufeful, ill, For
preventing cabbage plants from being devoured or da¬
maged by caterpillars j 2d, To prevent blights, and
their effedls on fruit and other trees 5 3d, To preferve
corn from yellow flies and other infedls j 4th, Tofecure
turnips from the ravage of flies, &c.
“ ift, The ftrong and fetid odour of a bunch of elder
leaves induced me to think that different kinds of but¬
terflies might be incommoded by it in proportion to
their delicacy. I therefore took fome young tw'igs of
elder, at the period when butterflies began to appear,
and whipped well with them fome cabbage plants, but
in fuch a manner as not to damage them. Since that
time, during two fummers, though the butterflies ho¬
vered round the plants, I never faw one of them fettle
on them ; and I do not think that a Angle butterfly was
hatched on the cabbages treated in this manner, though
a neighbouring board was dirtied by them in the ufual
manner.
“ 2d, After a fhort reflection on the effe&shere men¬
tioned, and on blights, which, in my opinion, are
chieflv occafioned by Imall flies and fmall infeCls, whofe
organs are ftill more delicate than thofe of the former,
I was induced to whip in the fame manner with elder
twigs, as high as 1 could reach, the branches of a plum-
tree which grew in an efpalier. The whipped leaves
remained green and in a good condition, while from at
leafl fix inches above to the top of the tree the reft of
the leaves were blighted, wrinkled, and full of worms.
It is here to be obferved that the tree was in full flower
when I Avhipped it, therefore much too late for this ope¬
ration, which ought to have been performed once or
twice before flowering. But I am of opinion, that if
trees were befprinkled with a ftrong infufion of elder
every
V E 11 r 555
lin, every eiglit or 15 days, the fuceefs would be certain,
icu- and that there would be no danger of injuring either the
flowers or the fruit.
^ 3d, What the farmers call the yellows in corn, and
which they confider as a kind of blight, is the effett, as
eVery one knows, of a fmall yellow fly with blue wings,
nearly of the fize of a gnat. It lays its eggs in the ear
of wheat, and produces a worm almofl inviflble to the
naked eye, but which, when feen by a magnifying glafs,
is a large yellow larva, having the fhining colour of
amber. This fly is fo produdtive, that I have counted
upwards of forty worms in the chaff of one ear of wheat,
which was a number fufficient to deftroy it entirely. I
therefore propofed to make my experiment as loon as
poflible •, but the heat and drought of the feafon having
advanced the wheat more than ufual, it was in flower
before I could attempt it. Next morning, however, at
break of day, two fervants having drawn bundles of el¬
der over the ears of wheat on each fide of the furrow',
backwards and forwards, in places where the wheat was
not fo far advanced, I hoped that the fetid effluvia of
the elder w'ould prevent the flies from remaining on the
ears that were covered with them : and, indeed, I was
not entirely difappointed ; for, on examining my wheat
feme time after, I found that the part which had been
beaten with elder was much lefs damaged than that
which had not been treated in the fame manner. I
have no doubt, that, had I employed this precaution
fooner, the corn would have been completely preferved.
Should this be the cafe, the procefs is Ample •, and I
flatter myfelf that fine crops of corn may be faved by
thefe means from this fmall iniett, which is fo deftruc-
tive to them. One of thefe yellow flies laid on my
thumb at leaft eight or ten eggs, of an oblong form, in
the fmall interval of time which I employed in walking
over two or three furrows, holding it by the wings, and
which I could not obferve without the afflftance of a
magnifying glafs.
“ 4th, It often happens that whole crops of turnips
are deftroyed while young, in confequence of being
pricked by certain infedls. I have great reafon to think,
that this evil may be prevented in an effeflual manner,
by caufing a perfon to draw a bunch of elder, fufficient-
ly large to cover about the breadth of a foot, over the
young turnips, going backwards and forwards. What
confirms me in this idea is, that, having drawn a bunch
of elder over a bed of young cauliflowers which had be¬
gun to be pricked, they afterwards remained untouched
by thefe infecls.
“ Another fa£t which tends to fupport this idea is,
that when my neighbourhood, about eight or nine years
ago, was fo infefted with caterpillars that they devoured
all the vegetables, leaving fcarcely a green leaf un¬
touched, they fpared the elder trees amidft this general
devaiftation, and never molefted them. In reflefting on
thefe circumftances, I am of opinion that the elder
might be introduced with advantage into our gardens,
as the means of preferving fruit-trees and various plants
from the rapacity of infects.
“ The dwarf elder appears to me to exhale a much
more fetid fmell than the common elder, and therefore
ought to be preferred in making experiments on this
fubjeft
VERNACULAR, a word applied to fomething that
is peculiar to any one country.
1
V E It
VERNAL, fomething belonging to the fpring-fea-
fon.
VERNIER Scale, a fcale excellently adapted for
the graduation of mathematical inftruments, thus called
from its inventor Peter Vernier, a perfon of diftindtion
in the Tranche Comtd. See Nonius.
Vernier’s method is derived from the following prin¬
ciple. If two equal right lines, or circular arcs, A, B,
are fo divided, that the number of equal divifions in B
is one lefs than the number of equal divifions of A, then
will the excefs of onedivifion of B above one divifion of
A be compounded of the ratios of one of A to A, and
of one of B to B.
For let A contain 11 parts, then one of A to A is as
I to 11, or —. Let B contain 10 parts, then one of B
to B is as 1 to 10, or
10
Now 
10 11
11—10
10 X 11
1 1
Tox n-
10x11 -- --
Or if B contains n parts, and A contains n-\-\ parts \
then ~ is one part of B, and —-—
n r ’ «-j-i
is one part of A*
And -
n
«4-i—n 1 I
- ! — _ v .
n «-f 1
^■f'1 « X «-f-i
The moft commodious divifions, and their aliquot
parts, into which the degrees on the circular limb of an
inftrument may be fuppofed to be divided, depend on the
radius of that inftrument.
Let R be the radius of a circle in inches j and a de¬
gree to be divided into n parts, each being -th part of
P
an inch.
Now the circumference of a circle, in parts of its dia-
n 3,I4i.5026
meter 2R inches, is 3,1415926 X 2R:: 1 : -—— X
2R inches.
Or, 0,01 745329 X& is the length of one degree in
inches.
Or, 0,017453 29 XRXP is the length of i°, in/?th
parts of an inch.
But as every degree contains n times fuch parts, there¬
fore n=o,oi745329X R X/l
The moft commodious perceptible divifion is g or —-
of an inch.
Example. Suppofe an inftrument of 30 inches radius,
into how many convenient parts may each degree be di¬
vided ? how many of thefe parts are to goto the breadth
of the vernier, and to what parts of a degree may an ob-
fervation be made by that inftrument ?
Now 0,01745 XR=°>5236 inches, the length of each
degree : and if p be fuppofed about - of an inch for one
divifion j then 0,5236 X/>=4U 88 ftiovvs the number of
fuch parts in a degree. But as this number mult be an
integer, let it be 4, each being 15" : and let the breadth
of the vernier contain 31 of thofe parts, or 7|;0, and be
divided into 30 parts.
1 1 1 1 1 1 r j
Here tn— — ; then - X — =  ot a de-
jaere « ^ ^ ? 4 3© 120
4 A 2
Verna?,
Vernier.
gree,
V E R
,': n,er gree, or 30', which is the k-.ift part of a degree that in
ftrument can (how.
'lailles. ,
If n— and m — ~then - x ~^=   of a
5 36 5 36 5x36
minute, or 20".
The following table, taken as examples in the inllru-
ments commonly made from 3 inches to 8 feet radius,
fliows thedivifions of the limb to neareft tenths of inches,
fo as to be an aliquot of 6o’s, and what parts of a degree
may be eftimated by the vernier, it being divided into
fuch equal parts, and containing fuch degrees as their
columns fliow.
f 536 ]
V E It
Rad.
inches,
3
6
9
12
IS
18
21
24
30
36
42
48
60
72
84
96
Parts of a
degree
I
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
8
9
10
12
I5
*5
Parts in
vernier.
15
20
20
24
20
3°
3°
36
3°
3°
30
40
36
30
40
60
Breadth of
vernier
20^
12^
6J-
10^-
7i
9i
7^
3^
4^
3i7o
2tt
2t
4
Parts
obferved.
4'
3
1
I
I
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o'1
o
3°
o
40
30
25
20
20
!5
10
10
10
6
4
By altering the number of divilions, either in the de¬
grees or in the vernier, or in both, an angle can be ob¬
served to a different degree of accuracy. Thus, to a ra¬
dius of 30 inches, if a degree be divided into 12 parts
each being five minutes, and the breadth of the vernier
be 21 fuch parts, or i^-0, and divided into 20 parts
ill0 r ’
then — x — = 
12 20 240
15": or taking the breadth of
the vernier 2XV°, and divided into 30 parts j then
12
30 360’ 0r I0": 0r I2X 5o~6^~6"> where
the breadth of the vernier is 4^°.
VERONA, a city of Italy, capital of the Veronefe
and in the territory of Venice j fituated on the riveJ
Adige, in E. Long. 11. 24. N. Lat. 45. 26. It is
ieven miles in compafs j and is ftrongly fortified It
contains 57,400 inhabitants.
VERONESE, a territory of Italy, in the republic of
Venice; bounded on the north by the Trentino, on the
eaft by the Vicentmo and Paduano, on the fouth by the
Mantuano, .and on the weft by the Brefciano. It is
about 35 miles m length, and 27 in breadth : and fer¬
tile in corn, wine, fruits, and cattle.
Veronese. See Cagliari.
VERONICA, a genus of plants of the clafs of di-
p’ t,henafural arranged under the
4 See Botany
»r JtEof SAILLJn-fa t0Wn 0t France’ in depart¬
ment of Seme and Oife, 10 miles weft-fouth-weft of Pa¬
ris. It contains 60,000 inhabitants, and fince the Ik. Verfair,
volution has been created a biftiop’s fee. In the reign i|
of. Louis XJIL it was only a fmall village. ThisVertumn
prince built here a hunting-hut in 1630, which Balfom-1—^
pierre calls “ the paltry chateau of Verfailles.” Al¬
though the fituation was low and very unfavourable
Louis XIV. built a magnificent palace here, which was
the ufual refidence of the kings of France till the 6th
of Oflober 1789, when the late unfortunate Louis XVI.
and his family were removed from it to the Thuilleries!
The buildings and the gardens are adorned with a vaft
number of ilatues, done by the greateft mailers, and
the water-works are all worthy of admiration. * The
great gallery is thought to be as curious a piece of
workmanfhip of that kind as any in the world : nor is
the chapel lefs to be admired for its fine archite&ure
and ornaments. The gardens, with the park, are five
miles in circumference, and furrounded by walls. There
are three fine avenues to Verfailles ; one of which is the
common road to Paris, the other comes from Seaux
and the third from St Cloud. E. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat!
48. 48.
VERSE, in Poetry, a line confifting of a number of
long and ftiort fyllables, which run with an agreeable
cadence.
Verse is alfo ufed for a part of a chapter, fe&ion, &c.
V ERSIFICA I ION, the art or manner of making
verfe 5 alfb the tune and cadence of verfe. See Poetry
Part III.
\ ERSION, a tranflation of fome book or writing out
of one language into another. See Translation.
VERT, in Heraldry, the term for a green colour.
It is called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under
the degree of nobles : but in coats of nobility it is call¬
ed emerald; and in thofe of kings venus. In engra¬
ving it is expreffed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart
from right to left, from the dexter chief corner to the
finifter bafe.
VERTEBRAE. See Anatomy, N° 30.
VERTEX, in Anatomy, denotes the crown of the
head. Hence vertex is alfo ufed figuratively for the top
of other things : thus we fay, the vertex of a cone, py¬
ramid, &c. ’ r
\ ERTEX, is alfo ufed in AJlronomy for the point, of
the heaven diredfly over our heads, properly called the
%enith.
\ EKTICILL AT /E, the name of a clafs in Ray’s
and Boerhaave’s Methods, confifting of herbaceous ve¬
getables. It is alfo the name of the 42d order in Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
VERIICILLUS, a mode of flowering, in which the
flowers are produced in rings at each joint of the ftem,
with very ftiort foot-ftalks. T he term is exemplified in
mint, horehound, and the other plants of the natural
order deferibed above.
VERT ICI I'Y, is that property of the loadftone
whereby it turns or directs itfelf to one particular point.
VER I IGO, in Medicine. See there, N° 82.
VER l UMNUS, in Mythology, a god who prefided
over gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etruf-
ca.ns, from whom the worfhip of this deity was tranf-
mitted to the Romans.
Vertumnus had a temple near the market-place at
Rome, being reprefented as one of the tutelar deities
®f the merchants. The commentators on Ovid fay,
that
*
V E S t 557 ] V E S
i tumnustliat he was an ancient king of Hetruria, who, by
H his diligent and fuccefsful cultivation of fruit and gar-
^ ^i'tiI10;jenSt obtained the honour of being ranked among the
gods.
VERUMONTANUM, in Anatomy, a fmall emi¬
nence near the paffages where the femen is difcharged
into the urethra.
VERVAIN. See Verbena, Botany Index.
VERTOT d’Auboef, Rene Aubert de, a celebrated
hiftorian, wa> defcended from a noble and ancient fami¬
ly in Normandy, and born in 1655. At 16 years of
age he became a Francifcan friar \ afterwards he enter¬
ed into the order of the Premonftratenfes, in which he
had feveral benefices : and at length was a fecular eccle-
fiaftic. He became fecretary to the duchels of Orleans,
member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and hiftorio-
grapher of Malta. He died at Paris in 1735. His
principal works are, 1. The Hiftory of the Revolutions
of Sweden. 1. The Revolutions of Portugal. 3. The
Revolutions of the Romans. 4. The Hiftory of Malta.
Thefe works are written in elegant French, and tranf-
lated into moft of the languages of Europe.
VERULAM. See Bacon.
VESALIUS, Andreas, a celebrated phyfician and
anatomift, was born at Bruffels about the year 1512.
He ftudied phyfic at Paris under James Sylvius j but
applied himfelf chiefly to anatomy, which was then very
little known, diffe&ions being efteemed unlawful and
impious : and it appears from his work De Humani Cor¬
poris Fabrica, that he perfected himfelf in this ufeful
knowledge very early. About the year 1537, the re¬
public of Venice made him profeflbr in the univerfity
of Padua, where he taught anatomy for feven years j
Charles V. called him to be his phyfician, as he wasalfo
to Philip II. king of Spain. Vefalius was now at the
height of his glory, when all of a hidden be formed
the defign of taking a journey to Palettine 5 concerning
which journey we are told the following ftory. A
young Spanifh nobleman he attended, being believed to
be dead, Vefalius obtained leave to open him to explore
the true caufe of his illnefs ; but when he opened the
breatt, he perceived fymptoms of life, and faw' the heart
beat. The parents, not fatisfied with profecuting him
for murder, accufed him of impiety to the inquifition, in
hopes that tribunal would punith him with greater ri¬
gour: but the king interpofing, faved him on condition
of his making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He
was fhipwrecked on his return, and thrown upon the
ifland of Zante, where he perifhed, in 1564. He was
the author of feveral works, the principal of which is
De Humani Corporis Fabrica.
VESICATORIUM, a Blister ; an application of
an acrid nature made to any part of the body, in order
to draw a flux of humours to that part, and thus elevate
the fcarfskin into a blifter.
VESPA, the Wasp; a genus of infers belonging to
the order of hy raenoptera. See Entomology Index.
VESP ASI AN, the 10th emperor of Rome ; remark¬
able for his clemency and other virtues. See Rome,
N° 332—339.
VESPERS, in the church of Rome, denote the af¬
ternoon fervice; anfvvering in fome meafure to the even-
ing prayers of the church of England.
VESPERTILIO, the Bat ; a genus of quadrupeds,
I*
belonging to the order of primates. See Mammalia '
Indtx.
VESSEL, a general name given to the different forts
of flaps which are navigated on the ocean, or in canals
and rivers. It is, however, more particularly applied
to thofe of the fmalier kind, furnifhed with one or two
mails. See Ship.
VESPA, in pagan worfhip, the fame with Cybele.
See Cybele.
Vesta the Younger, in pagan worfhip, the goddefis
of Fire, was the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and the
filler of Ceres. She was fo much in love with chaflity,
that on Jupiter’s afcending the throne and offering to
grant whatever fhe afked, fhe only defired the preferva-
tion of her virginity, which fire obtained.—Veita was
not reprefented in her temple by any image.
Vesta, one of the lately difcovered planets, of which
the elements have been determined by Dr Gaufs in a
communication to the Royal Society of Gottingen.
Elements ofVeJla.
Epoch of the longitude, me-
1080 19'
78
326
+
80
+
8j' 84
ridian of Seeberg
Diurnal tropical motion
Annual
Aphelion, 1806
Annual motion
Afcending node, 1806
Annual motion
Inclination of the orbit, 1806 10
Annual diminution
Eccentricity, 1806 0.0783486
Annual diminution 0.0000058
Log. of the greater femiaxis 0.4420728
Elements of Ceres by the fame.
Epoch of the mean longitude at Bremen, March 29,
9
37
2
J3
37
34-7"
77°"
23
59
1.2
23
*•5
34
0.4
1807, at 12 o’clock, mean time J93v
Longitude of its perihelion 249
 aphelion 69
afcending node on
the ecliptic
Inclination of its orbit
Diurnal tropical motion
Logarithm of the mean diftance
Eccentricity
Greatefl diftance from the fun
Leaft
Period of its revolution
103
7
o
8'
7
57
8
4.6" * * In the
41
52
36
49*5 f
18.91
5
16
0.3728428
o*°97505
25.625
2i.5I4
1321 days, i 2 hours.
VEST ALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated in honour of the goddefs Vefta, on the 5th of the
ides of June ; that is, on the 9th of the month.
VESTALS, among the ancient Romans, were prieft-
effes of the goddefs Vefta, and had the perpetual fire
committed to their charge ; they were at firft only four
in number, but afterwards increafed to fix; and it does
not appear that their number ever exceeded fix, among
whom was one fuperior to the reft, and called vejlalis
maxima.
T he veftals were chofen from fix to ten years of age,
and obliged to ftrift continency for 30 years; the firft
10 of which were employed in learning the ceremonies
of religion, the next 10 in the performance of them, and
the 10 laft in teaching them to the younger veftals.
The
Mag. Ency-
clop. it is
54"-
f Ibid.
7° 8' 34".
■ Veftals
II.
■Vefuvins
General
' defcription
of the
mountain.
Account of
the firit
eruption
recorded in
hiftpry.
3
Of the
eruption in
1767.
4
Nine erup¬
tions from
1767 to
17 79-
Account of
the great
■eruption in
*779*
V -E ■'S
The habit of the veftals confifted of a
called inful a, which fat clofe to the head, and from
whence hung certain laces called vitta ; a kind of fur-
plice made of white linen, and over it a purple mantle
■with a long train to it.
VEST! BLE, or Vestibule, in Architecture, a kind
of entrance into a large building j being an open place
•before the hall, or at the bottom of the llaircafe.
VES TRY, a place adjoining to a church, where the
Veftments of the minifter are kept ; and alfo a meeting
atfuch place, coniiiting of the miniiler, church-wardens,
and chief men of moft pariihes, who make a parilh vef-
try or meeting. By cullom there are felecl veftries, be¬
ing a certain number of perfons ehofen to have the go-
"Vernment of the pari fir, make rates, and take the ac¬
counts of church-wardens, &c.
VESUVIAN, a mineral fubflanee. See Mine¬
ralogy Index.
VESUVIUS, a celebrated volcano of Italy, fix miles
eaft from the city of Naples. This mountain has two
tops ; one of which only goes by the name of Vefuvius,
the other being now called Semma; but Sir William
Hamilton is of opinion, that the latter is what the an¬
cients called Vefuvius.
'I he perpendicular height of Vefuvius is only 3700
feet, though the afcent from the foot to the top is three
Italian miles. One fide of the mountain is well culti¬
vated and fertile, producing great plentv of vines ; but
the fouth and weft fides are entirely covered with
cinders and allies ; while a fulphureous fmoke conftantly
iffues from the top, fometimes attended with the moft
violent explofions of ftones, the emiffion of great ftreams
of lava, and all the other attendants of a moft formi¬
dable volcano. The firft of thefe eruptions recorded in
hiftory took place in the year 79 at which time the
two cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were entirely
buried under the ftones and allies thrown out. Incre¬
dible mifchief was alfo done to the'neighbouring coun¬
try, and numbers of people loft their lives, among whom
was Pliny the Elder.
It is the opinion of the beft judges, however, that
this eruption was by no means the firft that had ever
happened. The very ftreets of thofe cities which were
at that time overwhelmed are faid to be partly paved
with lava. Since that time 30 different eruptions have
been recorded, fome of which have been extremely vio¬
lent. In the year 1538, a mountain, three miles in
circumference, and a quarter of a mile in perpendicular
height, was thrown up in the courfe of one night.
The firft great eruption taken notice of by Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton was that of 1767, which, though very
violent, was mild in comparifon with that of 1338.
From this time (1767) Vefuvius never ceafed for ten
years to fend forth fmoke, nor were there many months
in which it did not throw out ftones, fcorirn, and cin¬
ders ; which, increafing to a certain degree, were ufu-
ally followed by lava ; fo that from the year 1 767 to
1779 there were nine eruptions, fome of them very con-
fiderable. In the month of Auguft that year, however,
r.n eruption took place, which, for its extraordinary and
terrible appearance, may be reckoned among the moft
remarkable of any recorded concerning this or any other
volcano.
During the whole month of July the mountain con¬
tinued in a ft ate of fermentation. Subterraneous explo-
V E S
1 553 ]
head-drefs, lions and rumbling noifes were heard; quantities of VeiV,
Imoke were thrown up with great violence, fometimes1—v^l
with red-hot ftones, fcoriae, and alhes; and towards the
end of the month thefe fymptoms increafed to filch fc
degree as to exhibit, in the night-time, the moft beau¬
tiful firewmrks that can be imagined.
< On Thurfday 5th Auguft the volcano appeared moft
violently agitated ; a white and fulphureous fmoke if-
fued continually and impetuoufty from its crater, one
puff feeming to impel another ; fo that a'mafs of them
was foon accumulated, to appearance four times this
height and fize of the volcano itfelf. Thefe clouds of
fmoke were exceedingly white, fo that the whole re-
fembled an immenfe accumulation of bales of the whiteft
cotton. In the midft of this very white fmoke, vaft
quantities of ftones, fcoriae, and afties, were thrown up
to the height of 2000 feet ; and a quantity of liquid
lava, feemingly very heavy, was lifted up juft high
enough te clear the rim of the crater, and take its way
down! the fides of the mountain. This lava, having
run violently for fome hours, fuddenly ceafed, juft be¬
fore it had reached the cultivated parts of the mountain,
near four miles from the fpot whence it iffued. The
heat, all this day, was intolerable at the towns of Som-
ma and Ottaiano ; and was fenfibly felt at Palma and
Lauri, which are much farther off. Reddifti afties fell
fo thick on the two former, that the air was darkened,
and that objects could not be diftinguiftied at the diftance
of ten feet. Long filaments of a vitrified matter, like
fpun glafs, were mixed, and fell with thefe allies; feve-
ral birds in cages were fuffocated, and the leaves of the
trees in the neighbourhood of Somma were covered with
white and very corrofive fait. g
About 12 at night, on the 7th, the fermentation ofExtraordi.
the mountain feemed greatly to increafe. Our authornai7effu'
was watching the motions of the volcano from the mole
at Naples, which has a full view of it. Several glo-pryoach of
rious pifturefque effedls had been obferved from the re-ftormy
fie&ion of the deep red fire within the crater of Vefiffclouds*
vius, and which mounted high amongft thofe huge
clouds on the top of it : when a fummer ftorm, called
in that country a tropea, came on fuddenly, and blend¬
ed its heavy watery clouds with the fulphureous and
mineral ones, which w7ere already like fo many other
mountains piled up on the top of the volcano. At this
moment a fountain of fire w7as fliot up to an incredible
height, calling fo bright a light, that the fmalleft ob-
jefts were clearly diftinguilbable at any place within fix
miles or more of Vefuvius. The black ftormy clouds,
paffmg fwiftly over, and at times covering the whole or
a part of the bright column of fire, at other times clear¬
ing away and giving a full view of it, with the various
tints produced by its reverberated light on the white
clouds above in contrail with the pale flalhes of forked
lightning that attended the tropea, formed fuch a
feene as no power of art can exprefs. One of his Sici¬
lian majefty’s gamekeepers, who was out in the fields
near Ottaiano wdrilft this ftorm was at its height, was
furprifed to find the drops of rain feald his face and
hands ; a phenomenon probably occafioned by the
clouds having acquired ft great degree of heat in palling
through the above-mentioned column of fire.
On the 8th, the mountain was quiet till towards fix
o’clock in the evening, when a great fmoke begat to
gather over its crater; and about an hour after a rum¬
bling
1
v E S [55
1 fuvius. bling fubterraneous noife was heard in the neighbour-
' b hood of the volcano $ the ufual throws of red-hot {tones
and fcorise began and increafed every inflant. The
crater, viewed through a telefcope, feemed much en¬
larged by the violence of laft night’s explofions, and the
little mountain on the top was entirely gone. About
nine o’clock a moft violent report was heard at Portici
and its neighbourhood, which ihook the houfes to fuch
a degree as made the inhabitants run out into the
ir erne ftreets. Many windows were broken, and walls craek-
: fjjtain ed by the concuffion of the air on this occafion, though
of va the noife was but faintly heard at Naples. In an inftant
[j ;venfu"p a fountain of liquid tranfparent fire began to rife, and
tf vj gradually increafing, arrived at laft at the amazing
height of ten thoufand feet and upwards. Puffs of
fmoke, as black as can poffibly be imagined, fucceeded
one another haftily, and accompanied the red-hot, tranf¬
parent, and liquid lava, interrupting its fplendid bright-
nefs here and there by patches of the darkeft hue.
Within thefe puffs of fmoke, at the very moment of
emiffion, a bright but pale eleftrical fire was obferved
playing brilkly about in zig-zag lines. The wind was
fouth-weft, and, though gentle, was fufficient to carry
thefe puffs of fmoke out of the column of fire j and a
collection of them by degrees formed a black and ex-
tenfive curtain behind it ; in other parts of the fky it
was perfectly clear, and the ftars bright. The fiery
fountain, of fuch immenfe magnitude, on the dark
ground juft mentioned, made the fineft contraft imagi¬
nable ; and the blaze of it refle&ed from the furface of
the fea, which was at that time perfectly fmooth, added
greatly to this fublime view'.
The lava, mixed with ftones and fcorlae, having rifen
to the amazing height already mentioned, w7as partly
directed by the wind towards Ottaiano, and partly fall¬
ing, ftill red hot and liquid, upon the top of Vefuvius,
covered its whole cone, part of that of the fummit of
Somma, and the valley between them. The falling
matter, being nearly as inflamed and vivid as that which
was continually iffuing freftr from the crater, formed
with it one complete body of fire, which could not be
lefs than two miles and a half in breadth, and of the
extraordinary height above mentioned, and caft a heat to
the diftance of at leaft fix miles round. 1 he bruflhwood
on the mountain of Somma was foon in a blaze, and the
flame of it being of a different colour from the deep red
of the matter thrown out by the volcano, and from the
filvery blue of the eletftrical fire, ftill added to the con¬
traft of this moft extraordinary feene.
The black cloud, increafing greatly, once bent to¬
wards Naples, and threatened the city with fpeedy de-
ftruftion ; for it was charged with electrical fire, which
kept conftantly darting about in bright zig-zag lines.
This fire, however, rarely quitted the cloud, but ufual-
ly returned to the great column of fire whence it pro¬
ceeded ; though once or twice it was feen to fall on the
top of Somma, and fet fire to fome dry grafs and bufhes.
Fortunately the wind carried back the cloud juft as it
reached the city, and had begun to occafion great
alarm. The column of fire, however, ftill continued,
and diffufed fuch a ftrong light, that the moft minute
objeCls could be difeerned at the diftance of ten miles or
more from the mountain. Mr Morris informed our au¬
thor, that at Sorrento, which is 12 miles diftant from
9 1
V E S
Vefuvius, he read the title-page of a book by that vol- Vefuvius.
canic light. g
All this time the miferable inhabitants of Ottaiano 0f
were involved in the utmoft diftrefs and danger by the the inhabi-
fhowers of ftones which fell upon them, and which, hadtants of
the eruption continued for a longer time, would moft
certainly have reduced their totvn to the fame fituation
with Herculaneum and Pompeii. The mountain of
Somma, at the foot of which the town of Ottaiano is
fituated, hides Vefuvius from the view of its inhabi¬
tants } fo that till the eruption became confiderable it
was not vifible to them. On Sunday night, when the
noife increafed, and the fire began to appear above the
mountain of Somma, many of the. inhabitants flew to
the churches, and others were preparing to quit the
town, when a fudden and violent report was heard ;
foon after which they found themfelves involved in n
thick cloud of fmnke and afhes •, a horrid crafning noife
was heard in the air, and prefently fell a vaft flrower of
ftones and large pieces of feoriae, fome of which were
of the diameter of feven or eight feet, which muft have
weighed more than iooo pounds before they were bro¬
ken, as fome of the fragments which Sir William Ha¬
milton found in the ftreets ftill weighed upwards of 6o
pounds. When thefe large vitrified maffes either ftruck
againft one another in the air, or fell on the ground*
they broke in many pieces, and covered a large {pace of
ground with vivid fparks of fire, which communicated
their heat to every thing that was combuftible. Thefe
maffes were formed of the liquid lava ; the exterior
parts of which were become black and porous by cool¬
ing in their fall through fuch a vaft fpace •, whilft th«
interior parts, lefs expofed, retained an extreme heat,
and were perfectly red.
In an inftant the town and country about it was on
fire in many parts, for there were feveral ftraw huts in
the vineyards, which bad been erefied for the watch-*
men of the grapes J all of which were burnt. A great
magazine of wood in the heart of the town was all in a
blaze ; and had there been much wind, the flames muft
have fpread univerfally* and all the inhabitants would
have been burnt in their houfes y for it was impoflible
for them to ftir out. Some, who attempted it with pil¬
lows, tables, chairs, the tops of wine calks, &c. on their
heads, were either knocked down or foon driven back
to their clofe quarters under arches and in the cellars cf
their houfes. Many were wounded, but only two per-
fons died of their wounds.
To add to the horror of the feene, inceffant volcanic
lightning w^s whliking about the black cloud that fur-
rounded them, and the falphureous fmell and heat
would fcarcely allow them to draw their breath. In
this dreadful fituation they remained about 25 minutes,
when the volcanic ftorm eeafed all at once, and Vefu¬
vius remained fullen and filent. . ^
Some time after the eruption had ceafed, the air con-yag quan.
tinued greatly impregnated with eleflrical matter. Thetity ole-
duke of Cottofiano told our author, that having, about le&nc mat-
half an hour after the great eruption had ceafed, held a^ in the
Leyden bottle, armed with a pointed wire, out at his“
window at Naples, it foon became confiderably charged.
But whilft the eruption was in force, its appearance was
too alarming to allow one to think of fuch experiments. ■
-—He was informed alfo by the prince of Monte Mileto,
that
V E S
Vefuvius.
10
Damage
done by
the erup¬
tion at
Ottaiano.
IT
Vad frag¬
ments of
lava
thrown out
that hi& Ton, the duke of Popoli, who was at Monte
Mileto the 8th of Auguft, had been alarmed by the.
fliower of cinders that fell there ; fome of which he had
lent to Naples weighing two ounces; and that ftones of
an ounce weight had fallen upon an eitate of his ten
miles farther olf. Monte Mileto is about 30 miles
from the volcano. The abbe Cagliani alfo related, that
his filter, a nun in a convent at Manfredonia, had writ¬
ten to inquire after him, imagining that Naples muft
have been deltroyed, when they, at fo great a diftance,
had been alarmed by a Ihower of alhes which fell on the
city at 11 o’clock at night, fo much as to open all the
churches, and go to prayers. As the great eruption
happened at nine o’clock, thefe afhes mult have travel¬
led 100 miles in the fpace of two hours.
Nothing could be more difmal than the appearance
°l Ottaiano after tnis eruption. 1 he houles were un¬
roofed, half buried under the black fcoriae and alhes }
all the windows towards the mountain were broken,
and fome of the houfes themfelves burnt ; the ftreets
choked up with alhes, in fome narrow places not lefs
than four feet thick ; and a few of the inhabitants who
had juft returned, were employe'd in clearing them
away, and piling them up in hillocks, to get at their
ruined houfes. X he palace of the prince of Ottaiano is
fituated on an eminence above the town, and nearer the
mountain. X he Heps leading up to it were deeply co¬
vered with volcanic matter ; the roof was totally de-
ftroved, and the windows broken, but the houle itlelf,
being ftrongly built, had not fuffered much.
An incredible number of fragments of lava were
thrown out during the eruption, fome of which were of
immenfe magnitude. The largeft meafured by Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton was 108 feet in circumference and 17
in heigxit. X his was thrown at leaft a quarter of a mile
clear of the mouth of the volcano. Another, 66 feet
in circumlerence and ig in height, being nearly of a
■fpherical figure, was thrown out at the fame time, and
lay near the former. This laft had the marks of beino-
rounded, nay almoft polithed, by continual rolling in
torrents or on the fea-fhore. Our author conjeftures
that it might be a fpherical volcanic fait, fuch as that
ol 45 feet in circumference mentioned by M. de St
fond, in his Xreatife of Extinguifhed Volcanoes. A
third of 16 feet in height and 92 in circumference was
thrown much farther, and lay in the valley between
Vefuvius and the Hermitage. It appeared alfo, from
the large fragments that furrounded this mafs, that it
had^been much larger while in the air. v
. V^vius continued to emit fmoke for ^Oonfiderable
time after this great eruption, fo that our author was
apprehenfive that another would foon enfue j but from
that time nothing comparable to the above has taken
place. From the time of this great eruption to the
year 1784 our author kept an exadt diary of the opera¬
tions of Vefuvius, with drawings, fhowing, by the
quantity of fmoke, the degree of fermentation within
tlie volcano. The operations of the fubterraneous fire
however, appear to be very capricious and uncertain!
ne day there is the appearance of a violent fer¬
mentation, and the next every thing is tranquil ; but
w enever there has been a eonfiderable eje&ion of fcori®
f <r-1T’ t'rs’ f !ias been a conftantobfervation, that the
°on madefts appearance, either by boiling over the
f 560 ]
V I c
crater or forcing its way through the crevices in the Vefuvius
conical part of the mountain. An eruption took place II
in the month of November 1784, and continued for fome , Via°r-
time, but without any remarkable circumftance.
VETCH. See Vicia, Botany Index.
VE X ERAN, among the ancient Romans, an appel¬
lation given to a foldier grown old in the fervice, or
who had made a certain number of campaigns.
VETERINARY art. See Farriery.
V EXILLUM, in Botany; the upper petal of a pea-
bloom, or butterfly-ftiaped dower, which is generally
larger than any of the others. 7
V I ALES, in mythology, a name given among the
Romans to the gods who had the care and guard of the
roads and highways.
VIATICUM, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given in common to all officers of any of the magi-
ftrates } as li&ors, accenji, fcribes, criers.
VIBEX, is fometimes ufed by phyficians, for a black
and b:ue fpot in the Ikin occafioned by an efflux or ex«
travafation of blood.
V IBRA I ION, in Mechanics, a regular, reciprocal
motion of a body, as a pendulum.
VIBURNUM, a genus of plants of the clafs pentan-
dria ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 43d
order, Bumofce. See Botany Index.
VICAR, a perfon appointed as deputy to another,
to perform his fundions in his abfence, and under hi*
authority.
Vicar, in the canon-lawr, denotes a prieft of a parilh,
the predial tithes whereof are impropriated or appropri¬
ated ; belong either to a chapter, religious
houfe, &c. or to a layman who receives them, and only
allows the vicar the Imall tithes, or a convenient {alary*
See the article PARSON and Vicar.
V ICE, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an eledive
habit, denoting either an excels or defied from the juft:
medium wherein virtue is placed.
Vice, in fmithery and other arts converfant in me¬
tals, a machine or inftrument ferving to hold fait any
thing they are at work Upon, whether it is to be beaten,
filed, or rivetted.
Vice is alio ufed in the compofition of divers words
to denote the relation of fomething that comes inllead
or in the place of another j as vice admiral, vice-chan¬
cellor, &c. are officers who take place in the abfence
of admirals, &c.
VICEROY, a governor of a kingdom, who com¬
mands in the name and inflead of a king, with full and
fovereign authority.
VICIA, a genus of plants of the clafs diadelphia $
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d order,
Papi/ionacece. See Botany Index.
VICISSI X UDE, the regular fucceffion of one thing
after another; as the viciffitude of day and night, of
the feafons, &c.
YICI IM, denotes a facrifice offered to fome deity,
of a living creature, as a man or beaft, which is Ham
to appeafe his wrath, or to obtain fome favour.
VICTOR, Sextus Aurel Uts, a Roman hiftorian,
who flourilhed under the emperors Conftantius and Ju¬
lian 5 as we learn from many paffages in his own writ¬
ings, and alfo from Ammianus Marcellinus. This hif¬
torian relates, that Conftantius made him conful, and
honoured
VIE [ 561 ] V I G
*or honoured him with a brazen ftatue, on account of his
j excellent qualifications ; although, as he owns of him-
ina- felf, he was born in an obfcure village, and of poor and
illiterate parents. It is commonly believed that he was
an African •, it is certain, that he dwells much upon
the praifes of that country, which he calls the glory of
the earth 5 decus terrarum. Two books of his are ex¬
tant in the hiftorical way ; one De viris illujlribus urbis
Roma; the other, De Cafaribus; to which is prefixed
Libellus de origine genth Romarue. The whole makes
an abridged hiftory of Rome, from its foundation down
to the reign of Julian inclufive.
VICTORY, the overthrow or defeat of an enemy in
war or combat.
Victory, in Pagan worfliip, is reprefented by He-
fiod as the daughter of Styx and Pallas; and Varro
calls her the daughter of Heaven and Earth. The Ro¬
mans eredled a temple to her, where they prayed to the
gods to give fuccefs to their arms. They painted her
in the form of a woman, clad in cloth of gold. In
fome medals, (he is reprefented with wings dying
through the air, holding a laurel crown in one hand and
a palm in the other; but in other medals, (he is feen
Handing upon a globe, with the fame crown and branch
of palm.
VIDA, Marcus Hieronymus, bilhop of Alva, in
Montferrat, and one of the molt excellent Latin poets
that have appeared lince the Auguftan a'e, was born at
Cremona in I470. Havingdiltinguilhed bimfelf by his
learning and tafte for literature, he was made bilhop of
Alva in 1552. After continuing two years-with Pope
Clement VII. at Rome, he went to refideupon his fee j
where, for 30 years, he performed all the offices of a
good bifhop and a good man ; and though he was mild,
gentle, and full of goodnefs, he was fo far from want¬
ing fpirit, that when the city of Alva was befieged by
the French, he ufed all pollible means to prevent its
being given up, by ftrenuoufly exhorting the people,
and, when provilions were fcarce, by fupplying them at
his own expence. His Poetics, and poem on the filk-
worm, pafs for his mafterpiece j his poem on the game
of chefs is alfo greatly admired. He alfo wrote hymns,
eclogues, and a poem entitled Chrijliados in fix books j
all which are in Latin, and have gained him a great re¬
putation. His works in profe confill of dialogues, fy-
nodical conftitutions, letters, and other pieces. Fie died
m 1356, foon after being made bilhop of Cremona.
VIENNA, the capital of the circle of Auftria, in
Germany, and of the whole German empire, is the place
where the emperor refides. The city itfelf is not of very
great extent; nor can it be enlarged, it being limited
by a very Itrong fortification •, but it is very populous.
Flie Hreets, in general, are narrow, and the heufes built
high. Some of the public buildings are magnificent j
but they appear externally to no great advantage, on ac¬
count of the narrownefs of the ilreets. The chief of
them are the imperial palace, the library, and the mu-
feu m; the palaces of the princes Lichtenllein, Eugene,
&c. Vienna was twice ineffe£lually befieged by the
Turks; namely, in 1589 and 1683. At the latter pe¬
riod, the fiege was railed by John Sobielki, king of Po¬
land, who totally defeated the Turkilh army before the
walls of this place. There is no great danger that Vien¬
na will ever again be fubjedled to the inconveniences of
a fiege. Yet, in cafe that Ihould happen, a meafure has
Vol. XX. Part II.
been taken, 'wbich will prevent the neceflity of deflroy- Vienna,
ing the fuburbs j namely, no homes without the walls Vigil,
are allowed to be built nearer to the glacis than 600 ’■**-
yards j fo that there is a circular field of that breadth
all round the town, which, exclufive of the advantage
above mentioned, has a very beautiful and falutary ef¬
fect. Thefe magnificent fuburbs, and the town together,
are faid to contain above 300,000 inhabitants ; yet the
former are not near fo populous, in proportion to their
fize, as the town ; becaufe many houfes in the fuburbs
have extenfive gardens belonging to them, and many fa¬
milies, who live during the winter within the fortifica¬
tions, fpend the fummer in the fuburbs. The cathedral
is built of free-ftone, is 114 yards long, and 4$ broad,
and the lleeple is 447 feet high. Inftead of a weather¬
cock there w'as a Turkilh crefcent, in memory of the
fiege in 1589 j but, after the fecond fiege in 1683, it was
changed tor a golden crofs, which three months after
was thrown down by a ftorm. At prefent there is a
black fpread eagle, over which is a gilded crofs. Join¬
ing to this church is the archbilhop’s palace, the front of
which is very fine. The univerfity had feveral thoufaud
Hudents, who, when this city was befieged, mounted
guard, as they did alfo in 1741- Befide this, there is
the academy of Lower Auftria j and the archducal li¬
brary is much frequented by foreigners, as it contains a-
bove 100,000 printed books, and io,cod manuferipts.
The academy of painting is remarkable for the fine pic¬
tures it produces. The archducal treafury, and a cabi¬
net of curiofities of thehoufe of Auftria, are great rari¬
ties. The inhabitants, in general, live in a fplendid
manner ; and people of dillindlion have all forts of wines
at their tables, which they are very free with to foreign¬
ers. There is a fort of harbour on the Danube, where
there are magazines of naval ftores, and (hips have been
fitted out to ferve on that river againft the Turks. Vien¬
na is an archbilhop’s fee. It is feated at the place where
the river Vienna or Wein, falls into the Danube, 30
miles weft of Prefburgh, 350 north-north-eaft of Rome,
520 fouth-eaft by fouth of Amfterdam, 565 eaft of Paris,
and 680 eaft-fouth-eaft of London. E. Long. 10. 20.
N. Lat. 48. 13.
VIGIL, in church hiftory, is the eve or next day
before any folemn feaft j becaufe then Chriftians were
wont to watch, fall, and pray, in their churches.
VIGILS of Plants, a term under which botanifts com¬
prehend the precife time of the day in which the flowers
of different plants open, expand, and ftiut.
As all plants do not flower in the fame feafon, or
month j in like manner, thofe which flower the fame
day, in the fame place, do not open and flmt precifely
at the fame hour. Some open in the morning, as the
lip flowers, and compound flowers with flat fpreading
petals; others at noon, as the mallows; and a third fet
in the evening, or after funfet, as fome geraniums and
opuntias : the hour of fliutting is equally determined,
Of thofe which open in the morning, fome fhut foon af¬
ter, while others remain expanded till night.
The hours of opening, like the time of flowering, feem
to vary, according to the fpeties of the- plant, the tem¬
perature of the climate, and that of the feafon. Flowers,
whofe extreme delicacy would be hurt by theftrongim-
preffions of an ardent fun, do not open till night: thofe
which require a moderate degree of heat to elevate their
juices; in other words, whofe juices do not rife but in
• 4 B the
V I L t 562 1 V I L
Vigil
11
Villenace
the morning or evening, do not expand till then; whilft
tliofe which need a more lively heat for the fame pur-
pofe, expand at noon when the fun is in his meridian
ftrength. Hence it is, that the heat of the air being
greater betwixt the tropics than elfewhere, plants which
are tranfported from thofe climates into the cold or tem¬
perate climates of Europe, expand their flowers much
later than in their native foil. Thus, a flower which
opens in fummer at fix o’clock in the morning at Sene¬
gal, will not open at the fame feafon in France and Eng¬
land till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten.
Linnaeus diltinguilhes by the general name of folar
{flores folarcs') all thole flowers which obferve a deter¬
minate time in opening and (hutting. Thefe flowers
are again divided, from certain circumflances, into
three fpecies, or kinds :
Equinoctial flowers (Jlores eequinoEliales') are fuch as
open and (hut at all feafons, at a certain fixed or deter¬
minate hour.
Iropical flowers (Jlores tropici') are fuch whofe hour
of opening is not fixed at all feafons, but accelerated or
retarded according as the length of the day is increafed
or diminilhed.
Meteorous flow'ers ("flares mcteorici') are fuch whofe
hour of expanfion depends upon the dry or humid ftate
of the air, and the greater or lefs preffure of the atmo-
fphere. Of this kind is the Siberian fow-thiftle, which
fhuts at night if the enfuing day is to be clear and fe-
rene, and opens if it is to be cloudy and rainy. In like
manner the African marigold, which in dry ferene
weather opens at fix or feven in the morning, and (huts
at four o’clock in the afternoon, is a fure indication that
rain will fall during the courfe of the day, when it con¬
tinues (hut after feven.
^ f GO, a fea-pOrt town of Galicia in Spain, with an
Oid caftle and a fort. It is feated in a fertile country by
the fea-fide. It was rendered famous by a fea-fight be¬
tween the confederate fleet commanded by Sir George
Kook, and a fquadron of French men of war, while the
duke of Ormond with a body of land forces drove the
Spaniards from the caftles which defended the harbour.
Admiral Hopfon having with infinite danger broken
through the boom made acrofs the mouth of the har¬
bour, the Englilh took four galleons and five large men
of war, and the Hutch five galleons and one man of
war. Four galleons, with 14 men of war, were deftroy-
ed, with abundance of plate and other rich effeas.
W. Long. 8. 43. N. Lat. 42. 14.
• Franca, the name of feveral towns ; one
in Piedmont, three miles eaft of Nice ; another of Ca¬
talonia j 8 miles weft of Barcelona ; a third, the capi¬
tal of S t Michael, one of the Azores ; and a fourth, a
town of Eftremadura in Spain, 57 miles fouth-eaft of
Salamanca.
V ILL AGE,an aflemblageof houfes inhabited chiefly
by peafants and farmers, and having no market, where¬
by it Is diftinguifhed from a town. The word is French,
formed of Wor vilis, “ low, mean, contemptible:” or
rather from the Latin villa, a eountry-boufe or farm.
VILLAIN, or Villein, In our ancient cuftoms,
denotes a man of fervile or -bafe condition, viz. a bond¬
man or fervant,
1 iYI-LL-nNAGE* In The foJk-land or eftates
idd in vi lenage, was a fpecies of tenure neither ftri&ly
feodal, Norman, or Saxon 5 but mixed and compounded
of them all; and which alfo, on account of the heriots Villena
that dually attend it, may feem to have fomewhat Da-“V*
nidi in its compofition. Under the Saxon government
there were, as Sir William Temple fpeaks, a fort of
people in a condition of downright fervitude, ufed and
employed in the moft fervile works, and belonging, both
they, their children, and effeas, to the lord of the foil,
like the reft of the cattle or ftock upon it. Thefe feem
to have been thofe who held what was called the folk-
land, from which they were removeable at the lord’s
pleafure. On the arrival of the Normans here, it feems
not improbable, that they who were ftrangers to any 0-
ther t m a feodal ftate, might give fome fparks of en-
franchifement to fuch wretched perfons as fell to their
(hare, by admitting them, as well as others, to the oath
of fealty 5 which conferred a right of proteftion, and
raifed the tenant to a kind of eftate fuperior to downright
flavery, but inferior to every other condition. This they
called villenage, and the tenants villeins.
Thefe villeins, belonging principally to lords of ma¬
nors, were either villeins regardant, that is, annexed to
the manor or land : or elfe they were in grofs, or at
large, that is, annexed to the perfon of the lord, and
transferable by deed from one owner to another. They
could not leave their lord without his permiflion ; but
if they ran away, or were purloined from him, might
be claimed and recovered by aftion, like beads or other
chattels. They held indeed fmall portions of land by
way offuftaining therafelves and families: but it was at
the mere will of the lord, who might difpoffefs them
whenever he pleafed; and it was upon villein fervices,
that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch the lord’s
demefnes, and any other the meaneft offices: and their
fervices were not only bafe, but uncertain both as to
their time and quantity.
A villein could acquire no property either in lands or
goods: if he purchafed either, the lord might feize them
to his own ufe; unlefs he contrived to difpofe of them
again before the lord had feized them, for the lord had
then loft his opportunity. /
In many places a fine was alfo payable to the lord, if
the villein prefumed to marry his daughter to any one
without leave from the lord: and by the common law, the
lord might alfo bring an a£l:ion againft the hulband for
damages in thus purloining his property. For the child¬
ren of villeins were alfo in the fame ftate of bondage
with their parents j whence they were called in Latin
nativi, which gave rife to the female appellation of a
villein, who was called a neife. In cafe of a marriage
between a freeman and a neife, or a villein and a free-
woman, the iffue followed the condition of the father,
being free if he was free, and a villein if he was villein,
contrary to the maxim of the civil law, that partus fe-
quitur ventrem. But no baftard could be born a villein,
becaufe by another maxim of our law he is nulliusfilius ;
and as he can gain nothing by inheritance, it were hard
that he (hould lofe his natural freedom by it. The law,
however, proteffed the perfons of villeins againft atroci¬
ous injuries of the lord : for he might not kill or maim
his villein y though he might beat him with impunity.
Villeins might be enfranchifed by manumiffion. In
procefs of time they gained confiderable ground on their
lords*, and in particular ftrengthened the tenure of theit
eftates to that degree, that they came to have in them
an intereft in many places full as good, in others better
V I L [ s
nage. than their lords. For the good nature and benevolence
of many lords of manors having, time out of mind, per¬
mitted their villeins and their children to enjoy their
poffeflions without interruption, in a regular courfe of
defcent, the common law, of which cuftom is the life,
now gave them title to prefcribe againlt their lords $
and, on performance of the fame fervices, to hold their
lands in fpite of any determination of the lord’s will.
For though in general they are It ill faid to hold their
eftates at the will of the lord, yet it is fuch a will as is
agreeable to the cuftom of the manor ; which cuftoms
are preferved and evidenced by the rolls of the feveral
courts-baron in which they are entered, or kept on foot
by the conftant immemorial ufage of the feveral manors
in which the lands lie. And as fuch tenants had nothing
to Ihow for their eftates but thofe cuftoms, and admiftions
in purfuance of them, entered on thele rolls, or the
copies of fuch entries witnefled by the fteward, they
now began to be called tenants by copy of court-roll, and
their tenure itfelf a copyhold.
Privileged VlLLENAGE, a fpecies of tenure otherwife
called villein focage. See Tenure.
Ancient demefne conlifts of thofe lands or manors
which, though now perhaps granted out to private fub-
jefts, were actually in the hands of the crown in the time
of Edward the Confeffor, or William the Conqueror ;
and fo appear to have been, by the great furvey in the
exchequer, called the doomfday-book. The tenants of
thefe lands, under the crown, were not all of the fame
order or degree. Some of them, as Britton teftifies,
continued for a long time pure and abfolute villeins, de¬
pendent on the will of the lord ; and common copy-
holders in only a few points. Others were in a great
meafure enfranchifed by the royal favour \ being only
bound in refpeft of their lands to perform fome of the
better fort of villein-fervices, but thofe determinate and
certain; as, to plough the king’s land for fo many days,
to fupply his court with fuch a quantity of provifions,
and the like j all of which are now changed into pecu¬
niary rents : and in confideration hereof they had many
immunities and privileges granted to them j as, to try the
right of their property in a peculiar court of their own,
called a court of ancient demefne, by a peculiar procefs
denominated a writ of right clofe $ not to pay toll or
taxes; not to contribute to the expences of knights of
the (hire ; not to be put on juries, and the like.
Thefe tenants therefore, though their tenure be abfo-
lutely copyhold, yet have an intereft equivalent to a
freehold; for though their fervices were of a bafe and
villenous original, yet the tenants were efteemed in all
other refpefls to be highly privileged villeins ; and
efpecially for that their fervices were fixed and determi¬
nate, and that they could not be compelled (like pure
villeins) to relinquilh thofe tenements at the lord’s will,
or to hold them againft their own : et idea (fays Bra&on)
dicuntur liberi.
Lands holding by this tenure are therefore a fpecies
of copyhold, and as fuch preferved and exempted from
the operation of the ftatute of Charles II. Yet they dif¬
fer from common copyholds, principally in the privi¬
leges before mentioned : as ,alfo they differ from free¬
holders by one efpecial mark and tinfture of villenage,
noted by Braflon, and remaining to this day ; viz. that
they cannot be conveyed from man to man by the gene¬
ral common-law conveyances of feoffment, and the reft $
63 1
V I N
but muft pafs by furrender to the lord or bis ftevrard, in Villenage
the manner of common copyholds : yet with the differ- H
enee, that, in the furrendersof thefe lands in ancient de-^ Vinccnt;
mefne, it is not ufed to fay, “ to hold at the will of their
lord,” in their copies ; but only, “ to hold according
to the cuftom of the manor.”
VILLI, among botanifts, a kind of down like fhort
hair, with which fome trees abound.
VILLOSE, or Villous, fomething abounding with
villi or fibres like fhort hair ; fuch is one of the coats of
the ftomach.
VINCA, a genus of plants of the clafs pentandria
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 30th or¬
der, Contort#. See Botany Index.
St VINCENT, one of the windward Caribbe©
iflands, which received its name from being difcovered
on the 22d of January, the feaft of that Saint. It is in¬
habited by a race of people, of whom Dr Robertfotv
gives this account : “ There is a great diftindlion in,
charader between the Caribbees and the inhabitants of
the larger iflands. The former appear manifeftly to be a
feparate race. Their language is totally different from
that of their neighbours in the large iflands. They
themfelves have a tradition that their anceftors came ori¬
ginally from fome part of the continent, and having con¬
quered and exterminated the ancient inhabitants, took
pofleffion of their lands and of their women. Hence
they call themfelves Banaree, which fignifies a man
come from beyond fea. Accordingly, the Caribbees
ftill ufe two diftin6t languages, one peculiar to the men,
and the other to the women. The language of the men
has nothing common with that fpoken in the large
iflands. The dialed! of the women confiderably refem-
bles it. This ftrongly confirms the tradition which I
have mentioned. The Caribbees themfelves imagine that
they were a colony from the Galibis, a powerful nation
of Guiana in South America. But as their fierce man¬
ners approach nearer to thofe of the people in the
northern continent, than to thofe of the natives of South
America, and as their language has likewife fome affini¬
ty to that fpoken in Florida, their origin ftiould be de¬
duced rather from the former than from the latter. In
their wars they ftill preferve their ancient pradlice of de-
ftroying all the males, and preferving the women either
for fervitude or for breeding.”
It remained a long time after it was difeovered inha¬
bited by thefe people, and by another race improperly
ftyled Black Caribs, who are in reality negroes defcend-
ed, as is generally believed, from fome who efcaped out
of a Guinea (hip wrecked upon thecoaft, and gradually
augmented by fuch as from time to time tied thither
from Barbadoes. Thefe nations were often at war j but
when their quarrels were compofed, they had a ftrength
fufficient to prevent ftrangers from fettling by force.
The French, about half a century ago, at the requetl of
the Caribs, made a defcent from Martinico, and attacked
the negroes, but were repulfed with lofs ; and found it
their intereft to conciliate a friendffiip with both nations
by means of prefents, and furniflung them with aj-qis
and ammunition.
St Vincent was long a neutral ifland ; but at the
peace of 1763, the French agreed that the right to it
fhould be veiled in the Engliffi 5 who, in the fequel, at
the inftance of fome rapacious planters, engaged in an
unjuft war againft the Caribbees, who inhabited the
4 B 2 windward
V I N [ 5<H ] V I R
St Vincent, windward fide of the ifland, and who were obliged to
. . confent to a peace, by which they ceded a very large
traft of valuable land to the crown. The confequence
of this was, that in the next war, in 1779, they greatly
contributed to the reduction of this illand by the French,
who, however, reftored it by the peace of 1783. Since
that time it has continued in the pofleflion of Great Bri¬
tain. During the French revolutionary war, the Ca-
ribs revolted ; and, affifted by the French, fpread defo-
lation over the whole ifland ; but by the exertions of the
governor and the Britifli forces in the Weft Indies, the
revolt was quelled.
St Vincent is in length about 24 miles, and about 18
in breadth. The climate is very warm. The country
is in general hilly, in fome places mountainous ; but
interfperfed with a variety of pleafant valleys, and
fome luxuriant plains, the foil being everywhere very
fertile, and the high grounds are at leaft in general eafy
of afcent. Few iflands are fo well watered with rivers
and fprings. The inhabitants raife all kinds of ground
provifions in plenty. The rivers fupply them with va¬
riety of filh. W. Long. 6i°. N. Lat. 130.
VINCI, Leonardo da, an illuftrious Italian pain¬
ter, defcended from a noble Tufcan family, was born in
the caftle of Vinci, near Florence in 1445. He was
placed under Andrea Yerochia, a celebrated painter in
that city j but foon furpafled him and all his predeceffors
fo much, as to be reputed the mafter of the third or
golden age of modern painting. But his ftudies were
far from terminating here j no man’s genius was more
univerfal : he applied himfelf to arts, to literature, and
to the accomplifliments of the body j and he excelled in
every thing which he attempted. Lewis Sforza duke
of Milan prevailed on him to be diredor of the academy
for archite&ure he had juft eftabliflied j where Leonardo
foon banilhed all the Gothic fafluons, and reduced every
thing to the happy fimplicity of the Greek and Roman
ftyle. By the duke’s order he conftruded the famous
aquedud that fupplies the city of Milan with water :
this canal goes by the name of Mortefana, being above
200 miles in length, and conduds the water of the river
Adda quite to the walls of the city. In 1479, he was
defired to conftrud fome new device for the entertain¬
ment of Louis XII. of France, who was then to make
his entrance into Milan, Leonardo accordingly made
a very curious automaton in the form of a lion, which
marched out to meet the king, reared up on its hinder
legs before him, and opening its bread, difplayed an
efcutcheon with fleurs-de-lis quartered on it. The dif-
order- of Lombardy, with the misfortunes of his patrons
the Sforzi, obliging Leonardo to quit Milan, he retired
to Florence, where he flouriflred under the Medici :
here he raifed the envy of Michael Angelo, who was his
contemporary ; and Raphael, from the ftudy of his
works, acquired his beft manner of defigiyng. At
length, on the invitation of Francis I. he removed to
France when above 70 years of age ; where the journey
and change of climate threw him into his laft fieknefs :
he languifhed for fome months at Fontainbleau, where
the king came frequently to fee him ; and one day ri-
fing up in his bed to acknowledge the honour done him,
he fainted, and Francis lupporting him, Leonardo died
in his arms. His death happened in 1 520. Some of
his paintings are to be feen in England and other coun¬
tries, but the greateft part of them are in Florence and
France. He compofed a great number of difeourfes on Vi,
curious fubjeds j but none of them have been pub. ||C'
liihed but his treatife on the Art of Painting.—-For his
anatomical knowledge, fee Anatomy (hiftory of)
p. 669.
VINCULUM, in Algebra, a character in form of a
line or ftroke drawn over a faftor, divifor, or dividend
when compounded of feveral letters or quantities, to*
conned them, and ftiows that they are to be multiplied
or divided, &c. together by the other term.
Thus dy>a-\-b—c fhows that c? is to be multiplied
into a-\-b—c.
VINE. See Vitis, Botany Index.
VINEGAR, Acetum, an agreeable acid, prepared
fiom wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors ^ of confider-
able ufe, both as a medicine and a fauce. The word is
French, vinaigre } formed from vin, “ wine and aigre
“ four.”. See Acetic Acid, and Chemistry Index.
Ee/s in Vinegar. See Animalcule, N° 9.
VINEYARD, a plantation of vines. The beft fi.
tuation of a vineyard is on the declivity of a hill facin?
the fouth. 6
VIO, Thomas de. See Cajetan.
VIOL, a mufical inftrument of the fame form with
the violin, and, like that, ftruck with a bow.
VIOLA, a genus of plants of the clafs fyngenefia j
in the natural fyftem arranged under the 29th order,
Campanacece. See Botany Index.
VIOLATION, the ad of violating, that is, forcing
a woman, or committing a rape upon her This term
is alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a breach or infringe¬
ment of a law, ordinance, or the like.
VIOLET. See Viola, Botany Index.
Violet-Crab. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
_ VIOLIN, or Fiddle, a mufical inftrument mounted
with four firings or guts, and ftruck or played with a
bow. T he ftyle and found of the violin is the gayeft
and moft fprightly of all other inftruments •, and hence
it is of all others the fitteft for dancing. Yet there are
ways of touching it, which render it grave, foft, lan-
guifliing, and fit for church or chamber mufic.—It ge-
neially makes the treble or higheft parts in concerts.
Its harmony is from fifth to fifth. Its play is compofed
of bafs, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble j to which may
be added, a fifth part : each part has four fifths, which
rife to a greater feventeenth.
VIOLONCELLO, of the Italians, is properly our
fifth violin ; which is a little bafs violin half the fize of
the common bafs violin, and the firings bigger and longer
in proportion : confequently its found is an odave lower
than our bafs violin 5 which has a noble effed in con¬
certs.
VIPER. See OPHIOLOGY Index.
VIRAGO, a woman of extraordinary flature and
courage ; who has the mien and air of a man, and per¬
forms the adions and exercifes of men.
VIRGIL, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the moft
excellent of all the Latin poets, was the fon of a potter
of Andes, near Mantua, where he was born, 70 years
B. C. He ftudied firfl at Mantua j then at Cremona,
Milan, and Naples j whence going to Rome, lie acquir¬
ed the efteem of the greateft wits and moft illuftrious per-
fons of his time ; and among others of tlx* emperor Au-
guftus, Maecenas, and Pollio. He was well fkilled not on¬
ly in polite literature and poetry, but aifo in philofophy,
;*
V I R [ 565 ] V I R
rsrl the mathematics, geography, medicine, and natural hi-
u f—J ftory. Though one of the greateft gemufes of his age,
and the admiration of the Romans, he always preferved
a Angular modefty, and lived chafte at a time when the
manners of the people were extremely corrupt. He car¬
ried Latin poetry to fuch a high perfection, that he was
iuftly efteemed the prince of Latin poets. He firft turn¬
ed himfelf to palloral j and being captivated with the
beauty and fweetnefs of Theocritus, was ambitious to
introduce this new fpecies of poetry among the Romans.
His firft performance in this way is fuppofed to have
been written U. C. 709, the year before the death of
Julius Caefar, when the poet was in his 25th year : it is
intitled Alexis. Poflibly Palcemon was his fecond : it
is a clofe imitation of the fourth and fifth Idylls of Theo¬
critus. Mr Wharton places Silenus next 5 which is faid
to have been publicly recited on the Itage by Cytheris,
a celebrated comedian. Virgil’s fifth eclogue is com-
pofed in allufion to the death and deification of Caefar.
The battle of Philippi in 712 having put an end to the
Roman liberty, the veteran foldiers began to murmur
for their pay *, and Auguftus, to reward them, diltri-
buted among them the lands of Mantua and Cremona.
Virgil was involved in this common calamity j and ap¬
plied to Varus and Pollio, who warmly recommended
him to Auguftus, and procured for him his patrimony
again. Full of gratitude to Auguftus, he compofed the
Tityrus, in which he introduces two Ihepherds •, one of
them complaining of the diftraflion 01 the times, and of
the havock the foldiers made among the Mantuan far¬
mers ; the other rejoicing for the recovery of his eftate,
and promifing to honour as a god the perfon who reftor-
ed it to him. But our poet’s joy was not of long conti¬
nuance ; for we are told, that when he returned to take
polfeffion of his farm, he w'as violently affaulted by the
intruder, and would certainly have been killed by him
if he had not efcaped by fwimming haftily over the Min-
cio. Upon this unexpetfed difappointment, he returned
to Rome to renew his petition ; and during his journey
feems to have compofed his ninth eclogue. I he cele¬
brated eclogue, intitled Pollio, was compofed U. C. 7I4>
upon the following occafion : 1 he coniul Pollio on the
part of Antony, and Maecenas on the part of Cselar,
had made up the differences between them 5 by agree¬
ing, that Oftavia, half-fifter to Caefar, ftiould be given
in marriage to Antony. T his agreement caufed an uni-
verfal joy y and Virgil, in his eclogue, teftified his. Oc-
tavia was wnth child by her late hufband Marcel!us at
the time of this marriage j and whereas the Sibylline
oracles had foretold, that a child wTas to be born about
this time, who (hould rule the world, and eftablifh per¬
petual peace, the poet ingenioufty fuppofes the child in
Giftavia’s womb to be the glorious infant, under whofe
reign mankind w-as to be happy, the golden age to re¬
turn from heaven, and fraud and violence to be no more.
In this celebrated poem, the author, with great delicacy
at the fame time, pays his court to both the chiefs,
to his patron Pollio, to 0£Vavia, and to the unborn
infant. In 715, Pollio was fent againft the Parthini,
a people of Illyricum j and during this expedition, Vir¬
gil addreffed to him a beautiful eclogue, called Phar-
maceutria. His tenth and laft eclogue was addreffed to
Gallus.
In his 34th year, he retired to Naples, and laid the
plan.of.his Georgies j which he undertook at the intrea-
4
ties of Mcecenas, to whom he dedicated them. This Virgil*
wife and able minifter refolved, if poflible, to revive the *
decayed fpirit of hufbandry j to introduce a tafte for agri¬
culture, even among the great j and could not think of
a better method to effe£t this, than to recommend it by
the infinuating charms of poetry. Virgil fully anfwered
the expeftations of his patron by his Georgies. They
are divided into four books. Corn and ploughing are
the fubjeft of the firft, vines of the fecond, cattle of the
third, and bees of the fourth.
He is fuppofed to have been in his 45th year when
he began to write the iEneid j the defign of which was
to reconcile the Romans to the government of Augu¬
ftus. Auguftus was eager to perufe this poem before it
was finiihed j and intreated him by letters to communi¬
cate it. Macrobius has preferved to us part of one of
Virgil’s anfwers to the emperor, in which the poet ex-
cufes himfelf: who, however, at length complied, and
read himfelf the fixth book to the emperor j when Oc-
tavia, who had juft loft her fon Marcellus, the darling
of Rome, and adopted fon of Auguftus, made one of th©
audience. Virgil had artfully inferted that beautiful la¬
mentation for the death of young Marcellus, beginning
with—0 mtte, ingentem luRum tie queere tuorum—but
fuppreffed his name till he came to the line—Tu Mar¬
cellus eris : upon hearing which, Oftavia could bear no
more, but fainted away, overcome with furprife and for-
row. When flie recovered, ftie made the poet a prefent
of ten fefterces for every line, which amounted in the
whole to above 20C0I.
The iEneid being brought to a conclufion, but not to
the perfe&ion our author intended to give it, he refol¬
ved to travel into Greece, to corre£l and polifli it at lei-
fure. It was probably on this occafion that Horace ad-
drefled that affectionate ode to him, Sic te Dwce potens
Cypri, &c. Auguftus returning victorious from the eaft,
met with Virgil at Athens, who thought himfelf obli¬
ged to attend the emperor to Italy :.but the poet wasfud-
denly feized with a fatal diftemper, which being jncreaf-
ed by the agitation of the veffel, put an end to his life as
foon as he landed at Brundufium, in his 52d year. He
had ordered in.his will, that the iEneid fliould be burnt
as an unfiniftied poem *, but Auguftus forbade it, and had
it delivered to Varius and Tucca, with the ftriCIeft
charge to make no additions, but only to publifti it cor-
reCUy. He died with fuch fteadinefs and tranquillity,
as to be able to diftate his own epitaph in the following
words:
Mantua me genuit: Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
Parthenope : cecini Pafcua, Rura, Duces.
His bones were carried to Naples, according to his ear¬
ned requeft j a*d a monument was ereCIed at a fmall di-
ftance from the city.
Virgil was of a fwarthy complexion, tall, of a fickly
conftitution, and affliCled with frequent headachs, and-
fpitting of blood. He was fo very baftiful, that he of¬
ten ran into the ftiops to prevent being gazed at in the
ftreets j yet was fo honoured by the Roman people, that
once coming into the theatre, the whole audience rofe
up out of refpeCt to him. He was of a thoughtful and
melancholy temper ; he fpoke little, and loved retire¬
ment and contemplation. His fortune was affluent j he
had a fine houfe and well furnifhed library near Maece¬
nas’s gardens, on the Efquiline mount at Rome, and aL
'Virgil,
‘ Virginia.
V I H t 566 ] v I R
fo a delightful villa in Sicily < He was fo benevolent The mountains are not folitary and fcattered confn v •.
and inoffenlive, that moft of his contemporary -poets, -fedly over the face of the country: they commence J
though they envied each other, agreed in loving and about 150 miles from the fea coalt, and are difpofed in
'elteeming him. He revifed his verfes with prodigious ridges one behind another, running nearly parallel' with
feventy; and ufed to compare himfelf to a die bear, the coaft, though rather approaching it as they advance
which hcked her cubs into fl.ape. north-wefterly. To the fouth-wJt, as the trad of
1 he beft edition of Virgil’s works are thofe of Mof- country between the fea-coaft and the Miffiffippi becomes
narrower, the mountains converge into a Angle ridge^fferfon't
which, as it approaches the gulf of Mexico, fubfides into
•plain country, and gives rife to fome of the waters of
•vicius, with the notes of Servius, printed at Lewarden
in JJiJ, two vols 410; and that of Burman, at Amfter-
dam, 1746, in four vols 410. There are feveral Englilh
tranflations, which are well known.
_ Virgil, Poljjdore, an Englilh hiftorian, born at Ur-
bino in Italy, was fent in the beginning of the i6th
century by Pope Alexander VI. as fub-colle&or of the
Papal tax, called Pcier-pence, in this kingdom. He had
not been longin England before he obtained preferment
in'the church; for in 1503 he was prefented to the rec¬
tory of Church-Langton in the archdeaconry of Lei-
cefter. In 1507 he was collated to the prebend of
^camlefby in the church of Lincoln ; and in the fame
year was made archdeacon of Wells, and prebendary of
Hereford. In 15135 he refigned his prebend of Lin¬
coln, and was collated to that of Oxgate in St Paul’s,
London. We are told, that on his preferment to the
archdeaconry of Wells, he refigned the office offubcol-
Ie£!or to the pope, and determined to fpend the remain¬
der of his life in England, the Hiltory of which king-
tlom he began in the year 1505, at the command of
Henry VII. ^ That work coft him 11 years labour. In
1526, he finilhed his treatife on Prodigies. Polydore
Continued in England during the whole reign of Henry
VIII. and part of that of Edward VI. whence it is con¬
cluded that he was a moderate Papift. In 1550, beino-
now an old man, he requefted leave to revifit his native
country. He was accordingly difmifled with a prefent
of 300 crowns, together with the privilege of holding
bis preferments to the end of his life. He died at Ur-
bino in the year 1555. As an hiftorian, he is accufed
by fome as a malignant fianderer of the Englifti nation;
yet Jovius remarks, that the French and Scotch accufe
him of having flattered that nation too much: (See his
E/og. cap. 13 5. p. 179.). Befides the above, he wrote,
1. De Rerum Inventoribus ; of which an Englilh tranf-
iation was publiflied by Langley in 1663. It was alfo
tranflated into French and Spanilh. 2. De Prodigiis et
•Sortibus. 3. Epifcoporum Anglia Catalogus. Manu-
icnpt. 4. De Vita PerfeBa, Bafil, 1546, 1553, 8vo.
S" Epijlola Erudites ,* and fome other works.
VIRGINIA, one of the United States of North A-
merica, is bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic ocean, on
the north by Pennfylvania and the river Ohio, on the
^ftbythe Miffiffippi, on the fouth by North Carolina.
Ihefe boundaries include an area fortiewbat triangu-
tnilcs’ whereof 79,650 lie weftward of
the Alleghany mountains, and 57,034 weftward of the
meridian of the mouth of the Great Kanhaway. This
ftate is therefore one third larger than the iflands of
00 at ®"ta’n and Ireland, which are reckoned at
3»,357 square miles.
. The F‘"cipal rivers in Virginia are, Roanoke, James
river, which receives the Rivanna, Appammatox, Chic-
kahominy, Nanfemond, and Elizabeth rivers; York
mver, which is formed by the junftion of Pamunky and
Mattapony rivers; Rappahannock, and Patomack.
that gulf.
From the great extent of Virginia, ifmaybe expeft-
pd that the climate is not the fame in all its parts. It
is remarkable that, -proceeding on the fame parallel of
latitude weftwardly, the climate becomes colder in like
manner as when you proceed northwardly. This con¬
tinues to be the cafe till you attain the fummit of the
Alleghany, which is the higheft land between the ocean
and the Miffiffippi. From thence, defcending in the
fame latitude to the Miffiffippi, the change reverfes;
and, if we may believe travellers, it becomes warmer
there than it is in the fame latitude on the fea-fide.
Their teftimony is ftrengthened by the vegetables and
animals which fubfift and multiply there, naturally, and
do not on the fea-coaft. Thus catalpas grow fponta-
neoufly on the Miffiffippi as far as the latitude of 37,
and reeds as far as 38, degrees. Perroquets even win¬
ter on the Sioto in the degree of latitude. In the
fummer of I779» when the thermometer was at 90 de¬
grees at Monticello, and 96 degrees at Williamlburg,
it was no degrees at Kafkalkia. Perhaps the moun¬
tain, which overhangs this village on the north fide,
may by its refledlion have contributed fomewhat to pro¬
duce this heat.
I he number of free inhabitants in this ftate in 1790
was 454,983, and of flaves 292,627. The whole im¬
ports of the ftate of Virginia amounted in 1796 to
5,268,615 dollars.
The college of William and Mary is the only public
feminary of learning in Virginia. It ivas founded in
the time of King William and Queen Mary, Avho grant¬
ed to it 20,000 acres of land, and a penny a pound duty
on certain tobaccoes exported from Virginia and Mary¬
land. I he aflembly alfo gave it by temporary law a
duty on liquors imported, and Ikins and furs exported.
From thefe refources it received upAvards of 3000I. eom-
munibus amis. The buildings are of brick, fufficient
for an indifferent accommodation of perhaps 100 Un¬
dents. By its charter it Avas to be under the govern¬
ment of 20 vifitors, who Avere to be its legiflators; and
to have a prefident and fix profefforfhips, which at pre¬
fent ftand thus:—A profefforfhip for LaAV and Police;
Anatomy and Medicine; Natural Philofophy and Ma¬
thematics; Moral Philofophy, the Law of Nature and
Nations, the Fine Arts; Modern Languages; and a
fixth, called the profefforftiip of Brafferton, for the in-
ftru&ion of the Indians. In 17^7> there Avere about 30
young gentlemen members of this college, a large pro¬
portion of which were law Undents. There are fome
flourifiling academies in Virginia; one in Prince Ed-
Avard county, one at Alexandria, one at Norfolk, one
at Hanover, and others in other places.
I he prefent denominations of Chriftians in Virginia
are Preftiyterians, who are the moft numerous, and in¬
habit
V I n
V inia. habit the weftern parts of the ftate j Epifcopalians,
^ j ^ are the raoft ancient fettlers, and occupy the eaft-
ern and firft fettled parts of the date. Intermingled
•with thefe are great numbers of-Baptilis-and Methodifts.
The bulk of thefe laft-mentioned religious fedls are of
the poorer fort of people, and many of them are very ig¬
norant (as is indeed the cafe with the other denomina-
tions), but they are generally a virtuous well-meaning
fet of people.
Virginia has produced fome of the mod diftinguiftied
men that have been a£Hve in effecting the two late im¬
portant revolutions in America, whofe political and mi¬
litary charafter will rank among the firll in the page of
hiftory. The great body of the people do not concern
themfelves with politics ; fo that their government,
though nominally republican, is in fa£t oligarchical or
arillocratical. The Virginians who are rich, are in ge¬
neral fenfible, polite, and hofpitable, and of an indepen¬
dent fpirit. The poor are ignorant and abjeft $ all are
of an inquifitive turn, and in many other refpedls very
much referable the people in the ealtern dates. There
is a much greater difparity between the rich and the
poor in Virginia than in any of the northern dates. A
fpirit for literary inquiries, if not altogether confined to
a few, is, among the body of the people, evidently fub-
ordinate to a fpirit of gaming and barbarous fports. At
almod every tavern or ordinary on the public road there
is a billiard table, a backgammon table, cards, and other
implements for various games. To thefe public houfes
the gambling gentry in the neighbourhood refort to kill
time which hangs heavily upon them j and at this bufi-
nefs they are extremely expert, having been accudomed
to it from their earlied youth. The pafiion for cock-
fighting, a divcrfion not only inhumanly barbarous, but
infinitely beneath the dignity of a man of fenfe, is fo
predominant, that they even advertife their matches in
the public newfpapers.
The executive powers are lodged in the hands of a
governor chofen annually, and incapable of aiding more
than three years in feven. He is alfided by a council of
eight members. The judiciary powers are divided among
feveral courts. Legiflation is exercifed by two houfes of
alfembly 5 the one called the Houfe of Delegates, comyo-
fed of two members from each county, chofen annually
by the citizens poffefling an edate for life in 100 acres
of uninhabited land, or 25 acres with a houfe on it, or in
a houfe or lot in fome town. The other called the Ser
nate, confiding of 24 members, chofen quadrennially by
the fame eledors, who for this purpofe are didributed
into 24 didrids. The concurrence of both houfes is
neceffary to the paflage of a law. They have the ap¬
pointment of the governor and council, the judges of
the fuperior courts, auditors, attorney-general, treafurer,
regider of the land office, and delegates to Congrefs.
Before the war, there was exported from this date,
communibus annis, to the amount of 850,000!. Virginia
money, or 607,142 guineas.
The whole country before it was planted was one
continued fored interfperfed w ith marfhes. No coun¬
try now produces greater quantities of excellent tobac¬
co j and the foil is generally fo fandy and dial low, that
after they have cleared a frefli piece of ground out of
the woods, it will not bear tobacco after two or three
years unlels well manured. The forefts yield oaks, pop¬
lars, pines, cedars, cypreffes, fweet myrtles, chefnuts, hic-
V I E
kery, live oak, walnut, dog-wood, alder, hazel, chinka. Virginra
pins, locufUtrees, faffafras, elm, afh, beech, with a great yj|or
variety of iWeet gums and incenfe which didil from fe-.
veral trees j pitch, tar, rofin, turpentine, plank-timber,
mads, and yards. Virginia yields alfo rice, hemp, In¬
dian corn, plenty of padure, with coal, quarries of done,
and lead and iron ore.
VIRGO, in Afronomy, one of the figns or condella-
tions of the zodiac.
VIRGULA divinatoria* divining rod. See
Mine.
VIRTUAL, or Potential •, fomething that has a
power or virtue of afting or doing. The term is chiefly
underftood of fomething that afts by a fecret invifible
caufe, in oppofition to adfual and fenfible.
VIRTUE, a term ufed in various lignifications. In
the general it denotes power, or the perfedlion of any
thing, whether natural or fupernatural, animate or ina¬
nimate, effential or acceflbry. But, in its more proper,
or reftrained fenfe, virtue fignifies a habit, which im¬
proves and perfects the pofleffor and his atlions. See
Moral Philosophy, N° 84.
VIRTUOSO, an Italian term lately introduced into
the Englilh, fignifying a man of curiofity and learning,
or one who loves and promotes the arts and fciences.
But among us the term feems to be appropriated to
thofe who apply themfelves to fome curious and quaint
rather than immediately ufeful art or ftudy ; as antiqua¬
ries, colledlors of rarities of any kind, microfcopical ob-
fervers, &c.
VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that
yields a virus ; that is, a contagious or malignant pus.
VISCERA, in Anatomy,, a term fignifying the lame
with entrails \ including the heart, liver, lungs, fpleen,
inteftines, and other inward parts of the body.
VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of fome¬
thing that is vifcid or vifcous j that is, glutinous and
flicky like bird-lime, which the Latins call by the name
of vifcus.
VISCOUNT (Vice Gomes'), was anciently-an officer
under an earl, to whom, during his attendance at court,
he adted as deputy to look after the affairs of the coun¬
try. But the name was afterwards made ufe of as an
arbitrary title of honour, without any ihadow of office
pertaining to it, by Henry VI. •, when in the 18th year
of his reign, he created John Beaumont a peer by the
name otVifcount Beaumont; which was the firft in-
ftance of the kind.
A vifeount is created by a patent as an earl is ; his ^
title is Right Honourable; his mantle is two doublings
and a half of plain fur •, and his coronet has only a row
of pearls clofe to the circle.
VISCUM, a genus of plants of the clafs dioecia, and
in the natural fyftem arranged under the 48th order,
Aggregatce. See.Botany Index.,
°VISHNOU, that perfon in the triad of the Bramins
who is confidered as the preferver of the univerfe.
Brahma is the creator, and Siva the deftroyer j and thefe
two, with Viflinou, united in fome inexplicable manner,
conftitute Brahme, or the fupreme numen of the Hin¬
doos. See Polytheism, N° 36.
VISIBLE*, fomeihing that is an objed! of fight or
vifion •, or fomething whereby the eye is affedled fo as
to produce this fenfation.
VISIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman em-
pire,
[ 567 1
U K II [ 568 1 U L S
pire, whereof there are two kinds ; one called by the
Turks Vijier-a%em, that is, “ grand vifier,” is the prime
minifter of date in the whole empire. He commands
the army in chief, and prefides in the divan or great
council. Next to him are fix other fubordinate vifiers,
called vifiers of the bench ; who officiate as his counfel*
lors or affeffors in the divan.
VISION, in Optics, the aft of feeing or perceiving
external objefts by means of the organ of fight, the eye.
See Anatomy, N° 142, and Metaphysics, N°49—
54*
VISTULA, or Weisel, a large river of Poland,
which taking its rife in the mountains fouth of Silefia,
vifits Cracow, Warfaw, &.c. and continuing its courfe
northward, falls into the Baltic fea below Dantzic.
VISUAL, in general, fomething belonging to vifion.
VITAL, in Physiology, an appellation given to what¬
ever minifiers principally to the conftituting or main¬
taining life in the bodies of animals : thus the heart,
lungs, and brain, are called vital parts ; and the opera¬
tions of thefe parts by which the life of animals is main¬
tained are called vital functions.
VITELLUS, the yolk of an egg.
V1TIS, or Vine, a genus of the clafs pentandria,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 46th or¬
der, Hederacece. See Botany Index ; and for its cul¬
ture, fee Gardening.
VITREOUS humour of the Eye. See Anato¬
my, N° 142.
VITRIFICATION, in Chemifry, the converfion of
a body into glafs by means of fire. See Glass.
VITRIOL, a compound fait, formed by the union
of iron, copper, or zinc, with fulphuric acid, hence
called from the colours white, blue, and green, accord¬
ing to the metal. See Chemistry.
VITRIOL ATED, among chemifts, fomething im¬
pregnated, or fuppofed to be fo, wTith vitriol or its acid.
VITRIOLIC acid. See SULPHURIC Acid and
Chemistry Index.
VITRUVIUS POLLIO, Marcus, a very cele¬
brated Roman architeft, was, according to the common
opinion, born at Verona, and lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, to whom he dedicated his excellent treatife on
architefture, divided into ten books. William Philan-
der’s edition of this celebrated work is efteemed. Clau¬
dius Perrault has given an excellent tranfiation of it in
French, with learned notes. There are alfo feveral Eng-
lilh tranflations of Vitruvius.
VITUS’s dance. See Medicine, N° 284.
VIVERRA, the Weasel; a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of ferce. See Mammalia
Index.
VIVES. See Farriery.
VIVIPAROUS, in Natural Hi/lory, an epithet ap¬
plied to fuch animals as bring forth their young alive
and perfeft ; in contradiftinftion to thofe that lay egg*,
which are called oviparous animals.
UKRAINE, a large country of Europe, lying on
the borders of Turkey in Europe, Poland, Ruffia, and
Little Tartary. Its name px-operly fignifies a frontier.
By a treaty between Ruffia and Poland in 1693, lhe
latter, remained in poffeffion of all that part of the
Ukraine lying on the w^eft fide of the river Dnieper,
which is but indifferently cultivated ; while the country
en the eaff fide, inhabited by the Coffacs, is in much
better condition. The Ruffian part is comprifed in the Ukraine
government of Kiof; and the emprefs of Ruffia having [|
obtained the Poliffi palatinate of Kiof, by the treaty of ^fter'
partition in 1793, the whole of the Ukraine, on both
fides of the Dnieper, belongs now to that ambitious and
formidable power. The principal town is Kiof.
ULCER, in Surgery. See Surgery Index.
Ulcer, in Farriery. See Farriery.
ULEX, a genus of plants of the clafs of diadelphia,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 32ft order,
Papilionacete. See Botany Index.
ULIETEA, one of the Society illands in the South
fea. This iiland is about 21 leagues in circuit. Its
produftions are plantains, cocoa-nuts, yams, hogs, and
fowl; the two latter of which are fcarce. The foil on
the top of one of the hills wras found to be a kind of
ftone marie ; on the fides were found feme fcattered
flints, and a few fmall pieces of a cavernous or fpongy
ftone lava, of a whitith colour, which feemed to contain
fome remains of iron, fo that it may poffibly be here
lodged in the mountains in a great quantity. Nothing
W’as feen on this ifland to diftinguilh either its inhabi¬
tants, or their manners, from the other neighbouring
iflands. The firft Europeans who landed on this ftiore
W'ere Mr (now Sir Jofeph) Banks and Dr Solander;
they nrere received by the natives in the moft courteous
manner, reports concerning them having been their har¬
bingers from Otaheite. Every body feemed to fear and
refpeft them, placing in them at the fame time the ut-
moft confidence : behaving, as if confeious that their
vifitors poffeffed the power of doing them mifehief with¬
out a difpofition to make ufe of it.
ULIGINOUS, in Agriculture, an appellation given
to a moift, mooriffi, and fenny foil.
ULLAGE, in gauging, is fo much of a calk or other
veffel as it wants of being full.
ULM, a free and imperial city of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, feated on the river Iller. It is a pretty
large place, defended by fortifications ; and the inhabi¬
tants are Proteftants. Here the archives of the circle
are depofited, and it carries on a very great trade. The
eleftor of Bavaria became mafter of it in 1702, by a
ftratagem ; but, in 1704, the French being vanquilhed
at the battle of Hochftet, the Bavarians furrendered it
by capitulation. The Roman Catholics have but two
churches, all the reft belonging to the Proteftants.
E. Long. 9. 59. N. Lat. 48. 25.
ULM US, a genus of plants belonging to the chfs
of pentandria; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 53d order, Scabridee. See Botany Index.
ULSTER, the moft northerly province of Ireland.
In Latin it is called Wtonia, in Irilh Cui Guilty; and
gives the title of earl to the dukes of York ol the royal
family. It is bounded by the Atlantic ocean on the
weft, St George’s channel and the Irilh fea on the eaft,
the Deucaledonian ocean on the north, and on the fouth
and fouth-weft the provinces of Leinfter and Connaught.
Its greateft length is near 1 20 miles, its breadth about
100 ; and its circumference, including the windings
and turnings, 460 ; containing 9 counties, 38 market-
towns ancLboroughs, 1 archbiffiopric, 6 bilhoprics, and
214 pariffies. Ulfter abounds in lakes and rivers, which
fupply it with variety of fine fiffi, efpecially falmon, be-
fides what it has from the fea, with which a great part
of it is bounded. The fouthern parts of it arc rich, ffr-
tile,
Umbe
U M B
[ 5^9
U N* D
m
tile vreil cultivated, and inclofed ; but the greater part Tournefort’s methods, confiding of plants whofeflowersttabellat*
nf the northern is open and mountainous.— rhe towns o-mw In ...ul c . ? r ^
of the northern is open and mountainous.—The towns
ta£‘ of this province are in general the neateft and bell built
of any in Ireland, as well as the farraTioufesj which in
moll parts of the kingdom are conftrudted of no better
materials than clay and llraw. The inhabitants of
Ulfter are alfo more like the Englilh in their manners
and dialed! than thofe of the other three provinces i for
as it includes within itfelf the whole, or by far the
greater part, of the linen manufadlory, the bell branch
of trade in the kingdom, they have confequently the
greatell intercourfe with England. An Englilliman, in
fome parts of it, indeed, will imagine himfelf, from the
fimilarity of their language and manners, in his own
country. This province had anciently petty kings of
its own. It was firlt fubjedled to the Englilh in the
reign of Henry II. by John Courcy, the firll who bore
the title of ear/ ofU/Jlcr; but it afterwards threw off
the yoke, and was never entirely reduced till the reign
of James I. when great numbers of Scots by his en¬
couragement went and fettled in it. Of thefe, moll of
the prefent inhabitants are the defcendants. This pro¬
vince was the firll and principal fcene of the bloody maf-
facre in 1641.
ULTERIOR, in Geograpfaj) is applied to fome part
of a country or province, which, with regard to the reft
of that country, is fituated on the farther fide of the ri¬
ver, mountain, or other boundary which feparates the
two countries.
ULTRAMARINE, a beautiful blue colour ufed by
the painters, prepared from the lapis lazuli by calcina¬
tion. See Lazulite, Mineralogy Index.
UL TRAMONTANE,fomething beyond the moun¬
tains. 1 he term is principally applied in relation to
France and Italy, which are feparated by the Alps.
ULYA, a genus of plants of the clafs of cryptogamia.
See Botany Index.
ULUG Beig, a Perfian prince and learned aftrono-
tner, was defcended from the famous Tamerlane, and
reigned at Samarcand about 40 years ; after which he
was murdered by his own fon in 1449. His catalogue
of the fixed liars, redlified for the year 1434, was pub-
lilhed at Oxford by Mr Hyde, in 1665, with learned
notes. Mr Hudfon printed in the Englilh Geography
Ulug Beig’s Tables of the Longitude and Latitude of
Places •, and Mr Greaves publilhed, in Latin, his Afti'o-
nomical Epochas, at London, in 1650. See Astro¬
nomy Index.
ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the fon of Laertes, and
father of Telemachus, and one of thofe heroes who con¬
tributed moft to the taking of Troy. After the dellruc-
tion of that city, he wandered for 10 years \ and at laft
returned to Ithaca, where, with the alfiftance of Tele-
rnachus, he killed Antinous and other princes who in¬
tended to marry his wife Penelope and ftize his do¬
minions. He at length refigned the government of the
kingdom to his fon Telemachus; and wTas killed by Te-
mgonus, his fon by Circe, who did not know him. This
hero is the fubjeft of the Odyffey.
UMBELLA, an Umbel, a fpecies of receptacle; or
lather a mode of flowering, in which a number of llen-
er footllalks proceed from the fame centre, and rife to
an equal height, fo as to form an even and generally
found furface at top. See Botany.
UMBELLATE, the name of a clafs in Ray’s and
VOL. XX. Part. II.
grow in umnels, with five petals that are often unequal, II
befow™ ^ arejoined at t0Pand feparated
vir.
The fame plants conftitute the 45th order of Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany.
UMBELLIF ERO US plants, are fuch as have their
tops branched and fpread out like an umbrella.
UMBER, or Umbre, a fofiil brown or blackilh fub-
!^Painting* See Mineralogy Index.
. UMBILICAL, among anatomifts, fomething relat¬
ing to the umbilicus or navel.
UMBRELLA, a moveable canopy, made of filk or
other cloth fpread out upon ribs of whale-bone, and fup-
ported by a ftaff, to proteft a perfon from rain, or the
Icorchmg beams of the fun.
UMPIRE, a third perfon chofen to decide a contro-
verfy left to arbitration.
UNCIA, in general, a Latin term, denoting the
twelfth part of any thing; particularly the twelfth part
of a pound, called in Englifti an ounce; or the twelfth
part of a foot, called an znc/i.
LNC1 ION, the a£l of anointing or rubbing with oil
or other fatty matter.
Unction, in matters of religion, is ufed for the cha-
ra£ler conferred on facred things by anointing them with
oil. Un&ions are very frequent among the Hebrews.
They anointed both their kings and high-priefts at the
ceremony of their inauguration. They alfo anointed
the facred veffels of the tabernacle and temple, to fanc-
tify and confecrate them to the fervice of God. The
undlion of kings is ?uppofed to be a ceremony introduced
very late among the Chriftian princes. It is faid that
none of the emperors were ever anointed before Juilinian
or Juftin. The emperors of Germany took the prac¬
tice from thofe of the eaftern empire; King Pepin of
France was the firft who received the un&ion. In the
ancient Chriftian church, unflion always accompanied
the ceremonies of baptifm and confirmation. Extreme
unflion, or the anointing perfons in the article of death,
was alfo praftifed by the ancient Chriftians, in complu
ance with the precept of St James, chap. v. 14th and
15th verfes ; and this extreme unftion the Romilh
church has advanced to the dignity of a facrament. It
is adminiftered to none but fueh as are affe&ed with
fome mortal difeafe, or in a decrepit age. It is refufed
to impenitent perfons, as alfo to criminals. The parts
to be anointed are the eyes, the ears, the noftrils, the
mouth, the hands, the feet, and the reins. The laity-
are anointed in the palms of the hands, but priefts on
the back of it; becaufe the palms of their hands have
been already confecrated by ordination.
dhe oil with which thefick perfon is anointed repre-
fents the grace of God, which is poured down into the
foul, and the prayer ufed at the time of anointing ex-
preffes the remiffion of fins thereby granted to the fick
perfon ; for the prayer is this : “ By this holy umftion,
and his own moft pious mercy, may the Almighty
God forgive thee whatever fins thou haft committed
hi/ the fight” when the eyes are anointed ; by the hear-* The Sin,
tng, when the ears are anointed; and fo of the other cere Cbrif
fenfes *. tian in-
UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of 11 fides. Jiril5}ef
UNDECEMVIR, a magiftrate among the ancient^J^
Athenians, who had 10 other colleagues or affociates ft-W.
4 C joined
UNI [ 57° 3 UNI
joined with him in the fame com million. The Fun&ions
of the undecemviri at Athens were much the fame wit
thofe of the late prevots de marecho-ffe in France. They
took care of the apprehending of criminals 5 fecured
them in the hands of jufttce ; and when they were con¬
demned, took them again into cuflody, that the fen-
tence might be executed on them. They were chofen
by the tribes, each tribe naming its own ) and as the
number of the tribes after Callifthenes was but 10,
which made 10 members, a fcribe or notary was added,
which made^ihe number 11.
UNDERSTANDING. See Metaphysics and
Logic.
UNDERWALDEN, a canton of Switzerland, and
the lixth in rank. It is bounded on the north by the can¬
ton of Lucern and by the lake of the Four Cantons, on
the eait by the high mountains which feparate it from the
canton of Bern, and on the weft by the canton of Bern.
The religion of this canton is the Roman Catholic.
UNDULATION, in Physics, a kind of tremulous
motion or vibration obfervable in a liquid, by which it
alternately rifes and falls like the waves of the fea.
UNGUENT, or Ointment, in Medicine and Sur¬
gery, a topical remedy or compofition, chiefly ufed in the
dreffing of wounds or blifters. See Materia Medica.
UNICORN, an animal famous among the ancients,
and thought to be the fame with the rhinoceros.
Sparmann informs us, that the figure of the unicorn
deferibed by the ancients has been found delineated by
the Snefe Hottentots on the plain furface of a rock in
Caffraria 3 and therefore conjeffures, that fuch an ani¬
mal either does exift at prefent in the internal parts of
Africa, or at lead pnee did fo. Father Lobo affirms
that he has feen it. Mr Barrow in his Travels in
Southern Africa, affords additional reafon to believe in
Rife exiftence of this curious animal.
UnICORN-Fifh. See McNODON, CetoloGY Index.
UNIFORM, denotes a thing to be fimilar, or con-
ffftent either with another thing, or with itfelf, in refpeft
ef figure, ftrufture, proportion, or the like 3 in which
fenfe it ftands oppofed to difform.
UNIFORMITY, regularity, a fimilitude or refem-
blance between the parts of a whole. Such is that we
meet with in figures of many fides, and angles refpe6tive-
ly equal, and anfwerable to each other. A late inge¬
nious author makes beauty to confift in uniformity, join¬
ed or combined with variety. Where the uniformity is
equal in two objects, the beauty, he contends, is as the
variety 3 and where the variety is equal, the beauty is as
the uniformity.
Uniformity, is particularly ufed for one and the
fame form of public prayers, and adminiftration of facra-
ments, and other rites, &c. of the church of England,
preferibed by the famous flat. 1 Eliz. and 13 and 14
Car. II. cap. 4. called the Adi of Uniformity. See Li¬
turgy.
UNION, a junclion, coalition, or affemblage of two
•r more different things in one.
Union, or The Union, by way of eminence, is more
particularly uSed to exprefs the a<R by which the two
feparate kingdoms of England and Scotland vrere incor¬
porated into one, under the title of The kingdom of
Great Britain. This union, in vain attempted by King
James I. was at length effefted in the year 1 707, 6 An-
Bse, when articles were agreed to by the parliamejit
of both nations 3 the purport of the moft eonftderable Uriov
being as follows : —y—
1. That on the firft of May 1707, and for ever after
the kingdoms of England and Scotland Ihall be united
into one kingdom, by the name of Great Britain.
2. The fucceflion to the monarchy of Great Britain
fliall be the fame as was before fettled with regard to
that of England.
3. The united kingdom ftiall be reprefented by one
parliament.
4. There {hall be a communication of all rights and
privileges between the fubjedls of both kingdoms, except
where it is other wile agreed.
9. When England raifes 2,OQO,OOOl. by a land tax,
Scotland {hall raife 48,000!.
16, 17. The ftandards of the coin, of weights, and of
naeafures, ftiall be reduced to thofe of England through¬
out the united kingdoms.
18. The laws relating to trade, cuftmns, and the ex-
cife, {hall be the fame in Scotland as in England. But
all the other laws of Scotland ftiall remain in force ; but
alterable by the parliament of Great Britain. Yet with
this caution, that laws relating to public policy are al¬
terable at the diferetion of the parliatnent 3 laws relating
to private right are not to be altered but for the evident
utility of the people of Scotland.
22. Sixteen peers are to be chofen to reprefent the
peerage of Scotland in parliament, and 45 members to
fit in the houfe of commons.
23. The 16 peers of Scotland {hall have all privileges
of parliament 3 and all peers of Scotland ftiall be peers'
of Great Britain, and rank next after thofe of the fame
degree at the time of the union, and ftiall have all pri¬
vileges of peers, except fitting in the houfe of lords, and
voting on the trial of a peer.
Thefe are the principal of the 25 articles of union,
which are ratified and confirmed by ftatute 5 Ann. c, 8.
in which ftatute there are alfo two a£Is of parliament
recited 3 the one of Scotland, whereby the church of
Scotland, and alfo the four univerfities of that kingdom,
are eftabliftied for ever, and all fucceeding fovertigns
are to take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame;
the other of England, 5 Annie, c. 6. whereby the a£U
of uniformity of 13 Eliz. and 13 Car. II. (except as the
fame had been altered by parliament at that time), and
all other afts then in force for the prefervation of the
church of England, are declared perpetual 3 and it is
ftipulated, that every fubfequent king and queen ftiall
take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame within
England, Ireland, Wales, and the town of Berwick-
upon-Tweed. And it is enabled, that thefe two afts
“ (hall for ever be obferved as fundamental and effential
conditions for the union.”
Upon thefe articles and afl of union, it is to be ob¬
ferved, I. That the two kingdoms are fo infeparably
united, that nothing can ever difunite them 3 except the
mutual cemfent of both, or the fuccefsful refiftance of
either, upon apprehending an infringement of thofe
points which, when they were feparate and independent
nations, it was mutually ftipulated ftiould be “ funda¬
mental and effential conditions of the union.” 2. That
whatever elfe may be deemed “ fundamental and eifen-
tial conditions,” the prefervation of the two churches,
of England and Scotland, in the fame ftate that they
were in at the time of the union, and the maintenance
•J
UNI [57
1 of the a&9 of uniformity which eftabliftied the liturgy,
are exprefsly declared fo to be. 3. That therefore any
d alteration in the cowftitution of either of thefe churches,
^ or the liturgy of the church of England (unlefs with
the confent of the refpe&ive churches, col!e£tively or
reprefentatively given), would be an infringement of
thefe “ fundamental and effential conditions,” and
greatly endanger the union. 4. That the municipal
laws of Scotland are ordained to be ftill obferved in that
part of the ifland, unlefs altered by parliament; and as
the parliament has not yet thought proper, except in a
few inftances, to alter them, they ftill, with regard to
the particulars unaltered, continue in full force.
For an account of the union of Ireland with Great
Britain, thus forming the united kingdom of Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, fee Ireland, N° 120.
UNISON, in Mujic. See INTERVAL.
UNIT, or Unity, in Arithmetic, the number one ;
or one fingle individual part of difcrete quantity.
UNITARIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a name
given to thofe who confine the glory and attribute of
divinity to the One only great and fupreme God, and
Father of our Lord Jefus Chrift.
UNITED Brethren, or Unitas Fratrum, a focie-
ty of Chriftians, whofe chief refidence is at Herrnhut in
Saxony. They are commonly called Moravians from
their original country, and Herrnhuters, from their
chief place of refidence. Some account of this fociety
has already been given under Herrnhut; but as that
account may, by fome, not be deemed fufficiently full,
we (hall here add a fummary of their inftitutes, derived
from a communication by one of their own clergy.
Though the church of the United Brethren is epif-
eopal, their bilhops poflefs no elevation of rank or pre¬
eminent authority, their church being governed by fy-
nods or confiftories from all the congregations, and by
fubordinate bodies, called conferences. T he fynods are
generally held once in feven years. In the firft fitting a
prefident is chofen ; and the elders appointed by the
former fynod to fuperintend the unity, lay down their
office, though they ftill form a part of the affembly^ as
Well as the bilhops, the lay elders, and thofe minifters
who have the infpe£lion of feveral congregations in one
province.
Queftions of importance, or of which the confequen-
ces cannot be forefeen, are decided by lot, though this
is never ufed till after mature deliberation and fervent
prayer. In the fynods, the ftate of the unity, and the
concerns of the congregations and millions, are taken
into confideration.
Towards the conclufion of every fynod, a kind of ex¬
ecutive board is appointed, called the elders conference
of the uniti/, confifting of 13 elders, and divided into
four committees or departments, one for fuperintending
miffions into heathen countries; a feCond for watching
over the conduft of congregations ; a third for mana¬
ging the economical concerns of the unity, and a fourth
for maintaining the difcipline of the fociety. I hefe
conferences, however, are amenable to a higher com¬
mittee, called the elders conference, the powers of
which are very extenfive. It appoints and removes
every fervant in the unity, authorifes the bifhops to or¬
dain prefbyters or deacons, and to confecrate other bi¬
lhops, and in (hort, poffelTes the fupreme executive power
over the whole fociety.
1
UNI
A bilhop of the United Brethren can difcharge no Unite*
office but by the appointment of the fynod, or of the
elders conference. Indeed their deacons can perform provinceF„
every office of the biffiops, except ordination, and ap- .. .1.-^.—
pear to confirm young perfons when they firft become
candidates for the communion. Even female deacons
are employed for the purpofe of privately admoniffiing
their own fex, and vifiting them in cafes of licknefs.
There are alfo lay elders, whofe bufinefs it is to watch
over the conftitution and difcipline of the unity ; to en¬
force the obfervance of the laws of the country in which
miffions are eftabliffied, and to guard the privileges
conferred on the brethren by the government under
which they live.
On Sunday, befides the public prayers, one or two
fermons are preached in every church, and after the
morning fervice, an exhortation is given to the chil¬
dren. Previous to the holy communion, which is ad-
miniftered on fome Sunday once a month, and on Maun
day Thurfday, each perfon before he communicates, mult
converfe on the ftate of his foul with one of the elders.
Love feAfts are frequent, and on Maunday Thurfday the
fociety have a folemn footwaffiing. *
Our limits will not permit us to give a fyfteraatie
view of the do&rinal tenets of the Brethren. Though
they acknowledge no other ftandard of truth than the
facred fcriptures, they adhere to the Auglburg confef-
fion, and fpeak refpe&fully of the 39 articles of the
church of England. They profefs to believe that the
kingdom of Chrift is not confined to any particular
party, community, or church ; and they confider them-
felves *s fpiritually joined in the bond of Chriftian lovet
to all who are taught of God, and belong to the uni-
verfal church of Chrift, however much they may diffier
in forms, which they deem non-effentials. For a fuller
account of this fociety, fee Crantz’s Ancient and Mo¬
dern Hiftory of the Proteftant Church of the United
Brethren, London 1780, and An Expofition of Chri¬
ftian Do&rine, as taught in the Proteftant Church of
the United Brethren, London 1784. _ i
United Provinces, otherwife called the Republic o/Situatioo
Holland, or the Batavian republic, a maritime country aild
of Europe, occupying that part of the Netherlands which
lies between Auftrian Flanders and Brabant, now the
French departments of Lys, Efcaut, Deux Betlies and
Dyle on the fouth, and the diftrift of Eaft Friefland on
the north-eaft; being bounded on the north and weft
by the German ocean or North fea, and on the eall.
by the kingdom of Weftphalia. They are lituated be¬
tween the parallels of 510 10', and 53° 35' Tat. and
between 30 io', and 70 5' E. Long. In Britilh miles
the length of this country, from north to louth, is efts •
mated at 165, its breadth from weft to eaft about 100,
and its area at 10,000 fquare miles. 2
Before the French revolution, this part of the Low Divftion.
Countries was divided into feven provinces, viz. Guel-
DERLAND or GELDERS, HOLLAND, ZEALAND, U-
trecht, Friesland, Overyssel and Groningen,
befides the dependencies of Dutch Brabant and Dutch
Flanders. Of late the whole has formed eight de¬
partments, which, except that called the Generality
lands, were diftinguiffied by the old names. The fol¬
lowing table gives a general view of the fubdivilions,
area in geographical miles, population and chief towns
of thefe provinces.
4 C 2 Provinces,
U N I
United
Provinces.
I 572 3
U N I
3
Colonies.
Surface,
foil, &c.
Provinces.
I. Guelderland.
II. Holland.
III. Zealand.
IV. Utrecht.
V. Friesland.
VI. OVERYSSEL.
VII. Groningen.
Generality lands
{
Subdivijions.
{
Nimeguen
Zutphen
Arnheim
North Holland
South Holland
Weft Zealand
Eaft Zealand
Emeland
Abhoude
Montfort
Wyk
Ooftergo
Weftergo
Zevenwolde
Northern iflands
Salland
T iventhe
Woollenhoven
Drenthe
Groningen
Ommeland
Drent
Dutch Brabant
Area.
1840
2000
uncertain
Sl°
1IS5
- 1792
640
2000
Population in
!796.
217,828
828,542
82,212
92,904
161,513
135,060
247,849
Chief Towns.
Nimeguen, Zutphen, Arnheim.
f AMSTERDAM, Rotterdam,
-J Hague, Leyden, Haarlem,
C. Helvoetfluys and Alkmaer.
Middleuurg, Flufliing.
Utrecht, Amersfort.
C LEEWARDEN,Dockum,Franeker,
\ Harlingen, Bolfwert.
f Deventer, Zwol, Campen, Coe'
\ verden.
Groningen, Winchoten.
f Bois-le-duc, Breda, Bergen-op-
\ Zoom.
1,880,563
Unittd
Provinces,
Rivers and
lakes.
great Part of thefe provinces is compofed of iflands
formed by the mouths of the large rivers which here
diiembogue their waters into the German ocean. The
principal iflands are Walcheren, Joojlland, South and
North Bevetand, and Wo/ferfdyk, compofing Weft Zea-
’ Schowen, Duiveland, Fertholen, and St Phil/ips-
W forming Eaft Zealand ; Goeree in South Holland,
he lexei, Vheland, and Ameland, to the weft and north
of Fnefland.
I he Dutch had formerly confiderable colonial terri¬
tory j but this is now reduced to part of Java, Suma¬
tra, and the Molucca iflands, with fome other fettle-
rnents in the Eaft Indies j feme trifling fa&ories on the
Guinea coaft j St Euftatius and part of Surinam in South
iimenca.
1 he face of the country is, in general, extremely uni-
form, confifting of large trafts of marftiy paftures, or
iandy heaths, interfperfed with feveral large rivers, and
numerous canals. There are a few hills in the eaftern
diftnas but the coafts are fo low, that, but for the
rfxesr\ fea t;alls» they w°uld be inundated by the fea.
I he lo,l confifts aim oft entirely of alluvial earth and ve-
getable mould, and is very productive. The climate is
moilt, inconftant, and peculiarly infalubrious to ftranpers-
intermittent fevers and fimilar difeafes, the attendants
on a marftiy and watery foil, being extremely frequent.
BritainnterS 3re C°,der and the fummers hotter than in
Ihe principal rivers of the United Provinces are the
Rhine, the Maefe or Meufe, and the Efcaut or Scheldt,
which foparates them from French Flanders. There are
few lakes of any note, except the fea of Haerlem, near
the Zuyder Zee. g
There is little interefting in the natural hiftory of Produce
Holland ; the animals and plants refembling thofe of thean<^ aSr’"
adjacent countries of France and Germany, and its mi-culture'
neral produdls being extremely few. Its chief artificial
products are flax, tobacco, madder and flower roots,
butter and cheefe. The ftate of agriculture is but little
advanced 5 as almoft the whole country is under grafs,
and the corn produced is not nearly fufficient for home
confumption. ^
1 he changes which the coafts of the Dutch provinces Progreffive
have undergone, in confequence of the ftiifting of the geograpty.
beds of rivers, the encroachments or retiring of the fea,
and tempefts from the German ocean, render their pro-
greflive geography an interefting objeft. We find that
in the latter periods of the Roman empire, the river
Rhine divided itfelf into two great branches at Burgina-
fium, the modern Schenk, about five miles north-wefl of
Colonia Trajana, near the prefent CJeves. Thefouthern
branch joined the Meufe at the town of Mofa or Muvi,
while the northern branch palled by Durftadt, Utrecht,
and Leyden, to the ocean. The northern branch of
the Rhine was joined to the Yffel by the canal of Drufus
(fee BataVORUM Infula'), while this latter river flow¬
ed into a confiderable lake called Flevo, now a fouthern
portion of the Zuyder Zee. When the canal of Drufus
was
(4) See each of thefe articles in the general alphabet.
4
UNI
was negle&ed, the waters of the Rhine poured into the
Yffel with fuch violence as to increafe the lake of Flevo
to a great expanfe of waters, fo that inftead of a river
which once ran from that lake to the fea for nearly 50
Roman miles, there was opened the wide gulf which now
forms the entrance. In the mean time, the northern
branch of the Rhine became much diminilhed, and the
canal of Drufus gradually difappeared. The eftuaries of
the Meufe and the Scheldt being open to great inroads
from the fea, have alfo materially changed their figure
and pofition j and the latter in particular, which once
formed merely a triangular ifland, divided into four or
five fmaller branches, which are now extenfive creeks,
dividing the illands of Zealand and South Holland. In
the beginning of the 15th century, the eftuary of the
Meufe fuddenly formed a vaft lake to the fouth-ealt of
Dort, overwhelming 72 villages, and 100,000 inhabi¬
tants. By a fubfequent change, the Rhine was again
fubdivided, the northern branch falling into the Leek,
while the fouthern formed the modern Waal.
The early hiftory of thefe provinces, from their fub-
je&ion by the Romans, till they fell under the dominion
of the Spanilh monarchy, has been already given under
the article Netherlands, fo that we have here to re¬
late only thofe tranfadlions which have taken place fince
g the aceeffion of Philip II. to the crown of Spain (b).
St iof the At the death of Charles V. the Dutch provinces were
D h pro- in a very flourilhing condition. In this fmall tra£l were
th ccef t^ien rec^onec^ not fewer than 350 large walled cities,
f« )f " an<* ^S00 considerable towns or large villages, all be-
p] p n. come rich by their application to arts and commerce.
/ 1555. The fame application had diffufed a fpirit of indepen¬
dence among the inhabitants, who were jealoufly alive
to every invafion of their rights and privileges. The re¬
formed religion had made confiderable progrefs among
all ranks, and the doftrines of Calvin had been embra¬
ced by a great majority of the people. Hence, nothing
could be more impolitic than the meafures taken by Phi¬
lip to advance the caufe of popery, and to enforce obe¬
dience to the tyrannical a£ts of his deputies. The eftab-
lilhment of a court of inquifition, the increafe of the
number of bilhoprics, the appointment of Cardinal Grand-
vele to be chief counfellor to the duchefs of Parma, then
regent of the Netherlands, and the enormous taxes levied
to fupport the Spanilh forces, were no trifling grievances,
and created luch a fpirit of difaflfe&ion, that when the du¬
chefs affumed the reins of government, in the year 1560,
) the murmurs of the people could no longer be fupprelfed.
Di ntent A deputation of the malcontents, at the head of whom
oci oned were William prince of Orange, and his brother Louis
raj of Naffau, with the counts of Egmont and Horn, waited
ires on duchefs at Bruffels, and infilled either on the dif-
of ihp miflal of Cardinal Grandvele, or the calling of an af-
^ 1564. fembly of the llates-general. The duchefs thought pro¬
1 573 ]
U N I
per to comply with the former of thefe requefls, but as United
that minifter was fucceeded by two of his creatures, who Province^
trod exactly in h:s footfteps, and in particular increafed v """
the religious perfecutions, and the power of the inquifi¬
tion, the popular ferment became greater than ever. The
patriots lent Count Egmont to Madrid, to lay their
grievances before the king •, but that monarch with his
accultomed infincerity, returned a favourable anfvver to
their remonltrances, without changing any of the ob-
noxius meafures of the government at Bruflels. In the
mean time the diabolical combination that had been
formed between Charles IX. of France and Ifabella of
Spain, for the maflacre of the protellants, which foon
after took place, had been whifpered in the Low Coun¬
tries, and in confequence a general affociation was form¬
ed for the purpofe of abolilhing the court of inquifition.
This alfociation, headed by Henry de Brodenrode, a
defeendant of the earls of Holland, waited on the regent
in fuch a formidable body, that Hie was obliged to pro-
mife the exertion of her utmoft influence towards ob¬
taining their demands. It is faid, however, that fhe
could obtain no better terms from the bigotted Philip
than that heretics Ihould in future be hanged inllead of
burnt. io
As the people found that their dutiful remonltrances The people
could obtain no redrefs, they determined to take into break out
their own hands the neceffary reformation. In feve-’nt0 °Pea
ral towns in Flanders, the people aflembled, deftrayedrebelll0n‘'
churches, pulled down images, and committed other
afts of violence. The principal inhabitants, however,
while they were preparing to refill the oppreflive a£ls
of the government, behaved with more temperance and
moderation ; a new oath of allegiance had been exacted,
and this the counts of Egmont and Horn, probably with
a view to temporife, were induced to take, but the prince
of Orange fteadily refufed, and retired into Germany,
whither he was followed by great numbers of all ranks
and conditions, fo that within a few days 100,000 fa¬
milies had left the Low Countries. This emigration fo
much alarmed the duchefs of Parma, that Ihe refigned
the regency. Jt
The duchefs was fucceeded by the duke of Alva, Duke of
who had been fent into the Netherlands with an army Alva ap-
of 10,000 veteran troops, to intimidate the people, and P0^nte^
enforce obedience to the civil power. We have already
drawn the character of this bloody man (fee ALVA),therlands.
and have (hewn how well he was calculated to execute
the orders of a tyrannical and bigotted mailer. He no
fooner entered on his government than the whole coun¬
try was filled with terror ; Counts Egmont and Horn
were ignominioufly executed, and the eflates of the prince
of Orange were confifcated. J2
This prince and his brother had been labouring to fup-The prince
port the caufe of their injured countrymen among the of Orange
Germantakesthe;
command
.. of the pa-
(b) There is no part of the hiftory of nations more interefting in itfelf, or more replete with ufeful leflbns to
rulers and to fubjefts, than that which records the ftruggles of a brave people to preferve or regain their liberties
and independence. Hence the glorious conteft which the Dutch provinces maintained again!! the power of Spain,
and by which they finally triumphed over tyranny and oppreflion, might well deferve a much fuller detail than
our confined limits will enable us to afford. In the compendious view which we have here given of thefe tranf-
aftions, we have endeavoured to catch the more prominent features, and thus in fome meafure preferve the fpirit:
of the picture. We may refer our readers for a minute account of thefe events to The Modern Univerfal HiJlory%
vol. xxxi. and Watfon’s Hifiory of the Reigns of Philij) 11, and Philip III.
3
mots.
U N I
X 574 1
UNI
®ts.
An.
f57r*
' tlnited German princes, and had raifed a detachment of Ger-
Provinces. nians> which they were enabled to make head again ft
^ the regent. The prince of Orange, who had been al¬
ways a favourite with the people, was now rendered
more popular in eonfequence of his fufferings in their
caufe, and was invited to take the command of the
armed bodies which were preparing to refill the duke
I;5 of Alva.
Commence- The prince firfi: penetrated into Brabant, and attempt-
ment of ho-ecl to furprife Ruremond, but was defeated by a detach-
nien*' ^ie Spaniflr army-, but his brother foon after
overpowered a body of Spaniards, and killed 600. In
a fubfequent engagement, however, with the main body
of Alva’s army, Prince Louis was entirely defeated, and
all his infantry cut in pieces. The prince of Orange
finding that he could not at prefent keep'the field a-
gainft fo formidable an enemy, and that his foldiers de-
ferted in confequence of his ill fuccefs and want of pay,
wras, in 1569, obliged to diiband his army, and return
to Germany.
Cruelty of The duke of Alva did not fail to make the molt of
the duke of 1jJs fuccefs. All the prifoners taken in the laft campaign
Alva. were put to death, and the looth'part of every man’s
eftate, with a tenth of all merchandife, were exacted as an
annual payment from the inhabitants, under the penalty
of military execution. The Hates offered to pay an an¬
nual fubfidy of 2,000,000 florins, in place of thefe taxes 5
but thefe offers were rejected with difdain.
A fleet fit- The people thus driven to defpair, were refolved to
ted out by {train every nerve to refill thefe oppreffive adts. The
the patri- tradefmen in the towns fhut their (hops, and the peafants
refufed to bring provifions to the markets. In the mean
time a fquadron of fhips, which is known by the name of
^gueux, had been fitted out by the prince of Orange, and
the command given to Lumey. The trifling fuccefs of
this fquadron, which had captured Briel, in the ifland
of Voorn, and repulfed a force fent againfl it by the
duke of Alva, induced the Zealanders to colledl all their
ihips, and alfo oppofe the enemy at fea. A confiderable
advantage was gained by this fleet, againfl: a Spanifli
fquadron commanded by tile duke of Medina Celi.
The duke was entirely defeated, many of his fliips were
taken, and the Zealanders carried off a booty of nearly
1,000,000 of livres.
Succefles of To increafe his army, the governor had draughted
the Orange men from garrifons of moil of the fortified towns,
J,arty‘ and thus expofed thefe to the attacks of the patriots.
Accordingly, Lewis of Naffau furprifed Mons, the count
de Bergues gained poffeflion of feveral towns in Over-
yffel, Guelderland, and Friefland ; while another party
of the malcontents made themfelves matters of North
Holland. The duke of Alva now began to feel that
fie had gone too far, and attempted, when too late, to
conciliate the good opinion of the people. He publifli-
«d an edidl confenting to remit the moft oppreffive taxes,
if the ftate could fuggeft any other method of railing the
necelfary fupplies, and he convoked the ttates-general of
the Provinces to affemble at the Hague. His promifes
and his threats were, however, now difregarded ; and the
ftates who, in contempt of his authority had aflembled
at Dordrecht, openly efpoufed the caufe of their coun-
try, declared the prince of Orange commander of the
national forces, and raifed a confiderable fum for the pay¬
ment of his troops.
Ihe prince’s forces now amounted to 15,000 foot
iG
and 7000 horfe, with which he advanced into Brabant, United
and took Ruremond by aflault. He then poffeffed him- Province?,
felf of Mechlin, Oudenarde, and Dendermond, and hav- ‘"“■“v—*1
ing levied contributions on tbofe inhabitants who adher¬
ed to the government, he marched towards Mons, then
befieged by the duke of Alva, with an intention to raife
the fiege, by bringing the duke to a general a£lion.
This, however, Alva declined, and Mons was obliged
to capitulate.
In the midft of thefe fucceffes, a damp was thrown Revei^?
over the ardour of the patriots, by the news of the hor¬
rid maflaere of St Bartholomew *, and in the fame de-* see
gree the fpirits of the Spaniards revived. The prince of Fiance,
Orange found him felf obliged to retire to the province ofN° 14:.
Holland, leaving the citieswhich he had taken at the
mercy of the army. Mechlin opened its gates, and was
pillaged without mercy, while the other towns were
•evacuated by the garrifons, and loaded with heavy im-
pofitions. In a (hort time nothing remained to the pa¬
triots, but the provinces of Holland and Zealand ; but
thefe flood firm in the caufe of liberty, and foon became
the feat of a fanguinary warfare. Frederick de Toledo
was detached by the duke of Alva to reduce the infur-
gents in thefe quarters. He quickly reduced Waerden,
where his foldiers committed the moft horrid a6ls of
barbarity. The capture of this place was followed by
that of Haerlem after an obftinate refiftance.
To balance this ill fuecefs by land, however, the Zea- Naval vie.
landers obtained many important advantages by fea. lories of
They attacked the harbour of Antwerp, and carried off2ea*
feveral (hips ; and when the governor equipped a fqua- an ers'
dron to oppofe them, it wTas thrice encountered by Wertz,
the Zealand admiral, and totally defeated. In the mean I9
time the Spanifh forces, under Frederick of Toledo, con- Heroic de¬
fining of 16,000 veterans, fat down before Alkmaer, the fence of
capital of Holland, a town without regular fortifications, Alkmaei.
and defended only by 500 burghers and 800 foldiers, in
great want of provifions, and without any profpe£l of
fpeedy relief •, yet this place, though attacked with great
vigour, by a battery of 20 pieces of heavy cannon, which
effe6led a breach in one of the walls, held out againfl:
every attempt, and the Spanifti foldiers who attempted
to ftorm the place by the breach, were repulfed with
great {laughter, and Frederick ivas at length compelled
to raife the fiege.
Notwithftanding thefe partial fuccefles, the affairs of
the patriots were ftill in a precarious fituation. Don
Louis de Requefnes, who had fucceeded the duke of Al¬
va in the government, was directed to carry on the war
with the utmoft vigour. The prince of Orange had, af¬
ter a long fiege, made himfelf matter of Middleburgh,
but had fuftained a great lofs by the defeat and death of
his brother Louis. The patriotic caufe derived fome ad¬
vantage, however, from a mutiny which took place m
the Spanifli army, but this advantage was of a tranfient
nature. is
In the commencement of the year I575> an The States
at negociation took place between the contending par-apply for ^
ties, but they could come to no terms ot accommoda-^:^^
tion, and the war was continued with great virulence. o{.£nglamj,
Though much diftreffed in his finances, Philip made eX- An. 1575'
traordinary efforts to crufli the patriots, and fucceeded
fo far, that they almoft defpaired of ultimate fuccefs.
In this dilemma they fent a deputation to Queen Eliza¬
beth of England, offering to become her fubjefts, if ik®
would
U N I
.jted would afford them her prote&ion \ but from political
p rin(e«. reafons flie declined the offer. The diftreffes which
*■ v—Philip now experienced, and the death of his deputy
Requefnes, did more for the caufe of the patriots than
all their own exertions.
Profiting by thofe events, in the latter end of this
year they attacked and carried the citadel of Ghent j
while the inhabitants of Antwerp, in revenge for hav¬
ing been pillaged by the Spanilh garrifon that held the
citadel, united m the common eaufe, by what was call-
t ed the pacification of Ghent.
at A fecond application to Queen Elizabeth met with
k h more fuccefs, and the advanced them the futn of 20,0001.
& t'iem fterling, on condition that they would not invite the
a P ) ot french into their territories, that they would iilten 10
^ icflb. any reafonable terms of accomttMxlation, and repay the
.loan in the courfe of the en'iung year. Agreeably to
thefe conditions, a ceffation of hoftilities was granted to
the ftates by Don John of Aultria, the prefent gover¬
nor, and a treaty was entered into with him for diiband-
ing the foreign troops. The weak (late of the govern¬
ment required fome conceffions, and Don John acceded
to the pacification of Ghent, by which moft of the de¬
mands of the patriots were granted. The provinces of
Holland and Zealand, however, conceiving that by this
treaty the other provinces had conceded too much, refu-
^ fed their concurrence, and hoflilities foon recommenced.
T1 .var The king of Spain diffatisfied with the eonceflions of
re ml Don John, recalled that governor, and appointed the
wi f.elh archduke Matthias in his room, while he made addi-
^ 8 tional preparations for a vigorous profecution of the w!ar.
" ' The ftates general in their turn made another applica¬
tion to Queen Elizabeth, and obtained from her, not
only a promife of 100,000!. fterling, but of a body of
forces confifting of 5000 foot, and 1000 horfe; in re¬
turn for which, the ftates agreed to put into her poffef-
fion certain fortified towns, and to transport and pay the
forces. Thefe fupplies, however, Elizabeth afterwards
declined fending, though the profeffed all poffible good
will towards the provinces and their caufe. A change
of meafures which about this time took place in the
ftates of Guelderland and Groningen, in favour of the
proteftant intereft, contributed not a little to aid the
general caufe of the patriots, though feveral of the pro¬
vinces were (till torn by inteftine diffenfions ^nd jarring
interefis. At laft the prince of Orange, perceiving that
little confidence was to be placed in the unanimity of
provinces rent by faction, different in religion, and di¬
vided by ambition, political maxims, and private intereft,
formed the fcheme of more elofely uniting the provinces
of which he was governor, and cementing them with
thofe more contiguous, in which the proteftant intereft
prevailed. Such an alliance was fubje£t to fewer diffi¬
culties than attended the more general one of uniting all
the provinces; it was in fatft the only meafure that
could be propofed with fafety, and it was profecuted
with that alacrity and addrefs for which William avas
3 defe rvedly celebrated.
i of On the 23d of January 1579, deputies from the pro-
^ vinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friefland, Gro-
l579> ningen, Overyffel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht,
and figned the alliance ever fince known by the name
of the Union of Utrecht, the bafis of that commonwealth
fo renowned by the appellation of the United Provinces.
This treaty of alliance was founded on the infra&ion of
U N I
the pacification of Ghent folemnly acceded to by Philip, United
and the late invafion of certain towns in Guelderland. ProvilTcgs»
It was not hereby intended to divide the feven provin- 'r~ '
ces from the other ten, or to renounce the pacification
of Ghent; its objeft was to preferve the liberty ftipu-
lated in that pacification, by more vigorous operations,
and united councils. The chief articles of this union
were the following.
That the feven provinces ftiall unite themfelves in
intereft as one province, never to be feparated or divided
by teftament, donation, exchange, fale, or agreement ;
referving to each particular proAunce and city all its pri¬
vileges, rights, cuftoms, and ftatutes. In all difputes
arifing betAveen either of the provinces, the reft fhall
interpofe only as mediators. They (hall aflift each other
with life and fortune againlt every foreign attempt upon
any particular province, whether to eftablifii fovereignty,
the Catholic religion, arbitrary meafures, or whatever
elfe may appear inconfiftent Avith the liberties of the
province, and the intention of the alliance. All fron¬
tier towns belonging to the. United Provinces fhall, if
old, be fortified at the expence of the provinces ; if
neAV, at the joint expence of the union. That the pub¬
lic impofts and duties fhall be farmed for three months
to the higheft bidder, and employed with the king’s
taxes in the public fervice. No province, city, or mem¬
ber of the union, fhall contraift an alliance with any fo¬
reign prince or poAver, Avithout the concurrence of all
the other members. That foreign powers ftiall be ad¬
mitted into the alliance, only by confent of all the con¬
tracting parties. As to religion, the provinces of Hol¬
land and Zealand fhall ad in that particular as they
think advifable : the reft fhall adhere to the purport of
the ediCt published by the archduke Matthias, which
preferibed, that no man ffiould be opprtffed on account
of conference. All the inhabitants, from the age of 18
to 60, fhall be trained and difeiplined to war. That
peace and Avar fhall be declared by the unanimous voice
of all the. provinces ; other matters that concern the in¬
ternal policy (hall be regulated by a majority. That
the ftates fhall be held in the ufual conftitutional manner,
and coinage fhall be deferred to future determination.
Finally, the parties agree, that the interpretation of
thefe articles fhall remain in the ftates-general; but in
cafe of their failing to decide, in the ftadtholder.
Soon after the union of Utrecht, King Philip did all Heroic be-
in his power to detach the prince of Orange from thehaviourof
neAV confederation. He offered to reftore him to all his’be prince
eftates, to indemnify him for all his Ioffes, and give him01 Grange,
the firft place in his efteem and favour; but William
was too Avife to rely on the promifes of a prince who
had already fhewn himfelf perfidious, and too generous
to abandon a caufe in which he had embarked from no
interefted motives. He determined to fhare the fate of
the United Provinces, and not to difappoint the hopes ■
Avhich they had conceived of his conduct.
In the mean time the duke of Parma Avas doing his SucJJpts of
utmoft to difconcert the projects of the prince oftiie tilIke 0f
Orange, and to reduce the provinces to their obedience Parma a-
to Spain. He befieged and took th6 town of Marfien the
invefted Maeftricht, and carried it after a fiege of four ^liUetl
months, and reduced the republican general La None ' *
to fuch ftraits, that he was glad to retrea: under the
cannon of Antwerp. At length the Provinces, by the
advice of the prince of Orange, refolved to folicit the
aflift ance
C 575 J
United
Provinces.
UNI l 576 J U
afliftance and proteiftion of the duke of Anjou, to whom termined as the Dutch.
N i
26
Inaugura¬
tion of the
duke of
Anjou as
duke of
Brabant.
An. 1583.
27
Aflaffina-
tion of the
prince of
Orange.
An. 1584.
they had formerly applied in vain, and to offer him the
fovereignty of their territories. Accordingly, in 1580,
they folemnly renounced their allegiance to Philip,
and acknowledged as their fovereign, Francis Hercules
de Vallois, duke of Alen^on and Anjou j and in the
following year they publiihed an edidt, entitled the ab¬
dication of Philip king of Spain, for ever excluding
that monarch from any right or authority over the Ne¬
therlands.
In the beginning of the year 1582, the duke of An¬
jou, who had already taken an adtive part in favour of
his new fubjedls, and had oppoled the duke of Parma
with fome lucceis, arrived in Holland from England j
and in the month of February he was folemnly inftalled
at Antwerp as duke of Brabant. It appears, however,
that the prince of Orange, though he had been the
great promoter of this meafure, and even placed the du¬
cal coronet on the head of the new fovereign, ftill pof-
feffed the greatefl: influence and authority in the United
Provinces.
W hen Philip of Spain found that he could not bribe
the prince of Orange to his interefts, he refolved to ufe
every method to rid himfelf of fo dangerous an oppo¬
nent. Soon after the figning of the union of Utrecht,
Philip had profcribed the prince, and offered a reward
of 25,000 crowns to any perfon that fhould bring him
dead or alive to Madrid. The greatnefs of the reward,
and a bigotted regard for the interefts of the Catholic
religion, prompted feveral to attempt murdering the
prince of Orange. He narrowly efcaped affaflination
in 1582 ; but, two years after, he met his unmerited
iate at Delft, by the hands of one Guion, or, as he is
commonly called, Balthazar Gerrard. About the fame
time the duke of Anjou died in France j and the pro¬
vinces of Holland and Zealand appointed Maurice, fon
of the late prince of Orange, to be their ftadtholder and
captain general. For an account of the a&ions of this
great man, fee the article MAUBICE of Nafau.
Philip II. died in 1598, and Philip III. profecuted
the war with the United Provinces with as much ran¬
cour as his predecelfors, but with much worfe fuccefs.
Spain. x he great defeat fuftained by the archduke Albert in
An. i6c9. 1600, and many fubfequent difafters, induced the court
of Madrid at length to liften to terms of accommoda-
tion. hi 1607 a fufpenfion of hoftilities took place,
and the year following a treaty on terms favourable to
the Provinces was concluded for 12 years.
At the expiration of the truce, both parties prepared
for a renewal of hoftilities ; but now the Spaniards
An. 1621. tought with confiderable difadvantage : From a ftrange
policy, which they have fince frequently praaifed in
their contefts with the powers of Europe, the Dutch
contrived to advance their commercial interefts at the
expence of their enemy. A very lucrative trade took
place between the principal Dutch ports and thofe of
Spain, by which the Spaniards were fupplied by their
enemies even with ammunition and warlike ftores. At
the lame time the Dutch enriched themfelves by nume¬
rous prizes taken from the Spaniards, and, in particular,
gave a fevere blow to the refources of the court of Ma¬
drid, by capturing the flota from Mexico, a prize valued
at 15,000,000 of livres.
°.f,the SP“«rdSproved thelnu
28
A truce for
twelve
years con¬
cluded with
29
Renewal
of hoftili¬
ties.
3°
Conclufion
of peace
An.
, o f . 1 • . . Uiuveu me inu-
C48. tility of their continuing the war againft a people fo de-
Accordingly, in 1648, they ftnit*d
agreed to a treaty of peace, by which his Catholic ma- Proyiwej.
jefty renounced all right and fovereignty over the ftates-
general of the United Provinces j and thefe provinces
were henceforth declared a free and independent repub¬
lic. It was alfo agreed between the contending powers
that each ftiould remain in unmolefted pofleflion of thofe
places which they feverally held at the figning of the
treaty.
From this time to the year 1670 we meet with Fiouriftin*
nothing very remarkable in the hiftory of the United ftate of the
Provinces. By invariably purfuing the maxims of pru-rePublic>
dence, induftry, and frugality, the republic had attain¬
ed the higheft pitch of grandeur. Amfterdam was be¬
come the emporium of Europe, and the richeft city in
the univerfe. The population of the provinces, efpeci-
ally ol Holland, was much greater than at any former
or fubfequent period, though it is fcarcely credible that
as fome authors affirm, Holland alone ffiould then con¬
tain^ 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The ftates defpatched
mimiters and confuls to China, Siam, and Bengal j to
the Great Mogul, the king of Perfia, and the khan of
Tartary, the grand fignior, the czar of Ruffia, and the
princes of Africa. .1 hey were confidered as an im¬
portant weight in the Icale of Europe j and no treaty
was concluded without the concurrence of their ambaf-
fadors.
It is not furprifing that the fucceffes of the Dutch, Difpme
and the profperous condition in which they now beheldwith
themfelves, ftiould have rendered them rather arrogant^'rance’
towards the neighbouring ftates. Louis XIV. of France An*l6?
had conceived himfelf affronted by a foolifli boaft of
one of the Dutch minifters, and he was particularly
jealous of the advantage which the new republic had
acquired over his fubje&s in the trade to India. The
triple alliance formed about this time between England,
Sweden, and the United Provinces, was an additional
motive with the French king to break off all intercourfe
with the Dutch, and to curb their growing power. He
began by prevailing on Charles II. of England to aban¬
don the triple alliance; a requeft to which that worth-
lefs monarch, alive to nothing but his pleafures and his
avarice, readily agreed, on condition of being well paid
for his treachery. Louis alfo perfuaded feveral of the
German princes to unite their forces with his againft the
republic, and of all the Germanic body, only the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg interefted himfelf for the fafety of
the ftates-general. I he French king affembled an ar¬
my of 100,000 men, which he divided into four co¬
lumns, one commanded by himfelf in perfon, with the
aftiftance of Marfhal d urenne 5 another by the prince
of Conde; a third by General Crequi, and a fourth un¬
der the condudt of the duke of Luxemburg. Such an
army drawing towards the frontiers could not but ter¬
rify the Dutch, now torn with civil and religious fac¬
tions. 1 he partifans of the Orange family were for
abolifhing the perpetual, edift, and raffing William
prince of Orange to the dignity enjoyed by his prede-
ceffors j but the De Witt faction eppofed him violently,
though they could not prevent the young prince from
being chofen captain-general and high-admiral. Many
hoped that William’s new dignity would incline his
uncle Charles II. to return to the triple alliance 5 but
that hope was fruftrated by the conduiff of his majefty,
who, in conjunction with the moft Chriftian king, de¬
clared
U N I
incc-
Corr
mer f
h*ll ies.
[ 5
l :ed dared war againft the ftates-general on the 7 th of April.
?;'< nees. month after, the eledor of Cologne and bifliop of
t'“ Mander followed the example of the two kings. The
Dutch put themfelves in the bed pofture oi defence
that circumftances would admit. Maeftricht was ftrong-
ly garrifoned j the prince of Orange had aflembled an
army of 25,000 men, with which he advanced to the
banks of the Yffel; and the Dutch fleet cruifed off the
mouth of the Thames, to prevent the jundion of the
naval forces of England and France, which amounted
to 150 fhips. All Europe watched the firff motions
of the two powerful kings, feconded by the beft gene¬
rals of the age.
Holland could be attacked only by the Rhine or the
Meufe, and the French generals and minifters differed
by which of thefe inlets the firff; impreffion fliould be
made. At length, after much deliberation, it was de¬
termined to attack the Dutch on both thefe fides at the
fame time, in order the more to difconcert their coun¬
cils. The campaign began with the fiege of Rhinberg,
Vefel, Orfoi, and Ruriek, four towns well fortified,
and deemed the keys of Holland. Nothing could op-
pofe armies fo well appointed, led by generals fb fkilful
and fo experienced. The four towns were compelled to
furrender within a few days of each other j and a fevere
defeat fuffained by a body of Dutch troops, in attempt¬
ing to defend the paffage of the Rhine, by the prince of
Conde, ferved ftill more to difhearten the troops of the
ftates-general.
It is almoft incredible with what rapidity towns and
eUTe ftliefortre{pes yjgjjgj j-0 (-j-jg fortune 0f pjs majefty’s arms.
The redufHon of Betau, the moft fruitful country of
the United Provinces, and the furrender of Tolhusfert,
obliged the prince of Orange to abandon the Yffel, left
he fliould be attacked in the rear, and to retire to the
very heart of the country, as far as Rhenen in the pro¬
vince of Utrecht. By this means the town of Arnheim,
the forts of Knotfemborough, Voorn, St Andre, and
Shenck, this laft the ftrongeft in the Netherlands, with
a variety of other forts and towns, lurrendered as foon
as fummoned ; and at laft; Nimeguen, a town ftrong
from the nature of the works and fortifications, and gar¬
rifoned by 8000 fighting men, including the inhabi¬
tants, w’as invefted. After the citizens had for eight
days exhibited fignal proofs of courage in defence of
their liberties, they were forced to yield to the fuperior
ikill of Turenne.
The only means by which the Dutch could arreft the
Rap
The' tch
ed progrefs of the enemy was, to open the fluices and in-
their un^ate the country. The town of Utrecht fet the ex-
try. ample, which was foon followed by many others, and
An. in a fliort time Holland, Brabant, and Dutch Flanders,
formed one vaft lake, the towns rifing like iflands in
the midft of the waters. An embaffy was alfo fent to
the king of England, to requeft that he would prevail
on Louis to relax in the feverity of his attack. Charles
pretended a compliance with this requeft *, but as his in¬
terference produced no effeff, it is probable that he was
not fincere. In the fpace of three months, Louis con¬
quered the provinces of Guelderland, Overyffel, and
Utrecht, took about 50 towns and forts, and made
24,000 prifoners. The latter, however, were foon re¬
leafed for a trifling ranfom. The very fucceftes of the
conquerors tended to weaken their force, as they were
compelled to leave behind them feveral ftrong bodies of
Vol. XX. Part II.
77 3 UNI
troops, to garrifon the captured towns. This induced
the t rench to liften to propotals for a negociation, which,
however, came to nothing.
_ Marfhal lurenne, now appointed generaliftimo of the
king’s army on his majefty’s return to Paris, marched to
oppofe the eleftor of Brandenburg and the German gene¬
ral Montecuculi, who had joined their forces, and were
about to pafs the Rhine. For three whole months were
the eledlor and Montecuculi employed in abortive at¬
tempts to effect a paffage at Mentz, Coblentz, Straf-
burg, and other places. This anfwered the purpofe of
making a powerful diverfion in favour of the Dutch,
though they could not accompli th their deftgn of join¬
ing the prince of Orange. After repeated difappoint-
ments, the imperial army direfted its march to Weft-
phalia ; and iurenne followed, in order to keep the
bifhop of Munfter fteady to his engagements. For half
the compaign he, with a body of 16,000 men, baffled
every ftratagem of the eledfor and Montecuculi, the lat¬
ter the moft renowned general of the empire, at the
head of an army near triple his ftrength. He obliged
them to go into winter quarters, in a country haraffed
and exhaufted j and confirmed the bifhop of Munfter in
the alliance of France, at the very time he was on terms
with the emperor. He obliged the eleffor of Branden-
burg, who took the chief command during Montecu-
culi’s illnefs, to abandon the fiege of Warle, took Un-
ma Kamen, Altena, Berkemham, and feveral other
towns and fortreffes. By continuing his operations, he
forced the elector out of his winter quarters again into
the field, chafed him from port to port, until he obliged
him to quit Weftphalia, repafs the Wefer, and retire
with precipitation into the biftiopric of Hilderfheim.
After taking poffeflion of the eleiftor’s towns in Weft¬
phalia, he purfued him into the bifhopric of Hilderfheim,
and at length, by mere dint of fuperior genius, forced
him to feek flicker in his hereditary dominions. All.
this was effedled after Louvois had appointed the mar-
ftial’s army quarters in Alface and Lorrain, amidft the
rigours of a fevere winter, oppofed by a fuperior enemy,
by the artifices of Louvois, and feconded only by his
own prudence, and the afte&ion of his troops, which he
maintained in defiance of all the difficulties, hardftiips
and dangers, they encountered. It was indeed fuppo-
fed, that Montecuculi was prevented from giving Tu¬
renne battle by the remonftrances of Prince Lobkovitz,
the emperor’s ambaffador, influenced by the gold ef
Louis. Certain indeed it is, that Montecuculi’s illnefs
arofe from his chagrin at feeing all his projects fruftra-
ted by the unfteady dilatory conduft of the court of
Vienna. Louis’s qegociations difturbed Europe no lefa
than Lis arms. His tools and creatures fwarmed in
every court. Leopold could not be prevented from
declaring in favour of Holland ; but his minifters were
bought off from feconding the emperor’s intentions.
The whole Englifh nation exclaimed againft the alli¬
ance of their kingdom with France ; but Charles flood
in need of French gold to fupply his extravagance and
profligacy. The eleftor of Bavaria had indeed been
compelled by Louis to retire to his capital •, but it was
by dint of intrigue that he was forced from his alliance
with Holland, and conftrained to make a peace with
France.
While the French generals were thus carrying all be¬
fore them, the combined fleets of France and England
4 O were
United
Provinces.
UNI
[ 5
United were fcarcely lefs fuccefsfnl againft the maritime power
Provinces 0f t]ie D jtcb. The Englifli fquadron under the duke
^ of York, uniting to that of France under DTtftrees,
Trantac- thrice engaged the Dutch fleet commanded by De Ruy-
tions of the ter 5 and though neither party could boaft of much ad-
Dutdi at vantage, the check fuftained bv the Dutch admiral was
fea
37
Change of
fortune.
of eflential ferviee to the caufe of the allies.
At length the tide of fortune began to turn in favour
of the United Provinces. The court of Spain, jealous
of the growing power of France, embraced the caufe of
the Dutch •, and fent an army of 10,000 men to the af-
iiftance of the prince of Orange, while the mercenary
king of England was compelled by his parliament to
withdraw from his unnatural alliance with the French
king ; and the late ill fuccefs among the allied troops
of France and Germany cooled the eleftor of Cologne
and the bifhop of Munfter, in their friendfliip towards
Louis. Thus that monarch, forfaken by his allies, was
compelled to maintain fingly a war againfl the empire,
Spain, and the United Provinces. The acceflion of
the prince of Orange to the throne of England, in
1688, gave an additional blow to the French power,
by bringing on an intimate connexion between England
and Holland.
At length Louis was compelled to negociate for
with peace, which was concluded in 1697, by a treaty ex-
France. tremely favourable to the United Provinces.
An. itfgy. After the copious detail which we have elfewhere gi¬
ven of the military tranfaftions of Europe, fince the ac-
and confe-
quent peace
39
theDutcV^06^011 William III. to the crown of England, in
affairs from which the Dutch bore a confpicuous part, it will be
ning of the
19th cea
tury^
78 ] UNI
imbark, and return to England. See Britain, N® United
1069. By the treaty of Amiens, concluded in March Winces.
1802, all the colonies taken by the Britifh werereftor- ’“""V'—
ed to Holland, except the illand of Ceylon. On the
renewal of hottiliiies in 1803, the Batavian republic
Was again compelled to take an aftive part againft Bri¬
tain, and in confequence again loft the Cape of Good
Hope, and feveral other colonies, befides having her
trade entirely ruined. Soon after the imperial diadem
of France was conferred on Napoleon Bonaparte, the
Dutch republic was elevated to the rank of a kingdom,
and the emperor’s brother, Louis, was appointed the
firft king of Holland.
With refpeft to the prefent ftate of this unfortunate
country, we know very little that can be relied on.
The people are evidently in a ftate of complete fubjec-
tion to the French government 5 and though the late
rumours of their avowed annexation to the empire of
France may be premature, there can be little doubt of
their being eventually confirmed. ^
According to the ftatiftical table given in N° 2, the Popuiatioa
population of the United Provinces in the year ayqfijOfthe
appears to amount to 1,880,460 individuals; though itUmte(l
• ir ,, n-  j A 1    o - n. _ Province;,
4i
confpicuous part, it
the end of here fufficient for us to give a very brief fummary of the
the I7t!lnt0 Principai events. After the death of William HI. the
ninrr of the ^ame P‘an humbling the French king, was, in con-
jundlion with the ftates-general, purfued by bis fuccef-
for Queen Anne ; and the numerous and important vic¬
tories of the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene,
led to the famous treaty ef Utrecht, in 1713. See
Britain, N° 340—371. In 1747, the office of ftadt-
holder was declared hereditary in the princes of Orange.
In the war that took place in 1756, between France
and England, a French party was formed in Holland,
in oppofition to the ftadtholder, who favoured the alli¬
ance with England. Hence arofe a jealoufy between
the two allies, which, during the American war, in.-
creafed to an open rupture. See Britain, N° 427,
and N° 598, et feq. In 17875 fome difputes took place
between the ftadtholder and the ftates-general, which
induced the former to require the affiftance of the king
of Pruffia. I hat monarch accordingly fent an army of
18,000 Pruffians to Amfterdam, under the duke of
Brunfwick, who, in 1788, brought the whole country
into fubjeftion, and reinftated the ftadtholder in his au¬
thority. . See Prussia, N° 73. In 1794 the republi¬
can armies of France having overrun the greater part of
Flanders, took pofleffion of the Dutch provinces, which
they converted into the Batavian republic. The ftadt-
holder found refuge in England, and the allied armies of
Germany and Pruffia retreated into Germany. See
France, N° 409, et feq. In the fummer of 1799, a
confiderable Britifti force landed in the Texel iftand,
made themfelves mafters of the Dutch fleet, and, in
conjunftion with a body of Ruffians, gained fome ad¬
vantages on the continent. Being oppofed, however,
by. a fuperior French force, the army was obliged to re-
' Coirflitutu
is generally eftimated at about 2,000,000. Suppofing
this latter number to be correft, and that the area of
the Dutch territory comprehends 10,000 fquare miles,
there will be 200 individuals to each fquare mile; a
proportion exceeding any thing that is to be found m
any other part of Europe.
In the late republic of Holland, previous to the
French revolution, the ftates-general formed the great amig0TOt
council of the nation. That affembly was formed by meat,
deputies from the provincial ftates, and was invefted
with the fupreme legiflative power. It could not, how¬
ever, make peace or war, form new alliances, or levy
taxes, without the confent of the provincial ftates, nor
could thefe determine any point of importance, without
the confent of each of the cities that had a voice in
their aflembly. The ftadtholder exercifed a confider¬
able part of the executive power, though in later times
his power became very limited. The grand penfionary
was properly a minifter or fervant of the province 5 and
though he poffefled great influence, being a perpetual
member of the ftates-general, and of the fecret commit¬
tee, he was confidered as inferior in rank to all the de¬
puties.
The leading features in the conftitution of the king¬
dom of Holland are, the guarantee of the payment of
the public debt; the free and unqualified exercifeofre-
ligion •, the predominant authority veiled in the king;
the eftabliffiment of the Salique law, excluding females
from the throne ; the declaration that the minority of
any future king {hall expire on his attaining his 18th
year ; that only natives {hall be eligible to any offices
of ftate, exclufive of thofe immediately appertaining to
the king’s houfehold ; that the yearly revenue of the
king fhall be 2,000,000 florins, and that the royal refi-
dences fhall be the palaces of the Hague, in the Wood,
and at Soeft dyke. The council of ftate is to confift of
13 members*, the general government of the kingdom
is to be committed to four minifters of ftate j and ^ie Geograt’k
legiflative body is to be compofed of 38 members chofenvoi,ii.
for five years *. . . r . • Reve4nues.
The revenues of the United Provinces aroie princi-
pally from taxes impofed on each province and city, ac-
r 1 ' cording
IT e<l
Pro ces.
Mill 'f
ftren i.
UNI [ 579 ] UNI
Thefe confifted chiefly of a trade of Holland may now be confidered as annihilated,
Reli; 1.
Lang ;e
and 1 ra-
ture.
Mam
times
Conn
cording to their ability,
general excife, a land-tax, a poll-tax, and hearth mo¬
ney ; and are fuppofed to have amounted to 3,000,000!.
fterling.
Before the French revolution, the Dutch maintained a
peace eftablithment of 30,000 men, which in war was
augmented to above 50,000, chiefly by mercenary
troops from Germany. Their naval eftablifhment was
highly refpedtable and at the end of the 17th century
it exceeded that of any other maritime power in Eu¬
rope. Before the late war they could mufter 40 fail
of the line, 40 frigates, and 10 cutters. Since the ce¬
lebrated engagement off the Dogger Bank during the
American war, the Dutch have been fcarcely able to
cope with the Englilh at fea ; and the victory off Cam-
perdown in October 1797, with the fubfequent lofs of
the Texel fleet in 1799, proved the deathblow to the
naval power of Holland.
Before the late change of government, the eftablilh-
ed religion of Holland was Prelbyterianifm, according
to the doflrines of Calvin \ though all fedls of Chrilli-
ans were tolerated. The church was governed by con-
fiilories, clafles, and lynods, from which there was an
appeal to one great national fynod, fubjedl to the con-
troul of the ftates-general.
The Dutch language is a dialed! of the German, and
in many refpedls bears a confiderable refemblance to the
Old Englifli and Lowland Scotch. The literature of
the United Provinces has long been refpedtable ; and
the univerfities of Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Har-
derwyck, and Frantker, have produced many eminent
and celebrated men in almofl: every department of fci-
ence. Grotius, Erafmus, Boerhaave, Leuwenhoeck,
Swammerdam, Grtevius, Burrman, Hooguween, &c.
are names mentioned with admiration and refpedt in the
annals of literature.
The Dutch manufadlures confifl: principally of fine
linens, earthen ware, chiefly manufaclured at Delft, ef-
pecially white and painted tyles, tobacco-pipes, borax,
oil, ftarch, paper, leather, woollen and cotton cloths,
fnuff, tobacco, and gin.
The commerce of the Dutch was formerly more ex-
tenfive than that of any other country in Europe. They
carried on a trade with every quarter of the globe, and
in particular their Eaft India Company was perhaps the
richeft fociety of merchants in the world. Holland was
almofl: the exclufive centre of the fpice trade ; and the
extenfive filheries on the coaft of Greenland and in the
North fea, fupplied the greater part of Europe with
whale oil and herrings. Befides this external commerce,
they carried on a confiderable inland traffic wdth the in¬
terior of Germany, from which they brought immenfe
quantities of timber. Vaft rafts of trees, many hundred
feet in length, fet out annually from the forerts of An-
dernach, and other places on the Rhine, and proceeding
down the river under the diredlion of a great body of
labourers, that formed a village of huts on the furface
of the raft, failed down the Rhine and the Waal to
Dort, where the timber was difpofed of, and where one
raft has been fold for 30,000!. fterling. All the foreign
inland traffic in wood and fpirits ftiil con-
tTmtt'd
Provinces.
rather Changer
but the
tinues.
The inland commerce of the United Provinces is
greatly promoted by the facility of conveyance from one
part of the country to another, by means of the nume¬
rous canals.
The Dutch are, by conftitution, a cool,
phlegmatic people, laborious, patient, obftinate, andoftr.e
perfevering. When {Emulated by any predominant paf-^utc^*
fion, as avarice, or formerly love of liberty, they are
capable of great exertions. Economy and order in the
management of their pecuniary concerns are common
among all claffes, with whom it is an eftabliftied maxim
to fpend lefs than their income. Intereft and love of
money regulate all their adlions, and appear to fupplant
in their breafts every noble and generous feeling. Thefe
prominent features in the national charafler are, of
courfe, modified by the rank or fituation of the different
orders in fociety. The higher ranks value themfelves
much on their diftin&ions, are referved to ftrangers,
but affable and obliging to thofe with whom they have
had an opportunity of becoming acquainted j friendly,
candid,..and fincere. The mercantile men and traders
are, in general, fair and honeft in their tranfadtions j
though their natural thirft of gain fometimes tempts
them to deceive and overreach their cuftomers. The
lower ranks are ignorant, dull, and flow of apprehen-
fion, but open to convidlion, and patient of fatigue and
labour. 49
Drefs, among the Dutch, is regulated lefs by fafhion, Manners
than by an attention to climate and feafon. The moif-an<l Cld-
ture and inconftancy of thefe require a greater quantity toms‘
of clothing than is found neceflary in other countries
under the fame latitude ; and, among the ordinary claf¬
fes, broad hats, large breeches and thick boots and
fhoes, are ftill almoft univerfal. Moft of the women
wear hats with low crowns and very broad rims, with
jerkins and (hort petticoats j and, what appears exceed¬
ingly ridiculous to ftrangers, the boys and girls wear
the fame drefs as the men and women.
A clofe attention to regularity and neatnefs in th6
ftreets and the interior of the houfes prevails throughout
the United Provinces, but is moft confpicuous in North
Holland. This was at firft rendered neceflary by the
nature of the climate, to prevent ruft and mouldinefs
from deftroying their utenfils and furniture, and has
fince become a habit, conducive at once to comfort and
to health. The manner of living in Holland was, till
of late, not a little grofs. Their diet confifted much of
high-feafoned and falted meats, butter, cheefe, and fpi-
rituous liquors. In no country was gormandizing re¬
duced more to a fyftem. Convivial entertainments were
extremely frequent *, and the interval between the more
fubftantial meals of dinner, tea, and fupper, were filled
up with cakes, fruits, jellies, and other light things j
not to mention fmoking and drinking, which fupplied
the place of converfation (c). U we may rely on the
report of a late writer on the ftatifties of Holland*, the * Meteler-
ftyle of living is now much changed, though not much Se6
D 2
(c) We muft admit, that, in fo moift and cold a climate, a full and generous diet may be fafe if not necefifary ;
hut the Dutch, like many of our own countrymen, abfurdly carried the fame fyftem into their tropical colonies.
proved —
Nov. iSo^,
U N I
United improved. Animal food is become extremely rare, and
Provinces p]acQ js fUppliecl by a greater proportion of gin, tea,
Univerfity anc^ c°ffee* The prevailing amufements in winter are
.—dramatic entertainments and tkaidng, in which latter
they are exceedingly expert.
The Dutch taile for formal gardens, ftraight walks,
trees and hedges clipped into fantaftic fhapes, and
flower roots, has long been proverbial, and has been
treated with more contempt and ridicule than it deferves.
At w'orft, thefe are but harmlefs propenfities ; and, if
indulged in moderation, are well fuited to relieve the
famenefs and inadlivity of a retirement from the bufy
Icenes of trade and commerce.
UNITY, in Poetry. There are three unities to be
obferved, viz. the unity of attion, that of time, and
that of place. In the epic poem, the great, and almoft
the only, unity, is that of the adfion. Some regard in¬
deed ought to be had to that of time 5 for that of place
there is no room. The unity of character is not reckon¬
ed among the unities. See Poetry, Part II. Sedt. 3.
UNI V JERSAL, fomething that is common to many
things ; or it is one thing belonging to many or all
things.
UNIVERSE, a colledtive name, fignifying the whole
world ; or the affemblage of heaven and earth, with all
things therein. See Astronomy and Geography.
UNIVERSITY, is the name of a corporation form¬
ed for the education of youth in the liberal arts and
fciences, and authorized to admit fuch as have fludied
in it, to certain degrees in different faculties, which not
only ferve as certificates of proficiency in fcience, but
alfo confer on thofe who obtain them confiderable privi¬
leges within the univerfity, as well as fome rank in the
Hate without it. Univerfities generally comprehend
within them one or more colleges : but this is not always
the cafe 5 for the univerfity of St Andrew’s was in being
before either of its colleges was founded, and it would
continue in being, with all its privileges, though both
its colleges were levelled with the dull.
In every univerfity with which we are acquainted,
there are four faculties, viz. Theology, Law, Phyfic,
and the Arts and Sciences, comprehending mathematics
natural and moral philofophy, &c. : and in Oxford]
Cambridge, and fome other univerfities, Mujic is con-
fidered as a fifth faculty. In each of thefe there are
two degrees, thofe of Bachelor and Dottor ; for though
in the univerfities of Great Britain and Ireland we have
no fuch degree as Do&or in Arts and Sciences, our Mnf-
ter of Arts anfwers to the degree of DoBorin Philofophy,
which is conferred by many of the univerfities on the
continent.
Univerfities in their prefent form, and with their pre-
fimt privileges, are inftitutions comparatively modern.
They fprang from the convents of regular clergy, or
from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome
where young men were educated for holy orders, in that
dark period when the clergy poffeffed all the little erudi¬
tion which was left in Europe. Thefe convents were
feminanes of learning probably from their firft inftitu-
tmn ; and we know with certainty, that in Old Aber-
U N 1
deen there was a monaftery in which youth were infiruft. Umverfit,
ed in theology, the canon law, and the fchool philofophy, T-*
at leaft 200 years before the univerfity and King’s Col¬
lege were founded. The fame w'as doubtlefs the cafe in
Oxford and Cambridge, and probably in every town in
Europe, where there is now a univerfity which has any
claim to be called ancient; for it was not till the more
eminent of the laity began to fee the importance of lite¬
rature and fcience,that univerfities diftindlfrom convents
were founded, with the privilege of admitting to degrees
which conferred fome rank in civil fociety. Thefe uni¬
verfities have long been confidered as lay corporations •
but as a proof that they had the ecclefiaftical origin
which we have affigned to them, it will be fuffieient to
«bferve, that the pope arrogated to himfelf the right of
veiling them with all their privileges 5 and that, prior
to the Reformation, every univerfity in Europe conferred
its degrees in all the faculties by authority derived from
a papal bull.
It is perhaps no improbable conje&ure, that the
church ol Rome derived her idea of academical honours
from the Jews, among whom literary ditlinRions ex¬
tremely fimilar fubfilled before the nativity of our Sa¬
viour. Among them, the young Undent, with refpeft
to his learning, was called a difciple; from his minority
junior; and the chofen or eleBed, on account of his
election into the number of difciples. When he had
made fome progrefs in knowledge, and was deemed
worthy of a degree, he was by impofition of hands made
Tan, a companion to a Rabbi, the perfon who officiates
ufing this form, I affociate thee, or, Be thou affociated;
and as foon afterwards as he was thought worthy to
teach others, the uffociate was raifed to the rank of Rab¬
bi. Whether this procefs fuggefted the idea or not, it
has certainly fome refemblanee to that by which a young
man in our univerfities pafifes through the degree of
Bachelor to that of Mafer of jlrts or DoBor.
1 he moll ancient univerfities in Europe are thofe of
Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bo¬
logna ; and, in the two Engliffi univerfities, the firft
colleges are thofe of Univerfity, Baliol, and Merton, in
the former, and St Peter's in the latter. Oxford and
Cambridge, however, were univerfities, or, as they were
then called, fome hundreds of years before col¬
leges or fchools were built in them ; for the former flou-
rithed as a feminary of learning in the reign of Alfred
the Groat, and the other, could we believe its partial
partizans, at a period Hill earlier. The univerfities of
Scotland are four, St Andrews, Glasgow', Aber¬
deen, and Edinburgh. In Ireland there is but one
univerfity, viz. that of Dublin, founded by Queen
Elizabeth, and very richly endowed.
An idle controverfy has been agitated, whether the
conftitution of the Englilh or of the Scotch univerfities
be belt adapted to anfwer the ends of their inftitution j
and, as might be expe&ed, it has been differently deci¬
ded, according to the partialities of thofe who have writ¬
ten on the fubjeil. Were we to hazard our own opi¬
nion, we ffiould fay, that each has its advantages and
difadvantages j and that while the Engliffi univerfities,
C 580 ]
ILrXfr bI a T? trrlfer (fee BarrOW’s ‘0 Cochin-China)
a«ords a melancholy, but accurate piftuxe of Dutch gluttony.
ox uie luxurious
v o C [ 581 ] VOL
rfity aided by their great fchools, to which we have nothing
that can be compared, are unqueftionably fitted to carry
lVl‘* their young members fartheft in the knowledge of the
learned languages, the mode of teaching in our own
univerfities is better adapted to the promotion of arts and
Iciences, and the communication of that knowledge
which is of moft importance in a£Hve life.
UNIVEfiSITT-Courts, in England. The two univer¬
fities enjoy the foie jurifdittion, in exclufion of the king’s
courts, over all civil actions and fuits whatfoever, where
a fcholar or privileged perfon is one of the parties j ex¬
cepting in fuch cafes where the right of freehold is con¬
cerned. And then by the univerfity charter they are
at liberty to try and determine, either according to the
common law of the land, or according to their own lo¬
cal cuftoms, at their difcretion ; which has generally led
them to carry on their procefs in a courfe much confor¬
med to the civil law.
This privilege, fo far as it relates to civil caufes, is
exercifed at Oxford in the chancellor’s court; the judge
of which is the vice-chancellor, his deputy, or affeffor.
From his fentence an appeal lies to delegates appointed
by the congregation; from thence to other delegates
of the houfe of convocation; and if they all three concur
in the fame fentence, it is final, at lead; by the ftatutes
of the univerfity, according to the rule of the civil law.
But if there be any difcordance or variation in any of
the three fentences, an appeal lies in the laft refort to
judges delegates appointed by the crown, under the great
feal in chancery.
As to the jurifdi&ion of the univerfity courts in cri¬
minal matters, the chancellor’s court at Oxford, and
probably alio that of Cambridge, hath authority to try
all offences or mifdemeanors under the degree of treafon,
felony, or mayhem ; and the trial of treafon, felony, and
mayhem, by a particular charter, is committed to the
univerfity jurifdidHon in another court, namely, the
court, of the lord high fteward of the univerfity.
The procefs of the trial is this. The high fteward
iffues one precept to the Iheriff of the county, who
thereupon returns a panel of 18 freeholders; and ano¬
ther precept to the bedells of the univerfity, who there¬
upon return a panel of 18 matriculated laymen, /atcos
pnvtlegio univerjitatis gaudentes: and by a jury formed
de medietate, half of freeholders and half matriculated
perfons, is the indi£lment to be tried; and that in the
guildhall of the city of Oxford. And if execution be
neceffary to be awarded in confequence of finding the
party guilty, the Iherift' of the county muft execute the
univerfity procefs; to which he is annually bound by
an oath.
VOCABULARY, in Grammar, denotes the col¬
lection of the words of a language, with their fignifica-
tions, otherwife called a diBionary, lexicon, or nomen¬
clature. See Dictionary.
A vocabulary is properly a fmaller kind of dictionary,
which does not enter fo minutely into the origin and
different acceptations of words.
VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or
fpeech; thus vocal mufic is that fet to words, efpecially
verfes, and to be performed by the voice; in contradif-
tmCtion to inftrumental mufic, compofed only for inftru-
ments, without finging.
VOCATIVE, in Grammar, the fifth Rate or cafe
nouns, See Grammar.
3
VOETIUSor Voet, Gisbert, an eminent divine Voetius
of the 16th century, was profeffor of divinity and the I!
Oriental tongues at Utrecht, where he was alfo minifter. Volg3,
He aflifted at the fynod of Dort; and died in 1676,
aged 87. He wrote a great number of works; and
was the declared enemy of Des Cartes and his philofo-
phy. His followers are called Voetians. Voetius had
two fons, Daniel and Paul, both authors. John Voetius,
the fon of Paul, was doCtor and profeffor of law at Her-
born, and wrote a commentary on the PandeCIs.
VOICE, a found produced in the throat and mouth
of an animal, by peculiar organs.
Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articu¬
late voices are thofe whereof feveral confpire together to
form fome affemblage or little fyftem of founds: fuch
are the voices exprefting the letters of an alphabet, num¬
bers of which joined together form words. Inarticulate
voices are fuch as are not organized, or affembled into
words; fuch is the barking of dogs, the braying of affes,
the hiding of ferpents, the finging of birds, &.c.
For a defcrintion of the organs of the voice, fee Ana¬
tomy ; fee alfo Physiology Index.
Voice, in Gra?nmar, a circumftance in verbs, where¬
by they come to be confidered as either adlive or paflive,
i. e. either exprefling an aftion impreffed on another
fubjedt, as, I beat; or receiving it from another, as, /
am beaten. See Grammar.
Voice, in matters ot election, denotes a vote or fuf-
frage.
Voice, in Oratory. See Declamation; Reaoing,
N° 5.; and Oratory, N° 129—131.
VOLANT, in Heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat
of arms, is drawn fiying, or having its wings fpread out.
VOLATILE, in Phyjics, fomething that is eafily
diflipated by fire or heat.
Volatile Alkali. See Ammonia, Chemistry In- -
dex.
VOLATILISATION, the art of rendering fixed
bodies volatile, or of refolving them by fire into a va¬
pour.
VOLCANO, a name given to burning mountains,
or to vent> for fubterraneous fires. See Geology In¬
dex, ^Etna, Hecla, &c.
VOLERY, a bird cage, of fuch a fize that the birds
have room to fly up and down in it.
VOLGA, the largeft river in Europe, derives its ori¬
gin from two fmall lakes in the foreft of Volkonlki a-
bout 80 miles from Tver, a town in Ruflia. It is navi¬
gable a few miles above that town. This noble river
waters fome of the fineft provinces in the Ruffian empire,
and at laft falls into the Cafpian fea by feveral mouths,
below Aftracan.
The Volga is fubjedl to annual inundation. In the
year 1774, the inundations exceeded the lowefl: water¬
mark by nearly 40 feet, fince which period they have
been rather on the decline; for in 1775, theyrofe only
to 39 feet 2 inches above that mark; in 1782, they¬
rofe to 26 feet; in 1785, to 25 feet 2 inches ; and in
the year 1791, their height was the fame. Pallas is of
opinion that this phenomenon may have originated from
the diminifhed quantity of fnow and rain which had fal¬
len in the higher countries; from the greater evapora¬
tion of the Cafpian fea, and the gradual extenfion of the
different mouths of the river, or perhaps from the joint
operation of all thefe caufes.
VOLITION,
Volition
n.
Voltaire.
[ 582
See Metaphy-
V O L
VOLITION, an a£l of willing,
sics.
VOLLEY, a military falute, made by difcharging
a great number of fire arms at the fame time.
VOLONES, in Roman antiquity, (laves who in the
Punic war voluntarily offered their fervice to the date,
which is the reafon of the appellation j upon which they
were admitted to citizenfhip, as none but freemen could
be foldiers.
VOLT, in the manege, a round or circular tread ;
and hence, by the phrafe to make volts, is underftood a
gate of two treads, made by a horfe going fidewife round
a centre, in fuch a manner that thefe two treads make
parallel tracks ; one larger, made by the fore-feet, and
another fmaller, made by the hind-feet; the croup ap¬
proaching towards the centre, and the (boulders bearing
out.
VOLTAIRE, Francis Arouet de, a celebrated
French author, was born at Paris, February 20. 1694.
His father, Francis Arouet, ivas ancien notaire au Cha-
telet, and treafurer of the chamber of accounts ; his
mother, Mary-Margaret Draumart. At the birth of
this extraordinary man, who lived to the age of 85
years and fome months, there was little probability of
his being reared, and for a confiderable time he con¬
tinued remarkably feeble. In his earlieft years he dif-
played a ready wit and a fprightly imagination ; and,
as he faid of himfelf, made verfes before he was out of
his cradle. He was educated, under Father Pore, in
the college of Louis the Great *, and fuch was his pro¬
ficiency, that many of his eflays are now exifting, which,
though written when he was between 12 and 14, (how
no marks of infancy. The famous Ninon de I’Enclos,
to whom this ingenious boy was introduced, left him a
legacy of 2000 livres to buy him a library. Having
been fent to the equity fchools on his quitting college,
he was fo difgufled with the drynefs of the law, that he
devoted himfelf entirely to the mufes. He was admit¬
ted into the company of the abbe Cheaulieu, the mar¬
quis de la Fare, the duke de Sully, the grand prior of
Vendome, Marlhal Villars, and the chevalier du Bouil¬
lon ; and caught from them that eafy taffe and delicate
humour which diftinguiftied the court of Louis XIV.
Voltaire had early imbibed a turn for fatire j and, for
fome philippics againff the government, was imprifon-
ed almoft a year in the Baftile. He had before this
period produced the tragedy of Oedipus, which wras re-
prefented in 1718 with great fuccefi ; and the duke of
Orleans happening to fee it performed, was fo delighted,
that. he obtained his releafe from prifon. The poet
waiting on the duke to return thanks; “ Be wife (faid
the duke), and I will take care of you.” “ I am in¬
finitely obliged (replied the young man) ; but I intreat
your royal highnefs not to trouble yourfelf any farther
about my lodging or board.”
He began his Hennade before he was 18. Having
one day read feveral cantos of this poem when on a vifit
to his intimate friend, the young prefident de Maifons,
he was fo teafed with objeftions, that he loft pati¬
ence, and threw his manufcript into the fire. The pre¬
sident Henaut with difficulty refcued it. “ Remem¬
ber (faid Mr Henaut to him, in one of his letters) it
was I that faved the Henriade, and that it coft me a
handfome pair of ruffles.” Some years after, feveral
copies of this poem having got abroad, while it
4
was
1 VOL
only a (ketch, an edition of it was publilhed, with many Vbltai
chafms, under the title of The League. Inftead of fame ' ^
and friends, the author gained only enemies and morti¬
fication, by this firft edition. The bigots took fire at
it, and the poet was confidered as highly criminal for
praifing Admiral Coligny and Queen Elizabeth. En¬
deavours were even ufed to get the piece fupprefled ; but
this ((range defign proved abortive. His chagrin, on
this occafion, firft infpired him with the thought of vi-
fiting England, in order to finifti the work, and repu-
blifti it in a land of liberty. He was right 5 for King
George I. and more particularly the princefs of Wales,
afterwards queen of England, raifed an immenfe fub-
fcription for him. Their liberality laid the foundation
of his fortune; for on his return to France in 1728, he
put his money into a lottery eftablifhed by M. Bestortes,
comptroller-general of the finances. The adventurers
received a rent charge on the Hotel-de-Ville for their
tickets ; and the prizes were paid in ready money ; fo
that if a fociety had taken all the tickets, it would have
gained a million of livres. He joined with a numerous
company of adventurers, and was fortunate.
His Lettres Phi/ofophiques, abounding in bold expref-
fions and indecent witticifms againft religion, having
been burnt by a decree of the parliament of Paris, and
a warrant being iffued for apprehending the author in
1733, Voltaire prudently withdrew; and was (heltered
by the marchionefs du C hate let, in her calfle of Cirey,
on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, who enter¬
ed with him on the ftudy of the fyftem of Leibnitz, and
the Principia of Newton. A gallery was built, in which
Voltaire formed a good colleftion of natural hiftory, and
made an infinite number of experiments on light and
ele&ricity. He laboured in the mean time on his Ele¬
ments of the Newtonian Philofophy, then totally un¬
known in I ranee, and which the numerous admirers of
Des Cartes were little defirous fhould be known. In the
midft of thefe philofophic purfuits he produced the tra¬
gedy oi Afeira. He was now in the meridian of his age
and genius, as was evident from the tragedy of Maho¬
met, firft acted in 1741 ; but it was reprefented to the
procureur-general as a performance often five to religion ;
and the author, by order of Cardinal Fleury, withdrew
it from the ftage. Mtrope, played two years after, 1743,
gave an idea of a fpecies of tragedy, of which few mo¬
dels had exifted. It was at the reprefentation of this
tragedy, that the pit and boxes were clamorous for a
fight of the author; yet it was feverely criticifed when
it came from the prefs. He now became a favourite at
court, through the intereft of Madame d’Etiole, after¬
wards marchionefs of Pompadour. He was appointed a
gentleman of the bcd-chamber in ordinary, and biftorio-
grapher of France. He had frequently attempted to
gain admittance into the Academy of Sciences, but could
not obtain his wiffi till 1746, when he was the firft who
broke through the abfurd cuftom of filling an inaugural
fpeech with the fulfome adulation of Richelieu ; an ex¬
ample foon followed by other academicians. From the
fatires occafioned by this innovation he felt fo much un-
eafinefs, that he was glad to retire with the marchionefs
du Chatelet to Luneville, in the neighbourhood of King
Staniflaus. The marchionefs dying in 1749, Voltaire
returned to Paris, where his (lay was but ihort. The
king of Prufiia now gave Voltaire an invitation to live
with him, which he accepted toivards the end of Au-
guft
Voltaii&
VOL [ 583 ] VOX
'■A vjaire, rJa 1750. On his arrival at Berlin, he was imme-
^ ul ,   5iatejy prefented with the Order of Merit, the key of
chamberlain, and a Venfion of 20,000 livres. _ From the
particular refpetl that was paid to him, his time was
now fpent in the mod agreeable manner; his apartments
were under thofe of the king, whom he was allowed to
vifit at dated hours, to read with him the bed works of
•either ancient or modern authors, and to adid his maje-
fty in the literary productions by which he relieved the
cares of government. But a difpute which arofe be¬
tween him and Maupertuis foon brought on his difgrace.
Maupertuis was at feme pains to have it reported at
courb that one day while General Mandein happened
to be’in the apartments of M. de Voltaire, who was then
tranflatingpnto French the Memoirs of Ruffia, compnfcd
by that officer, the king, in his ufual manner, fent a co¬
py of verfes to be examined, when Voltaire faid to Man¬
ikin, ‘4 Let us leave off for the prefent, my friend; you
fee the king has fent me his dirty linen to walh, I will
wafh yours another time.” A fingle word is Sometimes
fufficient to ruin a man at court; Maupertuis imputed
fuch a word to Voltaire, and fucceedcd. It was about
this very time that Maupertuis publilhed his very drange
Philofophical Letters ; and M. de Voltaire did not fail
to heighten, with his utmod powers of raillery, every
thing which he found, or could make ridiculous, in the
projeCls of M. Maupertuis, who was careful to unite his
own caufe with that of the king; Voltaire was confide.r-
ed as having failed in refpeCt to his majedy; and there¬
fore, in the mod refpeCtful manner, he returned to the
king his chamberlain’s key, and the crofs of his Order
of Merit; accompanied with four lines of verfe, in which
he, with great delicacy, compares his fituation to that of
a jealous lover, who fends back the picture of his mil-
trefs. The king returned the key and the ribbon; but
they were not followed by an immediate reconciliation.
Voltaire fet out to pay a vifit to her htghnefs tire duchefs
of Gotha, who honoured him with her trienddiip as long
as die lived. While he remained at Gotha, Maupertuis
employed all his batteries againd him: Voltaire rvasar¬
retted by the king’s orders, but afterwards releafed.
He now fettled near Geneva ; but afterward being
obliged to quit that republic, he purchafed the cattle of
Ferney in France, about a league from the lake of Ge¬
neva. It was here that he undertook the defence of the
celebrated family of Galas; and it was not long before
he had a fecond opportunity of vindicating the inno¬
cence of another condemned family of the name of knr-
ven. It is fnmewhat remarkable, that in the year 1774»
he had the third time a lingular opportunity of employ<-
ing that fame zeal which he had the good fortune to
difplay in the fatal catallrophe of the families of Galas
and Sirven.
In this retreat M. Voltaire continued long to enjoy
the pleafures of a rural life, accompanied with the ad¬
miration of a vad number of wits and philofophers
throughout all Europe. Wearied at length, however,
with his lituation, or yielding to the importunities of
friends, he came to Paris about the beginning of the
year 1778, where he wrote a new tragedy called Irene.
By this time his underdanding feems to have been im¬
paired, either through the infirmities of age, or conti¬
nued intoxication by the flattery of others ; and he ridi-
culoufly differed himfelf to be crowned in public with
laurel, in tedimony of his great poetical merit 1 He did
not long furvive this farce : for having overheated him¬
felf with receiving viflts, and exhauded his fpirits by
fupplying a perpetual fund of converfation, he was nrd , <,rei
feized with a fpitting of blood ; and at lad becoming
redlefs in the night-time, he was obliged to ufe a fopo-
rific medicine. Of this he unluckily one night took fo
large a dofe, that he flept 36 hours, and expired a very
diort time after awakening from it.
VOLUME, in matters of literature, a book or writ¬
ing of a jud bulk to be bound by itfelf. The name is
derived from the Latin volvere, “ to roll up;” the an¬
cient manner of making up books being in rolls of bark
or parchment. See Book.
VOLUNTARY, in Mufc, a piece played by a mu-
fleian extempore, according to his fancy. This is often
ufed before he begins to fet himfelf to play any particu¬
lar compofition to try the indrument, and to lead him
into the key of the piece he intends to perform.
VOLUNTEERS, perfons who, of their own ac¬
cord, for the fervice of the prince or date, ferve in the
army without being enlided, to gain honour and prefer¬
ment.
VOLVOX, a genus of animals belonging to the ver¬
mes infuforia. See Helminthology Index.
VOLUSENUS. See Wilson.
VOLUTA, a genus of fhell-fifli. See CoNCHOLO
GY Index.
VOLUTE, in Archite&ure, a kind of fpiral fcroll
ufed in Ionic and Gompofite capitals, whereof it makes
the principal charafteridic and ornament.
VOMICA, \\\ Medicine, an abfeefs of the lungs.
See Medicine, N° 186.
iVttx Vomica, in Pharmacy. See Materia Me-
DICA Index.
VOMIT. See Emetic, Materia Medic a Index.
VOMITING, a retrograde fpafmodic motion of the
mufcular fibres of the cefophagus, ftomach, and intef-
tines, attended with drong convulfions of the mufcles of
the abdomen and diaphragm ; which when gentle cre¬
ate a naufea, when violent a vomiting.
VOORN, one of the iflands of Holland, bounded by
the river Maes, which divides it from the continent,
and the idand of Iflemunde, on the north ; by the fea
called Bies bofeh, on the ead; by another branch of the
Maes, which divides it from the iflands of Goree and
Overflackee, on the fouth ; and by the German fea on
the wed ; being about 24 miles long, and five broad.
VORTEX, in Meteorology, a whirlwind, or hidden,
rapid, and violent motion of the air in circles; or that
motion of the water called an eddy or whirlpool.
Vortex, in the Cartefian philofophy, is a fydem or
colleftion of particles of matter moving the fame way,
and round the fame axis.
VORTICELLA, an animalcule. See Microscope.
VOSSILTS, John Gerard, a mod learned and la¬
borious writer of the 17th century, was of a confiderable
family in the Netherlands; and was born in 1577, in
the palatinate, near Heidelberg, at a place where his
father John Voffius was minider. He was made direc¬
tor of the college of Dort, and afterwards profeffor of
eloquence and chronology at Leyden, from whence he
was called in 1633 to Amderdam, to fill the chair of
profeffor of hidory. He died in 1649.
VOTE, the fuffrage or refc.lve of each of the mem¬
bers of an affembly, where any affair is to be carried by
a>
U R
/ote a majority j but more particularly ufed for the refolves
jjj. of the members of either houfe of parliament.
—t VOTIVE medals, thofe on which are exprefled the
vows of the people for the emperors or empreffes. See
Medal.
VOW, a folemn and religious promife or oath. See
Oath.
ihe ufe of vows is found in mod: religions. They
make up a confiderable part of the Pagan worfhip, be¬
ing made either in confequence of fome deliverance, un¬
der fome preffing neceffity, or for the fuccefs of fome en-
terprife. Among the Jews, all vows were to be volun¬
tary, and made by perfons wholly in their own power j
and if fuch perfon made a vow in any thing lawful and
poffible, he was obliged to fulfil it. If he appointed no
particular time for accomplilhing his vow, he was bound
to do it inftantly, left by delay he ftiould prove lefs able,
or be unwilling, to execute his promife. Among the
Itomanifts, a perfon is conftituted a religious by taking
three vows ; that of poverty, chaftity, and obedience.
Vows, among the Romans, fignified facrifices, offer-
ings, prefents, and prayers made for the Caefars, and em¬
perors, particularly for their profperity and the continu¬
ance of their empire. Thefe were at firft made every
five years, then every 15, and afterwards every 20, and
were called quinquennalia, decennalia, and vincennalia.
VOWEL, in Grammar, a letter which affords a
complete found of itfelf, or a letter fo fimple as only to
need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and
to form a diftirnft voice. The vowels are fix in number,
viz. A, E, I, O, U, V.
Vowel, John. See Hooker.
UPHOLSTER, Upholsterer, or Upholder, a
tradefman that makes beds, and all forts of furniture
thereunto belonging, &c.
UPLAND, denotes high ground, or, as fome call it,
terra firma, by which it ftands oppofed to fuch as is
moorifti, marfliy, or low.
Upland, a province of Sweden, bounded on the
north-eaft by the Baltic fea, on the fouth by the fea of
Sudermania, and on the welt by Weftmania and Geftri-
cia, from which it is feparated by the river Dela. It is
about 70 miles in length and 45 in breadth, and con¬
tains mines of iron and lead. Stockholm is the capital.
UPSAL, a rich and confiderable city of Sweden, in
Upland, with a famous univerfity, and an archbiftiop’s
fee. The town is pretty large, and as ftraight as a line j
but moft of the houfes are of wood, covered with birch
bark, with turf on the top. On an eminence, to the
fouth of the town, is a ruined caftle. Thofe that view
the town from hence would take it to be a garden, whofe
ftreets reprefent the alleys ; and the houfes, which are
covered with turf, the grafs-plots. It was formerly the
refidence of the kings, and is now the ufual place where
they are crowned. It is feated on the river Sala, ovei
which there are two bridges. It is 26 miles north-weft
of Stockholm. E. Long. 17. 48. N. Lat. ^9. 52.
UPUPA, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
Piece. See Ornithology Index.
UR in Ancient Geography, a citadel of Mefopotamia,
fituated between the Tigris and Nifibis 5 taken bv fome
v*r, ,!ie Chaldees, the refidence of Abraham.
Vv hat feems to confirm this is, that from Ur to Haran
the. other refidence of tlle patriarch, the road lies dire ft-’
Jy tor Paleftme. And it is no objeftion that Ur is faid
U R I
to be in Mefopotamia; becaufe the parts next the Tigris
were occupied by the Chaldeans, as feems to be confirm¬
ed from .A&s vii. 2, 4. It is called Orche, in Strabo •
Orchoe, in Ptolemy.
URALIAN chain, a range of mountains which
form part of the boundaries of Alia, and anciently known
by the name of Riphcri Montes. See RlFHJEJ Montes
and Geology Index.
URANIA, in fabulous hiftory, one of the nine Mufes
was fuppofed to prefide over aftronomy. She is com¬
monly reprefented in an azure robe, crowned with liars
and fupporting a large globe with both hands.
URANIUM, one of the lately difeovered metals.
See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
URANOSCOPUS, a genus of fillies belonging to
the order oijugulares. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
Raphael d’URBINO. See Raphael.
URCHIN, or Hedgehog. See Erinaceus, Mam¬
malia Index.
Sea Urchin. See Echinus, Helminthology fo*
dex.
UREA. See Chemistry.
URETERS. See Anatomy, N° ioi.
URE1HRA. See Anatomy, N° 107.
Uric Acid. See Chemistry Index.
URIM and 1 hummim, among the ancient Hebrews,
a certain oracular manner of confulting God, which was
done, by the high-prieft dreffed in his robes, and having
on his pedtoral or breaft-plate.
\ arious have been the fentiments of commentators
concerning the urim and thummim. Jofephus, and fe-
veral others, maintain, that it meant the precious Hones
fet in the high-prieft’s breaft-plate, which by extraordi¬
nary luftre made known the will of God to thofe who
confulted him. Spencer believes that the urim and
thummira ivere two little golden figures Ihut up in the
p.efloral as.in a purfe, which gave refponfes with an ar¬
ticulate.voice. In Ihort, there are as many opinions
concerning the urim and thummim as there are particu¬
lar authors that wrote about them. The fafeft opinion,
according to Broughton, feems to be, that the words
urim and thummim fignify fome divine virtue and power
annexed to the breaft-plate of the high-prieft, by which
an oraculous anfwer was obtained from God when he
wras confulted by the high-prieft $ and that this w’as call¬
ed urim and thummim, to exprefs the clearnefs and per-
feftion which thefe oracular anfwejrs always carried with
them •, for urim fignifies “ light,” and thummim “ per¬
fection thefe anfwers not being imperfeCt and ambi¬
guous, like the heathen oracles, but clear and evident.
The ufe made of the urim and thummim was to confult
God in difficult cafes relating to the whole ftate of If-
rael j and fometimes in cafes relating to the king, the
fanhedrim, the general of the army, or fome other great
perfonage.
URINAL, in Medicine, a veffel fit to receive and
hold urine, and ufed accordingly for the convenience of
fick perfons. It is ufually of glafs, but fometimes of
metal.
URINE, a fluid, feparated from the blood, and car¬
ried by the emulgent arteries to the kidneys, from whence
it defeends to the bladder by the ureters, and is from time
to time emitted thence by the canal of the urethra.
See Anatomy, N° 107. For the properties of urine,
fee Chemistry Index.
URN,
[ 584 ]
u s Q, [585] U T Pi
1' ' X URN, a kind of vafe, of a roundift form, but biggeft
in the middle, like the common pitchers ; now feldom
^ jj* uftd but in the way of ornament over chimney-pieces, in
iJ. ^ buffets, &c. The gra^t ufe of urns among the ancients,
was to preferve the athes of the dead after they were
burnt; for which reafon they were called cineraria, and
urn# cineraria, and were placed fometimes under the
tombftone whereon the epitaph was cut j and fometimes
in vaults in their own houfes. Urns were alfo ufed at
their facrifices to put liquid things in.
UROGALLUS. See Tetrao, Ornithology
Index.
URSA, in AJlrono7ny, the name of two conRella-
tions in the northern hemifphere.
URSULINES, in church hiftorv, an order of nuns,
founded originally by St Angela of Brefcia, in the year
1537; and fo called from St Urfula, to whom they
were dedicated*
URSUS, the Bear, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing t« the order offerte. See Mammalia Index.
URITCA, a genus of plants of the clafs of moncecia j
and in the natural fyftem claffed under the 53d order,
Scabridee. See Botany Index.
URTICA Marina. See ANIMAL-F/ower.
USANCE, in Commerce, is a determined time fixed
for the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned either
from the day of the bills being accepted, or from the day
of their date ; and thus called becaufe regulated by the
ufage and cuftom of the places whereon they are drawn.
USE, in Law, the profit or benefit of lands and te¬
nements ; or a truft and confidence repofed in a perfon
for the holding of lands, &c. that he to whofe ufe the
trull is made lhall receive the profits.
USHANT, an illand of France, 15 miles well of the
eoalt of Britanny, at the entrance of the Britilh channel.
Usher, an officer or fervant who has the care and di-
re6tion of the door of a court, hall, chamber, or the like.
USHER of the B/ack Rod, the eldelf of the gentlemen
ulhers, daily waiters at court, whofe duty is to bear the
rod before the king at the feaft of St George, and other
folemnities.
USK, a river of Wales, which rifes on the weft of
Brecknocklhire, and runs fouth-eaft through that county
and Monmouthlhire, falling into the mouth of the Se¬
vern.
USQUEBAUGH, a ftrong compound liquor, chiefly
taken by way of dram.
There are feveral different methods of making this
liquor ; but the following is efteemed one of the belt :
To two gallons of brandy, or other fpirits, put a pound
of Spanilh liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun,
four ounces of currants, and three of fliced dates ; the
tops of baum, mint, favory, thyme, and the tops of the
flowers of rofemary, of each two ounces j cinnamon and
inace well bruifed, nutmegs, anifeeds, and coriander
feeds, bruifed likewife, of each four ounces ; of citron
or lemon, and orange-peel, fcraped, of each an ounce:
et all thefe infufe 48 hours in a warm place, often
baking them together ; then let them ftand in a cool
p ace for a week : after which the clear liquor is to be
ecanted off, and to it is to be put an equal quantity of
neat white port, and a gallon of canary *, after which
is to be fweetened with a fufficient quantity of double
refined fugar.
^ol. XX. Part II,
USTION, in Pharmacy, the preparing of certain
fubltances by burning them.
USUFRUIT, in the Civil Law, the ufe or enjoy¬
ment of any lands or tenements ; or the right of re¬
ceiving the fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other
thing, without a power of alienating or changing the
property thereof.
USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or ad of
ufury.
USURIOUS CONTRACT, is any bargain or contrad
whereby a man is obliged to pay more intereft for mo¬
ney than the ftatute allows.
USURPATION, in Law, is an injurious ufing or
enjoyment of a thing for continuance of time, that be¬
longs of right to another.
USURY, an unlawful contrad: upon the loan of mo¬
ney, to receive the fame again with exorbitant increafe^
Under the article Interest, it was obferved, that by
ftatute 37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. the rate of intertft was fix¬
ed at 10L per cent, per annum : which the ftatute 13
Eliz. c. 8. confirms, and ordains, that all brokers (hail
be guilty of a praemunire who tranfad any contrads for
more, and the fecurities themfelves lhall be void. The
ftatute 21 Jac. I. c* 17. reduced intereft to 81. per cent.}
and it having been lowered in 1650, during the ufurpa-
tion, to 6 per cent, the fame redudion was re-enaded
after the Reftoration by ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. and,
laftly, the ftatute 12 Annas, ft. 2. c. 16. has reduced it
to 5 per cent. Wherefore not only all contrads for
taking more are in themfelves totally void, but alfo the
lender (hall forfeit treble the money bornmed. Alfo
if any fcrivener or broker take more than 5s. per cent,
procuration-money, or more than I2d. for making a
bond, he (hall forfeit 20I. with cofts, and (hall fuller im-
prifonment for half a-year.
UTERUS. See Anatomy, N° 108.
UTICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, on the Mediterranean : a Tyrian colony, and
older than Carthage, (Sil. Italicus) ; its name, accord¬
ing to Bochart, denoting old: reckoned fecond to it }
but after the deftrudion of Carthage, became the capi¬
tal and centre of all the Roman tranfadions in Africa,
according to Strabo } Avho adds, that it flood on the
fame bay with Carthage, at one of the promontories
called Apollonium, bounding the bay on the weft fide,
the other to the eaft called Hermeia, being at Carthage.
It became famous by the death of Cato, who thence was
called Uticenfs.
UTRECHT, one of the feven United Provinces or
States of Holland, wholly furrounded by Holland and
Guelderland, excepting a fmall part of it that borders
on the Zuyder Zee. Its greateft length is about 32
miles, and breadth about 22. It enjoys a good air j
and in mod places the foil is fruitful, but in fome fandy,
or what is called turf ground, and in others overrun with
wood. It is watered by the Leek, Rhine, Vecht, and
other fmaller rivers, befides feveral canals j of which
that extending from the village of Vreefwyk to Utrecht
is one of the chief.
Utrecht, in Latin UltrajcBwn, TrajeBum vetus
or inferius, or TrajeBum Rheni, capital of a province of
the fame name, fo called from its ancient ferry or paf-
fage here over the Rhine; the word being compounded
of trecht, which in Dutch fignifies “ a ferry,” and «ud
V U L f 586 ] U Z B
tftrecht or e. “ old.” It is a fair, large, and populous
Vulcan C^y’ ^tuate^ 19 ,T1iles from Amfterdam, 25 from Rot-
. terdam, and 27 from Leyden. Here is a llately town-
houfe, with a commandery of the Teutonic order, and
a celebrated univerfity, which was founded in 1630,
fince which it hath flouriftied greatly, though it has not
all the privileges of moft other univerfities 5 being wholly
1 fubjefl to the magiftrates of the city. The mall with¬
out the town, having five rows of lofty limes on each
fide, is very pleafant: and the phyfie-garden belonging
to the univerfity is extremely curious. There are five
churches here that have chapters ; but the members of
thefe purchafe the places, of which fome colt 6000 or
7000 guilders. The ftreams which run through feveral
of the llreets, contribute much to the beauty and clean-
linefs of the town ; and the canal that is cut from the
Leek, and paffes through it to Amlterdam, will carry
fhips of any burden. Pope Adrian VI. >vas a native of
this city. Here, in 1579, the memorable union was
formed between the feven provinces *, and, in 1713, the
celebrated peace concluded between France on the one
part, and the allies on the other. The Papifls have a
nominal archbilhop of this city ; and there is a filk ma-
nufa&ory carried on in it, which employs a number of
hands. The inhabitants are fuppofed to amount to
30,000. E. Long. 5. 8. N. Lat. 52. 7.
UTRICULARIA, a genus of plants of the clafs of
diandria ; and in the natural fyllem arranged under the
.24th order, Coryda/es. See Botany Index.
UVA ursi. See Arbutus, Botany Index.
VULCAN, in Pagan worfhip, the god of fubterra-
neous fire and metals, was the fon of Jupiter and Juno ;
and was laid to be fo remarkably deformed, that his fa¬
ther threw him down from heaven to the ille of Lem¬
nos, in which fall he broke his leg, and there he fet up
his forge, and taught men how to foften and polilh brafs
and iron. Thence he removed to the Liparian ifles,
near Sicily, where, by the affiflance of the Cyclops, he
made Jupiter’s thunderbolts, and armour for the other
gods. Notwithftanding the deformity of his perion, he
had a paffion for Minerva, and by Jupiter’s confent
made his addreiTes to her, but without fuccefs. He was, VulcaB
however, more fortunate in his fuit to Venus j who, af- ||
ter marriage, chofe Mars for her gallant j when Vulcan
expofed them to the ridicule of the other gods, by taking
them in a net.
VULGATE, a very ancient Latin trpnflation of the
Bible, and the only one acknowledged by the church of
Rome to be authentic. See Bible.
VULNERARY, in Medicine, an epithet formerly
given to remedies fuppofed to poffefs virtues for the cure
of wounds and ulcers.
VULTUR, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of Accipitres. See Ornithology Index.
VULVA. See-Anatomy, N° 132.
UVULA. See Anatomy, N° 102.
UZ, or Utz, the country and place of refidence of
Job. In the genealogy of the patriarchs there are three
perfons called Uz, either of which might give this di-
llridt its name. The fit ft was the grandfon of Sem, by
his fon Aram (Gen. xxii. 23.), who, according to Jofe-
phus, occupied the Trachonitis, and Damafcus, to the
north of Paleftine : but Job was among the fons of the
Ealt. Another Uz was the fon of Nahor, Abraham’s
brother (Gen. x. 21.), who appears to have removed,
after palling the Euphrates, from Haran of Mefopota-
mia to Arabia Deferta. The third Uz was a Horite,
from Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 28.), and thus not of E-
ber’s pofterity. Now the queftion is, from which of
thefe Job’s country, Uz, took its name : Not from the
firft, as is already Ihown j nor from the fecond, becaufe
his country is always called Seir, or Edom, never Uz s
and then called a fouth, not an eaji, country, in Scrip¬
ture. It therefore remains, that we look for the coun¬
try and place of refidence of Job in Arabia Deferta j
for which there were very probable reafons. The plun¬
derers of Job are called Chaldeans and Sabeans, next
neighbours to him. Thefe Sabeans came not from A-
rabia Felix, but from a nearer Sabe in Arabia Deferta
(Ptolemy) $ and his friends, except Eliphaz the The-
manite, were of Arabia Deferta.
UZBECK Tartary. See Tartary.
w.
YTT or w, is the 21ft letter of our alphabet 5 and is
’ ’S compofed, as its name implies, of two v’s. It
was not in ufe among the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans $
but chiefly peculiar to the northern nations, the Teu-
tones, Saxons, Britons, &c. But ftill it is not ufed by
the French, Italians, Spaniards, or Portuguefe, except
in proper names, and other terms borrowed from lan¬
guages in which it is originally ufed, and even then it is
founded like the fingle v. This letter is of an ambigu¬
ous nature ; being a confonant at the beginning of
Words, and a vowel at the end. It may Hand before all
the vowels except u ; as water, wedye, winter, wonder;
it may alfo follow the vowels a, e, 0, and unites with
them into a kind of double vowel, or diphthong } as in
faw, few, cow, &cc. It alio goes before r, and follows
f and th ; as in wrath, fweqr, thwart: it goes before h ||
alfo, though in reality it is founded after it; as in when, WA®1
what, &e. In fome words it is obfeure, as in Jhadow,
widow, &c.
WAAG, a river of Plungary, which rifesin the Car¬
pathian mountains, and falls into the Danube oppofite to
the ifland of Schut.
WAAL, a river of the United Netherlands, being
one of the branches of the Rhine, which runs from eaff
to weft, through Guelderland j paffing by Nimeguen,
Tiel, Bommel, and Gorcum ; and, uniting with the
Maes, falls into the German fea below the Brief
WACHENDORFIA, a genus of plants of the daft
ei
•n*
a
e.
W A 1 [ J W A K
of triandria; and arranged in the natural method under
the 6th order, Enfatce. See Botany Index.
WADD, or Wadding, is a ftopple of paper, hay,
, draw, or the like, forced into a gun upon the powder,
to keep it clofe in the chamber 5 or to put up clofe to
the ihot, to keep it from rolling out.
WADSET, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxix. f.
WAFERS, or Sealing WAFERS, are made thus :
Take very fine flour, mix it with glair of eggs, ifinglafs,
and a little yeaft 5 mingle the materials *, beat them well
together; fpread the batter, being made thin with gum-
water, or even tin plates, and dry them in a Hove ; then
cut them out for ufe*.
You may make them of what colour you pleafe, by
tinging the pafte with brafil or vermilion for red ; in^-
digo or verditer, &c. for blue ; fafiFron, tumeric, or gam¬
boge, &c. for yellow.
WAGER of LatV. See (Wager of) Law.
Wager of Battel. See (Wager of) Battel.
WAGGON, a wheel-carriage, of which there are
Various forms, accommodated to the different ufes they
are intended for. The common waggon confifls of the
fhafts or rods, being the two pieces which the hind horle
bears up; the welds ; the dotes, or crofs pieces, which
hold the lhafts together; the bolder, being that part
on which the fote-wheels and the axle-tree turn in
wheeling the waggon acrofs the road ; the cheft or body
of the waggon, having the ftaves or rails fixed thereon ;
the bales, or hoops which compofe the top ; the tilt, the
place covered with cloth, at the end of the waggon. See
Mechanics, Seft. iv.
WAGTAIL. See MotaCilla, OrnitholoLy
Index.
WAIFS, BoNa Waviata, are goods ftolen, and
waived or thrown away by the thief in his flight, for
fear of being apprehended. Thefe are given to the
king by the law, as a punilhment upon the owner for
not himfelf purfning the felon, and taking away his
goods from him. And therefore if the party robbed do
his diligence immediately to follow and apprehend
the thief (which is called making frejh fuit),ox do con-
vi<R him afterwards, or procure evidence to convift him*
he fhall have his goods again. Waived goods do alfo
not belong to the king till feized by fomebody for his
ufe ; for if the party robbed can feize them firft, though
at the diftance of 20 vears, the king (hall never have'
them. If the goods are hid by the thief, or left any¬
where by him, fo that he had them not about him when
he fled, and therefore did not throw them away in his
flight; thefe alfo are not bona waviata, but the owner
may have them again when he pleafes. The goods of
a foreign merchant, though ftolen and thrown away in
flight, thall never be waifs : the reafon whereof may be*
not only for the encouragement of trade, but alfo be-
fcaufe there is no Wilful default in the foreign merchant’s
not purfuing the thief, he being generally a ftrange'r to
our laws, our ufagfes, and our language.
WAIGATS straits, fituated between Nova Zem-
bla and Ruflia, through which the Dutch failed to the
north, as high as 7 in order to difcover a north-eaft
palfage to China and the Eaft Indies.
WAINSCOT, in building, the timber-work that
ferves to line the walls of a room, being ufually made in
pannels, and painted, to ferve ir.ftead of hangings.
WAIVE, in ZertOj a woman that is put eat of the
protection of the law. She is called waive, as being
forfaken of the law 5 and not an outlaw as a man is; by
reafon women cannot be of the decenna, and are not
fworn in leets to the king, nor to the law, as men are ;
who are therefore within the law ; whereas women are
not, and fo cannot be outlawed, fince they never wrere
within it.
WAKE, the print or track imprefled by the courfe
of a ftiip on the furface of the water. It is formed by
the re-union of the body of water which was feparated
by the (hip’s bottom whilft moving through it ; and
may be feen to a confiderable diftance behind the ftern,
as fmoother than the reft of the fea. Hence it is ufual¬
ly obferved by the compais, to difcover the angle of
lee-way.
A (hip is faid to be in the wake of another when (he
follows her on the fame track, or a line fuppofed to be
formed on the continuation of her keel.
Two diftant objeCts obferved at fea are called in the
wake of each other, when the view of the fartheii is
intercepted by the neareft ; fo that the obferver’s eye
and the two objefts are all placed upon the fame right
line.
Wake is the eve-feaft of the dedication of churches,
which is kept with feafting and rural diverfions.
Mr Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter, has
given a particular account of the origin of wakes and
fairs. He obferVes, that every church at its confecra-
tion received the name of fome particular faint : this
cuftom was praftifed among the Roman Britons, and
continued among the Saxons ; and in the council of
Cealchythe, in 816, the name of the denominating
faint was exprefsly required to be infcribed on the al¬
tars, and alfo on the walls of the church, or a tablet
within it. The feaft of this faint became of courfe the
feftival of the church. Thus Chriftian feftivals were
fubftituted in the room of the idolatrous anniverfaries of
heathenifm : accordingly, at the firft introduction of
Chriftianity among the Jutes of Kent, Pope Gregory
the Great advifed, what had been prcvioufly done among
the Britons, viz. Chriftian feftivals to be inftituted in
the room of the idolatrous, and the fuffering day of the
martyr whofe relics were repofited in the church, or
the day on which the building was aftually dedicated,
to be the eftabliflied feaft of the parifti. Both were ap¬
pointed and obferved ; and they were clearly diftinguifti-
ed at firft among the Saxons, as appears from the laws
of the Confeffor, where the dies dedicationis, or dcdicatio,
is repeatedly difcriminated from the propria fefivitas
fanBi, or celebratio fanfli. They remained equally dif-
tinft to the Reformation; the dedication-day in 1536
being ordered for the future to be kept on the firft Sun¬
day in October, and the feftival of the patron faint to
be celebrated no longer. The latter was, by way of
pre-eminence, denominated the church's holiday, or its
peculiar feftival; and while this remains in many pa-
rifties at prefent, the other is fo utterly annihilated in all,
that Bifhop Kennet (fays Mr Whitaker) knew nothing
of its diftind exiflence, and has attributed to the day of
dedication what is true only concerning the faint’s day.
Thus inftituted at firft, the day of the tutelar faint was
obferved, moft probably by the Britons, and certainly
by the Saxons, with great devotion. And the evening
before every faint’s day, in the Saxon Jewifti method of
reckoning the hours, being an a&ual hour of the day,
4 E *2 , and
W A K
Wake.
^ and therefore like that appropriated to the duties of pub¬
lic religion, as they reckoned Sunday from the firft to
commence at the funfet of Saturday ; the evening pre¬
ceding the church’s holyda/ would be obferved with all
the devotion of the feflival. The people actually re¬
paired to the church, and joined in the fervices of it 5 and
they thus fpent the evening of their greater feftivities in
the monafteries of the North, as early as the conclufion
of the feventh century.
I hefe fervices were naturally denominated from their
late hours wcecan or wakes, and vigils or eves. That
of the anniverfary at Rippon, as early as the commence¬
ment of the eighth century, is exprefsly denominated
the vigil. But that of the church’s holiday was named
cyric or church-wake, the church-vigil,or church
eve. And it was this commencement of both with a
wake, which has now caufed the days to be generally
preceded with vigils, and the church-holiday particular¬
ly to be denominated the church-wake. So religioufly
was the eve and feltival of the patron faint obferved for
many ages by the Saxons, even as late as the reign of
Edgar, the former being fpent in the church, and
employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all the other
holidays in the year, were put upon the fame footing
with the O(Raves of Chriftmas, Eafter, and of Pente-
coft. When Gregory recommended the feftival of the
pation faint, he advifed the people to ere6t booths of
branches about the church on the day of the feftival,
and to feaft and be merry in them with innocence. Ac¬
cordingly, in every parilh, on the returning anniverfary
of the faint, little, pavilions were conftruRed of boughs,
and the people indulged in them to hofpitality and
nurth. 1 he feafting of the faint’s day, however, was
-non aoufed ; and even in the body of the church, when
tne people were aflembled for devotion, they began to
Mind diverfions, and to introduce drinking. The
growing intemperance, gradually ftained the fervice of
toe. vigil, till the feftivity of it was converted, as it now
is, into the rigour of a faft. At length they too iuftly
candahzed the Puritans of the laft century, and num¬
bers of the wakes were difufed entirely, especially in
the eaft and fome weftern parts of England j but they
are commonly obferved in the north, and in the midland
counties.
. J h‘s of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the
enurch, on the days of particular faints, was introduced
into England from the continent, and muft have been
familiar equally to the Britons and Saxons : being ob-
lerved among the churches of Afia in the fixth century,
and by thofe. of the weft of Europe in the feventh!
jAn , equally m AfTa and Europe, on the continent and
m the 1 Hands, thefe celebrities were the caufes of thofe
commercial marts which we denominate fairs The
people reforted in crowds to the feftival, and a confider-
atne provifton would be wanted for their entertainment.
I he prolpect of mtereft invited the little traders of the
country to come and offer their wares ; and thus, among
the many pavilions.for hofpitality in the neighbourhood
r j-rr C"UrC1’ vanous booths were erefted for the fale
ot different commodities. In larger towns, furrounded
with populous diftriRs, the refort of the people to the
wakes would be great, and the attendance of traders
numerous • and this refort and attendance conftitute a
tair.—Rafft exprefsly mentions the numerous appearance
of traders at thefe feftivals in ^ and Grt.gP0Pry ^
[ 5S8 ]
W A L
the fame cuftom to be common in Europe. And as the
feftival was. obferved on a feria or holyday, it naturally
affumed to itfelf, and as naturally communicated to the
mart, the appellation oiferia or fair. Indeed feveral of^
our moft ancient fairs appear to have been ufually held
and have been continued to our time, on the original
church-holydays of the places : befides, it is obfervable
that fairs were generally kept in church-yards, and
even in the churches, and alfo on Sundays, till the inde-
cency and fcandal were fo great as to need reformation.
Wake-RoBiN. See Arum, Botany Index.
WALACHIA, a province of Turkey in Europe
bounded on the north by Moldavia and Tranfylvania|
on the eaft and fouth by the river Danube, and on the
weft by Tranfylvania. It is 225 miles in length, and
125 in breadth ; and was ceded to the Turks by the
treaty of Belgrade, in 1739. It abounds in good horfes
and cattle ; and there are mines of feveral kinds. The
foil is fo fertile, that it is capable of producing any
thing j and there are good paftures, with wine, oil, and
all. manner of European fruits. The inhabitants are
chiefly of the Greek church.
WALCHEREN, an ifland of the Low Countries,
and one of the principal of thofe of Zealand j feparated
from Dutch Flanders by the mouth of the Scheldt. It
is about nine miles in length, and eight in breadth;
and though it lies low, has good arable and pafture land.
The chief town of this ifland and the whole province is
Middlcburgh. But the principal fea port is Fluffing,
which is ftrongly fortified. Walcheren was taken by
the Britifli forces in Auguft 1809 ; but it foon after
was abandoned, the troops having fuffered feverely by
ficknefs.
WALDEN, a town of Eflfex, commonly called Saf¬
fron Walden, with a market on Saturdays, and two
fairs on Midlent Saturday for horfes, and November iff
for cows. It is remarkable for the plenty of faffron
that grows about it. I his town was incorporated by
Edward VI. and is governed by a mayor and 24 aider-
men. It is 27 miles north-weft-by-north of Chelms¬
ford, and 43 north-eaft of London. E. Long. 0. 20.
N. Lat. 52. 4.
WALDENSES. See Waldo.
WALDO, a merchant of Lyons in the latter part of
the 12th century, who applying himfelf to the ftudy of
the Scriptures, and finding no warrant there for feveral
of the Romith dodhines, particularly that of tranfub-
ftantiation, publicly oppofed them. His followers, who
from him were called Waldenfes, being chafed from
Lyons, fpread over Dauphine and Provence ; upon
which Philip II. is faid to have razed 300 gentlemen’s
feats, and deftroyed feveral walled towns to flop their
growth : but this, inftead of fupprefting, fpread them
over a great part of Europe. The articles of their
faith, which they drew up and dedicated to the king
of France, agreed in moft points with thofe of the pre-
fent Proteftants. In the year 1200, thofe of them who
dwelt in the province of Albigeois in Languedoc, from
whence they were called Albigenfes, flood upon their
defence; upon which Philip drove them into Bohemia,
Savoy, and England. The crufade againft them is faid
to have confifted of 500,000 men, who wore their crofles
on their breafts, to diftinguith themfelves from thofe who
went to theHoly Land, and wore them on their fhoulders.
WALES, a country fijtuated in the fouth-weft part
of
w A L [ 589 1 W A L
e!. 0f Britain, into which the ancient Britons retired from
the perfecution of the Saxons. Anciently it was of
greater extent than it is at prefent, and comprehended
all the country beyond the Severn ; that is, befides the
12 counties included in it at prefent, thofe of Hereford-
{hire and Mon mouth (hire, which now are reckoned a
part of England, were then inhabited by three different
tribes of the Britons, namely, the Silures, the Dimetae,
and the Ordovices. The Romans were never able to
fubdue them, till the reign of Vefpafian, when they
were reduced by Julius Frontinus, who placed garrifons
in their country to keep them in awe. Though the
Saxons made themfelves mailers of all England, they
never could get poffeffion of Wales, except the counties
of Monmouthibire and Herefordfliire, formerly a part of
Wales. About the year 870, Roderic king of Wales
divided it among his three fons*, and the names of thefe
divifions were, Demetia, or South-Wales; Povejia, or
Powis-Land; and Venedotia, or North Wales. Another
divifion is mentioned afterwards in the records, viz.
North Wales, South Wales, and Weft Wales j the laft
comprehending the counties of Monmouth and Here¬
ford. The country derived the name of Wales, and the
inhabitants that of Welfh, from the Saxons, who by
thofe terms denote a country and people to which they
are ftrangers; for the Welfh, in their own language,
call their country Cymry, and their language Cymraeg.
They continued under their own princes and laws from
the above-mentioned period, and were never entirely
fubjefled to the crown of England till the reign of
Edward I. when Llewellin ap Gryffitb, prince of
Wales, loft both his life and dominions. Edward, the
better to fecure his conqueft, and to reconcile the Wellh
to a foreign yoke, fent his queen to lie in at Caernarvon,
where (lie was delivered of a prince •, to whom the
Welfh, on that account, the more readily fubmitted.
Ever lince that time, the eldeft fons of the kings of
England have commonly been created princes of
Wales, and as fuch enjoy certain revenues from that
country.
As to the charadler of the Welfh, they are faid to
be a brave, hofpitable people ; and though very jealous
of affronts, paftionate, and hafty, yet are eafily recon¬
ciled. The common people look with a fufpicious eye
on ftrangers, and bear a hereditary grudge to the Eng-
lifh nation, by whom their anceflors were expelled from
the fineft parts of the ifland. The gentlemen are apt
to value themfelves upon the antiquity of their families $
and with fame reafos, as they can generally trace them
much higher than the inhabitants of moft other coun¬
tries.
All the better fort, both in town and country, can
fpeak Englifh, efpecially in the counties bordering upon
England. The common people, in general, only fpeak
their own language, which is the ancient Britifh •, and
not only differs entirely from the Englilh, but has very
little .affinity with any of the weftern tongues, unlefs
we Ihould except the Gaelic, Erfe, or Irifh. It is faid
to be a dialedl of the ancient Celtic, and in many re-
fpe6ls to referable the Hebrew. Moft of the clergy are
natives of the country, and underftand Englifh fo well,
that they could exercife their fundlions in any part of
Britain. The public worlhip, however, is as often per¬
formed in Welfli as in Englifla, excepting in the towns,
I
wrhere the latter is the prevailing language. The inha- Wales
bitants are computed at about 300,000. 11
I he country, though mountainous, efpecially in ,
North Wales, is far from being barren or unfruitful,
the hills, befides the metals and minerals they contain,
feeding vaft herds of fmall black cattle, deer, Iheep,
and goats, and their valleys abounding in corn, as their
feas and rivers do in fifti. Here are alfo wood, coal,
and turf, for fuel, in abundance.
Wales is bounded on all fides by the fea and the
Severn j except on the eaft, where it joins to the coun¬
ties of Chefter, Salop, Hereford, and Monmouth. Its
length, from the fouthernmoft part of Glamorganlhire
to the extremity of Flintfhire north, is computed at
about 113 miles; and its greateft breadth, trom the
river Wye eaft to St David’s in Pembrokefliire weft, is
nearly of the fame dimenfions, being about 90 miles.
After the conqueft of Wales by Edward I. very ma¬
terial alterations were made in their laws, fo as to reduce
them nearer to the Englifti ilandard, efpecially in the
forms of their judicial proceedings: but they ftill retain¬
ed very much of their original polity, particularly their
rule of inheritance, viz. that their lands were divided
equally among all the iffue male, and did not defcend to
the eldeft fon alone. By other fubfequent ftatutes their
provincial immunities were ftill farther abridged : but
the finiftiing ftroke to their dependency was given by
the ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26. which at the fame time
gave the utmoft advancement to their civil profperity,
by admitting them to a thorough communication of laws
with the fubjedls of England.—Thus were this brave
people gradually conquered into the enjoyment of true
liberty ; being infenfibly put upon the fame footing,
and made fellow-citizens, with their conquerors.
It is enabled by the 27 Hen. VIII. 1. That the do¬
minions of Wales (hall be forever united to the kingdom
of England. 2. That all Welfhmen born ftiall have the
fame liberties as other king’s fubjedls. 3. That lands
in Wales {hall be inheritable according to the Englilh
tenures and rules of defcent. 4. That the laws of Eng¬
land, and no other, {hall be ufed in Wales; befides ma¬
ny other regulations of the police of this principality.
And the 34 and 35 Hen. Vlll.c, 26. confirms the fame,
adds farther regulations, divides it into 12 (hires, and,
in ftiort, reduces it to the fame order in which it ftands
at this day ; differing from the kingdom of England in
only a few particulars, and thofe too of the nature of
privileges (fuch as having courts within itfelf, indepen¬
dent of the procefs of Weftminfter-hall), and fome other
immaterial peculiarities, hardly more than are to be
found in many counties of England itfelf.
New Wales. See New Britain.
New South Wales. See New Holland.
Prince of WALES. See ROTAL Family.
WALKING Leaf an infect. See MANTIS Sycifoliaf
Entomology Index.
WALL, in Archite&ure, the principal part of a
building, as ferving both to inclofe it, and to fupport
the roof, floors, &c.—Walls are diftinguilhed into va¬
rious kinds, from the matter whereof they confift ; as
plafter or mud w7alls, brick walls, {tone walls, flint or
boulder walls, and boarded walls. See Architecture.
Cob or Mud WALL. In thofe parts of England where
ftone is fcarce, it is ufual to make walls and houfes of
mud,
w A L r 590 1 W A L
Wall mud, or, tis it is in Dtvonflnjtc^ cot? y "wliioii is
Waller con'1P0fiti°n of earth and ft raw, wet up fora ew hat like
— —' . mortar, but well beat and trod together. When a wall
is making, after being raifed to a certain height, it is al¬
lowed time to pitch or fettle before the work is refumed.
Some value themfelves on their Ikill in building with
this compofition ; the price, when materials are found, is
generally in Devonlhire p. per perch of 16^ feet ; but
a ft one foundation colls more. Houfes built with this,
being covered with thatch, are very dry and warm •, a
cob wall, if in a good fituation, will laft 50 or 60 years
or more. When pulled down, they are uftd as manure,
and new earth employed to rebuild with.
WALLACE. Sir William, a gallant general of
the Scots, who endeavoured to refcue his country from
the Englith yoke *, but being taken prifoner, he wTas un-
juftly tried by the Englifh laws, condemned, and exe¬
cuted as a traitor to Edward I. in 1304. See Scot¬
land, N° 103, et feq.
WALLACHIA. See Walachia.
WALLER, Edmund, a celebrated Englifti poet,
was the fon of Robert Waller, Efq. of Agmondefliam
in Buckinghamfliire, by Anne, the lifter of the great
Hamden who diftinguilhed himfelf fo much in the be¬
ginning of the civil wars. He was born in 1605J
and his father dying when he was very young, the care
of his education fell to his mother, wrho fent him to Eton
fchool.. He was afterwards fent to King’s college in
Cambridge, W'here he muft have been very afliduous in
his ftudies, fince, at fixteen or feventeen years of age, he
was chofen into the laft parliament of King James I.
and ferved as burgefs for Agmondelham. He began to
exercife his poetical talent fo early as the year 1623 ; as
appears from his verfes “ upon the danger his roajefty
(being pnnce) efcaped in the road of St Andero 3” for
there Prince Charles, returning from Spain that year,
had like to have been call away. It was not, however,
Mr Waller’s wit, his fine parts, or his poetry, that To
much occalioned him to be firft publicly known, as his
carrying off the daughter and foie heirefs pf a rich ci¬
tizen, againft a rival whofe intereft was efpoufed by the
court. It is.not known at what time he married his
firft lady ; but he was a widpwer before he was 2 5,
when he began to have a paflion for Sachariffa, which
was a fiftitious name for the lady Dorothy Sidney,
daughter to the earl of Leicefter, and afterwards wife to
the earl of Sunderland. He was now known at court,
carefled by all who had any relifh for wit and polite
literature 3 and was one of the famous club of which
Lord f alkland, Mr Chillingworth, and other eminent
men, were members. He was returned burgefs for Ag¬
mondelham in the parliament which met in April 1640.
An intermiftion of parliaments having difgufted the na¬
tion, and raifed jealoufies againft the defigns of the
court, which would be fure to diTcover themfelves when¬
ever the king came to alk for a fupply, Mr Waller was
one of the firft who condemned the preceding meafures.
He Ihowed himfelf in oppofition to the court, and made
a Ipeech in the houfe on this occalion 3 from which we
may gather fome notion of his general principles in go¬
vernment 3 wherein, however, he afterwards proved very
variable and inconftant. He oppofed the pourt alfo in
the long parliament which met in November following
and was chofen to impeach Judge Crawley, which he
aid m a warm and eloquent fpeech, July 16th 1641,
This fpeech was fo highly applauded, that 20,000 co- 'Walk*,
pies of it were fold in one day. In 1642, he was one Wfe.1
of the commiflioners appointed by the parliament to'~Vw>*rj
prefent their propofttions of peace to the king at Ox¬
ford. In 1643, he was deeply engaged in a defign to
reduce the city of London and the Tower to the lervice
of the king 3 for which he was tried and condemned
together with Mr Tomkins his brother-in law, and Mr
Cballoner. The two latter fuffered death 3 but Mr
Waller obtained a reprieve : he was, however, fen-
tenced to fuffer a year’s imprifonment, and to pay a fine
of io,OOol. After this, he became particularly attached
to Oliver Cromwell, upon whom he wrote a very hand-
feme panegyric. He alfo wrote a noble poem on the-
death of that great man.
At the Reftoration, he Was treated with great civility
by Charles II. who always made him one of the party
in his diveifions at the'duke of Buckingham’s and other
places. He wrote a panegyric upon his majefty’s re-
turn 3 which being thought to fall much fhort of that he
had before written on Oliver Cromwell, the king one
day a iked him in raillery, “ How is it, Waller, that
you wrote-a better encomium on Cromwell than on
me ?” “ May it pleafe your majefty,” anfwered he,
“ we poets generally fucceed beft ‘in fiaion.” He fat in
feveral parliaments after the Reftoration, and continued
in the full vigour of his genius to the end of his life,
his natural vivacity bearing him up, and making his
company agreeable to the laft. He died of a dropfy in
1687, and was interred in the churchyard of Beacons-
field, where a monument is ereaed to his memory. Mr
Waller has been honoured as the moft elegant and har¬
monious verfifier of his time, and a great refiner of the
Englifh language. The beft edition of his works, con¬
taining poems, fpecches, letters, &c. is that publifhed
in quarto by Mr Fenton, to 1730.
\V ALLIS, Dr John, a celebrated mathematician,
was educated at Cambridge 3 where he became fellow
of Queen’s college, and continued fo till, by his mar-
riage, he vacated his fellowfhip. In 1640, he received
holy orders, and became chaplain to the lady Vere.
While he lived in this family, he cultivated the art of
deciphering 3 and it is faid that the ekaor of Branden-
bur£b f°r he explained Teveral letters written in
ciphers, fent him a gold chain and medal. In 1643
publifhed, “ Truth tried 3 or Animadverfions on the Lord
Brooke’s treatife, called The Nature of Truth, &c.”
"1 he next year he was chofen one of the feribes or fe-
cretaries to the affembly of divines at Weftminfter. Dr
Peter T urner, Savilian profeffur of geometry in Oxford,
being ejedted by the parliament-vifitors in 1649,
Wallis was appointed to fuceeed him in that place. In
1653 publifhed at Oxford a Grammar of the Eng¬
lifh Tongue in Latin. In 1655 he entered the lifts
with Mr Hobbes ; and their controverfy lafted a con-
fiderable time. In 1657 the Dodlor publifhed his Ma¬
thematical Works. Upon the death of Dr Langbaine,
he was chofen cuftos archivorum of the univerfity. Af¬
ter the Reftoration he met with great refpeft, the king
himfelf entertaining a favourable opinion of him on ac¬
count of fome fervices he had done both to his royal
father and bimfelf. He was therefore confirmed in his
places, admitted one of the king’s chaplains in ordinary,
and appointed one of the divines empowered to review
the book, of common prayer. He complied with the
terms
w A L C i9i J W A I,
W lis terms of tlie aft of uniformity, and continued a fteady
conformid till his death. He was one of the firft mem-
le'. hers of the Royal Society, and correfponded with many
^ learned men. In 1697* the curators of the univerfity
prefs at Oxford thought it for the honour of the univer¬
fity to colledt the mathematical works of the Dottor,
which had been printed feparately, fome in Latin, fome
In Englilh, and publifhed them all together in the Latin
tongue, in three vols, folio. He died in 1703. He
fpeaks of himfelf thus : “ It hath been my endeavour
all along to a£t by moderate principles, being willing
whatever fide was uppermoft, to promote any good de-
fign for the true intereft of religion, of learning, and
of the public good.” Befides the works above men¬
tioned, he publilhed many others.
WALLOONS, a name for the inhabitants of a
confiderable part of the Netherlands, viz. Artois, Hai-
nault, Naum, Luxemburgh, and part of Flanders and
Brabant.
WALNUT-TREE. See JuGLANS, Botany Index.
WxALPOLE, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, was
born at Houghton in Norfolk, September 6th, 1674,
and educated on the foundation at Eton fchool. Thence
he was eleiRed to King’s College in Cambridge ; but,
fucceeding to the family eftate by the death of his elder
brother, he refigned his fellowfliip. In 1700, he was
chofen member of parliament for King’s Lynn, and re-
prefented that borough in feveral fucceeding parlia¬
ments. In 1705? he was nominated one of the council
to Prince George of Denmark, lord high admiral of
England; in 17075 appointed fecretary at war; and,
in 1709, treafurer of the navy. In 1710, upon the
change of the miniftry, he was removed from all his
polls, and held no place afterwards during the queen’s-
reign. In 1711 he was expelled from the houfe of
commons for what they called notorious corruption in
his office as fecretary at war. The borough of Lynn,,
however, re-ele£ted him ; and, though the houfe de¬
clared the eleflion void, yet they perfifted in the choice.
In the well-known debate relating to Steele for publilh-
ing the Crifis, he greatly diftinguifhed himfelf in behalf
of liberty, and added to the popularity he had before
acquired.
On the death of the queen, a revolution of politics
took place, and the Whig party prevailed both at court
and in the fenate. Walpole had before recommended
himfelf to the houfe of Hanover by his zeal for its
caufe, when the commons confidered the Hate of the
nation with regard to the Proteftant fuceefiion : and he
had now the honour to procure the affbrance of the
houfe to the new king (which attended the addrefs of
condolence and congratulation), “ That the commons
would make good all parliamentary funds.” It is there¬
fore not to be wondered at, that his promotion foon
took place after the king’s arrival ; and that in a few
days he was appointed receiver and pay mailer-general
of all the guards and garrifons, and of all other the
land forces in Great Britain, paymafter of the royal
hofpital at Chelfea, and likewife a privy counfellor.
On the opening of a new parliament, a committee of
fecrecy was chofen to inquire into the conduft of the
late miniftry, of which Walpole was appointed chair¬
man ; and, by his management, articles of impeach-
Kient were read againft the earl of Oxford, Lord Bo-
Ungbroke, the duke of Ormond, and the earl of Straf-
\
ford. The eminent fervicfe he was thought to have Walpole,
done the crown, by the vigorous profecution of thofe
minifters who were deemed the chief inftruments of the'
peace, was foon rewarded by the extraordinary pro¬
motions to the offices of firft commiftioner of the trea-
fury, and chancellor and under treafurer of the exche¬
quer.
In two years time he refigned all his offices, on ac¬
count of a mifunderftanding which took place between
him and the reft of the miniftry about certain fuppliea
demanded for the fupport of his majefty’s German do¬
minions. On the day of his refignation he brought in
the famous finking-fund bill, which he prefented as a
country gentleman, faying, that he hoped it would not
fare the worfe for having two fathers; and that his
fucceffor Mr Stanhope would bring it to perfeftion.
His calling himfelf the father of a projeft, which hath
fince been fo often employed to other purpofes than
were at firft declared, gave his enemies frequent oppor- >
tunity for fatire and ridicule ; and it hath been farcafti-
cally obferved, that the father of this fund appeared in
a very bad light v/hen viewed in the capacity of a nurfe.
In the next feffion of parliament, Walpole oppofed the
miniftry in every thing; and even Wyndham or Ship-
pen did not exceed him in patriotifm. Upon a motion
in the houfe for continuing the army, he made a fpeech
of above an hour long, and difplayed the danger of a
ftanding army in a free country, with all the powers of
eloquence. Early in 1720 the rigour of the patriot
began to foften, and the complaifance of the courtier
to appear ; and he was again appointed paymafter of-
the forces, and feveral of his friends were found foon
after in the lift of promotions. No doubt now remain¬
ed of his entire converfion to court meafures; for be¬
fore the end of the year, we find him pleading as ftrong-
ly for the forces Required by the war-office as he had
before declaimed againft them, even though at this
time the fame pretences for keeping them on foot did •
not exift.
It was not long before he acquired full minifterial ■
power, being appointed firft lord commiffioner of the -
treafury, and chancellor of the exchequer ; and, when
the king went abroad in 1723, he was nominated one
of the lords juftices for the adminiftraiion of govern¬
ment, and was fworn foie fecretsry of ft ate. About
this time he received another diftinguilhed mark of the
royal favour ; his eldeft fon then on his travels being
created a peer, by the title of Baron Walpole of Wal¬
pole. In 1725 he was made knight of the Bath, and
the year after knight of the Garter. The meafures of
his adminiftration, during the long time he remained
prime or rather foie minifter, have been often canvafled
with all the foverity of critical inquiry. It is difficult
to difcern the truth through the exaggerations and mif-
reprefentations of party. He has indeed been accufed'
of employing the finking fund for the purpofes of cor¬
ruption, of which it was long the fafhion to call him
the father ; but the man who reflefts on the tranfadHons
of Charles II. and his infamous cabal, will acquit him
of the latter part of this charge. He was an enemy to
war, and the friend of commerce ;. and becaufe he did
not refent fome petty infults of the court of Spain fo
fuddenly as the fiery part of the nation thought he
(hould have done, a formidable oppofition was formed
againft him in the houfe, which had influence enough
to
w A L [592] w A L
Wit!pole, to ethplby In its caufe almoft all the wit of the nation.
w'"'v Pulteney and Pitt were the great leaders of the party
in the houfe of commons j while Bolingbroke and Pope
and Johnfon, and almofl every man of genius, exerted
tbemfelves without doors to enlighten, by pamphlets in
profe and verfe, the minds of the people, and (how the
neceflity of a Spanilh war. This he ftrenuoufly oppof-
ed, becaufe he knew that the foreign fettlements of that
power are very remote, and in a climate deftnuftive to
Englifhtnen j and that fuch of tiiem as we might be
able to take, we could not poflibly retain. The oppo-
lition however prevailed. The nation was indulged in
a war, of which it furely had no eaufe to boaft of the
fuccefs ; and it is now univerfally known, that the
greater part of thofe who with honeft intentions had,
either in parliament or out of it, been engaged to run
down the minifter, lived to repent of their conduft, and
do juftice to the man whom they had fo pertinacioufly
vilified.
In order to encourage commerce and improve the
revenue, Sir Robert projeffed a fcheme for an extenfion
of the excife, as the only means of putting a flop to the
frauds of merchants and illicit traders. This was another
ground of clamour to the orators within, and the wits
without, doors ; and while the oppofition reprefented it
as a meafure big with public mifchief, Swift and Pope
occafionally alluded to it as an oppreffion calculated to
deprive private life of all its comforts. The minifter
was therefore obliged to abandon the fcheme ; but in a
fucceeding adminiftration it was partly carried into exe¬
cution, at the exprefs felicitation of the principal per-
fons concerned in that article of trade which it was fug-
gefted would be moft affe&ed by it; and afterwards the
moft popular minifter that ever dire&ed the councils of
this country declared in full fenate, that if a time fhould
ever arrive which was likely to render the projeft fea-
fible, he would bimfelf recommend an extenfion of the
excife laws as a meafure of the greateft advantage to
commerce, to the revenue, and to the general interefts
of the kingdom.
In 1742 the oppofition prevailed ; and Sir Robert
being no logger able to carry a majority in the houfe
of commons, refigned all his places, and fled for {belter
behind the throne. He was foon afterwards created
earl of Orford ; and the king, in confideration of his
long and faithful fervices, granted him a penfion of
4000I. per annum. The remainder of his life he fpent
in tranquillity and retirement, and died, in 174;, in the
71ft year of his age.
He has been feverel.y, and not unjuftly, cenfured for
that fyftem of corruption by which he almoft avowed
that he governed the nation ; but the objefts which he
had in view are now acknowledged to have been in a
high degree praife-worthy. Johnfon, who in the earlier
part of his life had joined the other wits in writing
againft his meafures, afterwards honoured his memory
for the placability of his temper, and for keeping this
country in peace for fo many years ; and Mr Burke
^ Letters has declaied, that his onlv defef! as a minifter was
Tift Peat ^ Want°f fufficient firmnefs to with contempt
that popular clamour, which, by his yielding to it, hur¬
ried the nation into an expenfive and unjuft war. But
his rancorous profecution of Alterbury bifliop of Ro-
chefter (fee Atterbury), by a bill of pains and penal¬
ties, may be confidered as fomething worfe than a de¬
feat : it was a fault for which no apology can be made • y; •• -
becaufe, whether that prelate was innocent or guilt\ of |j
his guilt no legal proof ever appeared. In that inflai ce
the conduft of the minifter was the more extraordinary,
that on other occafions be chofe to gain over the dilab
fefted by mildnefs and beneficence, even when be had
fufficient proofs of their guilt. 'Of this the following
anecdote, communicated by Lord North to Dr Johnfon
is a fufficient proof. Sir Robert having got into his
hands fome treafonable papers of his inveterate enemy
Shippen, fent for-him, and burnt them before bis eyes.
Some time afterwards, while Shippen was taking the
oaths to the government in the houfe of commons, Sir
Robert, who flood next to him, and knew his principleg
to be the fame as ever, fmiled ; upon which Shippen,
who had obferved him, faid “ Egad, Robin, that’s hard¬
ly fair.”
To whatever objedlions his xninifterial condudl may
be liable, in his private charadler he is univerfally al¬
lowed to have had amiable and benevolent qualities,
That he was a tender parent, a kind mafter, a bene-
ficent patron, a firm friend, an agreeable companion,
are points that have been feldom difputed ; and fo calm
and equal was his temper, that Pulteney, his great rival
and opponent, faid, he was fure that Sir Robert Wal¬
pole never felt the bittereft inveftives againft him for
half an hour.
About the end of Queen Anne’s reign, and the be¬
ginning of George I.’s, he wrote the following pamph¬
lets. 1. The Sovereign’s Anfwer to the Gloucefier-
fhire Addrefs. The Sovereign meant Charles duke of
Somerfet, fo nicknamed by the Whigs. 2. Anfwer to
the Reprefentation of the Houfe of Lords on the State
of the Navy, 1709. 3. The Debts of the Nation ftated
and confidered, in four Papers, 1710. 4. The Thirty-
five Millions accounted for, 1710. 5. A Letter from
a foreign Minifter in England to Monfieur Pettecum,
17'O. 6. Four Letters to a Friend in Scotland upon
Sacheverell’s Trial ; falfely attributed in the General
Di&ionary to Mr Maynwaring. 7. A Short Hiftory
of the Parliament. It is an account of the laft fef-
fion of the queen. 8. The South-Sea Scheme confider¬
ed. 9. A Pamphlet againft the Peerage Bill, 1719.
10. The Report of the Secret Committee, June 9th,
WALRUS. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
WALSH, William, an Englifh critic and poet,
the fon of Jofeph Walfti, Efq. of Abberley in Wor-
cefterfhire, was born about the year 1660. He became
a gentleman commoner of Wadham college, Oxford,
but left the univerfity without taking a degree. His
writings are printed among the works of the Minor
Poets, printed in 1749. He was made gentleman of
the horfe in Queen Anne’s reign ; and died in 1708.
He was the friend of Mr Dryden and of Mr Pope ; the
former of whom efteemed him the beft critic then living;
and Mr Pope has celebrated his chara&er in the Effar
on Criticifm.
WALSINGHAM, a town of Norfolk, with a mar¬
ket on Fridays, and a fair on Whit-Monday, for horfes
and pedlars ware ; it is feated not far from the fea;
and in former times was famous for its college of ca¬
nons, and was greatly frequented bv pilgrims who went
to pay their devotions to the image of the Virgin Mary
at the chapel, where there are two fine fprings, called
W A L [ 593 ] - WAP
C m . t|ie Virgin Mary's wells. Not many years ago there
? ’ h; ^ were found here by a hufbandman, 100 urns full of allies,
^ t—- were fuppofed to be thofe which the Romans fill¬
ed with the a flies of the dead. It is 22 miles north-
weft of Norwich, and 117 north-north-eaft of London.
E. Long. o. 53. N. Lat. 52. 56.
WALSINGHAM, Thomas, an Engliih Benediaine.
monk of the monaftery of St Alban’s, who lived about
the year 1440. He applied himfelf to the biftory and
antiquity of his country, in quality of hiftoriographer to
the king* 5 and compofed the Hiftory of King Henry VI.
with other works.
Walsingham, Sir Francis, minifter and fecretary of
ftate during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and one of
the greateft politicians of his time, was defcended from
a noble and ancient family at Chiflehurft. After having
made great progrefs in his ftudies at Cambridge, he was
twice fent ambaflador to France, and at his return to
England was employed in the moil important affairs,
became fecretary of ftate, and was one of the commif-
fioners for the trial of Mary queen of Scotland. Sir
Francis ivas undoubtedly one of the moft refined politi¬
cians and moft: penetrating ftatefman that any age ever
produced. Fie had an admirable talent, both in dif-
eovering and managing the fecret receffes of the heart.
He had his fpies in moft courts in Chriftendom, and al¬
lowed them a liberal maintenance } for it was his
maxim. That knowledge cannot be bought too dear.
In 1587 the king of Spain having made vaft prepara¬
tions, which furprifed, and kept all Europe in fufpenfe,
Walfingham employed his utmoft endeavours for the
difcovery of that important fecret j and accordingly
procured intelligence from Madrid, that the king had
informed his council of his having difpatehed an exprefs
to Rome, with a letter written with his own hand to
the pope, acquainting him with the true defign of his
preparations, and begging his bleflings upon him } Avhich
for fome reafons he could not difclofe till the return of
the courier. The fecret being thus lodged with the
pope, Walfingham, by means of a Venetian prieft, xvhom
he retained at Rome as a fpy, got a copy of the original
letter, which was ftolen out of the pope’s cabinet by a
gentleman of the bed-chamber, who took the key out
of the pope’s pocket while he flept. After this, by his
dexterous management, he caufed the Spaniards bills to
be protefted at Genoa, which ftiould havefupplied them
with money for their extraordinary preparations} and
by this means he happily retarded this formidable inv£- Waiting
fion for a wrhole year. In lliort, he fpent his whole
time and faculties in the fervice of Queen Elizabeth ; Wa-l'n-
on which account her majefty was heard to fay, “ That tajte.
in diligence and fagacity he exceeded her expectations.” *—
However, after all his eminent fervices to his country,
this man gave a remarkable proof at his death, which
happened on the 6th of April 1590, how far he pre¬
ferred the public intereft to his own ; he being fo poor,
that excepting his library, which was a very fine one,
he had fcarcely effeCts enough to defray the expence of
Ills funeral. His principal works are, 1. Memoirs and
InftruCtions for the ufe of Ambaffadors, with his Letters
and Negociations. 2. Political Memoirs.
WTALTHERIA, a genus of plants in the clafs mo-
nadelphia, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
37th order, Columniferce. See Botany Index.
WALTON, Bryan, Biftiop of Chefter, a learned
Englifh divine, who gained great reputation by his edi¬
tion of the Polyglot hible, with his Prolegomena in the
beginning ; which is more exaft, fays Father Simon,
than any other which had been publiftied on that fub-
je£l. He died in 1661.
WAMPUM, the money ufed by the North Ameri¬
can Indians. It is much ufed in all their treaties as a
fymbol of friendfliip. It is made of a fliell of a particu¬
lar fpecies of Venus.
WAPENTAKE, is the fame wuth what is called a
hundred; efpecially ufed in the north counties beyond
the river Trent. The word feems to be of Danifh ori¬
ginal, and to be fo called for this reafon : When firft
this kingdom, or part thereof, was divided into wapen¬
takes, he who was the chief of the wapentake or hun¬
dred, and who is now called a high conjlable, as foon as
he entered upon his office, appeared in a field on a cer¬
tain day on horfeback with a pike in his hand, and all
the chief men of the hundred met him there with their
lances, and touched his pike j which was a fign that
they were firmly united to each other by the touching
their weapons. But Sir Thomas Smith fays, that an¬
ciently mufters were made of the armour and weapons
of the feveral inhabitants of every wapentake j and
from thofe that could not find fufficient pledges for
their good abearing, their weapons were taken away
and given to others \ from whence he derives the
word.
WAR.
ir
INTRODUCTION.
i of TN treating the fubjedl of war, we may confider it
: ^e, jeft, 1 jn a p0litical an(J moral point of view, as one of
thofe powerful engines employed by civil governments,
to bring about fome ends which they deem beneficial to
the community over which they prefide; and fecondly,
in a theoretical and praBical point of view, as ^faience
or an art, which the neceflities or the follies of mankind
have rendered an important object of confideration, not
only to certain individuals, but in fome meafure to fo-
eiety at large.
Vol. XX. Part II.
From the numerous calamities incident to war, it Political
ftiould be prefumed that no wife or good government
would have recourfe to means fo dangerous and expen-^
five, till after all other means of producing the ends
they have in view had failed of fuccefs. The oftenfible
obje&s for which a nation or community engages in a
war, are ufually to prevent or repel the affaults, en¬
croachments, or invafions of its neighbours j to revenge
fome infult or injury which the community, its allies,
or dependents, may have fuftained j to compel fome
other nation or community to refpeft what are called
the law of nations, and the rights of civil faciety ,• or to
4 F prefervd
594-
Introduc¬
tion.
W A R.
Bacon.
Exuberant
population
regarded
as a pri¬
mary caufe
of war-
f Mai thus
tn Popu-
iation. Edit
1803, P-
500-
preferve that due and equable balance of power among
neighbouring ftates, which has of late been cunfidered
as an effential point in the political economy of civiliz¬
ed nations. We fay that thefe are ufually the oftenjible
objects of war ; for though it will fcarcely be denied
that ambition, avarice, religious bigotry, a defire of
dominion, and a thiril of military fame, have been the
real caufes of many of thofe long and bloody wars which
have defolated the face of nature, and heaped mifery
and wretchednefs on millions of human beings, we be¬
lieve few heroes and conquerors, either of ancient or
modern times, have had the honelty or effrontery to
avow thefe as the real motives of their military expedi¬
tions. Yet, if we examine the pages of hiftory, we
[hall fcarcely find a war, from the Battle of the Kings
recorded by the facred hiftorian, to the prefent conteff
which has for 1 y years involved all Europe in confufion
and bloodfhed, and reduced many of its faireft Hates
and provinces under the fubjedlion of a fingle monarch,
in which one or other of thefe latter motives has not,
at leaft to one party, been a principal inducement.
Among the political objects of war, we muff not
omit to mention one which, though perhaps lefs openly
avowed than any other, has, in monarchical and arifto-
eratical governments, always formed a material part of
the ftate policy ;—w7e mean the objeft of preventing
tumults and commotions among the people, by engaging
them in a foreign war. It vTas long ago ebferved by a
good judge of human nature*, “ that no body can be
healthful without exercife, neither natural body nor
politic j” and that “ to a kingdom or a ftate, a juft and
Ixmourable war is the true exercife.” That politicians
have often afted on thefe principles, is certain. On the
juftice of the principles themfelves, we prefume not to
decide, though we may fafely exprefs a doubt Avhether
the remedy be not worfe than the difeafe, and whether
thefe popular commotions might not be prevented with
equal eafe, and with more advantage to the nation, by
employing the populace in fuch works of' improvement
as may advance the manufactures, commerce, or internal
comforts of the ftate.
An able and ingenious writer confiders a redundance
of population as one of the chief primary caufes of war.
“ One of its firft caufes and moft powerful impulfes,
was undoubtedly an infuffioiency of room and food ;
and, greatly as the circumftances of mankind have
changed fince it firft began, the fame caufe ftill conti¬
nues to operate, and to produce, though in a fmaller
degree, the fame effe&s. The ambition of princes
would want inftruments of deftruCtion, if the diftreffes
of the lower Ciaffes did not drive them under their ftan-
dards. A recruiting ferjeant always prays for a bad
harveft, and a want of employment, or, in other words
a redundant, population f'This redundance he pro!
pofes to obviate, and thus to counteraft one of the prin¬
cipal^ caufes of war, by throwing obftaclesin the way of
marriage. Without calling in queftion the juftnefs of
his pofition, we do not fee the neceflity of the remedy
which he propofes. We muft acknowledge ourfelves
fuch friends to the increafe of population as to think
that every encouragement ought to be given to it, in-
ftead of throwing obftacles in its way. There are few
countries fo populous, or fo completely cultivated, as to
Tender, it neceffary to plunge them into wars, in order
it> diminifh the number of inhabitants, which might be
abundantly fupported, were agriculture encouraged, and Introdu
gluttony repreffed. tjoni
Whatever may be the objedls for which a nation "oes'""^~
to war j whatever the caufes which have induced herr j
to have recourfe to fuch an expedient, we may venture waf CJ
from hiftory and experience, to affirm that (lie will gain
little folid advantage by the conteft. She may drive
an invading enemy from her dominions, and purfue
him to his own ; (lie may acquire plunder and territory,
and may raife her name among the neighbouring flaks
by her victories and prowefs ; but all thefe, except the
frjl', will fcarcely compenfate for the blood and treafure
which flm has expended, and for the check given to her
agriculture, manufactures and commerce, by drawing off
many of the labouring part of the community to fupply
the fleets and armies of the ftate. Thefe are the inevi¬
table confequences even of a fuccefsful war; and fiiould
it prove otherwife, the calamities and diftreffes of the
vanquifhed may readily be conceived. Even to the
eftablifhed government of a ftate, war, while it appears
to ftrengthen their hands and inereafe their influenee, is
fraught with difficulty and danger. No fituation of af¬
fairs is fo well calculated to ftiow the abilities or infuffi-
ciency of a cabinet as this, and melancholy is the fate
of that nation whofe adminiflration is then conduced
by a weak, inexperienced, or profligate miniftry ; but
be they ever fo able or fo upright, ftill the want of fuc-
cefs, or a reverfe of fortune, will lower them in the
opinion of the people, and will compel them at laft to
conclude a diiadvantageous, perhaps a difhonourable
peace, or quit their pofts and leave the talk to a more
popular or fuccefsful adminiftration.
The evils of war do not terminate on the return of
peace. Many of the burdens which it had impofed on
the people muft ftill continue, to difeharge the debt
contradfed by the ftate; while the hidden difbanding of
the fleets and armies pours into the community numbers
of idle and diffipated men, averfe to labour, and accuf-
tomed to feenes of confufion, {laughter and rapine. At
no time are robberies, murders, or feditions fo frequent
as on the termination of a long protradled war ; at none
are the internal peace and quiet of a nation in fo much
danger. 5
On the moral evils of war we furely need not en-Morale
large. In itfelf, when undertaken without neceffity, it0^31,
is an act of the moft criminal and atrocious nature; and
the aggreffors are accountable for all the horrid confe¬
quences which may attend it. “ The pomp and cir¬
cumftances of glorious war” may form a defirable fubjeft
for the poet and the hiftorian; but the Chriftian and the
philofopher muft regard it with horror and deteftation,
as the greateft: evil with which providence has been
pleafed to arm the hands of its minifters to punifh and ^
affiift mankind. A late amiable and learned prelate^arfo
has laboured to prove that “ the frequency, duration, ly lefsfi
and cruelty of wars (in Chriftendom) are lefs now than<luellt 1,1
in ancient times but we think that neither his rea-
foning nor his examples are capable of eftablifliing the
firft part of this pofition. If we take the laft 700
years, and compare it with an equal period of ancient serm.
hiftory ; if we recoiled! the crufades, the almoft conti¬
nual ftruggles between France and Britain, the civil
diffenfions in both thefe mighty empires, the wars be¬
tween the Ruffians and their neighbours, the Turks, the
Poles, and the Swedes; if we advert to the reigns of
Edward
W A E.
Modi
wars
fangi
than
of an
times
fati ic- Edward Til. of England, Charles V. and Philip II. of
' ti • Spain, Louis XIV. of France, Guftavus Adolphus and
Charles XII. of Sweden, Frederick. II. of Pruflia, and
Catherine II. of Ruflia ; and laftly, if we turn our at¬
tention to the long and ruinous contefts which diftin-
guilh our own times, we fliall find little caufe to boaft
of having profited by the pacific leflbns of our Saviour,
whofe great objeft was to promote “peace on earth''
and good will and brotherly love among the children of
men.
There is indeed one confolatory circumftance with
s refpeft to the modern fyitem of warfare, that our wars
'T are now lefs fanguinary than thofe of ancient times.
The immenfe {laughter which attended fome of the
battles in the Greek and Roman wars, where the great¬
er part of the vanquifhed army was frequently put to
the fword, is familiar to our clafTical readers ; but in
modern warfare, even of the large armies that have ap¬
peared in the field on the continent of Europe, we fel-
dom find fo many as 30,000 killed and wounded on
both fides, a number vaftly inferior to what fell of the
Romans at Cannas, and by no means equal to the lofs
of the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama. This di-
minHhed {laughter is attributed, and we believe with
juftice, to the ufe of fire-arms ; and it is computed that
in this mode of fighting not more than one mufket ball
in 40 takes effefl, and not more than one in 400 proves
fatal. The introdufHon of thefe weapons, therefore,
however it may be declaimed againft by theorifts,
mufi: be confidered as a real improvement in the art of
Ivar; and it is fincerely to be regretted that the ufe of
them fiiould be laid afide. If, however, the prefent
practice of deciding battles by the bayonet and the
fabre be continued, it is to be feared that we {hall foon
rival the ancients as much in the fanguinary nature of
our wars as in their frequency.
ir After what we have faid on the impolicy of war, and
the moral evils which attend it, it will fcarcely be ex¬
pected that w7e {hould allow it to be juftifiable, except
in cafes of neceffity. Indeed we think that war can be
juftified only on the principles of felf-defence. When a
nation is invaded, or attacked in relation to her un¬
doubted rights and principles, it is then, and then only,
that {he has a pretence for war. We rvill not, indeed,
go fo far as to aflert, that {he ought to await the attack.
While (lie takes the beft methods for defending her ter¬
ritories at home, it is doubtlefs proper, efpecially for a
tnantime ftate, to meet the enemy half-way, and by a
timely and fpirited refiftance, endeavour to avert thofe
greater evils which would attend a fyftem of pufillani-
mity and negleft.
In the prefent {fate of human nature, war muft be re¬
garded as a neceflary evil, and as it is fometimes un¬
avoidable, the principles and practice of it muft be flu-
died by thofe who are to fuperintend or to condu£f its
operations. It is this neceflity that has given occafion
to the art of war, the praflice of which is to form the
fubjeft of the prefent article.
*- Before we enter on the immediate objecf of this eflay,
■o-however, it may not be improper to enumerate thofe
branches of knowledge which conftitute the principles of
the military art, and of which no officer who expefls to
have a principal command in military operations {hould
he ignorant. We {hall firft mention thofe fciences which
mould form a part of the education of every command-
595
Intreduc-
tion.
What
is juft
able.
9
i "ar c
lered
•tical
ing officer, whether military or naval; and we ffiali
then diftinguiffi between thofe which are moft applica¬
ble to the land and the fea fervice.
Among the firft branches of a military education mulf
be enumerated the modern languages of French and
German ; geography, by which we would under-
ftand, not merely the defcription of countries, {fates,
and kingdoms, but a knowledge of their political con-
ftitution, refources, and productions, and of the man¬
ners, cuftoms, and character of their inhabitants p
HISTORY, efpecially that of modern Europe, and of
the Greeks and Romans. Among particular hiftories
we would recommend thofe of Polybius, Xenophon,
Tacitus, with the Commentaries of Csefar, in ancient
hiftory ; and Davila’s account of the civil wars of
France, Guicciardini’s hiftory of the Italian wars,,
the hiftory of the feven years war by Frederick the*
Great, with a particular attention to the beft hifto¬
ries of his own country, and of the wars in which ftie
has been engaged. After thefe preliminary branches
follow the rudiments of mathematics, including com¬
mon and logarithmic arithmetic, the elements of
theoretical and pra&ical geometry, plane and fpheri-
cal trigonometry, the principles of surveying, co¬
nic sections, and their application to projectiles j
certain parts of natural philofophy, efpecially MECHA¬
NICS ; and the principles of drawing plans, maps, and
charts.
Befides thefe, a military officer fhould be inftru&ed
in fortification and gunnery, the nature of mili¬
tary exercifes, and the duties of the various officers at¬
tached to an array ; while the naval officer {hould par¬
ticularly attend to astronomy, hydrodynamics, na¬
vigation, the principles of seamanship, and of ship¬
building.
There is perhaps no art or profeffion, in the praftice Practice of
of which the fuperiority of example over precept is more WKr*
apparent than in war, infomuch that we may lay it
down as an axiom, that no man can be a foldier or a
failor from theory alone. It is not from books that we
are to learn the art of war, though there is no doubt
that they may greatly affift and improve the {kill and
experience acquired in the field or on the ocean. In
thefe a£tive fcenes have been formed the great com¬
manders, whofe lives and actions are perufed with fo
much avidity ; and the only method of fuccefsfully imi¬
tating their exploits, and emulating their fame, is to
encounter the dangers and the hardftiips to which they
were expofed, and to learn how* to command, by firft
learning to obey. A confiderable fhare of the mecha¬
nical part of war may be acquired in a well-regulated
military or naval fchool 5 but the experience neceflary
for a commander is to be gained only in aiftual fervice.
The praftieal part of war is ufually divided into mi~
litanj tatties, and naval tatties ; a divifion which we
{hall here adopt, though we have thought proper to
bring the whole under one article. As the fpace, which
we had originally allotted to thefe fubjedts, has unavoid¬
ably been reduced one half, wfe {hall be able to give
little more than a general outline, efpecially of military
tatties, referving the fuller difeuffion for naval tatties,
which, to a nation whofe chief dependence is on her
fleets, muft be the moft ufeful and the moft interefting
part of the fubjedt.
It would be vain for us to attempt any hiftorical ac-
4 F 2 count
its
W A R.
it
Prefent mi.
litary efta-
Vlifliment
of the
French.
* Edin.
Jievieav,
Yol. xiii.
S* 455*
count of the progreflive improvements that have been
made in the art of war. Indeed this would be to repeat
much of what has already been detailed under the prin¬
cipal hillorical articles of this work j for the hiftory of
nations, as it is commonly treated, is little more than a
hi dory of their wars. We might, no doubt, bring for¬
wards much curious information refpe&ing theoffenfive
and defenfive weapons of different ages and countries,
and the character and organization of their armies j but
for thofe and other matters of a fimilar nature, we may
refer our readers to the following refpeftable authorities :
Vegetius De re mihtari; Polybius’s HJlory, with the
Commentaries o/'Folard ; Salmafius De re mititan Roma-
norum; Tacitus’s Vita Agricola ; Rollin’s Ancient Hi-
Jlory; Potter’s Grecian Antiquities ; Rennet’s and A-
dam’s Roman Antiquities ; Goguet’s Origin of Laws,
Arts, <b'c. ; Daniel Hiftoire de la Milice Franpoife;
Gough’s Sepulchral Monuments ; Afcham’s Toxophilus,
and Grofe’s Hi/lory of the Englijh Army, and Ejfay on
Ancient Armour.
At a period like the prefent, when the two greatgft
powers of Europe are ftruggling for glory and domi¬
nion, it will not be thought uninterefting, or irrelevant
to the fubjeft of the preient article, if we offer a com¬
parative ftatement of the prefent military and naval efta-
blilhments of thefe two mighty empires, with a {ketch
of the military charafter of their armies ; and with thefe
we fhall conclude our preliminary obfervations.
. According to a ftatement made to the French go¬
vernment at the commencement of 1805, the grand to¬
tal of the French armies conlifted of 570,964 men ; viz.
infantry of the line, 341,4124 light infantry, 100,130;
cavalry, 77,488 ; artillery, 46,489 ; engineers, 5445.
Since that time, more than 100,000 have been added,
and, according to the beft authority, the prefent total
does not fall fhort of 700,000 men *. This vaft body
is divided into companies for both cavalry and in¬
fantry ; a certain number of companies forming a batta¬
lion of infantry, or a fquadron of cavalry. The deno¬
mination of regiment is appropriated to the cavalry and
artillery, while a fimilar body of infantry is called a
half brigade. The commanding officer of a regiment is
called colonel ; but the commander of a large body of
infantry is called chief of brigade. The names of lieu¬
tenant-colonel and major are changed for thofe of chief
of a battalion and chief of a fquadron. Thofe general
officers Avhieh in other armies are called major-generals,
are, in the French fervice, denominated generals of bri¬
gade, and lieutenant-generals are there generals of divi-
fion.
The corps of engineers has for its officers 8 infpeiffors
general, 34 directors, 124 captains of the firft clafs,
117 captains of tbe fecond clafs, 33 lieutenants of the
fir ft clafs, 21 of the fecond clafs, and 20 pupils under
the lieutenants. Attached to this corps are 6 compa¬
nies of miners, commanded by a chief of battalion.
Each company is officered by a captain-command¬
ant, a fecond captain, firft: and fecond lieutenant.
Twelve battalions of miners ; each battalion, containing
8 companies, forming in all 1606 men, including offi¬
cers. The battalion ftaff is compofed of a chief of bat¬
talion, an adjutant major, and an adjutant. Each com¬
pany is officered by a captain, a lieutenant, and fub-
lieutenant.
To raife and recruit this great military forge, the
tion.
French government has, fince the year 1798, had re- Intrcwh
courfe to one of the molt tyrannical meafures which was
ever adopted by a defpotic monarchy, we mean that of*'
confcription, by which every man within a certain age,
is made liable, under circumftances of the greateft ri¬
gour, to ferve in the armies of the ftate. This fyftem
of confcription is exceedingly complex; but we are en¬
abled, from a refpeftable periodical publication, to pre¬
fent fuch a fummary of it as will be readily underftood.
France is divided into about 30 military governments,
fubjedt to a general of diviiion and his itaff, to which
commiffaries are attached as executive officers. The ci¬
vil diviiion confifts of 1 22 departments ; 24 of which
have been acquired fince the overthrow of the mo-
narchy, excluiive of Tufcany, not included in any part
of this ftatement. The departments are divided into di-
ftricts or arrondijfements, from three to five in number;
the arrondijfements into cantons, and the cantons into
municipalities, amounting to about 55,000. Each de¬
partment is governed by a prefeft and his council, com¬
pofed of a commiffavy of police, a mayor, and certain
infpeftors, denominated counfellors of prefeBure; the
diftrift or arrondiffement, by a fubprefeft and his coun¬
cil, of a fimilar formation. The cantons and municipa¬
lities are under the fupervifion of an adminiftration, com¬
pofed of the civil authorities, with a prefident at their
head. A mayor, a commiffary of police, and two offi¬
cers of the government, ftyled adjunBs, are allotted to
each divifion having a population above 5000 fouls.
Thefe feveral authorities are in ftrift fubordination to
each other, and at the controul of the prefects and fub-
prefe&s, who, themfelves, are charged with a weighty
and inflexible refponfibility as to the military levies.
By the code de la confcription, all Frenchmen, be¬
tween the ages of 20 and 25, are liable to ferve. They
are divided into five claffes, from which the municipal
adminiftration draws up the lifts for the ballot. Fhefe
are tranfmitted to the prefers, by whom they are fent
to the war minifter, and when properly adjufted, the
fubprefe£t proceeds to the drawing of the quota impofed
on each diftrift. The confcripts drawn are formed into
three divifions, the firft called confcripts for aBualfer¬
vice, the fecond the referve, and the third fupplementa-
ry confcripts. They are marched in companies of 100
men, to the places which are eftablifhed as depots,
where they are furnifhed with their arms and clothes.
After this they are trained and exercifed, fo as to be
inured to unremitting labour and fatigue.
What gives peculiar energy to the French military
fyftem, is the circumftance that their officers rife by me¬
rit and experience, and not by intereft. By a lawr of
the direflory, no perfon (with the exception of engi¬
neers) could become officers, who had not feryed three
years in a fubordinate capacity.. The revolution natu¬
rally opened the way to merit; and, feconded by this-
admirable policy, has filled all the pofts of their army
with men, who unite in themfelves the qualities of the
foldier, with the excellencies that qualify for command.
It is not hazarding too much to affert, that nine-tenths
of the prefent French officers have fprung from the
ranks. Educated in diftant camps, they know no other
country, and, habituated by long devotion to the trade
of war, it has become their element and their paffion.
Their whole fortune is flaked on the fword ; and their
attachment is therefore neceffarily fecured, under ttp
tufpicious
W A R,
597
m, p-
—45 ^
12
te naval
iblifli-
nt.
T3
ofent Hil¬
ary efta-
ifhment
Britain.
Playfair'
■°gr.
)1. ii.
aufpicious influence of a leader, xvhofe indefatigable am¬
bition occupies them in their favourite purfuits, and
whofe liberal impartiality feeds the hope of preferment,
and divides the fruits of conqueft. To their credit and
example -is due much of that fpirit, which, notwith-
flanding the caufesof alienation hitherto obferved, feems
to animate the whole frame of the army ; and no fmall
fliare of that portentous fuccefs which has attended the
courfe of the French arms. Of the eighteen mare-
chaux cl'’empire, fourteen have either emerged from the
ranks, or afcended from the lowed; employments. Mod
of the generals of divifion, and others who hold the prin¬
cipal commands, have the fame origin, and diffidently
prove, that war is an experimental fcience, and that
military renown is not the prerogative of birth, but the
harved of toil, or the bounty of fortune *.
We have no certain means of afcertaining the prefent
naval edabliffiment of the French empire, though, as it
may be faid to have the command of the navies of Hol-
land, Ruffia, and the remains of that of Denmark, it
mud dill be regarded as of no fcritling drength. ihe
principal fleets are indeed kept blocked up by thofe of
Britain, in the harbours of Bred, Rochefort, loulon,
the Scheldt, and the Texel $ but the elcape of any of
thefe might be the means of conveying a confiderable
military force to the remaining colonies, or to the Ids
powerful allies of France. In 1791, the French fleet
confided of 73 ffiips of the line, 67 frigates, 19 corvettes,
and 67 fmail craft, making a total of 226. Since
that time, however, have taken place the great naval
victories of Howe, St Vincent, Duncan, and Nelfon,
by which the greater part of that navy has been carried
into Britifli ports.
In edimating the military eflabliflunent of Britain,
we (hall, for the fake of more accurate comparifon, fird
take the fame period of 1805. The Britifh land forces
then confided of 21,223 cavalry, 124,878 infantry (in¬
cluding 20,747 men for limited fervice, and 21,208 be¬
longing to foreign and provincial corps in Britifh pay),
89,809 militia, 8559 artillery, befides about 430,000
volunteers, making a total of 674,469. To thefe mud
be added the royal artillery, the horfe brigade, the bri¬
gade of gunners and drivers, and companies of foreign
artillery, amounting to 16,670, and the corps of artifi¬
cers and labourers, including 7°4 ^ ^us ^ie
whole military force of Britain, in 1805, amounted to
x 691,843 f.
, Since the paffing of Mr Windham’s afl, this number
is fomewhat diminiffied, though our military force is
now probably more effeftive. At the end of 1808 it
flood as follows. Two regiments of life-guards, one re¬
giment of royal horfe guards, 7 of dragoon guards, 2.5
of dragoons, 3 battalions of riflemen, 7 battalions of
foot-guards, 5 of light infantry, 176 battalions of in¬
fantry, a corps of royal horfe artillery, a regiment of
royal foot artillery, a corps of royal engineers, a bri¬
gade of artillery drivers, and a waggon train. I he
dragoons, independent of the royal life and horfe guards,
amounted to 19,200', the battalions of riflemen and
light infantry to 8000 ; the. infantry of the line to
149,600 ; the king’s German legion to about 20,000 ;
exclufive of about 96,000 regular militia, 250,000 local
militia, and about 50,000 volunteersj making an effec¬
tive force of about f;8o,ooo men.
■Eaclx.regimeut of not more than $00 men is officer*
ed by a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a major, to cap- b’-tmduc-
tains, 10 lieutenants, 8 enflgns, an adjutant, quarter- , r_t  ...
mader, paymader, a furgeon and affiflant iurgeon 4 a
fergeant-major, a quartermader-fergeant, with 30 ordi¬
nary fergeants, 30 corporals, a drum-major and 20
drummers. If the regiment amount to 750 men, it
has uliially an addition of (econd lieutenant-colonel, a
fecond major, 10 fergeants, and 10 corporals.
The gradation of rank among the officers of the Bri~
tiffi army is as follows. Under the king, who com¬
mands the whole as captain-general, is the commander
in chief, then follow the feld-marjhals, generals, lieu¬
tenant-generals, major-generals, brigadier-generals, co¬
lonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, and/i/W-
terns. The different departments of the army are un¬
der the fuperintendence of an adjutant-general, a quat-
termafer-general, a barracl-majler-general, a commijfary-
general, a payrnajler-general, a board of ordnance, and a
medical board. See AdjutaM", QuARTERMASTJLR,
&c.
The army of the line is recruited by enliflment 4 the
recruits receive a bounty, and are engaged to ferve for
a limited period, or for life. The militia is filled up by
ballot, in the feveral counties to which it belongs, and
alfo receives recruits by enliflment or by proxy. Hence
the Britifh foldier, while he confiders himfelf as the fer-
vant of the king and the date, juflly boafls of partaking
in the general liberty of the fubjefl. He is protedled
by fixed and definite laws, againd the diferetionary
power of his commanding officer, and is encouraged to
perform his duty by the liberality of his country •, and
not, as in France, compelled to it by the fear of pu-
niffiment. His difeipline indeed is Ariel 4 but he feels
none of that fevere and tyrannical coercion which
feems to be the fird principle of motion in the armies of
Napoleon.. _ *4
In its naval eflablifliment, Britain juflly boads of be-Naval eftii*
ing fuperior to every nation in the world. The number
of her fleets, and the courage and difeipline of her Tea¬
men, have given her the unrivalled dominion of the
feas, of which it would be difficult for the whole com¬
bined navy of Europe to deprive her. In 1809, the
naval force of Britain confided of 157 flops of the line,
19 from 50 to 44, 184 frigates, 181 floops, 308 brigs,
making a total of 849 in commiflion befides 56 of the
line, 12 50’s, 56 frigates, 44 floops, 24 brigs, total
192 in ordinary and refitting 4 and 50 fliips of the line,
20 frigates, 20 floops, 10 brigs, total 100, building :
making a grand total q{ 1141*
The progreffive advance of our navy will appear by
attending to the following recital of its tonnage at dif¬
ferent periods, from the reign of Henry VIII. to the
prefent time..
Year.
At the death of Henry VIII.
Edward VI.
Mary,
Elizabeth,
James I.
Rebellion,
At the death of Charles I,
At the Reftoration,
At the death of Charles II.
Abdication of James II..
1547
1553
I558
1603
1625
1641
1649
1660
1685
1688
Tons about
12,400
1 1,000.
70OO
17,000
19,000
22,400
uncertain.
57,460
103»558
101,900
At
59s
W A R.
Year.
At the death of William III. 1702
Anne, 17I4
George I. W2?
George II. 1760
31ft December, 1788
1806
1809
Tons about
159,000
167,170
170,860
321,200
413,660
776,000
800,000
It appears, however, that notwithftanding the vaft
increafe of our navy, not a tingle dockyard has been
added to it fince the reign of William III. about 109
years ago, at which time the tonnage of the naval force
of this kingdom amounted to nearly 160,000 tons j it
is now nearly 800,900 tons, or about five- times as
* State- large *.
ment by ^ jn ficetching the military chara&er of the French
•ville e an^ armies at the commencement of the 19th
century, we thall avail ourfelves of the obfervations of
an anonymous, but able and apparently impartial publi¬
cation, which appeared foon after the peace of Amiens,
entitled The Military CharaBer of the European Armies
15 at the Peace of Amiens.
character Tbe aftonI{hinS faccefs which has attended the
of the French arms on the continent of Europe, is to be at-
French tributed partly to the regular organization and fevere
army. difcipline eftablifhed by the Code de la Confcription, but
it is ft ill more to be afcribed to the fkill, experience, and
activity of their officers. The French generals early
difcovered the advantages refulting from difpatch. The
alertnefs of the foldiers, the lightnefs of their baggage,
and their inattention to regularity in time of a&ion*, en¬
abled them to execute their movements with a celerity
which has frequently enfured luccefs. In an open coun¬
try, lines could not be preferved without difficulty.
The French armies were therefore formed in columns.
Brigade fucceeded brigade, and when one divifion was
repulfed, and fell back on the columns in the rear, thofe
in their turn attacked the enemy, or fuftained his fhock,
and fre(h troops perpetually came forward, to fupply
the place of thofe which had been defeated.
The French battalions have no field-pieces attached
to them ; but this want is amply compenfated by their
flying artillery, which is compofed of the flower of the
French foldiers, and by its boldnefs and rapidity of
movement, fupplies the place of that large train of ar¬
tillery with which the other European armies are ufual-
ly burdened. It is a conftant maxim in the French
armies to have a body of referve, compofed of their
beft troops, and under the command of an able general
If the mam body ffiould be beaten, the referve covers
their retreat, and on more than one occafion it has
matched the viftory from the hands of the enemy.
. Tj!e French generals, like rich and bold gameftek are
inceflantly tempting fortune. They look upon their
lofles as nothing, provided they fucceed in the end.
Ihe little value at which they eftimate their men, the
certainty of being able to replace them, the perfonal Intrctac
ambition of their chief, and the cuftomary fuperiority 'bn.
of their numbers, afford them an advantage which can- ‘“nr-
not be couuterafted but by great fkill, conduft and ac¬
tivity.
The foldiers of Britain are as intrepid by land as her . ,l5
failors by fea. Their want of fuccefs on the continent char^
cannot be afcribed to their want of bravery, but rather of the fir
to the organization of the Britifli armies^ their inferiori-fiAurmy
ty of numbers, or the inexperience of the officers by
whom they are commanded. Moft of their command¬
ing officers, inftead of conforming to general regula¬
tions, follow their own particular plans and ideas, ac¬
cording to their feveral geniufes, acquirements, and pre¬
judices. In a nation, which from the fpirit of its con-
ftitution and the habits of its people, is formed rather
for naval than military operations, a miniftry, how¬
ever enlightened, fcarcely poffefles that authority which
is neceffary to give uniformity to the different depart¬
ments of the army, to conftitute a regular and corre-
fponding whole, and to furmount thofe obftacles which
are thrown in the way of all uniformity of military
fyftem, by the diftance and diftribution of the troops.
The final! numbers in which Britifh troops are general¬
ly compelled to adl on the continent, and their mixture
with thofe of other nations, to which they are fometimes
even fubfervient, are circumftances extremely difadvan-
tageous.
In a military life, good faith, honour, and courage,
are the principal qualifications, and thefe are eminently
confpicuous iu the Britifh army. Their military ar¬
dour is greater than what is feen in any other fervice,
but this is in a great meafure damped among the officers
by the difficulty of promotion. Intereft with minifters,
and the neceffity of raifing money to defray the expences
of the different departments of the ftate, though far from
being the moft equitable, are here unhappily among the
firft means of military promotion.
The foldiers of the Britifh army are poffeffed of ele¬
ments to enable them, under a commander of abilities
and officers of experience, to be the beft troops in the
world. They require neither brandy nor felf-conceit to
make them brave ; their courage is innate ; it is a na¬
tional inftindt. Their officers too ufually poffefs much
greater informatidn on general topics than thofe of all
other European nations, as education is more cultivated
in Britain than elfewhere. They are attached to their
profeffion, and follow it rather from generous motives
and military fpirit, than like mercenaries from a view
of intereft and profit.
On the political and moral principles of war, fee
Cicero De Officiis, Grotius De Jure Belli et Pacisy
Puffendorff’s Law of Nature and Nations, and Ma-
chiavel’s D if corf ; and on the principles of war confide—
ed as a fcience, fee a memoir by Maizeroy, in the 40th
volume of Hifoire de DAcademic des Infcriptions et
Belles I.etires, and Folard’s Commentaries oji Polybius.
Nature and
objedl of
military
tadtics.
PART I. MILITARY TACTICS.
Some writers on the military art diftinguifh taBics
from what they cz\\ fr at egy ; underftanding by the lat¬
ter the fcience of military movements when not in fight
of the enemy, or at leaft out of the range of their (hot ’7
while they deferibe the former to be the fcience of mi¬
litary movements in fight of an enemy, or within the
range
Irt I.
itary range of cannon fhot. We do not fee the necedity of
tj]js diftinftion ; and under the head of military tadics
u     we fhall confider whatever relates to military operations
on land.
It is not poffible for us, within the very fcanty limits
to which we are now reduced, to give any thing like a
regular treatife on the military art. We fhall therefore
endeavour to feleft the molt ufeful and intereiting topics,
and fupply the place of difquilition by numerous plates
with appropriate explanations.
The fcience of military tadtics comprehends the dif-
pofition and arrangement of troops, whether on marches,
in camps, or in line of battle j the attack and defence of
polls; the conftruftion and fuperintendence of the works
by which they are to be defended ; the condudting of
fieges; and the defence of befieged places. Thefe are
the principal operations of a foldier, and thefe we fhall
briefly confider nearly in the order in which we have
g enumerated them,
0 reft- To diredt the march of an army is not one of the
in he lead difficult parts of a general’s duty. To do this with
m h of ability, he mutt be well acquainted with the nature of
mjr the country through which his troops are to pafs, with
the obltacles which are likely to oppofe them in their
progrefs, and with the difpofition of the inhabitants.
Our bufinefs here is only with the firft of thefe confide-
rations. There are three defcriptions of countries which
may become the theatre of war; an open country inter-
fedted by rivers, a mountainous, and a woody country.
The march of an army through the firft, as far as re-
fpedts the face of the country alone, is feldom difficult,
except in the palfage of rivers, which we fhall confider
by and bye ; and the laft description of country is now
fo uncommon in Europe, that we need not dwell on it.
A mountainous country, however, prefents numerous
difficulties to call forth the abilities and experience of a
commander, as in fuch a country, not only are the roads
winding and difficult of aecefs, but the "unevennefs of
the ground, and the intervals between the bills, render
it very eafy for an enemy, with a fmall force, to oppofe
.p . and diftrefs a numerous army,
thigh a The plan in Plate DXLIV. is intended to illuftrate
m ta‘n- the marsh of an army through a mountainous country..
tr iun' At A is fhown the pofition of the army previous to its
march, with the artillery and baggage P, drawn up
- LIVi under their proper efcorts, in front of- the camp. At
B are parties t>f huflars conllituting the advanced guard
of the army on its march ; and at C are parties of in¬
fantry forming the advanced guard of the columns in
which the army is difpofed. I) reprefents the infantry
forming the head of the columns ; E the park of artil¬
lery and waggons attacht d to it; F, battalions of ar¬
tillery, G the cavalry, H the baggage of the army,
and I their efcort. At K are parties of huffars, and at
E parties of dragoons. M reprefents the infantry of
the referve forming the rear guard, and N plattoons of
infantry fent forward upon the heights, to cover the.
flanks of the principal columns. At O are villages in
front of the pofition where the army is to encamp, and
which have-been. taken pofieflion of by the light in-,
fantry.
J he number of columns into which the marching
army is to be divided, will depend on the number of
roads or acceffible approaches that lead to the pofition
wlneh it is to lake up. In the prefent cafe there are
5
5~99>
only two principal roads, each leading acrofs the river, Military
and winding through the valleys to the principal heights, Taftics. ^
fo that tht* army muft march in two divifions. The " v
ulual difpofition of the columns is as follows.. Four or
five brigades of infantry, according to the number which-
compofes the army, ffiould be placed at the head of each
column ; the fame partition Ihould be made with re¬
gard to the artillery, which muft follow the infantry
the cavalry muft march next, and the baggage of each
column, well efcorted by infantry, muft follow the ca¬
valry, then the reft of the corps of light horfe which
are not detached ; and the dragoons are placed the laft,
in order to difmount, and fuftain the rear-guard in cafe
it ffiall be attacked. 20
An army feldom proceeds far without encountering Of the paf-
a river in its march, and as it commonly happens in afuge of ri"
country which has become the feat of war, that thevers’
bridges are deftroyed or rendered impaffable, the army
muft crofs the river, either by fwimming, at fome ford,
or by temporary bridges thrown over for the purpefe.
It is moft advantageous to crofs a river at fome part
where the ftream is divided by fmall iflands, unlefs the
river be fo ftiallow that it may be eafily forded. If it be
neceffary to conftrudt a bridge, this is belt done by
means of boats or pontoons, and all the neceffary ap¬
paratus ffioukl be ready at the place of eroding at an
appointed hour, and every mealure fhould be tajken to
avoid confufion, and to be prepared for the enemy, who
will probably difpute the paffage. The two heads of
the bridge when conftrufted ftiould be entrenched, and
well furniftied with troops, and, if poflible, the iftands in
the neighbourhood fhould be fortified by proper works,
to prevent the enemy from deftroying.the bridge, or in¬
commoding the labourers employed in its coniirudh’on.
If the river be narrow, it is belt to crofs at fome
place where it makes an angle, efpecially if, as com¬
monly happens, one of its banks be-, higher than the
oppofite bank, fo that the higher ground may be de¬
fended by a battery. If the river be fordable by infant¬
ry, care ftiould be taken beforehand to clear the bed at
the ford, and render the banks eafy.of accefs-
The lower figure of Plate DXLV. illuftrates the paf- Plate
fage of a river.. AAA reprefent bridges of boats; B, DXLV.
redoubts by which the bridges are protected ; C, a bat- Si
tery, under cover of which the infantry work at the
conftruftion of the redoubts ; ID, a battery, to prevent
the enemy from annoying the armv on its march ; E,
the march of the army ; F, the artillery diftributed a-
mong the brigades of infantry ; G, infantry forming, in
columns to open on the oppofite fide through the inter¬
vals of the redoubts; H, march of the columns in the
front of the. redoubts, where they halt to give time fora
part of the cavalry toTorm upon its flanks; I, a battery
erected to facilitate-the.forming of the cavalry; K, ca¬
valry,. which, in gaining the oppofite fhore, forms in
order of battle, and polls itfelf upon the flanks of the
infantry; L, eight battalions in column upon the right
wing of the army, to go and examine the village, and
attack the enemy in.it, in cafe he ftiould be poffidTed of
it :; M, hufiars and dragoons, who have taken pofieffion
of the height which is on the left wing of the army ;
N* a brigade of infantry polled next the height, cover¬
ing the left wing of the cavalry ; O, the difpofition of
the army marching up to the enemy.
It is in general a very difficult talk to defend the paf-
fage.
WAR.
6oo
Military
Tallies.
XI
To defend
the paflage
of a river.
Fig. i.
X2
Bafis of
■modern mi
Jitary ope-
fations.
flate
2) XL VI.
fig. i.
W
fage of a river againft an army that Is determined on
eroding it. Indeed, if the river be of fuch a nature as
to prefent feveral points by which an enemy can crofs,
and if the defending army be not of fuch ftrength as to
meet their opponents in the field, fuch a defence will be
almoft impracticable. Where it can be attempted, how¬
ever, and where fufficient notice can be procured of the
enemy’s approach, all the boats and barks found on the
river Humid be removed or deftroyed, to prevent the ene¬
my from ufing them in conftruCting his bridges. Both
banks of the river Humid be carefully reconnoitred, that
the fords and other acceflible points of pafiage may be
fufficiently obHruCled ; and the ground which might
proteCt the enemy’s paffage, Hrould in particular be at¬
tended to. Roads fufficiently wide to admit of many co¬
lumns, Humid be made along the fide of the river to be
defended, that a great number of troops may be advan-
tageoufly difpofed. It mull be confeffed, however, that
if the acceffible points extend along a confiderable traCt
of country, and if the bank of the river next the enemy
overhang that on the oppofite fide, a defence will be
nearly impoffible.
The upper figure of Plate DXLV. (hews the manner
of difpofing the troops to defend the paflage of the ri¬
ver. A, the march of the main army in three parts to
defend the river •, B, the camp of the light horfe, infan¬
try, and dragoons, on the wings of the army ; C, caflle
and village, guarded by light infantry 5 D, a town oc¬
cupied by the infantry belonging to the army j E,
bridge broken down •, E, iflands occupied by infantry j
G, pofls of infantry diflributed along the fide of the ri¬
ver ; H, batteries eftabliflied along the fide of the river j
I, pofls of cavalry, to keep the communication between
the camps *, K, bridges conflrufted to preferve the com¬
munication of the iflands j L, bridges for the communi¬
cation of the camps.
Modern warfare Is diflinguiflied from that of the an¬
cients, not more with refpeCt to the arms which it em¬
ploys, than the multitude of flores, ammunition, and
provifions neceflary for a campaign. The number of
horfes now employed for drawing the artillery, and the
ammunition waggons, as well as to mount the great in-
creafe of cavalry, confiderably adds to the quantity of
military flores required by the troops. This has pro¬
duced the neceffity for magazines, eftabliflied in fuch
number, and at fuch diftances from each other, as may
moft expedite the operations of the campaign j and thefe
magazines require not only to be fortified themfelves,
but to be ftrengthened by forts or redoubts in their vi¬
cinity. To thefe magazines modern writers on the art
tif war have appropriated the term of ba/rs of military
operations, and the roads by which an army receives its
fubfiftence from the magazines, are called lines of ope¬
ration. The fituation of the principal magazine, and
the length and dire&ion of the lines of operation, are
confidered as of the higheft importance. With refpecl
•to the firft and fecond of thefe, we muft refer to Tem-
plehoff’s Hiftory of the Seven Years War, where the
queftion is confidered with great minutenefs and feienti-
fic accuracy. The dire'dlion of a line of operations may
be illuftrated by the firft feven figures of Plate DXLVI.
Fig. I. reprefents a line of operation forming the feg-
ment of a circle, having a line of polls ACB towards
the enemy’s country, and two principal fortrefles DE
.within tlie fegment. As this circular fegment is fup-
A
pofed to furround a part of the enemy^s territory, and is Militar
ftrengthened by the two fortreffes AB, at the extremi- ladies
ties of the balls, it is efteemed the moft advantageous
form. On the other hand, if the fegment had its cir¬
cumference directed towards the enemy, as in fig. 2. it Fig. j,
would form the world poffible direction for a balls j for
here the fortrefies CD, placed in the circumference, are
very much expofed, and might be eafily taken by de¬
tachments from the columns E and F. The only way
of preventing this would be to detach troops from A and
B laterally, to incommode the columns E and F, and
to take up a ftrong polition either at^ or It. The more
the fegment approaches to the elliptical form, as in fig. 3. pjg j
it is the lefs fufceptible of defence, as is evident from the
relative pofition of the three fortrefles A, C, and B.
The line of operation reprefented by fig. 4. confifting ^
of falient and obtufe angles, fuch as A cB, B i/G, con-
ftitutes an excellent form, as it refembles the outworks
of a fortrefs, and it is as impradlieable for an enemy to
enter into the interior of this bafis, as to carry a curtain .
between two flanks. The two fortrefles c d are not nearly
fo much expofed as C in fig. 3. as if one of them were
attacked, it would be eafy to make a diverfion from the
other into the enemy’s country. If the points which
terminate the bafis advance as in fig. 5. it will be apig.p
favourable circumftance, elnecially if the moft advanced
poll were bounded by the lea, or by a large river.
The bafis which we have been confidering confifts of
curved or angular lines. Now, let us fuppofe two bafes,
the one A h B, fig. 6. forming merely a ftraight line,p.
while the other c eg df has two of its lines ec and d f
advanced towards the enemy. This latter is the morq
advantageous, as it expofes fo much more of the ene¬
my’s country. In general, it is a good rule to conftnrft
fortrefles oppofite to thofe of the enemy, as here the for¬
trefs g, if moderately ftrong, is capable of protecting the
whole line from e to d, againft the three oppolite forts
A // B. It is a great fault for any part of a balls to re¬
cede, as i/f from the line of the enemy AB, fig. 7. fo asFig.
to form an angle with it, as here all the country be¬
tween A and c is expofed to the hoftile attacks of A
and B $ but, if the line were parallel to that of the
enemy, as d e, it would be a good pofition. ^
Next to the eftablilhing of magazines, and providing
for their fecurity, and that of the lines by which theymento
are connected, it is of the higheft importance for a ge-camps-
neral when he takes the field, to feleCt the proper pofi-
tions where he may encamp his army, fo as to be rea¬
dily defended againft; the attacks of a fuperior enemy,
and have an eafy communication with his own polls. In
felefting fuch a fituation he muft be guided partly by
the nature of the country, and partly by the fituation of
the enemy ; but if poffible, he ftiould choofe a pofition
which is rather elevated, and which may be proteCled
on the flanks or rear, either by the natural fituation of
the ground, or by works thrown up for that purpofe.
It Ihould not be .too near the bank of a river, though it
may be of advantage to have fuch an objeft in front.
The encampment of an army in fuch a fituation is point¬
ed out by Plate DXLVII. $ where A is the camp of Pb ,
the main body of the army j B, an advanced carojs
compofed of dragoons and buffars, in order to cover the
right of the army, to guard the pafles by which the ene¬
my might make incurfions upon the flanks and rear of
the array, moleft the ‘convoys, and cut off the commu¬
nications
tL W
:ary nications; C,.villages and bridge?, guarded by the light
ics- infantry ; D, ports of difmountcd dragoons in the front
of their camp; E, ports of dragoons on horfeback, to
fecure the communication between their camp and that
of the main body of the army ; F, bridges built to keep
up the communication between the grand and the ad¬
vanced camp j G, bridges and villages guarded by de¬
tachments of infantry ; H, grand guards of horfe ; I,
guards of infantry; K, bridge, village, and mill, guard¬
ed by the infantry belonging to the army j L, camp of
dragoons and hulfars, covering the left of the army, and
fupporting the light infantry ; M, villages and bridges
guarded by the light infantry ; N, ports of difmounted
dragoons in the front and on the flanks of their camp ;
O, ports of dragoons on horfebaek ; P, ports and detach¬
ments of huflars, to patrole in front and on the flanks of
the army and their camp.
:hetl It often becomes neceffary, either from an inferiority
ef numbers, or from the nature of the ground, to in¬
trench or fortify a camp. In general this is done by
digging deep ditches round the moft defencelefs part j
driving pallifades in front of this ditch ; forming an
embankment of felled trees, with their unlopped
branches pointing towards the enemy ; or, where there
is time for fuch an operation, and where the proper
materials can be obtained, conftruffing redoubts or
regular outworks, capable of being defended by artil¬
lery.
Plate DXLVIII . reprefents a camp intrenched in an
1 • open country, without any peculiar advantages of de¬
fence. A, the main body of the army encamped be¬
hind its intrenchments •, B, the camp of the troops of
referve ; C, camp of the dragoons, to fecure the rear
of the army ; D, camp of huflars, to cover the ground
on the right of the army ; E, villages and redoubts
guarded by the light infantry, to fecure the camp
of the huflars ; F, bridges built to fecure the com¬
munication of the army with the ground on the right,
and to favour the retreat of the troops ported on the op-
poiite fide ; G, brigades of artillery diftributed on the
flanks, and along the whole front of the army *, H, the
park of artillery ; I, a bridge intrenched, to fecure the
communication between the army and the ground on
the left; K, villages and farm boufes, guarded by de¬
tachments of huflars and light infantry, to patrole in
front of the army.
In Plate DXLIX. are fhown other methods of in-
trenching a camp in the neighbourhood of a town or
village, and in fituations where the camp can be pro¬
tected by inundations. Fig. I. reprefents an intrench¬
ed camp in the neighbourhood of a town. A, a deep
marfhy valley, with an unfordable rivulet acrofs it. B,
a. redoubt conftruCted on a mountain, by which the
right wing is appuyed. C, a fmall wood in front of the
mountain. D, a line which connects two fleches toge¬
ther at the foot of the mountain, where the village of
Weilheim is fituated. E, a rivulet, over which are
thrown bridges of communication, to facilitate an in-
tercourfe between the camp and the redoubt on the
bill. F, an eminence with a gentle declivity, at the
foot of which is the village of Mansfeld, furrounded by
defiles and hollow roads. G, defiles and hollow roads.
H, lines which run along the circumference of the
heights about Weilheim, forming a retrenchment. I,
clofe works. L, a redoubt which malks the entrance
Vol. XX. Part II.
A R. (Sot
into Stemmern. M, a fmall wood, cut down in order Military
to have a full view in front of Stemmern. N, a thick , 1 a(rtics. ^
wood which covers fome high mountains by which the '
left wing is fupported. O, an abattis which is made
acrofs the wood for greater fecurity. P, infantry
pickets. £), a redoubt on a fmall eminence, conftru$>
ed for the purpofe of covering the opening behind the
left wing of the camp. R, a line of communication
from the laft redoubt to the left of the intrenchment.
S, feveral paflages 30 feet broad and clofed in by chevaux-
de-frize, to afford an opportunity for the cavalry to ad¬
vance, thould the enemy be foiled in his attack againrt:
any part of the works. T, the infantry and cavalry
encamped behind the retrenchments 5 the infantry in
the firft line, and the cavahy in the fecond. U, X, Y,
Z, four roads behind the camp to facilitate the retreat
of the army, fhould it be prefled.
Fig. 2. and 3. reprefent an intrenched camp with in-Fig- 2, g?
undations in front. Fig. 1. a b, two dykes 40 paces
long, 5 broad, and as many high. CD two rows of
rtakes from 4 to 5 inches thick. E, the coffin formed
by means of flakes filled up. It is 8 feet broad. F*
the adjacent country, inundated by the rivulet being
forced out of its current by the laft dyke and by a and b.
G and H, the outlets which the rivulet feeks, to con- '
tinue its courfe. I, fmall creeks or ends of ditches dug
about the ground. Fig. 3. reprefents the current of a
rivulet, with a dyke to occafion inundations. Camp,
with the feveral dykes in front, which are calculated to
produce inundations. The fpaces between thefe dykes
are called coffins, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 25
We have mentioned the works by which field ports Conftruc--
are fortified, and which are ufually called redoubts. As t'on rc"
the conftrmrtion of redoubts is generally a work of the ^oulJLS•
moment, and falls within the province of the command¬
ing officer of a detachment, it is proper that we ftiould
here defcribe the moft ufeful and expeditious methods
of raifing fuch works. Thefe methods are illuftrated by Plate
the plans in the upper part of Plate DL. PL-
Fig. I. (hows the plan of the ordinary fquare redoubt Fig. 1.
which is conftrudled in the following manner : When
a proper fpot has been chofen, a line a AE is drawn of
a fufficient length, and at one extremity a is drawn a C
perpendicular to it. Then from a towards C and E are
fet off the dimenfions propofed for each fide of the pa¬
rapet within the fort, allowing 2 or 2-J- fathoms for 30
men, 4 fathoms for 50, and fo in proportion for a greater
number. Thefe lines being alcertained, a picket is
placed at C, with a cord attached to it, and with the
length # C is defcribed an arch, and from the point E,
with the fame diftance, another arch is defcribed, inter¬
fering the former in F. Then joining EF and CF,
the fquare forming the inner parapet is completed.
Within this fquare, at the diftance of 2 or 3 feet, is de¬
fcribed another fquare, I, L, M, N, having its fides pa¬
rallel to thofe of the former. This marks the breadth
of the banquette, where the men are to be drawn up.
Again, on the outfide of the firft fquare at about 8
or 9 feet diftance is drawn a third fquare O, P, Q, R,
determining the outer fide and thicknefs of the para¬
pet. This thieknefs is only calculated to refift mufket
balls; as, if it is to ftand againft cannon, it ftiould be at
leart 18 feet. Laftly, at rather a greater di(>ance from
this third fquare is drawn a fourth S, T, V, X, marking-
the breadth of a ditch that is to furround the redoubt. •
4 G The
6o2
W
Military
Taftir?.
Fie
' lS- 4>
F‘g^ 5-
6.
The lines being fmiihed, fafclnes or faggots of brufh-
wood are to be laid between the two innermoft fquare.s,
as a foundation to fop port the earth of the. banquette ;
a fecond range is laid on the lines AB, GH, to fupport
the infide of the parapet, and a third on the fquare
O, P, £), R, to ftrengthen the outlide of the parapet,
leaving a fpace through all the fufcines to the ditch, on
the fide leaf! expofrd to the enemy, as at B, for an en¬
trance. It is fotnetimes convenient to make this en¬
trance take a winding direction, as is fhown at T,
fig. 2.
Fig. 3. exhibits a feftion of thefe works, where AB
is the breadth of the ditch at the top; MN its breadth
at the bottom 5 FN its Hope, on a line with the outfide
of the parapet, called the fcarpy and GM its Hope to¬
wards the open country, called the counterfcarp. AL
and ID reprefent the fufcines forming the outer and in¬
ner flopes of the parapet, the interval between them be¬
ing filled with earth trodden down hard. At E is the
banquette. DC is the thicknefs of the parapet below,
and IL its thicknefs above, which forms a flope for the
more convenient firing of mufketry.
In this fquare redoubt it is evident that the men mull
fire ftraight forward in lines perpendicular to the fides
of the fquares, as in fig. 4. As it is often of great
confequence that the directions of firing fhould crofs
each other, the better to flank the enemy, the banquette
is fometimes formed with angles, as in fig. 5. fo that the
men may Hand two together in little redans. As, how¬
ever, fuch a conrtruCtion takes up too much time and
labour for ordinary occafions, M. Le Cointe prefers a
circular redoubt, fuch as is reprefented at fig. 6. where
the men may fire from every part of the circumference.
The conftruClion of fuch a redoubt is extremely fimple,
and differs only in its firft Hep, viz. defcribing the con¬
centric circles, which is done with a cord faftened at
one end by a picket at a central point C.
The ftrength of the redoubt will be much increafed,
if the ditch can be filled with water, as by turning into
it the ft ream of a rivulet. See Q, fig. 7. If the ground
be uneven,, fo that the water will not run equally into
every part of the ditch, dams muff be raifed, as C, to
keep up the water in the higher parts, whence it may
run to the lower, after the former are full.
Fig. 7. 7- reprefents a plan of the fquare redoubt, with
a wet ditch, when completed. A, the inner ground of
the redoubt; B, the bottom of the ditch ; CDE, the
dam'of earth ; F a dam of boards, planks or fafcines ;
G the upper part of the redoubt, made with fafcines or
with earth thrown out of the ditch ; H, the lower part
of the redoubt cut into the earth ; I, the berme or fpace
left at the outer bottom of the. parapet, to keep up the
earth; L, the entrance-of the redoubt ; M, the infide
of the parapet ; N, the outfide of the parapet ; O, the
banquette; P, the glacis ;_ the river introduced to
2g fill the ditch with water.
Of deiach- _ I'll6 attack and defence of polls are among the moft
meat, fent important departments of what the French call la petite-
ddend^ ^Suerr^ and in a country where fortified towns are rare,
. conftitute a confiderable part of field operations. We
fhall confider them rather more at large than we have
the preceding parts of military taftics.
When an officer is detached either to attack or to
guard a pofl, he ffiould provide himfelf with a cord re¬
gularly diyidfed, for the purpofe of defcribing lines, and
-A- - Part
raifing temporary works, and ffiould procure a ffiilful Tlii
and confidential guide, from whom he may derive the !;d
requilite information refpe&ing the nature of the coun- J
try, and the breadth and goodnefs of the roads. He
ffiould difpofe his party in fuch a manner that an ad¬
vanced guard of cavalry, as A, fig. 8. Plate DL, ffiould Fig. J
fet out firft, preceded by a fmall detachment of about fix
horfemen, headed by a corporal, as B, C, C ; two horfe-
men in the middle, and two on each fide. -While the
main body is moving along the principal road, as from
H to F, a detachment of about 8 or 12 horfemen, ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the corps, (hculd be fent about
50 paces on each fide, by way of wings, as DD; and
from each of thefe wings 2 men ffiould keep 50 paces
farther out, as at EE, by which means the country will
be properly examined, and furprifes from the enemy
prevented. On coming near a wood, as at NN, the
cavalry ffiould fpread, the better to fcour the outlkirts
and the wood itfelf. When the corps is numerous, the
cavalry fhould be formed into fquadrons, as G, G, G,.
and the infantry into platoons, as F, F, F, marching al¬
ternately along the road.
If, on'the march, the advanced guard come to a crofs
road, or the entrance of a hollow way, as at I, I, where
it is likely they may be met by a party of the enemy,
they ftiould immediately prepare for an attack; and if
the commander of the main body obferve his advanced
guard in aftion, he ffiould immediately draw off his pla¬
toons of infantry, and form them on the fide of the road,
as at L, L, L, or on fome neighbouring height, as at
M, M, that they may be out of the rvay of the enemy’s
cavalry, and ready to engage if occafion ffiould require
it.
On the march the party ffiould carefully avoid vil¬
lages, and rather halt or refreflr his men in a wood, or
fome other concealed fpot. a
The commander of a detached party muft take thegnre „
fafeft and moft effeftual methods to reconnoitre thenoitrii
country through which he is to pafs, wdthout being ob-
ferved or fufpetted by the enemy. The method of
doing ibis recommended by M. Jeney will frequently
fucoeed, and is as follows: He fuppofes himfelf with his
party at Soeft in Weftpbalia A (fig. 2. Plate DLI), pj
and the enemy ported at Bervick B, two leagues from jj]
him. To know the fituation of this place without ftir- fig.
ing from Soeft, he takes the map of the country ; and
from Soeft as the centre, he draws a circle, whofe cir¬
cumference paffes half a league beyond Bervick. He
draws a circle of the fame fize upon a leaf of paper, to
make- his plan, as in fig. 2. and then places Soeft in the
centre A, and marks all the villages which he finds in
the map near the circumference upon his plan, with the
diftances and bearings as they are reprefented in the
map, making ufe of a pencil to mark the places DDD,
fo as to correft the errors more eafily which the map
may have led him to make.
Having thus formed his plan, with a fcale of two
leagues, he goes to the burgomafter of the town of
Soeft, where he caufes fome of the moft intelligent in¬
habitants to come, and fpeaking to them freely and
openly, induces them to communicate all the informa¬
tion for which he has occafion.
The better to conceal his defigns, he begins his re¬
connoitring by Brockhufen, a village diftant from the
enemy. He afks the diftance from Soeft to Brotkhu-
frn$
tr.
ary fen ; If they fay it is a league and three-fourths, he cor-
ics. re&s the diftance of his plan, which made it two leagues *,
then he informs himfelf of all that is to be found on the
road from Soelt to Brockhufen, chapels, houfes, woods,
fields, orchards, rivers, rivulets, bridges, mills, &c. If
they fay that a league from Soeft they pafs the village
of Kinderking, he marks that place upon his plan. He
alks if the road from Soeft to Kinderking be crofted by
any other road ; if there be any morafs or heath ; if the
road be inclofed, paved, or ftraight j if there be any
bridges to pafs, and at what diftance. He takes care
to mark every thing on his plan, forgetting nothing,
even to mills, bulhes, gibbets, gullies, fords, and every
thing that can be got from their information j which
will probably be perfect, becaufe one always knows
more than another. He continues his queftions from
Kinderking to Brockhufen, and advancing by little and
little, obferves the fame method on the roads of the
other villages round, marked DDD. In this manner he
cannot fail to acquire an entire knowledge of all the
places; befides, he finds himfelf imperceptibly inftru£t-
ed in the pofition of the enemy, by feeing the different
routes by which he can approach Avith the greateft fe-
curity.
0{ For the attack of an enemy’s poll, fuch men fliould
be fele&ed as are brave, cool, and experienced j or if
the affair require a confiderable number, the detach¬
ment (hould be divided into platoons, fame compofed of
picked men for the real attack, and others of ordinary
i’oldiers for feints. The men fliould be provided, be¬
fides their arms, with fuch inftruments as may be ne-
ceffary for pulling down or fcaling the enemy’s works,
fuch as ftiovels and pickaxes for fafcine parapets ; hatch¬
ets for pallifadoes or chevaux de frize, and fcaling lad¬
ders for ftone or brick work. Having made the proper
difpofition for his attack, and procured the neceffary
guides, the commander of the detachment {hould fet
out in the night, fo as to be at the place of attack
two or three hours before daybreak, taking care to
march with as little noife or parade as poflible.
If the poll to be attacked be an ordinary redoubt,
fuch as we have defcribed in N° 25. on hearing the fig-
nal previoufly agreed on, all the divifions are to rife at
once from the place where they fliould have lain con¬
cealed ; the firft ranks fliould leap into the ditch, and
foon after the fecond {hould follow, and both together
aflift in undermining the angles of the fcarp, or cutting
away the flakes which may impede their progrefs. If
the parapet be faced with ftone or brick work, care
{hould be taken that the ladders be not too fliort, and
great expedition {hould be ufed in mounting them, and
efpecially in following the leading men in the aflault,
if they {hould be knocked down by the fire of the ene¬
my.
Should the ditch be filled with ivater, and too deep
to be waded, it may be crofted on temporary bridges
made of planks, fupported on empty calks, or the ditch
may be filled up with calks full of earth. If, as often
happens, the ground be obftru£led with caltrops, thefe
603
muft be fwept away by dragging trees with their leaves Militaiy
and branches over the ground (a). Tadtics.
In attacking polls of confiderable magnitude, fuch  v 1Lf
as villages, it is bell to divide the attack, and to make
a feint on thofe parts which feem beft defended, while
the true attacks are referved for thofe fituations which
feem moft difficult of accefs, and where confequently,
the enemy is leaft upon his guard. As foon as part of
the village has been carried, fome divifions of the de¬
tachment fliould haften to ftrengthen their pofition, by
poffefiing themfelves of fome church, or high ground,
from which they annoy the enemy.
When a poll is once occupied, if it be thought of Defence of
fufficient confequence to retain it, the beft methodsP0^8*
{hould immediately be taken to protedl it againft an at¬
tack of the enemy. The infantry to remain under arms
in the middle of the place, the cavalry to patrole with¬
out, while the commanding officer, efcorted by a dozen
horfemen, goes to examine the environs to make his
arrangements; having fent feveral fmall detachments
before, to cover him in time of reconnoitring.
Having remarked the places proper for his guard,
defence, and retreat, as well as the dangerous ones by
which the enemy can make approaches fecretly to fur-
prife him, he fhould choofe the moft convenient in the
front of his poft to fix his grand guard D, (fig. 1. Plate Plate
DLL), whicli muft face the enemy. He mull mark fPLfi'
the heights for this guard to place theirvedettes EEEE, °'
and regulate the number according to the exigencies of
the fituation. In a covered country you muft not be
fparing of them, and muft reinforce every guard. At
50 paces from the front of the grand guard a non-
commiflioned officer with eight horfemen Ihould be al¬
ways ready to fet out at K, to go and reconnoitre, when
the vedettes have obferved any party.
If the poft to be defended be merely a redoubt, it
will be proper to keep in readinefs a number of trees
cut down with their branches, to flop up any breaches
made by the enemy’s {hot. The men employed in the
defence ftiould ftand in three ranks, the front and centre
ranks with fixed bayonets, and the third rank provided
with long pikes, fo as to projedl as far as the bayonets
of the front rank. On the enemy’s approach, the men
{hould referve their fire till the enemy come up to the
glacis, and the rear rank fliould be furniflied with hand
grenades, or lighted faggots, to throw among the ene»
my, when they attempt to fcale the parapet.
In the defence of a village or fmall town, guards
fliould be polled at the entrance of the principal ftreets j
trenches ftiould be cut acrofs the ftreets, and cannon
planted behind them, while a detachment of cavalry
ftiould occupy the market-place, or broadeft ftreet, to
attack the enemy, if they force an entrance. If the
advanced guards are driven in, they ftiould retire with
coolnefs and deliberation, defending their polls from
houfe to houfe, till proper fupport can be given them
from the body of the detachment.
If there be any dangerous place capable of covering
the approaches of the enemy in the environs of the poft,
4 G 2 and
W A R.
(a) The principal engines employed in the attack of polls, are reprelented in Plate DL vh to which we {hall
prefently refer.
9
604 ' ' W
Military and out of the circuit of the patroles, there ihould be a
, Ia(^‘cs- guard placed there, more or lefs ftrong according to the
importance of the place, and care fhould be taken to
preferve the communication. The guards and picquets
being placed, the detachment that was fent out on the
roads mull be called in, and then go to work to lodge the
party in the gardens that open upon the country, and
the commanding officer’s quarters beating down hedges,
filling up ditches, and levelling a piece of ground large
enough to draw up the whole corps. The horfes to be
put under cover in barns contiguous to the gardens ; but
in cafe there are no barns, they may fubftitute ffieds open
on one fide, that the horfes may go out together in cafe
of an alarm. The officers fliould occupy the houfes in
the neighbourhood of the ffieds, and one of each com¬
pany remain day and night with the company, to pre¬
vent any of the men from entering the village without
leave, upon any pretence. The commanding officer
muft acquaint the officers of his having chofen the place
3VI for the rendezvous in cafe of a retreat ; which ought
to be at fome diftance from the village, and on the lide
he judges moll convenient for retiring to the army. At
funfet the grand guard are to return to the poll and join
the picquet, the half of each to mount alternately till
daybreak, and then the grand guard to return to the
place which they pofleflfed the day before. The fentries
and vedettes ffiould be doubled, and all the palfages Ihut
up with waggons placed in two rows, except one for
fallying out at in cafe of a retreat, made wide enough
for the paffage of the patroles or the whole cavalry.
The corporals of the ordinary guard ffiould lead the
relief of the vedettes every hour, fetting off together ;
but when they come to the paffage of the poll A, they
muft feparate into two parties, the one to the right to
relieve the vedettes EBB, the other to the left for the
vedettes CCC j then each of them, with the par¬
ties they have relieved, fhould go on at their head a
quarter of a league by the two routes pointed out in the
plan, to examine the environs, fuppofing an hour to
each. Bolides this reconnoitring, the captain of the
grand guard ffiould fend trvo patroles in the night. To
fill up the intervals, they Ihould fet one about half an
3° hour after the corporals, and make the fame round,
fortifying .*n ^efenfive operations in an open country, the forti-
villages. fyinS a v^age or a church-yard may often prove of
importance, as fuch polls w'ell defended may obftrudl
the movements of the enemy, and give time for a fuffi-
cient force to colleft to meet them in the field. We
ffiall therefore defcribe the moll approved mode of
ilrengthening thefe pofitions.
When it is propoled to fortify a village, inquiry
ffiould firft be made refpefting the furrounding country,
whether there are woods, hills, or rivers near the vil¬
lage, whether the roads be acceffible, whether provi-
fions can. be eafily obtained, &c. If the village is to
be occupied as a poll of defence merely, the woods, ri¬
vers, ravines, or heights, may afford advantageous out-
pofts or fituations for batteries or ambufeades ; but if it
is to be poffeffed as an advanced poll on the eve of a
battle, the woods next the army ffiould' be cut down,
the hollows filled up, and every thing removed which
may obftruft the freell communication between the vil¬
lage and the main army j while on the fide of the ene¬
my, every obftrudlion by works, trees, &c, ffiould be
2
A B. ^ par|-
thrown in the way of his approach. The roads ffiould Mihta,
be broken up or interfered with deep ditches. Tadic
. If there be good hedges or deep roads parallel to the
village, or in luch a fituation as to front the enemy,
thefe will ferve as breaftworks, and for ffielter. The
hedges Ihould be cut down to within four feet of the
bottom, their tops Hoping towards the country, and
deep ditches Ihould be dug in front. If the roads are
deep, banquettes or Jleps muft be thrown up next the
hedge to raife the men to the proper height for firing.
For want of fuch natural means of defence, it will be
neceffary to throw up intrenchments on the fide next
the enemy and on the flanks.
big. i. Plate JDLII. will explain the method of do- p'at*
ing this in a village, under ordinary circumflances. ^LH
The village Hands in a plain, and in front of the army, S'1
which is diftant from it about 6co paces, a. The front
of the intrenchment confifts of three fleeehes or arrows,
b, c, d, joined together by lines. There are wolf-holes
before the works that cover the left flank e : the line g,
which croffes fome fwampy grounds, is broken in feve-
ral places z ; and the grove of -wood /, is cut down, to
prevent the enemy from approaching under cover of it.
As the right flank, confifting of a level plain, is more
expofed than any other quarter, in addition to the works
made of earth, which are thrown up at m, trees are
collected, and heaped up in the form of an abattis, n.
Thefe are defended by a difeharge of mufquetry from
the intrenchments, whofe lines are raifed as high as pof-
fible behind the growing hedges o, which inclofe the
gardens. It has however been judged necefiary to throw
the works up in a forward pofition p, and to have an
interval between them and the hedges, left the houfes
fliould be fet on fire by the enemy, and the troops be
expofed to it. Every thing is lelt clear and open at
the back, of the village, in order to fecure a free inter-
courfe with head-quarters.
Other meafures, however, mull be adopted in the.
fortifying of villages which lie at fo great a diftance.
from the camp, that the enemy might furprife and take
poffeffion ol them before any luccours could be fent j for
in that cafe, intrenchments muft be thrown up through¬
out the whole of their circumference. If, on the
contrary, one of the wings of the army fhould be fup-
ported by fuch a poll, it would be more judicious to
put the flank in a ftate of defence, and to lengthen the.
works in that quarter, to prevent the enemy from turn¬
ing it..
If it fhould be judged expedient, under the circum-
flances of the army being cantoned, to fortify a village
■which lies in a plain, other means muft be uftd ; for in
that cafe there W'ould not be troops enough to defend it..
Should there be a fufficiency of men, intrenchments
mull be thrown up in the manner we have defcribed,
and flt'eches muft be adopted to cover them behind,
with lines to connedl the vacant intervals ; but if there
be a fcarcity of foldiers, nothing but what is abfolutely.
neceffary muft be done ^ for it is highly impolitic to at¬
tempt more than can be eafily defended. Under thefe
circumftances you muft be fatisfied with creeling fmall
works, or ufing barricadoes to malic the entrances *,
here and there likewife fleeches muft be conftrueled,
whofe communication will be kept up by the garden
hedges. If the village Humid Hand on an eminence, it
may
] rt I.
ilitary may be fortified with more facility, and many things
•®cs' may be omitted, as the natural fituation is itfelf a re-
1 fpe&able poft.
Should there be a very great difproportion between
the extent of the village, and the number of men in¬
tended for its defence, and the latter fhould be too
fmall, a part only muft be fortified, and the remainder
of the houfes muft be fecured by lines. Sometimes in¬
deed it is found neceffary to burn or deftroy them, to
prevent the enemy from approaching the fortified parts,
under cover of the buildings.
But if the garrifon fhould not be fufficiently ftrong
even to defend a part of the village, you muft be con¬
tented with fortifying the church and church-yard, or
the caftle if there be one. If any of thefe pofts be
thought defenfible, troops muft occupy them on the
firft alarm j but this muft be done in perfeft fafety,
and without the foldiers being expofed to be cut off on
their march. This precaution is above all others ne¬
ceffary where villages are fo long and open that the
cavalry may enter them at every opening. On this
account the ordinary roads and avenues muft not only
be obftnnfted, but the garden hedges muft be repaired,
. and every opening muft be clofed, which may be eafily
dsne by driving ftakes into the earth, and nailing boards
acrofs them, which will prevent any fudden irruption of
the cavalry, from which alone any danger is to be ap¬
prehended on occafions of this fort •, for the infantry
would fcarcely advance, except by furprife, before the
garrifon could occupy its ftation. If any apprehenfions
are formed of an attack, the foldiers muft not be abfent
from their poft, either in the dufk of the evening, or at
night; they muft, on the contrary, be affembled in the
intrenchments during that period, to be ready in the
31 neighbouring houfes, always clothed and accoutred.
- thod of A church and church-yard afford’ an admirable poll:
• iur"^ ^e^ence> efpecially if, as ufually happens, they are
j Seated on an elevation. In fortifying fuch a poft, we
1 j. fhould firft block up every road and bye way leading
] f° it, by means of waggons or carts, with their wheels
taken off and loaded with dung or earth j trees laid a-
crofs, or chevaux de frize. The narrow paths may be
barricadoed with rails, with their points Handing up¬
wards, and a little outwards, having behind them thick
branches of trees, or logs of wood, with a ditch in
front. Thefe previous precautions being taken, the
doors of the church ftiould be pierced in feveral places,
about eight feet from the bottom, with holes large
enough to admit the muzzle of the mufquet, and plat¬
forms fhould be raifed with fteps within for the men to
fire from. Other loop holes fhould be made at the bot¬
tom of the doors, juft above the level of the ground,
and a ditch muft be dug within, about three feet deep,
fo as to admit of men firing from thence through thefe
lower loop-holes. See fig. 2. The doors muft alfo be
fecured by barricadoes, confifting of pallifades driven
feveral feet into the ground, and fet extremely thick,
fome being deeper than others, fo as to leave fpaces be¬
tween them and the top for loop-holes. See a, a, fig. 3.
Ihis barricade is technically called tambour. The
Walls of the church muft alfo be pierced in various
places as direfted for the doors, fee fig. 3. and ditches
nmft be dug within them, and fcaffolding erefled as be¬
fore.
Again, on the outfide of the church, a ditch is to he
605
dug as clofe to the walls as is confiftent with fafety to Military
the foundation, about 12 feet in breadth at the top, and Ta<aics- t
four in depth *, and from the further fide of this ditch
the ground ftiould, be gradually Hoped towards the open
country. Through the main door of the church an
opening fhould be made about two feet above the
ground, fufficiently large to admit of one man paffing
through without much difficulty, fo that when the
church-yard becomes untenable, the garrifon may re¬
treat into the church.
It muft not be forgotten to fecure the means of a
crofs fire. If the church be built in the form of a crofs,
crofs firings may be eafily procured through the proper
loop-holes; but when this isnotthe cafe, loop-holes ftiould
be made through every falient angle of the building, or
tambours, fuch as reprefented in fig. 3. muft be formed
wherever it can be conveniently done.
Men muft be diftributed in the upper part of the
building. Thefe men will take out the tiles or Hates in
different places, in order to obferve the approaches of
the enemy, and to fire upon him when he comes-within
mufket-Hiot. The lower windows of the tower or
fteeple muft likewife be barricadoed, and have loop¬
holes made in them. The pavement of the church muft
be taken up, and the ftones or bricks be carried to the
top of the building, to enable the befieged to let them
drop upon the enemy, when he gets fufficiently near.
In order to render the defence as practicable as poflible,
you muft alfo colleCt fome large barrels or tubs, and
keep them eonftantly at hand filled with water, for the
purpofe of extinguifhing any fire which might break
out in the church, or be effeCted bv the enemy’s
ftiells.
Fig. 4. (hows a plan of the church and church-yard Fig. 4.
thus fortified, a, «, ay the wall of the church-yard;
c, tambour work in the front of the entrances ; r/, the
church ; e,f, tambour work conftxuCted oppofite the
doors ; g, the facrifty or veftry.
Connected with the attack and defence of pofts is'ofambuf-
the fubjeCt of ambufoades; which we muft now brief!y^cades.
confider.
Ambufeades may be formed in any place where a
party may lie concealed, to furprife the enemy in paf¬
fing. They are eafily carried into execution in woods,-
hollow places, and large deferted buildings ; but thy
placing of an ambufcade in any fituation requires pre¬
vious accurate information with refpeCt to the move¬
ments of the enemy. When the commander of a party
has been direCted to form an ambufcade, to furprife 3.
convoy of artillery, baggage, or provifions, or a body
of recruits going to reinforce the enemy, he fhould firft'
make every neceffary inquiry refpeCting the route which-
the enemy is to take ; the fituation of the places near*
which he is to pafs, and the poft to which he is about
to march. He muft alfo inquire with feeming anxiety
about the roads which lead in an oppofite diredion, orr
which lie fhould feem more intent than on his main
objeCt. Having concerted his plan, he ftiould fet out’
at the head of Ids detachment if poflible, and leaving
his poft on the fide oppofite to his true route, the better
to conceal his defign. If the place where he intends to
plant his ambufcade be not far diftant, he ftmuld come
into his true route about half way, and there place half'
Ills infantry in ambuffi to favour his retreat. But when
the country where he propefes going is diftant, and the
march
WAR.
Tadtics.
Plate
DLIII.
fiff* 3.
Co6 _ 'W
Military niarcli requires at lead: two nights, he muft conduct his
party by meandring from wood to wood, if there be
J any. He muft not forget to provide neceffary refreih-
ments for the day, which muft be palTed in feme con¬
cealed place where he may not be perceived, and muft
caufe three rations of oats to be carried for each
horfe.
Proper precautions having been taken to guard any
crofs road or bridge that may lie near the place of am-
bufeade, the commanding officer ffiould take care to be
at leaft two hours before the enemy, and to place the
ambufeade on that fide, by which, if worfted, he may
retire with the greateft fafety.
Plate DLIII. fig. 2. will illuftrate the proper me¬
thod of laying an ambufeade. A reprefents the infan¬
try of the furprifing party, which ought to be placed at
leaft 600 paces behind B, the cavalry, fo that, if pur-
fued, they may both fall back to A, and make good
their retreat to the guard at the bridge or crofs road 5
or to another party of infantry placed in ambuffi half
way. If the ambufeade be placed in a wood, an intelligent
non-commiffioned officer ffiould be chofen to get upon a
high tree C, from which he can fee the march of the
enemy, and give notice of the moft effential circum-
ftances. The firft of thefe is the feeing the advanced
guard •, the fecond is the approach of the corps, and
the third is the time when their front is advanced as
far as the ambufeade B *, for which the commanding of¬
ficer ffiould inftruft the obferver what fignals he is to
make from the top of the tree, to communicate the ne¬
ceffary: information without fpeaking, which may be
done by means of a fmall cord D, of a brown or green
colour, fo as to be leaft perceptible. Let this cord be
placed as in the plan, fo that no branch interrupt it,
with one end in the hand of the obferver, and the other
in the commanding officer’s hand in the ambufeade B.
As foon as the advanced guard appears, the obferver
dUiuft pull the cord, and the commanding officer caufe
the party to mount and remain in deep filence. If by
a ftratagem, which is pra6tifed for particular reafons,
the advanced guard is immediately followed by the
corps, which may be eafily known by their being more
numerous than ordinary, and not followed by any other
corps, that the commander may not be deceived by the
enemy, the cord ffiould be drawn a fecond time, and
a third time when their front is advanced as high ns the
ambufeade. At that inftant the party muft ruffi out,
and furioufly attack the flanks of their centre in the fol¬
lowing manner.
If the advanced guard E is formed only of an ordi¬
nary number, they ffiould be allowed to pafs $ and at
the approach of the principal part or convoy F, the
chief to be informed by the fecond pulling of the cord.
At the moment the head of the convoy {hall be ad¬
vanced as high as B, the cord muft be pulled the
third and laft time; and at this fignal the party muft
ruffi out without being perceived, and fuddenly attack
the centre on the flank, engaging only with their fwords,
and making fuch a noife as to prevent the enemy from
hearing the orders of their officers. They muft difarm
all whom their bravery (hall throw in their way, taking
care not to fcatter or purfue too far, unlefs it be certain
that they are fo far from their army or parties, on ac¬
count of which they cannot be affe&edj for in either of
I
A K- . Part
thefe cafes they will not fall to run at the noffe, and di- Militer
fturb the retreat. Tadics
In all fecret expeditions, great circumfpe£tion ffiould
be ufed, that the party be not feen -or betrayed*, as if
they be difeovered by the advanced guard before the
blow be ftruck, the enterprife muft be immediately
abandoned, and the party retire. When the guide, or
any one of the party deferts, and cannot be catcbed, a
retreat muft immediately be thought of, or the ambuf-
cade muft be placed fomewhere elfe; but to prevent
fuch a misfortune, the officers ffiould be charged to exa¬
mine frequently whether they have all their men.
An ambufeade fliould never be formed forciitting off
the enemy’s retreat, as this will drive him to delpair,
and make him rally and attack the party with defperate
refblution. There may be an exception to this, when
it is pretty certain that the whole party of the enemy
may be cut off or taken prifoners, either from the fmall-
nefs of their number, or from the peculiar fituation of
the place of ambufeade.
Several ambufeades ffiould not be formed at once,
except for the purpofe of feizing foragers, in which cafe
they ffiould be difpofed fo that the fentinels may fee
from one to another. Then the firft guard which fees
the foragers, fliould commence the attack, and can foon
be affifted by the reft of the party,
In all ambufeades, no fentries ffiould be placed but
officers or non-commiffioned officers. On downs, be¬
hind mountains, or in gullies, the fentries Ihould lie with
their bellies on the ground, and their feet towards the
ambufeade, the body covered with a gray or green
cloak, according to the colour of the ground, with their
heads a little raifed and wrapped in a handkerchief of
ftraw green colour, or white in time of fnow, fo as not
to be eafily perceived. The number of fentinels can¬
not be determined, but they ffiould be difpofed fo as to
•watch on all fides of the ambufeade, and flop every one
'who may inadvertently approach too near. The fentries
ffiould give notice of what they difeover bygeftures, to
which all the officers ffiould be very attentive. In coun¬
tries where there are no woods, vineyards, or hedges,
an ambufeade may be placed in a field of hemp or corn,
or fome fort of grain, provided it be high enough to
cover the men, at leaft with the help of art. When
the ftalk of the corn is not high enough, fome of the in¬
fantry muft be fet to work with fpades and pickaxes,
which they muft have brought along with them, for the
purpofe of digging holes in the field deep enough to
make up for the defeftive height of the corn.
An ambufeade often forms part of a ftratagem for
bringing on an aflion with a party of the enemy which
would be fuperior, were it not for fome advantage of
this kind, as in the folloiving cafe. See Plate DLIIL
fig. I. Suppofe the whole party to fet out from A,p;g(Ii
marching under the condudf of a trufty guide by cover¬
ed ways at a diftance from the enemy. Being come to
the place C, which ought to be in the environs, and as
high as the field of battle, the infantry ffiould be con¬
cealed out of the road far from the fight of paffengers.
This milft be the centre of correfpondence with the
army, the rendezvous of the booty, and fupport the re¬
treat of all the cavalry, of which there ffiould be as
many detachments as there are attacks propofed to be
made. We ffiall fuppofe fix of 100 men each, and they
muft
o
W A H.
rt I
ihtary muft go fecretly by particular routes to their refpedtive
icties. p0(is> D, F, G, H, I. Neither trouble nor expence
(hould be fpared to procure good guides. Each detach¬
ment Ihould lie in ambulli half a league, if neceffary,
from the objeft of the attack BKKKK,
The noife of the mufketry in the armies is to be the
fignal for their irruption ; and then bravery, intrepidity,
and courage will give wings to the people. The fecon.d
detachment D will glance imperceptibly between the
villages, and fall like thunder on the camp B; and
while 80 attack all whom they meet, the other 20
fhould light their torches' at the fires that are to be
found everywhere, and fpread the flames rapidly to the
ftraw of the tents. As they cannot fail to have the
picquet of the camp foon at their heels, they muff ftrike
their blow with all poffible expedition, without flopping
to plunder, being content with the glory of having ex¬
cited a general alarm, capable of confounding the whole
army, and contributing to the gaining of a battle.
At the fame time that the detachment D attacks the
camp B, the others, E, F, G, H, muft with equal vio¬
lence attack the villages K, K, K, K, which they have
in front, doing the fame the firfl did in camp, except
that they may feize as plunder every thing which they
can conveniently carry off, with which thefe villages
are commonly filled, feizing the beft horfes, hamflring-
ing others with the ftroke of a fword, and fetting fire to
all the places which contain the enemy’s baggage. Each
detachment fhould caufe fome horfemen to advance be¬
yond the village, to obferve the motion of the troops,
who will not fail to run to their afliflance. As foon as
they perceive them, they muft make their retreat as fall
as poflible by the routes which the commanding officer
lias preconcerted, and which are reprefented in the plate
by the coarfe lines. The fixth detachment I, in ambufh
on the fide of the road leading from the camp, fhould
remain there, to feize all the enemy who think of faving
themfelves by flight.
:treats. When the commander of a detachment finds himfelf
obliged to abandon a poft, or that it is not worth de¬
fending, it b* comes neceflary for him to prepare for his
retreat. This is often a difficult and dangerous affair,
and requires much prudence as w'ell as bravery on the
part both of officers and men. If poffible, he ffiould re¬
treat on that fide which forms a communication with
the general bafis or line of pods occupied by his party.
The following obfervations on lines of retreat, connefted
with the lines of operation defcribed in N° 22, will be
found of importance.
A retreat on a fingle line is a fault of the utmoft
late magnhude, for it is evident that if the army C (fig. 8.
ILLVI. Plate DXLVI.) retire from it towards B, along the
1-8. line AB, the enemy may fend befides, two corps a, dy
againft the flanks of this army, which would feparate it
at the point B, and in this cafe it would be furround-
cd. Nor is this the only difadvantage, for all the coun¬
try fituated to the right and left of the line AB, would
fall into the hands of the enemy ; while, in a retreat, it
is always a rule to cover as much of the country as pof¬
fible.
A concentric retreat is of fuch a nature, that in an ex-
tenfive pofition they fall back to one more confined, fo
that the two lines of operation at the extremities AB,
(%• 9-) unite at the object of retreat C, forming an
io. acute angle, or as at fig.-10. an obtufe angle j fuch a
retreat would have no better iffue than the former. The Military
fame difadvantages which refult from retreats on a fingle , Tactics. ^
line would likewife attend this. There is one circum-
ftance which might induce a general to retreat in this
manner, and that is, with the view of covering any im¬
portant place, a capital, for example, by taking an ad¬
vantageous pofitien, which is indicated by C, in the
figures *, the important place required to be covered
would probably be at D. But neverthelefs this meafure
would be ineffe£tual if the enemy were at all verfant in
the art of war, and operated on the flanks of the army
they were puifuing. The beft method of covering a
country, which is in our rear, is to proceed againft the
flanks of the enemy which is advancing ; and by this
intrepid and bold movement, to change our defenfive
operations into tlmfe of an attack.
A retreat conduced in parallel lines, as the bafis AB,Fig- n-
in four corps, 2, 3, 4, or the lines AC, EG, FH, BD,
is doubtlefs better than the concentric retreats which we
have juft confidered. In the firft place, the country is
better covered by means of the parallel lines •, fecondly,
the enemy cannot fo eafily infult the flanks of the re¬
treating army, provided that this is in a condition to per¬
form the fame manoeuvre with regard to them, and thus
obftru£i their progrefs ; laftly, they would be afraid of
advancing with too much precipitation, from the moment
their attention is divided by the attempt which may be
made againft them. But there might be fomething ftill
better attending it, viz. to retire in an eccentric direc¬
tion,^? we (hall fhow prefently.
The excellence of parallel retreats is maintained from
the idea that they cover a country better, and likewife
flop tlie progrefs of an enemy, when oppofed in a direct
line. Certainly this appears evident to the eye j but
the fight is often the medium only of error. It is the
ignis fatuus, which leads us into the mire, and the pre-
fent inftance is a proof of it. This opinion was not in¬
deed well founded among our predeceffors, and ftill lefs
is it fo among the moderns. We do not now arreft the
progrefs of the enemy, by prefenting ourfelves to their
ftrongeft part, viz. their front \ but on the contrary, by
intercepting their flanks, which are the weakeft parts;
by haraffing their rear ; by menacing their provifions
and their communication with the fources of their vigour
and power. It follows from hence, that eccentric re¬
treats are the beft. An army (fig. 12.) who retires
from a, b, c, cl, e, towards f g, h, i, k, runs no rifk of
feeing the enemy advance in the fegment f, k ; for he
would, by fuch a movement, be in danger of being fur-
rounded.
We may lay it down as a rule, that it is efientially
neceflary, in all retreats, to divide into different columns,
in order to divert the attention of the enemy j and it
is fully demonftrated that there is not in war a more
important maxim. We might fhow that this method
of attracting the attention of the enemy to many differ¬
ent points at once is, properly fpeaking, exciting a de^
gree of apprehenfion with regard to his flanks and rear.
But it naturally refults from all that has been faid rela¬
tive to the inutility of diverging offenfive operations, as
well as thofe which are directed by a fihgle line, or by
an acute angle, that eccentric.retreats are of all others
the moft preferable. Since concentric operations are
the moft advantageous in attacking, eccentric ones muft
neceffarily poffefs the fame advantages in defence; every
thing.
So 8
Military thing fhould be in oppofition, in two different kinds of
« Ta<^ICS* . warfare, which are in their nature and interefts contra-.
^ dictory.
In condudting a retreat, as in all other field opera¬
tions, an army Ihould affume, as the principal objeft, its
own magazines, and the fafety of its lines of convoy,
rather than the army of the enemy j and it Ihould never
take a pofition oppofite the enemy, but rather on one
- fide of him.
Of battles. We have hitherto confidered military operations in
the field, as they are fubfervient, or preparatory to, that
moft important confequence of war, a We mult
now examine what are the caufes which fhould induce a
general to hazard or avoid a battle ; and if he determine
on a general adlion, what are the belt methods of dif-
pofing the troops under his command.
At prefent, actions in the field are 'diftinguifhed into
two kinds, according as they are more or lefs general.
When the whole- of the adverfe armies are engaged, it
is called a battle $ but where only a part of each is con¬
cerned, a combat. The latter of thefe, however defpe-
rate, does not in general involve fuch important confe-
quences as the formers but as in a general engagement,
the vanquithed party nfually lofe the greater part of
their artillery and baggage, and are compelled to retire
and leave the country behind them at the mercy of the
victors, a prudent general never hazards fuch Ioffes
without important reafons.
•Reafons for When an army is fuperior to its opponents in number
hazarding or difcipline 5 when difcord prevails among the chiefs of
a battle. tjie adverfe army ; when a negleft of the ordinary pre¬
cautions in marching, encamping, or other obvious
duties, demonftrate their incapacity j when it is neceffary
to relieve a confiderable town or poll that is b^fieged
by the enemy; when it is apprehended that the army
will be difperfed or ruined, without a general engage¬
ment *, when intelligence has been received that rein¬
forcements are approaching to the enemy, which will
render him fuperior j when the enemy has received, in
fome preceding aftion, a confiderable check which he
has not yet recovered, or when the army whole general
is thus canvafling the advantages and difadvantages of a
battle, is in fuch a If ate, that every thing ought to be
hazarded for its relief, the commander is warranted in
35 g’lving battle to the enemy.
Realonsfor # the contrary, when lefs is to be hoped for from a
avoiding a victory tnan feared from a defeat 5 when the army is in¬
general ferior either in number, courage, or difcipline, to the
enemy } when it is in expe6fation of being reinforced by
a ftrong detachment of frefh troops ; when the enemy
is fo advantageoufly polled that it would be impoffible
to bring him to an engagement on equal terms, or to
force his entrenchments ; or when there is a .profpeft,
by temporifing and declining battle, of ruining the
army of the enemy by difeafe, famine, or defertion, it
would be wrong to place the fortune of the campaion
37 on the iffue of a battle.
preparation When a general engagement has been refolved on,
. a battle, the general is to devife the means of carrying it into
execution, fi> as to have the ftrongeft prefumption of
uccefs. He is to arrange, with the officers of his ftaff,
the manner in which the troops are to be divided and
difpofed, or what is called the order of battle ; he ffiould
affign to his feveral officers their refpeiftive polls, and
Part I
fee that copies of the order of battle be given to thofe Military
that have a feparate command. The proper officers ’ra&ics.
ftiouid take care that the troops under their command
be properly armed and equipped, and that they are al¬
lowed time to reft and refrefii themfelves before the en¬
gagement. The heavy baggage, and every thing that
might encumber the operations of the troops, Ihould be
removed, and placed at a diftance under k proper guard.
A referve fiioulci be formed near the park of artillery,
eonfifting of fome of the braveli and bell difeiplined
troops, headed by the moll experienced officers.
In time of a&ion, the commander in chief ffiould be circam*
fo fituated as to be able to iffue his orders with the lead ftancestol
difficulty, and to oblerve as far as poffible the operations anencied
of his troops, and more efpecially the effefts of the firft ^
attack. Every other general officer mult keep his own
fiation, to direct the charge of the troops, or to rally
and re-form thofe which have been routed and difperfed.
When the aftion becomes general, and is obftinately
contelted, the commander-in-chief Ihould dire£t the
principal efforts of his troops againlt that part of the
enemy’s line which makes the greateft refiftance, and
Humid himfelf hafttn to this fpot, to animate his men
to greater activity and exertion by his prefence and ex¬
hortations.
The artillery of the army fhould accompany the firfl
line, lind the remainder of the troops ffiould follow the
movements of thofe before them, fo as to preferve the
proper diltance between the lines, and march with the
leafi poffible diforder and confufion. If the firll line
give way, the fecond fhould march up to its relief, and
either charge the enemy, or keep him employed till the
firll line has time to rally and re-form. If, however, as
often happens, the other lines are flruek with a panic on
obferving the repulfe of their predeceffors, the referve
Ihould be brought up, and it is probable that their cou¬
rage and refolution will reanimate the feattered troops,
and turn the fortune of the day. 39 j
In forming the order of battle, regard mull be paid 1
to the nature and fituation of the place where the battle batt e’
is to be fought \ to the number and quality of the troops
engaged, and to the mode of fighting which is moft
likely to take place during the adlion, or to decide the
victory. There are two principal methods of forming
troops in order of battle, the column and the line. The
former of thefe was moft in ufe among- the ancients, has
been greatly recommended by Folard in his commen-
taries on Polybius, and pradlifed with the moft brilliant
fuccefs by the French armies fince their portentous re¬
volution. This order of battle is adapted chiefly to cafes
vvhere the activity of the troops can be relied on, and
where much firing with mulketry or artillery is not ex-
pedled to take place, and where of courfe the affair is to
be decided principally by the pike or the bayonet. It
is alfo well calculated for a body of infantry who are
to refill the attack of cavalry. It is obvious that from
the clofe arrangement of troops in column, this difpofition
muft expofe them more to the fire of a line, and muft
endanger their being flanked or furrounded by an enemy
whofe front is more extended. The relative advantages
and difadvantages of the column and the line, will be
more readily perceived by attending to the following
principles.
From the order of battle as a bafis are deduced many
inftruclive
W A R.
W A R.
itary mflruftive principles relating to v/Iiat are called lines of
tics, marching and lines offering, which conftitute a confider-
r^able part of the elements of modern tallies.
°ies There are as many lines of marching arifing from the
rchingorder of battle, as there are foldiers in the firft rank of
r‘ng> the line or column, and as the foldiers approach towards
e<* the enemy, thefe lines of marching, at lead in the infan-
oT try, produce lines of firing. It is the nature and rela¬
tive advantages of different lines of marching and firing
that we now propofe to confider.
ate Let us fuppofe two lines of troops, A and B, fig. 13.
extended oppofite to each other, of which A is confider-
1,3 ably longer than B at each extremity, or, as it is termed,
outflanks it. It is evident that B may be furrounded
by A, as from the fuperior numbers of A, B may be
attacked in flank and rear. It is therefore evident that
when the numbers are unequal, and the conteft is to be
decided by firing, the greater number muff prevail, if
both are arranged in lines,
4. Again, the line AB (fig. 14.) being attacked by the
line c d, the flank B cannot extend itfelf parallel to c d,
if this line advances always in front towards A. The
line attacked is furrounded, and even fo preffed upon,
that they mult all take flight towards A. If any troops
by chance Ihould endeavour to form upon the line e f
they would not have time ; taken in front and in flank
by the enemy’s fire, they could never refill fuch an at¬
tack. The cavalry would experience the fame difad-
vantages in a fimilar cafe, Horfemen attacked to the
right, to the left, and in front, could not defend them-
felves; the celerity of the horfes, no doubt, would en¬
able them to deploy quicker than the infantry ; but,
by the fame reafoning, the enemy’s cavalry, which is ad¬
vanced upon their flank, would likewife advance the
quicker from the point B, towards the oppofite wing A,
which a corps of infantry could not poflibly do. Thus
it would be equally difficult to form the line ef; every
thing would be overthrown, and they muff retire in the
greateft diforder towards A. It is hence clear that
every effort Ihould be made by an army in line of battle,
to turn the enemy’s flanks with its front.
Concentric lines of marching and firing well exe¬
cuted, are exceedingly important. Hence it is that a
fortrefs muff yield when it is befieged, as the fire from
the fortrefs is eccentric, wdiile that of the befiegers is
concentric. Hence, too, forties from a garrifon rarely
fucceed, becaufe they are eccentric operations.
When an army is much weaker than its opponent, if
the former be compelled to an action, it fhould throw
itfelf on the enemies flanks ; and to do this with effedl,
the enemy’s front ftiould be kept occupied, fo as to
draw off his attention from his flanks. If the line were
long, he would have time to convey all that part oppo-
S- fite to the fide attacked, as A (fig. 15.) into the line
ef, before the attacking army e d could entirely over¬
throw and repulfe the flank B, which would be the ob¬
ject of their efforts. In this cafe, things would again
be equal •, for an engagement in front would take place,
the iffue of which is always doubtful. If, however,
they occupy the line AB, by corps fent for that pur-
pofe, asg and h, while, with a greater force, they at¬
tack in flank, then it would be impoffible for any part
of AB to throw‘*themfelves into the line ef, before ha¬
ving beaten gh; and the time wmuld probably be too
fliort for this operation, \i c d pufhed in front in a vigor-
Vol. XX. Part II.
609-
ous manner. From this it follows that the army Military
AB, though the ftronger, can do nothing better at, 'raAics. ^
this time than quit the field of battle, as it will other- '
wife be furrounded. Noav, the attacking army have no¬
thing to do but to effeft an eccentric retreat j namely,
to fall back with the left wing upon ik, and with the
right upon /m, provided CD do not obftrufl the paffagej
for in that cafe, the retreat of the right wing, or of that,
part of the army neareft the flank B, would be on n,
in order to create in the enemy c a fome folicitude for
his left flank d. It is by fuch eccentric retreats that
the purfuit of the enemy is prevented. They dare not
venture it, if they do not with to be taken in flank
themfelves, and to become in their turn expofed to an
efcalade and a concentric fire, and confequently a ter¬
rible havoc. Eccentric retreats in taffies are equally
as advantageous as in ffrategy. The latter kind alarm
the enemy with regard to his lines of operation, and
confequently prevent him from advancing; the former
make him afraid of expofing his flanks and rear, and
hinder him from purfuing.
From thefe confiderations it appears that it is no
great misfortune for an army to be attacked in its cen¬
tre, and divided. If the army be divided in two at the
centre, it will retire eccentrically on e and f (fig. 16.). Fig. 16,
By this movement it will throw an obftacle in the way
of all farther progrefs on the part of the enemy, who
has divided in the middle the dotted line AB. It is
impofllble for the enemy c J to advance in front be¬
tween e andf; they would take him in flank on both
fides : he muff therefore advance in front towards e and
f, both at the fame time. In this pofition e and f might
detach forces to the rear of c d, and operate at once on
its provifions and in its country. It would be fufficient
for that to fend fome corps from their flanks to the
points A, B. It is likewife poflible for them to ad¬
vance entirely to the left and right, if they have any
magazines at g and h, which neverthelefs wmuld not be
expofed by the marching of the flanks towards A and
B, and would always be iheltered from the enterprifes of
c d. A third combination likewife would be to attack
immediately c d, which, from its pofition, would be ex¬
pofed on both its flanks. In this laft cafe, c d would
have no other refource than to operate on that part of
the flanks e and f which are oppofite to the points
A, B, to compel ef to retreat, and replace its front in
the direction of A, B.
It does not require a great body of men to occupy
the front of the enemy, while the reft of the army at¬
tacks the flanks. It is belt done by means of a fcattared
troop, or what the French call tirailleurs, confifting of
light infantry, which are ufually inftrufled in the fol¬
lowing manner. The troop, formed into two ranks,
divides in fuch a manner that there may be a fpace be¬
tween the two, as indicated in fig. 17. The fecond Fig. 17.
rank, placed behind the intervals left by the firft, fecures
its flanks. When they attack, the fecond rank, CD,
pafling through the intervals of the firft AB, advances
to the line EF, and fires. The great advantage arifing
from this, is that of forming a more extenfive front than
when they are wedged in elbow to elbow ; fecondly,
they keep up a more fatal fire with their mulketry, be¬
caufe each foldier, being unmolefted by the one next to
him, aims better, and continues his firing without in¬
terruption ; thirdly, a lefs number of men is loft, becaufe
4 H many
6io
Military
Tadlics.
Fig. 18.
/
Fig. ip.
Fig. 21.
$ig. 22.
Fig. 23.
w
many of the enemy’s balls fall in the intervals, and are
confequently harmlefs j but in the following method all
thefe advantages are united in a more eminent degree.
Here the difperfed foldiers do not move in right lines,
but circularly, as reprefented in fig. 18. When the
firft rank has fired, the men make a little turn to the
left, and run to the place occupied by the fecond rank,
the men of which advance rapidly in front to the place
which the former had quitted, and fire, while the other
rank is charging. Thus, each rank alternately advan¬
cing and retiring in circles, a conftant fire is kept up
on the enemy, with little hazard to the men. It mult
be allowed, however, that this method will fucceed on¬
ly when the enemy Hand firm for if they fly, the
former method is to be preferred.
If the attacking army be forced to retire, the tirail¬
leurs that fucceed them fhould flop at N° 2. fig. 19.
inftead of proceeding as far as N° 1. j while thofe that
are already at N° 1. in retiring fall back farther than
N° 2. thus each rank fucceflively falling farther and
farther back, contefting every inch of ground.
It may perhaps be maintained, that it is better in at¬
tack to adopt clofe order, becaufe the lines of firing be¬
ing more approximate, they can keep a better fire j but
it may be replied, that if they are once on the flanks of
the enemy, and fufficiently near to ufe the mulket, it is
then of little importance whether they attack with clofe
ranks, or en tirailleurs, becaufe in either cafe the enemy
muft be beaten if they charge with vigour. In fuch a
pofition, it would be difficult to throw one’s felf in the
line ef (fig. 20.), particularly if it be occupied in front,
as it ought to be, and it is neceflary that the cavalry
ffiould be near, in order fo fuftain this attack.
The retreats of the infantry intended to occupy the
front AB (fig. 21.), need not be either eccentric or in
flank, the principal objeft being to direfl the attention
of the army AB from his flanks, which it is intended to
attack ; but thefe retrograde movements muft be con¬
duced direCly upon If. If the retreat be ferious, and
it be really intended to abandon the front AB, and to
prevent the purfuit by creating in the enemy a folici-
tude for his flanks, then the retreat ffiould be executed
eccentrically up g h.
Suppofe an army colleCed in an oblique pofition, as
at CD, fig. 22. and fuppefe it is to make an attack on
another army AB, coming round upon its flank. This
manoeuvre has been recommended by Folard, and was
pra&ifed long ago by Epaminondas, and in modern
times by Frederick the Great. It is however generally
confidered as inferior to the mode of attack illuftrated
in fig. 15. and AB might eafily avoid the danger by
moving along in line towards f or taking the pofition
A^. Indeed AB is itfelf, by its right wing A, in
fome degree enabled to aft on the offenfive againft the
left wing of CD, by moving round in the columns hi.
The conftquence of this mutual manoeuvring would be,
that CD takes AB on its flank B, while it is itfelf
taken by AB on its own flank C; the two parts attack¬
ed will be probably beaten by the attacking army, and
after the combat they will both remain oppofite to each
other, though a little obliquely with refpeC to their
former front.
It is not ahvays neceflary to re-form the ranks. Sup¬
pofe AB (fig. 23.) is attacked by the line CD, the left
wing might run difperfed towards ef, and there make a Miiita.
little turn to the right at a certain fignal, return quick- Tadic
ly, attack the left flank D, and give it a rolling fire v-
from three fides, before D, in order to defend himfelf,
could take the form of an axe (d^une hatche) Dg.
But, in order for fuch an attack to fucceed, the enemy’s
cavalry muft not be near. In cafe there be any to be
apprehended, the precaution to be adopted would be to
form into columns. If, therefore, attacks and retreats
take place in this manner, and, above all, if care has not
been taken to luftain and cover them with a numerous
cavalry, the greater part of the taflical evolutions of the
infantry are rendered ulelefs. It is, however, indifpen-
fably neceflary that the troops fhould always know how
to deploy from a column into a line of battle.
Captain Rolch, a Pruffian officer, has difcovered a
method of deploying, which appears to be by far the
eafieft and the belt yet known. During the march, the
divifions proceeding on the line AB (fig. 24.) obfervepjp. 2
the neceflfary diftances. As foon as the divifion 1
enters into the line of dire&ion AB, it is commanded
to the right or left, according to the fide which they
wiffi to face ; the following divifion arrives, without
changing its ftep, to the very place where the preceding
one has made its quart de converfion, and performs a fi-
milar onej the third, the fourth, and all the reft follow
the example. Each divifion having thus traverfed its
diftance, reaches the line of diredlion, when that which
marches diredlly in front has already made room.
This method is a ftep further towards the perfedlion
of deploying, which is to advance in front, for the divi¬
fion 1 is obliged to make a quart de converfon to the
left, before prefenting in front to the line, whilft, ac¬
cording to the method of Captain Rbfch, this line is
formed merely by a halt front. At the fame time, a
converfion is a movement which ahvays requires many
paces, becaufe it is performed in the fegment of a circle.
In the tw-o methods of deploying reprefented at fig.
24. and 25. the divifions traverfe the two fmalleft fides Fig. 2$:
of a right-angled triangle (fee fig. 25.). The Pruffians
have introduced a method, in which only the hypothe-
nufe is defcribed : it is called the adjutant'sflep. The
adjutants, who know from experience the length of the
front of their battalions, meafure with the gallop of
their horfes on the line of diredlion, the fpaee necefiary
for appearing in battle (fig. 26.). Each battalion fe-pig. 26.
parates from the column, and marches by the neareft
road to where their adjutants ftand, at the numbers
I, 2, 3, 4, as intermediate points on the line of direc¬
tion AB. As foon as the firft divifion arrives at the
adjutant, it immediately deploys according to the me¬
thod already defcribed. If the officers who meafure
the front do not make any great miftake, the march in
front muft be executed much more quickly than by the
preceding method.
Let us now examine the beft method of throwing
back a wing into a line, fo that it may not be turned.
Suppofe an oblique line at c d (fig. 27.) with a crotchet Fig. 27
de formed to prevent being taken by the flank d; and
at the fame time, to have a line ready to repulfe every
attack which the enemy AB, might attempt on the left
againft this flank. Such is the firft modification which
this kind of pofition offers to our examination. After
this line, en crochet, has difperfed every thing which op-
pofed
tl.
W A R,
6u
itary pofed Its progrefs, it turns, till it arrive at the prolonga-
' itici. tion of the oblique front CD, and then takes the enemy
- v * in flank.
a Pruf. At the battle of Lifla fome battalions of grena-
fia To. 35- diets were placed at the extremity of the right wing of
the cavalry *, they overthrew the troops of Wirtemburg,
and performed other effential fervices. But fuch a pe¬
tition has this defeat, that it offers a flank to the enemy,
which can be enfiladed by his cannon. This would
Fi] ,8. happen ta c d (fig. 28.), as well as de, if the line AB
extended beyond, and turned the oblique front c d. It
would be poflible, by means of a fquare battalion, as
d, to cover the flank which is attacking in the
oblique order, but two fides of this fquare would be en¬
filaded by the cannon of the enemy. The defence of a
parallelogram is therefore much weaker than that of a
perfect fquare.
Fi, 19- Fig. 29. reprefents what the Pruffians call a cremail-
liere, a form extremely complicated, and liable to be
enfiladed by the enemy. Another and Hill more com-
Fi \o. plicated form of this order of battle is feen at fig. 30.
Fi ;r. Figs. 31. and 32. reprefent the order of battle in a
fquare, a form which is well adapted both to flrength
and convenience. When it is intended to reinforce the
fquare battalion againft cavalry, the third rank feparates
from the two others, and forms by itfelf a leffer fquare,
within that formed by the front and centre ranks.
When this is done, if the enemy’s cavalry fliould pene¬
trate into one of the angles of the firft fquare, the inner
fquare forms a falient angle by converfions to the right
,j> and left, as reprefented by the dotted lines fig. 32, fo as
by a crofs fire to drive the enemy back again.
Many have propofed to conduft retreats in various
fquare battalions 5 but it is neceffary that they (hould
be fmall fquares, compofed at the utmoft of two or three
battalions; and it is requifite, that, during the march,
whether by angles or fquares, they fhould obferve be¬
tween each other fuch a pofition, that the fire of the
one flank {hould reach to the fides of the other in order
S3. to proteft it (fig. 33. N° I, 2, 3.). This laft battalion
3 reaches the front 1, which laft performs the fame
fervice to the rear of 3, and to the front of 2 ; 2, on its
fide, prote&s the rear both of 1 and 3. It would be diffi¬
cult in the field, for thefe different fquares to preferve
fuch a compreffed pofition, and they Avould be in danger
of rvounding or killing each other by their crofs firing.
Men well experienced in war have, however, preferred
retreats of infantry in fquare battalions, having the can¬
non in the centre or on the flanks, as reprefented in fig.
34. 34. In executing this movement, however, the di-
ftances are fcarcely ever preferved, efpecially when it is
neceffary for a wing to deploy by a converfion during a
)S* retreat, fee fig. 35. in order to prevent the purfuit of the
enemy. In every other refpe£l thefe retreats being ec¬
centric, are founded on good principles. See N° 33.
When, after a difeharge of mulketry, an army has to
retire, this movement cannot be expelled to be executed
in order. In this cafe a flight always takes place, for
otherwife there would be no reafon for quitting the
field of battle. In this fituation it is neceffary to have
a line of cavalry behind the infantry, to fuftain them;
and then it is not fo bad as is generally imagined, to fly
haftily into the midft of the cavalry. It is only necef¬
fary that this fcattered infantry ftiould reform immedi¬
ately in the moft convenient place, in a wood, or on an
Military
Tallies.
elevation; and if they return quickly to the charge, they
will difplay more courage than in failing back, ftep by
ftep, and lofing a number of men ; for in the firft in- ^
ftance it is a real and-ufeful intrepidity, but in the fe-
cond it is nothing. If there be no cavalry to fuflain
them in an open place, they muft then remain united,
or otherwife be cut in pieces.
When it is poftible to effect a regular retreat, the
beft and eafieft method is to make a half-turn to the
right with the whole line, and to march thus, progret-
fively falling back ; by this means they will fooner
efcape from the fire of the enemy than in any other
manner, and the order is much more eafily kept, which
is of importance, and deferves to be properly appreciated.
There is not a more pitiable object than a fquare batta¬
lion furrounded by tirailleurs, (fig. 36.). All their Kg. jg;
(hot are concentric, and confequently eminently effec¬
tive, while thofe of the fquares are eccentric, which
renders them almoft nugatory. The ranks of this un¬
happy fquare would foon be thinned by a well-dire£ted
fire, which could not mifs its aim ; and a battalion, in
this pofition, would find it impoffible to efcape deftruc-
tion.
The moft celebrated modification of the oblique
front, is that made by Frederick the Great, viz. the
oblique attack in rounds. Experience has not yet
proved what there is peculiarly excellent in this manner
of attacking; and Captain Rofch has (hewn that it is
not tenable in theory. He demonftrates that each
echellon would be received by the enemy with a fuperi-
or fire; for the one cd (fig. 37.) if it approach the Fig. 37,
line AB, within mulket (hot, would be caught in its
flank £■; which being turned, and expofed to a fide fire,
would infenfibly deferibe an arch in its rear, to have its
adverfary in front. The divifion of the line AB, which
in this cafe would pour upon the flank c of the echellon,
cd, fuch a fatal fire, would be in no way hindered by the
fecond ef which is too far off to fire ; and, befides, the
firft two divifions of the wing/"dare not fire, at leaft
not with fafety, if the echellon were 300 paces diftant,
for fear of reaching them in the flank c. i hus, the two
divifions of the line AB, which are oppofite to the <•-
chcllon, cd, would continue their fire upon the fatal
rank c, without the leaft interruption. If they be not
more than 50 or 100 paces diftant, thefe inconveniences
will not take place ; but at the fame time, the advan¬
tages which were expefted to refult from an attack en
echellon will be loft. Thefe advantages are, that, by
dividing the front, only one part is liable to be beaten,
as the others would be negle&ed ; while on the con¬
trary, in an oblique line, without any interruption, the
diforder rapidly fpreads through its whole extent. It
would be poflible, in order to derive every advantage
from this manoeuvre, to augment confiderably the fire of
the firft dchellon, as well as the one immediately fubfe-
quent, by doubling their lines, and leaving the others
weaker. Hence it is evident, that this modfe of attack
is eligible only when we are a-head of an enemy ftrong-
er than ourfelves ; for if we have a fuperior force, it is
certain that the moft energetic method would be to at¬
tack at once the adverfary in front and both flanks.
There is fcarcely an inftanCe previous to the battle of
Marengo, in which a fecond line of infantry has renew¬
ed the combat, by taking the place of the firft which
has been beaten. If the combat be continued with
4 H 2 bayonets,
6l 2
Military bayonets, it would be fufficient for a divlfion of the line
^ laities, to JTia]-e a converfion on the flank of the echellon
c d, while they are fighting in front, and overthrow it
before ef 300 paces diftant, or even the fecond line of
the echellon, could come up to afford it any afliftance.
Thus, according to all appearances, the line AB would
conquer all the echellons fuceeffively, and this the more
eafily as they -would be taken in flank as foon as c d is
obliged to fly.
The moil ufeful, and in faff the only procefs for re¬
inforcing an attack, is to have a fecond line of cavalry
behind a firft of infantry ; in cafe of bad fuccefs they fe-
cure and cover their retreat, and complete the diforder
of the enemy’s infantry, if they come to an engage¬
ment.
When the infantry is ranged en echiquier, a firfi: line
when beaten, may retreat by files through the lines in
the rear, without creating any diforder in the fecond, on
account of the extenfive fpaces j but it is not the fame
with the long phalanx in open order. The cavalry,
placed immediately behind the infantry, prote&s an at¬
tack much better than if there were between them a
fecond line of infantry ; for in the firfl: inflance, there
would be no hindrance to their haflening to thefuccour
of the runaways, and receiving them in their bofom.
Hence there fhould be only two lines, one of infantry,
and one of cavalry ; and this is the more important, be-
caufe the two lines of infantry cannot be ufeful, except
in as far as they are beyond the fhot of the cannon j it
is evident, therefore, that they fliould be confidered ra¬
ther as a referve of freftr troops than as a fecond line of
combatants. Hence, the fuperadded ftrength which
is fuppofed to be given to the echellons, by double lines
of infantry, is quite illufory.
Cannons which fire concentrically, affifl: greatly the
efficacy of an attack ; but this meafure may be employ¬
ed as well for right lines as for the echellons : in an at¬
tack of the latter kind, the batteries fhould not be pla¬
ced before the divifion c d, but before ^ to enfilade
that part of the line AB, which w’ould attempt to fall
back to make a converfion, in cafe it were attacked in
flank by c d.
It is impoffible to take the enemy in flank by the di¬
agonal or fide-ftep, executed during the march, if, pre¬
vious to commencing their march, they are not already
confiderably by their wings ; for they would completely
fruftrate that fcheme, if they made direfUy with their
flanks a movement to the fide. During the fame time
they would pafs over a more confiderable extent of
ground than with an oblique ftep, becaufe they move in
a direct line, and in front, and obliquely, both at the
fame time, which would confiderably ffiorten their di-
flance ; and like wife becaufe they march on one of the
fides and you on the hypothenufe, which is longer. It
is therefore impoffible to fucceed in ftretching' beyond
the wings of the enemy, while they are advancing in
front in the order of battle, if they know how to con¬
duct themfelves.
1 here is, however, one advantage to be noticed,
which the echellons poflefs over the uninterrupted ob¬
lique front, which is, not expofing the flank to the ene¬
my advancing in front. The Schellons naturally poflefs
this advantage, while the oblique front cannot obtain
st wiihout being much more extenfive than the enemy’s
&ont 3 for the oblique line, formed into e'chehons,
4.
. . Part I.
changes into a number of parallel lines by a converfion MiUtary
(%• 38-)* and they may, by this movement, defend Tadics7
their flanks againft the enemy. But (till the belt way *
is to attack him in his own flanks, whilft his front isFlg'38‘
amufed with detached corps, and the columns fliould be
prepared for the principal attack out of fight of the
enemy, in the fame manner as an admiral adopts at a
confiderable diftance, his meafures for gaining the wind¬
ward of the enemy. No manoeuvres within cannon-
ftiot can poffibly be attended with iuccefs, if the enemy
be Ikilful.
Much ufeful military inftruclion may be derived from Lift ofre.
perufing the accounts of the moft celebrated battles, de-markable
tailed by writers of ancient and modern hifiory •, and^11165-
we could here enumerate a long lift of thefe engage¬
ments, many of which have been deferibed in the bi-
ftorical articles of this work, A few, however, muft
fuffice. Of ancient battles we may notice thofe of
Marathon * in 490 B. C.; Plataea, 479 3 Leuctra *, * See theft
371 3 the Granicus*, 334 ; Arbeea *, 3313 ihaarticles.
Thrafymene Lakef, 2173 Cannae*, 2163 Zama *,*SeeC'M''
202 3 Magnefia J, 19O3 Nepheris, 1473 PharsaliA *, ^0^’
48 3 and Philippi *, 42. Of modern battles, the moft {See fyni?,
important are thofe of Hastings *, A. D. 1066 3 the II See Ga*.
Indus||, 12213 Bannockburn1314 3 Cressy*, 13463^
PoiCTIERS*, 13563 AGINCOURT*, I4153 Bol worth**, Jff
14853 Flodden §, 1513 3 Pavia, 15253 Narvaff, ^.’and
17003 Blenheim*, 17043 Ramillies*, 17063 Pul-405.
tavaff, 17093 Malplaquet*, 17093 Fontenoy **'See
1745 3 Prague and Colin fj||, 17573 Liffa or Leu-^f’
thenllH, 1757 jJMinden, 1759; Freyburg, 17623 Je-ttSee
mappe, 17923 Tirlemont, 17933 Fleurus, 17943 Lodi Jfa, N°
17963 Zurich, 17993 Ulrn, 18003 Marengo, i8o0 3I07-a^
Aufterlitz, 1805 i and Wagram, in 1809. tiSeeS '
By way of illuftrating the modern French taffies,
and more fully explaining what has been faid on the414.’
order of battle, we ffiall here give a detail of the battle llii See
of Jemappes, in which Dumourier entirely defeated
General Clairfayt, by enticing him from a fituation ^
where he was impregnable. Battle of
In the beginning of November 1792, when Dumou-Jemappes.
tier arrived with his army in the vicinity of Mons, he plat®
found the Auftrian general Clairfayt occupying a ftrong
pofition on the heights near the village of Jemappes,
where he had entrenched himfelf, and was defended by
nearly 100 pieces of cannon. The pofition of the Au-
ftrians was extremely formidable. Their right extend¬
ed to the village of Jemappes, and formed a Tquare with
their front and left, which ifretched to the eaufeway of
Valenciennes. They were polled on a woody moun¬
tain, where they had erefted, in an amphitheatre, three
tiers of redoubts. Their whole force amounted to about
16,000 infantry, and 3000 cavalry.
The army of Dumourier was much more numerous
than that of Clairfayt, but not fo well fupplied with ar¬
tillery. The elevation of the Auftrian batteries, too,
gave them fuch an advantage, that the French cannon
could produce but little effedl.
On the 5th of November, Dumourier had fully re¬
connoitred the Auftrian camp, and, by way of feint,
made an attack with his infantry on the village of Car-
rignon, while he kept up a brilk cannonade on their
left. Towards evening the French army encamped op-
pofite to Jemappes, with its left wing extending to
Hoorne, and its right to Fremery. As Dumourier re-
folvedi
W A R.
Ptl. WAR. 613
& tary f>lved to make a decifive attack on the heights of Je-
T mappes the next morning, he ordered his troops to aban-
“■ don the village of Carrignon which was commanded by
the enemy’s cannon.
On the morning of the 6th, he ordered his artillery to
be advanced and difpofed along the front of the line.
It was foon found, however, that little was to be done
■with artillery, and that the great objeft was, to entice
the Auftrian general from his ftrong pofition, and draw
him to the plain. For this purpofe, at noon of the 6th,
the French infantry formed in columns, and advanced
with the greateft fpirit and rapidity to the Auftrian in-
trenchments. The lower tier of redoubts was inftantly
carried ; but, as the centre of the French became en¬
dangered, and the Auftrian cavalry appeared defcend-
ing from the heights, and preparing to enter the plain,
with an evident intention of flanking the French co¬
lumns, Dumourier defpatched the duke of Orleans to
lead thofe columns againft the fecond tier of redoubts,
while a detachment of chaffeurs and huflars flew to
check the progrefs of the Auftrian cavalry. Some
fmart fkirmilhing between the cavalry on both fides now
enfued, and while this diverfion was taking place, the
left divifion of the French army pofiefled themfelves of
the village of Jemappes, while its centre obtained entire
poffeflion of the fecond tier of redoubts. In the mean
time the whole of the Auftrian cavalry had quitted the
heights, and engaged the French on the plain below
Jemappes. This was the point to which Dumourier had
wilhed to bring them, and now the fuperior numbers
and aftivity of the French quickly decided the fortune
of the day. The Auftrians were routed at every point,
and forced to abandon the field of battle, leaving 5000
of their dead, with the greater part of their artillery.
The lofs of the French, however, was confiderably
greater, and is, on good authority, eftimated at 14,000 •,
but this lofs appeared trifling to Dumourier, as by this
viftory he acquired poffeflion of the whole of the Auf¬
trian Netherlands.
The pofitions of the French and Auftrian forces in
this battle are reprefented in Plate DLIV. I, The
centre of the Auftrian army, commanded by Clairfayt.
2, A part of this army commanded by General Lilien.
3, Another part under the command of General Beau¬
lieu. 4, Redoubts on the heights of Jemappes. 5, Au¬
ftrian intrenchments. 6, French columns advancing to
attack the intrenchments. 7, A battery. 8, Columns
of cavalry. 9, Columns attacking the eminences above
Mens. 10, Battery on the height of Fremery. 11,
The wood of Frefnee. 12, The plain on which the
French and Auftrian cavalry were engaged. 13, Au¬
ftrian detachment.
The columns N° 9. were firft engaged ; and N° 6.
having obtained feme advantage, Dumourier ordered
the battery, N° 7. to be erected, by which the redoubts,
N° 4. were filenced. In the mean time the French ad¬
vanced againft the intrenchments, 5, and attacked in
front. From the left of the French army, as far as the
■ centre, the cavalry fought hand to hand, in the plain,
12, with the Auftrian horfe, which was dreadfully cut
up in the wood of Du Frefnee, II. The right of the
Auftrians, being totally routed, gave w’ay and fell back
on Mons. The fuperiority of the French in numbers is
evident from infpedling the columns in the plan.
After.having dwelt fo long on that part of military
tactics which relates to operations in the field, we muft: Military
be extremely brief with refpe£t to the attack and de- , ^
fence of fortified towns. Indeed our principal obje£l in ^
this part will be to explain the nature of a fiege, andoffieges.
the various circumftances that may occur, both on the
part of the befiegers, and on that of the befieged, rather
than to lay down a fyftem of inftru&ions for either
party. With this view, we ftiall firft enumerate the
principal inftruments and engines employed in the at¬
tack or defence of a fortrefs, and explain the nature and
conftruftion of the works conftrudfted by the befiegers,
either for the purpofe of making their approaches to the
place, or for undermining its walls or outworks. 44
In Plate DLV. are reprefented the principal inftru-Inftruments
raents employed in fieges. Fig. 1. is a fafeine for the <?mpl0>ed
conftru&ipn of redoubts or temporary defence of a de-‘u pj^'
tachment. Figs. 2. 3. and 4. exhibit various views of DLV.
what are called gabions, or cylindrical cafes of wicker Fig. 1—20.
work, open at both ends, for tricking into the ground,
as feen at fig. 4. when they are filled with earth, and
fafcines, &c. laid on them. Fig. 2. is a fefrion of the
gabion j fig. 3. ftiews its hollow infide, and fig. 4. is its
elevation. Fig. 5. and 6. reprefent bags for holding
fand, the former empty, the latter full; and fig. 7. re-
prefents the manner in which they are ufually dilpofed
for the protedlion of the men. Fig. 8. is a fauciffon, or
very long clofe faggot, for laying over gabions. Fig. 9.
is the outline of a blind, which is ftuck into the earth
by the (harp ftakes at its extremity, and hides the work¬
men from the befieged. Fig. 10. reprefents what is
called a chandelier, and fig. Hi. two of thefe with faf¬
cines piled up acrofs them. Fig. 12. is a cheval de
frize ; fig. 13. 14. 1 g exhibit various views of a mant¬
let, or moveable blind placed on two wheels, uftd both
to protect and conceal the workmen of the befiegers.
Fig. 13. is a plan of the mantlet', fig. 14. a fide view
of it, and fig. 15. a view of its front next the enemy.
Fig. 16. is a madrier or fereen with tivo leaves, move-
able on wheels j and fig. 17. reprefents a gate with
orgues or lattice work on one fide, and a portcullis on
the other. Fig. 18. is a hook, and fig. 19. a fork ufed
in fapping. Fig. 20. reprefents three caltrops or crows
feet, ufed to fcatter over the ground, to prevent the ap¬
proach of cavalry, by laming their horfes feet. For a
fuller explanation of thefe inftruments, fee the feveral
articles in the general alphabet. 45
When a town is about to be befieged, it is firft invejl- 9^
ed; that is, a confiderable body of troops, ufually ea-in&'
valry, encamp in its neighbourhood, and take poffeflion
of all the avenues till the army arrive, which is to carry
on the regular operations of the fiege. 45
When the army has fat down before the place, itsOflinesof
firft objeft is, to afeertain the lines or direfrion of the cftcumxal-
works to be thrown up for the attack of the place. *a^oa*
Thefe are called lines of circunwallation, and their di-
reftion is to be determined by the plan of the fortifica¬
tion about to be befieged. After afeertaining, in the
manner explained under Fortification, the number
of fides of which the polygon of the place confifts, and
the length of each, as well as the radius of a circle to
be drawn round the place, concentric with its works,
the polygon of the circumvallation is eafily deferibed.
This being traced, the engineer takes on each of the
extremities of its fides the lines BD and BE, fig. 21. Fig. si.-
each of JJ fathomsj and from the points D and E,
takers
'614
W A E.
Military
Ta'flics.
Fig. 22.
Plate
DLVI.
‘fig. I. 2. 3.
Fi
Z- 4- S-
47
Of the
trenches
and paral¬
lels.
Plate
DLVII
% 2-
taken for tlie Tcentre and diflance of 25 fathoms, he de-
fcribes two arcs cutting each other at F, wherjce are
drawn the lines FD, FE, for the faces of the redans
of the line of circumvallation ; thus are formed the fa-
lient parts EFD of this line, which ferve to flank it.
The fame operation is performed on every fide of the
circumvallation, and then the principal line is traced.
The parapet within mufi: be fix or eight feet deep, and
without is made a ditch parallel to all its parts, three or
four fathoms in breadth. The parapet of the circum¬
vallation will be 7feet high, and the depth of the
ditch equal to the height of the parapet.
To make the profile of the circumvallation, let AB,
fig. 22. be a line level with the country, and CD the
fcale of the profile. Let A be the fide of the town,
and B that of the country j take AE of fix feet; from
the point E, raife the perpendicular EF, of three feet,
and draw the line AF, which will be the talus or flope
of the banquette.
Draw FG parallel to AB, three feet from F to G,
and the line FG will be the breadth of the banquette.
On the point G raife the perpendicular GH, on the line
FG, 44- feet. Draw from the point H, HK parallel
to AB ; make HK 74 feet, HI, i4- foot ; draw GI,
which will be the infide of the parapet of circumvalla¬
tion.
From the point K, let fall on the line AB the per¬
pendicular KM; take KL 1^ foot, and draw IL,
which will be the upper part of the parapet of the line
of circumvallation. Take MN equal to five feet, and
from the point N draw the perpendicular NO, and fet
off 74- feet from N to O. Draw OR parallel to AB,
making the diftance equal to 18 feet from O to R ; draw
LN, and produce it to P, and LP will be the fcarp.
From the point R raife RS, perpendicular to OR, or
parallel to ON. Make OR=OP, and draw QS, which
produce beyond S, three feet to V ; then take SX equal
to fix feet, and draw VX, and the profile of the cir¬
cumvallation is completed ; V^) being the counterfcarp,
and VX the glacis.
At A and A (fig. 21.) are fmall half moons before
the gates of the circumvallation in the middle of the
curtains.
In Plate DLVI. at fig. 1. is reprefented the manner
in which the lines of circumvallation were drawn at the
fiege of Philiplburg in 1734. In thefe lines regular
baftions were conflrufted, as feen in fig. 2.
Fig. 4. and 5. of the fame plate reprefent another line
of circumvallation drawn round the city of Arras, when
it was befieged by the Spaniards in 1654. Before the
circumvallation wrere dug a great number of holes, two
feet in diameter, and 14 foot deep, in which were fa¬
ttened ftakes for obftrufting the approach of cavalry.
While the lines of circumvallation, which are intend¬
ed to proteft the befiegers from the enemy without, are
conftru&ed, all materials neceffary for the trenches are
got ready, and the figure and direction of thefe are de¬
termined. If the place be regularly fortified, and ftand
on level ground, it is indifferent on which fide the be¬
fiegers commence their attack. Suppofe C, fig. 2.
Plate DLVI I. to be the place befieged, and A and B
two baftions to be attacked. The befiegers begin with
indefinitely producing towards the field the capitals of
thefe two baftions ; in like manner the capital of the
half moon oppofite the curtain between thefe two ba¬
ftions is produced. Eight hundred fathoms are fet off
from the falient angles D and E of the covert-way of
F and G. This done, the lines DH and DI are drawn,
each equal to 300 fathoms, and about the centre C with
the radius CH or Cl, is deferibed an arch produced be¬
yond H and I, and on this arch HI is conftru6ted the
firft parallel. Then on the fame lines DF, EG, are
taken the points M and N, each 140 fathoms diftant
from H and I ; and through thefe points M and N,
about the centre C, is deferibed another arch, on which
is conftrufted the fecond parallel. This fecond arch
will cut the produced capital of the half-moon in the
point L, which is to be obferved, in order to begin
from hence a trench Avhich may extend to the falient
angle of the covert-w-ay before this half-moon. Laftly,
through the points O and P, the diftance of 20 or 25
fathoms from the angles D and E, a third arch is de¬
feribed from the centre C, on which the third parallel
is conftrufted. The firft parallel is terminated by pro¬
ducing the faces a b, a b, of the half-moons 1 and 2,
collateral to the baftions A and B ; but the parallel is
extended 15 or 20 fathoms beyond the interfe&ion of
this prolongation. The fecond parallel will be lefs ex¬
tended than the firft, by about 30 fathoms on each
fide, and the third lefs than the fecond by the fame
diftance.
The trenches or approaches are now to be traced.
For this purpofe, the engineer takes a long ruler, and
lays it on the point G, fo that it may make with the
produced capital EG of the baftion B, an angle EGS,
whofe fide GS being produced, fhall meet no part of
the covert-way, and {hall be diftant about 10 or 12 fa¬
thoms from the angles to which it approaches neareft.
GS is taken of any extent, and the ruler is put on the
point S ; fo that it (hall make with GS fuch an angle
GST, as that the fide ST produced fhall not fall on
any part of the covert-way, but be 10 or 12 fathoms
diftant from the moft falient parts. This fide is termi¬
nated in T ; and now the angle STI is made, whofe fide
TI (hould terminate at the point I, where it meets the
firft parallel. The fame operation being performed on
FH, the outline of the trenches is completed as far as
the firft parallel.
Fig. 1. of this plate illuftrates the method of con-
ftrufting what are called lines of count ervallotion. Thefe
are drawn nearer the town than the lines of circumval¬
lation, but are conftru&ed on the fame principles.
They are employed chiefly when the garrifon of the
place is fo ftrong as to difturb the operations of the be-
fieging army by fallies.
In fieges where the garrifon is ftrong, it is often ne¬
ceffary to cut parts of trenches, as VV (fig. 2.) be¬
tween the fecond and third parallels, fo as to communi¬
cate with the main trench. Thefe parts of parallels
are denominated half parallels, or places of arms,
and are conftrufled in the following manner. Let
ABCDFGMQ (fig. I. Plate DLVIII.) be a part of
the trenches, and let AB be one of the fides oppofite to
the enemy ; produce AB, fo that BE fhall be five or
fix fathoms, and in FG take alfo five or fix fathoms
from I to L, which will give the ends of the trench
BFLI, the ufe of which is to cover the foyarv? or branch
IOMG, whereby the enemy will not know the place
where it falls into the trench AB, and to make room
for withdrawing thofe who are in this part of the trench-
Part ]
Military
Tadtics.
Plate
DLVIII
fig. i.
rtl. . w
;iitary es, and that the paffage may be free at all the angles,
dtics. jn ilJ^e manner produce the fide GM from M to N,
u the fide IC from O to P, and this will give the
end of the trench MNOP, which will cover the branch
DCOQ. The fame is to be done at all the angles of
the trench. The parapet of the trench being made to
cover it, ought to change fides alternately. If, for in-
ftance, AE, in the preceding figure, be towards the
place, it is evident that the fide GN will be towards it
alfo, and likewife the fide CD ; and therefore the para¬
pet of the trench is fucceffively conftru&ed from the
right fide to the left, and from the left to the right.
Figs. 2. 3. 4. of this plate reprefent profiles of the re¬
gular trenches and the places of arms, and require no
particular explanation.
In tracing the trenches, it is of the greateft confe-
quence to afcertain the diftance of the extremity of the
line of dire&ion to the top of the falient angle of the
covert-way. The following fimple method of doing
Fi this is given by Vauban. Let A (fig. 5.) be the ver¬
tex of the falient angle of the covert-way, and AB the
line of direftion of the trench whofe length is required.
At the point B, draw BC perpendicular to AB, to
which give any meafure, and at the point C draw CD
perpendicular to BC. In CD take any point E, and in
the line of direction between it and the angle A place
a picquet G in the line BC. Meafure GC and CE,
g and fay, as GC : BG :: CE : AB.
Ol js. When in carrying on the trenches towards the town,
the workmen begin to be much annoyed by the fire of
the befieged, recourfe is had to what is called Japping,
which may be thus explained. Let ABC be the part
1 VIII Irenc^es advanced to A (fig. 6. Plate DLVIII.),
Fit;, s, fo near the town as to render it impoffible, without evi-
ate dent danger, to work any longer at the approaches, un-
'Ix> lefs the men have fome cover againft the fire of the
' 112‘ place 5 and let the branch AD be traced by the engi-
- neer, not with a cord, as at the opening of the trench¬
es, but with fome pickets, which he has taken care to
place in the diredtion this branch ought to have, to
ferve as a guide to the workmen. A cut is made in the
parapet BA of the trenches, and then the men defigned
to work by fap, who are therefore called fappers, will
move forward through the opening A fucceffively, eight
in number. Fig. 7. of Plate DLVIII. and fig. 1. of
Plate DLIX. will illuftrate the mode of operation. The
firft fapper rolls a mantlet before him, and places a ga¬
bion on the line AD, fig. 6. He then makes a fmall ex¬
cavation about fix inches from the gabion, of about one
foot and a half jn depth, and as much in breadth,
emptying the earth which he digs up into the gabion.
He then puffies forward his mantlet, fixes another ga¬
bion, and continues his trench as long as he is able.
He is followed by a fecond, 'who w idens the trench fix
inches in breadth away from the gabion, and fix in
depth. The reft follow this fecond, till the trench is
made three feet wide, and as many deep, and as foon as
the gabions are filled with earth, fafcines or fauciflbns
are placed on their top, and the fuperfluous earth is
thrown over them, and on the oppofite fide, by way
19 of parapet.
Oi tte- Cannon are made ufe of at a fiege for two different
ate Purpofes; the firft to drive away the enemy from their
.IX. defences, and the fecond to difmount their guns. I o
;• 3. produce thefe two effe£ls; the batteries ftiould not be
A R. 615
above the mean reach of cannon-ftiot from the place ; Military
that is, above 300 fathoms. Therefore there is no pof- 'lacfhcs.
Ability of conftrudting them till the firft parallel be ¥
formed j and as the diftanee of this firft parallel from
the place is generally 300 fathoms, the batteries muft
be on this line, or beyond it, nearer the town. They
muft always be placed, when the ground will permit,
on the pi-oduced faces of the works attacked. Let Z be
the centre of the place attacked (fig. 3. Plate DLIX.),
and the trenches as well as the parallels completed. To
find a proper pofition for erefting batteries, produce the
faces AD, AC, BE, BF, of the two baftions attacked,
till their prolongation cuts the firft parallel. Produce alio
the two faces OM and OL of the half-moon MOL of
the front attacked, and the faces HG and IK of the
two collateral half-moons I and 2, to the firft parallel,
and ereft batteries on thofie produced faces, as is fetn in
P, £), R, S, T, U, X, and Y. They are advanced be¬
yond the firft parallel 40 or 50 fathoms j and are parted
from the trenches, that they may be ufed with greater
eafe and convenience, and lefs trouble to the work¬
men. # so
When the works of the befiegers approach the glacis, of tra-
they are continued in a zig-zag direction, by ftiort an-verfes.
gular trenches, but from the foot of the glacis they are
continued in the following manner. Two fets of fap¬
pers, protected by their mantlets, make a fap on each
fide of the ridge of the glacis, with a deeper ditch than
ufual, and a parapet on each fide. This is called a
double fap, and has acrofs it traverfes or banks three fa- pjate
thorns thick (fee Plate DLX. fig. 1.), with fmall paf- DLX.
fages on one fide (fee fig. 4.) to preferve the communi- fig- I*
cation. Thefe traverfes are conftrmfted fo near to each
other, as to be a fufficient cover, by their elevation
and diftance, againft the fire of the place. In order
to guard againft the effeft of grenades, on coming
within their reach, or within 14 or 15 fathoms of the
covert-way, care muft be taken to cover this trench
with blinds, or to cover the upper part of it. Fig. I.
and 2. of Plate DLX. fiiew this diredt trench. The
firft exhibits the plan, and the fecond the profile, which
paffes over one of the traverfes. This being done, and
the third parallel finilhed in the manner fuppofed, they
advance from this parallel on the glacis to each of the
falient angles of the covert-way of the front attacked,
and begin w'ith making two or three ihort turnings, as
marked on Plate DLX. fig. 6. along the ridge of the Fig. 6...
glacis, fo as to occupy about one-third of it. Thefe are
to be made as deep as is neceffary, to be a flicker
againft the fire of the covert-way j afterwards they may
proceed diredlly along the ridge of the glacis by a deep
ditch, to the falient angle of the covert-way. M. Vau¬
ban obferves, that if we follow diredtly the ridge of the
glacis, this trench is made without much danger $ for
the palifade which is placed at the falient angle of the
covert-Avay, and the other two next it, do not prefent
diretlly to the ridge, but only oppofite to the faces,
where at moft there is only room for one or two fufi-
leers to fee the head of the trenches, and who are eafily
filenced by the fire of the third parallel, which ought
to be well ferved, and likewife by that of the ricochet.
On coming to the middle, or two-thirds of the glacis,
two new faps are made, b b, ibid, which embrace both
fides of the covert-way, to which they are almoft paral¬
lel. Their length is x8 or 29 fathoms, and about five
broads,
Military
Tadtics.
Fig- 5-
Plate
DLXI.
5-
, S1
Of batte¬
covert¬
way.
Plate
DLX.
fiar. 6.
616 W A
broad. They are covered at the end with crochets and
winding traverfes, which prevent the fire of the covert¬
way from enfilading them eafily.
In this way is gradually effected a lodgement on the
covert-way, as is reprefented in fig. 5. where AAAA,
is the trench, with BBBB its traverfes.
Plate DLXI. fig. 5. reprefents a profile of thefe
works, with three banquettes next the trench, by which
the parapet is raifed, fo that the foldiers may fire over
into the covert-way. This work is called by Vauban,
the cavalier of the trench.
When the befieged are entirely driven out of the co¬
nes on the vert-way, the next thing to be done is the erefting of
batteries, in order to ruin the defences of the place, and
to make a breach. As it is neceiTary for the befiegers
to make themfelves mailers of the half-moon C, (Plate
DLX. fig. 6.) before they can come to the body of the
place, which is defended by part of the faces of the baf-
tions A and B oppofite to its ditch, they mud begin with
eredting batteries on the covert-way oppofite to thefe
parts. They are marked on the plan ee. Batteries
mull alfo be eredled to make a breach on the half-moon.
But, before they are eredfed, it will be proper to con-
fider what part of the face of the half-moon is to be at¬
tacked, or what part of the half-moon is to be entered.
It mull not be at its flanked angle, becaufe an opening
towards the point would not afford a fuflicient fpace to
make a lodgement able to withftand the enemy, and the
Loops would be feen in their paflage by the two faces
of the baftions by which its flanked angle is defended.
The moll favourable paflage is towards the third part of
its face, reckoning from its flanked angle, becaufe by
battering at the fame time the two faces near this part,
the whole point of the half-moon may be detlroyed, and
a large opening made there eafier than anywhere elfe.
Thus the batteries for making a breach in the half-moon
C will be placed in d and b, and will occupy aljnoft
one-third of each of the faces of the half moon from its
flanked angle. Thefe batteries are each to confift of
four or five pieces of cannon. When the faces of the
ballions A and B are well enfiladed by ricochet batte¬
ries, there will be no farther occafion for the batteries
e, e, and when the half-moon is taken, the faces of the
ballions A and B may be deftroyed, by ufing the batte¬
ries d, d, placing them in the fituation of e, e. Batte¬
ries mult alfo be erefled to detlroy the flanks of the de-
mibaftions in the front of the attack ; and it is evident
that they can be placed nowhere but at z, z, on the co¬
vert-way. Befides thefe batteries, others are erected in
the re-entering places of arms of the covert-way, as in
k; and in k they ferve to batter the tenaille when
there is one, the curtain, and the faces of the ba¬
ftions. Sometimes they are of mortars for throwing
R.
Part,
5*
Defcent
ftones
While the workmen are employed in eredling bat-
and p-rffage teries on the covert-way, preparations are made for paf-
diwhofthefing tl,e ditch of the half-moon. This is often a diffi-
half-moon cult and dangerous undertaking, as this ditch is com¬
monly very deep, is well defended, and either filled with
water, or in general capable of being fo filled. The
defcent into the ditch is commonly effedled by fubterra-
neous paflages or galleries, made like thofe of miners,
and eredled in fuch a manner, that its opening into the
ditch may be oppofite to the breach where it is intend¬
ed to make the aflault. Thefe galleries are Hoping,
Milita
Tatli,
Hat
DLX
Plat
DLX
fig. 1-
and in general there are feveral for the fame paffage.
The paflfage is made on each fide of the faces of the
half moon. See mm, fig. 6. Plate DLXI.
As the bufinefs of forming thele galleries is liable to
be obftrufted by mines from the befieged, the workmen
are protected by a guard of grenadiers. At fig. 1.
Plate DLXI. is feen a plan of the defe'ent underground,
and of its opening into the dry ditch j and fig. 2. gives fig,:
a profile of the fame paflfage •, fig. 3. gives a per-
fpective view of the opening of this defcent, feen from
the bottom of the glacis, and fig. 4. a fimilar view of
the opening of the fame defcent, feen from the top of
the breach.
At Plate DLXII. fig. I. is feen the plan of the paf¬
fage over a wet ditch in the open air; that is to fay,
the gallery of which is an open fap. A is the opening
of it ; at B, towards its opening, are feen the blinds laid
on its upper part, to fupport the fafeines with which it
is covered. On thefe blinds, at firft, is laid a bed of
fafeines, ranged according to the length of the gallery:
over this firft bed a fecond is laid, whereon the fafeines
are ranged according to the breadth of the gallery, as is
feen at B and C. D is the epaulement of fafeines,
which covers the paflfage againft the fire of the place
by which it is flanked. E is part of the bridge of faf¬
eines ; and F is an elevation alfo of fafeines, intended
to cover the head of the work, and to fecure it from
the immediate fire of the place. Fig. 2. reprefents the
profile of this defcent into the ditch. Fig. 3. gives its
opening feen in perfpeftive from the country ; and fig.
4. its opening into the ditch, alfo in perfpedlive, as it
appears from the top of the breach.
The following references will explain fig. 5. of Plate Fig. 5.
DLXII. o, cavaliers of the trenches, b, batteries of
ftone mortars, c, batteries to breach the half-moon be¬
fore the hornwork. d, batteries againft the defence of
this half-moon, e, paflages bver the ditch before this
half-moon, f lodgement in it. g, batteries againft
the flanks of the hornwork. h, batteries to breach the
half baftions of the hornwork. i, batteries againft its
curtain. /, lodgements in the half baftions, and in the
hornwmrk. m, paflages over the ditch before the re¬
trenchments in the hornwork. zz, lodgements in thefe
retrenchments. 0, batteries againft the defences of the
collateral half-moons, p, batteries to breach thofe half¬
moons. q, paflages over the ditch before thefe works,
r, lodgements in the fame, s, batteries to breach the
redoubts of the half-moon, t, paflages over the ditch
before the redoubts, zz, lodgements in the redoubts,
x, bridge of fafeines. y, batteries againft the defences
of the baftion A. z, batteries to breach this baftion.
B, paflages over its ditch. C, lodgements in the baftion
A. D, lodgements on the border of the ditch before
the retrenchment of the baftion A. E, paflages over
the ditch before this retrenchment.
There are places which, without any fore ditch, have
lunettes oppofite to the falient and re-entering angles of
the glads, which are alfo enveloped by a fecond covert¬
way : fometimes they are vaulted and bomb-proof, as
at Luxemburg; and fometimes they have only a ditch,
a parapet, and covert-way. Thofe which are vaulted
and bomb-proof are not eafily taken, becaufe the rico¬
chet firing and the bombs can do them no mifehief. In
that cafe they muft either be turned, or be taken by
mines. A work is faid to be turned, when the befie-
gers
I
Pri jles
3b-
te
o :III.
ptl. _ w A
I itary gers get between that work and tbe place, and fo cut
i ^cs> off their communication. Sometimes the lunettes have
u ,“““J communication under ground, and then there is fcarcely
any other way of driving out the enemy but by mines.
This is tedious, but there is no other remedy. The
lunettes of the ditch are always defended by branches
of the covert-way, with which they have alfo a com¬
munication like thofe of the lunettes, A, A, Plate
DLXIII. %. I. This plate, which reprefcnts part of
Landau and its attacks in 1713, may ferve to give an
idea of the manner in which a work is turned. The
advanced lunette B, as well as the work C, called a
tenaille, is turned ; that is, the trenches cut off' the com¬
munication betwixt them and the place.
We fliall conclude this fubjedl of the attack of forti¬
fied places, with the following principles to be obferved
by the befieging army.
The approaches ought to be made, without being
feen from the town, either diredidy, obliquely, or in
flank.
No more works fhould be made than are neceffary
for approaching the place without being feen ; that is,
the befiegers ought to carry on their approaches the
Ihorteff way poffible, confiftently with being covered
againft the enemy’s fire.
All the parts of the trenches fhould mutually fupport
each other, and thofe which are furtheft advanced
ought not to be diftant from thofe which are to defend
them above 120 or 130 fathoms.
The parallels or places of arms the moft diftant from
the town, ought to have a greater extent than thofe
which are neareft, that the befiegers may be able to
take the enemy in flank, fhould they refolve to attack
the neareft parallels.
R.
61
The trench fliould be opened or begun as near as pof¬
fible to the place, without expofing the troops too
much, in order to accelerate and diminifh the operations
of the fiege.
There is no fuch thing as giving any exaft rule in
regard to the diftance which ought to be obferved on
opening the trenches. On level ground, this diftance
may be 800 or 900 fathoms; but if there fiiould be a
hollow way in the vicinity of the place, the befiegers
are to take advantage of it, and open the trenches near¬
er. In general, they are to regulate themfelves accord¬
ing to the nature of the ground, more or lefs favourable
to the opening of the trenches. We {hall fuppofe in
the prefent work, that the opening ought to be made
within 800 fathoms of the covert-way ; the firft parallel
Within 300 fathoms, the fecond within 150, and the
third at the foot of the glacis.
Care muft be taken to join the attacks, that they may
be able to fupport each other.
Never to advance a work unlefs it be well fupported j
and for this reafon, in the interval between the fecond
and third places of arms, the befiegers fhould make, on
both fides of the trenches, fmaller places of arms, ex¬
tending 40 or 50 fathoms in length, parallel to the Military
others, and conftru&ed in the fame manner, which will Ta<ftics,
ferve to lodge the foldiers who are to protedl the works
defigned to reach the third place of arms.
The batteries of cannon muft be placed in the conti¬
nuations of the faces of the pieces attacked, to filence
their fire, and that the approaches being protefted, may
advance with greater fafety and expedition.
h or this reafon the befiegers fhould always embrace
the whole front attacked, to have as much fpace as is
requifite to plant the batteries on the produced faces of
the works attacked.
The attack muft not be commenced with works that
lie clofe to each other, or with re-entrant angles, which
would expofe the attack to the crofs fire of the enemy. 54
Many circumftances refpefling the defence of forti- General re-
fied towns have already been anticipated, or may be m:‘rks on
colledled from what has been faid refpedting the opera-
tions of the befieging army. It is evident that the fuc- '
cefs or duration of the defence will depend in a great
meafure on the nature and ftrength of the works which
form the fortification. Much, however, will alfo de¬
pend on the number, refolution, and refources of the
garrifon, and on the movements of the friendly army
by which the befiegers may be oppofed. It is eftimated
by M. Vauban, that the operations for a regular fiege
of a well fortified town, will take up about 41 days,
before the place can be carried by affault. Hence is
deduced a computation of the quantity of provifions,
ammunition, and ftores which ought to be colle&ed
for maintaining the fiege. The fame celebrated engi¬
neer calculates that the garrifon ought to confift of 600
times as many men as there are baftions in the fortifica¬
tion, allowing 600 men to each baftion. Befides the
neceffary defence of the works by the cannon on the
ramparts, and the mufketry of the foldiers, the garrifon
muft make occafional fallies \ if weak, to difturb the
operations of the befiegers, and if very ftrong, to en¬
gage them in the field. As the fiege advances, and the
attacking army approaches the glacis, mines fhould be
fprung, and fubterraneous paflfages excavated, to de-
ftroy the enemy’s works, or cut off a part of their
men* . . . 55
Towards fupplying the unavoidable deficiencies in Reference
the above fketch of military tadlics, we may refer our to authors
readers to Clairac’s Field Engineer, tranflated by Mul-on nilhtaj jr
ler •, Le Cointe, Science des Pojies Militaires, or the U<^C5,
Englifh tranfl^tion ; Jeney’s work entitled Le Partifan,
alfo tranflated into Englifh ; O’Rourke’s Treatife on the
Art of War ; Effai General de TaBique; Tielke on the
Art of War, and his Field Engineer; Dur^las’s Prin¬
ciples of Military Movements ; Landmann’s Elements of
Ta&ics; Maizeroy’s Syfeme de Tattique; Archives
Militaires; Feuquiere’s Memoires; Bland on Military
Difcipline ; Military InfruBions for Officers detached in
the Field; and the articles Battalion and Battle in
Rees’s Cyclopcedia,
PART II. NAVAL TACTICS.
BY naval ta&ics is underftood the art of arranging
eets or fquadrons in fuch an order or difpofition as may
e rnoft convenient for attacking the enemy, defending
Vol. XX. Part II. 5
themfelves, or of retreating with the greateft advan¬
tage. Naval ta&ics are founded on thofe principles
which time and experience have enabled us to deduce
4 I from
.s5
Ordinary
divilion of
fleets.
57
Definitions
W A
from the improved ftale of modern naval warfare,
which has occafioned, not only a difference in the
mode of conftru&in'j and working (hips, but even in
the total difpolition and regulation of fleets and ftpua-
drons.
In the prefent part we propofe to lay down the gene¬
ral principles of naval tadlics, and to defcribe as briefly
as is confident with perfpicuity, the nioft improved
fyItems which are now adopted in the French and Bri-
tifli navy. As we have elfewhere (fee Navigation
and Seamanship) detailed the methods of working
fingle {hips, as they are unconnefted with military ope¬
rations, we fhall prefume that our readers are already
acquainted with thefe ordinary movements.
Fleets are generally divided into three fquadrons, the
van, centre, and rear, each under the command of a flag
officer. The admiral of the fleet, or chief in command,
leads the centre divifion, while the van is ufually com¬
manded by a vice-admiral, and the rear by a rear-admi¬
ral. Each fquadron is diftinguiflied by the pofition of
the colours in the flops of which it is compofed. Thus,
the. (hips of the centre fquadron carry their pendants at
the main-top-gallant maft-head ; while thofe of the van
diviiion have their pendants at the fore-top gallant maff-
head, and thofe of the rear at the mizen-top-maft head.
Each fquadron, as far as pofiible, confifts of the fame
number of fliips, and as nearly as may be of the fame
force. In large fleets, the fquadrons are fometimes
again divided in a fimilar manner ; the van and rear of
the fquadron being headed by rear-admirals, or fenior
captains, called commodores. In the ufual mode of
forming the lines, each commanding admiral arranges his
fhip in the centre of his own fquadron, and thus the
admiral of the fleet is in the centre of the line. When
no enemy is in fight, the {loops, llore-fhips, fire-ftiips,
and other fnnll vefiels, are difperfed to windward of the
fleet, that they may be more eafily fupported, and more
readily anfwer fignals. The frigates lie to windward of
the van and rear of the convoy, thus keeping a good
look-out, and keeping the fmall veflfels in their proper
ftation. When failing in three columns, the centre flill
keeps in the middle, while the van and rear form the
{larboard or the larboard column, according to circum-
flances. Thefe arrangements are called orders of fail¬
ing, and will be better underflood from the following
definitions.
The Jlarboard line of bearing, is that line, on which
the arranged fhips of a fleet bear from each other, on a
clofe-hauled line, whatever courfe they maybe fleering,
fo that when the fliips haul their wind, or tack toge¬
ther, they may be on a line clofe hauled upon the /lar¬
board tack. The larboard line of bearing is that line
on which the fliips when hauling their wind, or tacking
together, may be formed on a line clofe hauled on the
larboard tack. The (hips of a fleet are faid to be on a
line abreafl, when their keels are parallel to each other,
and t heir mainmafls lie in the fame flraight line. Ships
are faid to lie in a line on the bow or quarter, when
they are arranged in a flraight line, cutting their keels
obliquely in the fame angle, fo that reckoning from
any intermediate fhip, the (hips towards one extremity
of the line will be on the bow of that (hip, while thofe
towards the other extremity will be on her quarter.
When feveral fliips in the fame line fleer the fame
5
R. Part
courfe, while that courfe is different from the line of Nava
failing, they are faid to fail checquerwife. Tadli,
When the fliips of a fleet arranged in any of the or-U““V'
ders of failing, and on the fame line, perform fucceflive-
ly the fame manoeuvre, as each gets into the wake of
the fiiip that leads the van of the line or fquadron, tack¬
ing or veering, bearing away or coming to the wind in
the fame point of the wake of the leading fhip, they are
faid to manoeuvre in fuccejjion. $1
There are ufually reckoned five orders of failing, ex-Fu(tra,
clufive of the line of battle, the order of retreat, &c.of tri*
In the firfl order (fee Plate DLXIV.fig. I. and 2.) the^j^
fleet is arranged on the Jlarboard or larboard line of p]at
bearing, all the fliips fleering the fame courfe. In DLX
thefe cafes the fleet, by hauling the wind when in the
ftarboard line, as in fig. J . will be ready to form the pig. 1.1
line on the flarboard tack ; and when ranged on thei.
larboard line of bearing, as in fig. 2. it will, by tack-
ing, be ready to form the line on the larboard tack.
N. B. The arrows annexed to the diagrams on the
plates, mark the dire&ion of the wind, as in ordinary
charts.
This firft order of failing is now feldom employed,
except in pafling through a narrow ftrait. In thefecond
order of failing, the fleet fleering any proper courfe, is
ranged in a line perpendicular to the direction of the
wind, as in fig. 3. This fecond order, befides being pig. 3
equally defective with the former, is fubjeft to the ad¬
ditional difadvantage of rendering it extremely difficult
for the fliips to tack, without each fiiip falling on board
that next a-ftern.
In the third order of failing, the whole fleet is clofe
hauled, and ranged on the two lines of bearing, fo as to
form an angle of 12 points, having the admiral’s flnp
(A fig. 4.) in the angular point, and the whole fleetpig,4
fleering the fame courfe. Thus, fuppofing, as in the
plate, the wind at north, the flarboard divifion of the
fleet will bear W. N. W. of the admiral, and the lar¬
board E. N. E. This order in fmall fleets or fquadrons,
is fuperior to either of the former 5 but when the fleet is
numerous, the line will be too much extended.
In the fourth order, the fleet is divided into fix or
more columns, and is thus more concentrated. The
commanders, ranged on the two lines of bearing, have
their fquadrons aflern of them on two lines parallel to
the dirtdlion of the wind 5 the firft flops of each column
being, with refpeft to the commander of the fquadron,
the one on his ftarboard, and the other on his larboard
quarter. The diftance between the columns fhould be
fuch that the fleet may readily be reduced to the third
order of failing, and from that to the order of battle.
This order is adapted for fleets or convoys croffing the
ocean, and is reprefented in fig. 5. But as it requires pjg,
much time to reduce a fleet from this order to that of
battle, it is defective when in prefence of an enemy.
In the fifth order, the fleet, elofe hauled, is arranged
in three columns parallel to each other •, the van com¬
monly forming the weather, and the rear the lee co- ;
lumn. See fig. 6. Fig. 7. reprefents the fame order, pig. (fJ
except that each column is here fubdivided into two, 7.
with the fliip bearing the commander of each fquadron
:
in the centre of each fubdivifion.
rs of Ore* ;
In forming the order or line of battle, the fliips
the fleet are draivn up in a line nearly clofe hauled,
{landing
tics.
ite
av.
Or of
ret t.
F'i
Or ' of
F t II. . . W
val {landing under eafy fail, fo that each (hip may be at a
certain diftance from the fliip immediately a-head, as a
cable’s length, or half that diitance. The firethips and
frigates a-head and atlern, form a line parallel to the
former, and to the windward of it, if the enemy be to
the leeward j but to the leeward if the enemy be to
windward. This order is denoted by fig. 8. where the
fleet is failing on the {larboard tack, with the wind at
north.
When a fleet is compelled to retreat before a fuperior
force, it is ufually arranged in an order, the reverfe of
the third order of failing; the divifions of the fleet be¬
ing ranged in the two lines of bearing, fo a-; to form an
angle of 13 50 or 12 points, the admiral’s {hip being in
the angular point, and the frigates, tranlports, &c. in¬
cluded within the. wings to leeward. See fig. 9. where
the fleet is failing right before the wind. Though any
other direflion may be taken, the two lines itill form
the fame angle.
The order of convoy is that in which the fhips are
all in each others wake, (leering in the fame point of
the compafs, and forming a right line. If the fleet is
numerous, it may be divided into three columns, which
are to be ranged parallel to each other, that of the ad¬
miral occupying the centre, and all fleering the fame
courfe.
Having thus deferibed the ordinary pofitions of a
fleet, we mufl: explain the manoeuvres by which they
are produced, and we (hall begin with the orders of
{Idling.
To form a fleet in the firfl: order of failing, fuppofing
the (hips to be in no particular order, that fhip which is
to lead on the propofed line of bearing for the order of
failing, runs to leeward of the greater part of the fleet,
and then hauls her wind under an eafy fail. Each of
the other (hips then proceeds to take the proper ftation,
by chafing the (hip, which is to be a-head of her, and
when in the wake of the leading (hip, adjufls her quan¬
tity of canvas fo as to preferve the proper diftance. The
flops thus arranged aftern of each other, are in the line
of battle, and from this the firfl: order of failing is form¬
ed, by each (hip bearing away at the fame time, and all
fleering the propofed courfe.
In forming the fecond order of failing, the leading
fldp runs to leeward of fo many of the fleet as that each
flop may readily fetch her wake, and then fleers a
courfe eight points from the wind, under an eafy fail.
The line is formed by each fliip in the fame manner as
in the firft order, except that before bearing away, the
line is perpendicular to the direction of the wind, or
each fliip has the wind on her beam.
As, in the third order of failing, the admiral’s (hip is
in the centre •, to produce this pofition, the fleet being
formed in a line on one of the lines of bearing, and the
fliips fleering in each others wake, ten points from the
■wind, the leading or leewardmoft fliip firft hauls her
■wind. The fecond fhip does the fame as foon as fhe
gets into the wake of the former, and this is done by
each fliip till the admirals fliips haul their wind, when
they reach the wake of the leading fhip. At. the fame
time that the admiral’s fhip hauls her wind, the ftern-
moft half of the fleet does the fame. The (hips are
now in the third order of failing, from which the fleet
can be formed in the line of battle on either tack.
To form the fourth order of failing (fee N° 38.), the
A R.
619
od of
ng the,
rder
.ing.
3
id or-
f fail-
I"4'-
Naval
Tadtics.
Plate
DLXV.
fis- w
commanding admirals range themfelves on the two lines
of bearing, at a proper diftance from each other, fleer-
ing the propofed courfe, and the {hips of the feveral ^
columns take each their refpedlive places, parallel to fourth or-
each other, and forming lines in the diredlion of the der.
wind. # 66
Te form the fifth order, the three leading fhips of Fifth orders
the divifions take their ports abreaft and to leeward of
each other, keeping their wind under an eafy fail; then
the (hips of each fquadron make fail, and take their
refpedtive ftations at the proper diftance aftern of their
leaders, while the commanders of each divifion, and
the correfponding flaps of each, keep mutually abreaft
of each other. . 67
In forming from the firft order of failing, if the fhips To form
are running large on the tack that anlwers to the line_he one of
of bearing on which they lail, and ir the line is to be
formed on the fame tack, all the Ihips haul their wind
at once, or as quickly as poffible after the next to
windward •, but if they be on the other tack, with re-
fpetl to the line of bearing, they all haul their wind
and tack or veer together. If the line of battle is to be
formed on the other line of bearing, the fhip moft to
leewards veers or tacks, and hauls her wind, while the
reft of the fleet veer or tack at the fame time, and fleer io^
with the wind four points free, and each {hip hauls her
wind as foon as fhe gets within the wake of the leader.
See fig. 10. Plate DLXIV. and fig. 1. Plate HLX\ .
Suppofe the fleet running before the wind in the fe¬
cond order of failing 5 to form the line rrom this pofi¬
tion, all the drips haul up together on the proper tack,
prefenting their heads eight points from the wind at the
line on which they are arranged ; the leading fliip then
hauls her wind, immediately making fail, or llrortening
fail, fo as to clofe or open the order, and the fame is
done fucceffively by all the reft (fee fig. 2.). _ FlS-
In a fleet running large in the third order, the line
of battle is formed by the wing which is in the line of
bearing correfponding to the tack on whiefnthe line is
to be formed, and the fliip at the angle hauling their
wind together, while the fhips of the other wing haul
up together eight points from the wind. Each flap
moving in tins dire£tion, till the reach the wake of the
other wing, when (he hauls clofe up (fee fig. 3.). 3*
In forming the line of battle on the fame tack from
the fifth order of failing (as the fourth is not calculated
for forming a line of battle), the centre brings to, fo as
only to keep fteerage way ; the weather column bears
away two points, and when it gets a-head of the centie,
hauls its wind, while the fliips of the lee column tack
together, and crowd fail to gain the wake of the centre,
whey they retaek together, and complete the line (lee
fig. 4.) • or, the weather column brings to, while the Fig ^
centre and lee tack together, and bear away two points
free. When the fhips of the centre column have gained
the wake of the van, they retack together, and bring
to ; and when thofe of the lee have gained the rear
line, they retack together, and all fland on ; or lafily,
the lee column brings to, the centre runs under eafy
fail two points free, to get a-head of the rear fquadion,
while the rear bears away under a prefs of fail two points
free, to get a-head of the centre divifion.
2. Suppofe the weather and centre columns to interchange.
To form the line under thefe circumftances ; the centre
ftands on, while the weather column bears away eight
4 I 2 points,
620
W
Naval
Tactics.
Plate
DLX V.
%• 5-
Fig. 6,
7*
Plate
DLX VI.
%• i.
^g- 2-
Fig- 3-
Fig. T
c.
points, and having reached the wake of the centre, which
now forms the van, hauls up; the fhips of the lee column
tack together, and run under a prefs of fail, within two
points free, fo as juft to gain the rear of the line ; when
they retack together (lee fig. 5.), or the lee column
brings to, while the centre fquadron bears away three
points under eafy fail ; and having reached-the wake of
the van, hauls up, to form the centre divifion.
3. Suppofe the centre and lee columns to interchange.
The lee column (lands on clofe hauled under an eafy
fail, the weather column bears away two points under a
prefs of fail, till it reach the head of the line, when it
hauls up, and the centre bears away eight points, and
when in the wake of the lee, now the centre, hauls its
wind. (See fig. 6.).
4. If the. weather and lee columns interchange; the
lee column (lands on under a prefs of fail clofe hauled,
while the centre, under eafy fail, bears aw'ay two points,
and when it reaches the wake of the now van fquadron,
hauls its wind, and the weather column bears aw'ay
eight points, hauling up when in the wake of the centre.
(See fig. 7.).
5. Suppofe the centre column to form the van, and
the weather the rear divifion. Here the lee column
brings to, while the centre bears away two points,
forming the line a-head of the former, now the centre,
and the weather column veers away feven points on the
other tack, forming the rear fquadron. (See fig. 1.
Plate DLXVL).
6. To form the line fd that the lee column may fiv-m
the van, and the centre the rear. The lee column is to
(land on under a prt fs of fail, while the weather bears
away three points under eafy fail, and the centre bears
away eight points, the (hips of each column hauling
their wind, when in the wake of the now van divifion.
(See fig. 2.).
7. If the line of battle is to be formed on the other
tack, fo that the weather (hall form the van divifiori, as
in the firft cafe, the (hips of the weather column firft
tack fucceflively, while thofe of the centre and lee
(land on, the former under eafy fail, and the latter
(hortening fail, the leading (hips tacking when in the
wake of the now van, taking great care that the (hips
of the centre and lee draw not too near to the (lernmoft
(hips of the van, or to each other. (See fig. 3.).
8. To form the line on the other tack, when the
centre and weather columns interchange. The weather
column brings to, w hile the centre column (lands on, till
the leading (hip be fully able to clear the weather co¬
lumn, when the (hips of the centre tack fucceflively as
they reach the wake of the van. The lee column
(lands on, tacking fucceflively, as the (hips get into the
wake of the van, under moderate fail. (See fig. 4.).
9. In forming the line on the other tack, when the
centre and lee interchange. The centre brings to,
while the (hips of the weather tack under (hortened fail*
and the lee under a prefs of fail (lands on, the leading
(hip having gamed the wake of the line, tacks, and is
followed in fuccefiion by her divifion. The centre co¬
lumn fills and (lands on, when the fit ft fliip of that co¬
lumn, and the lad of the lee, bear from each other in
a diredion perpendicular to that of the wind. (See
%• 50-
I0- To form on this fame tack, fo that the weather
and lee may interchange. The weather and centre
1
A R.
Part II
Pig. %■
bring to, while the lee crowds fail, till it can pafs a-head
of the weather column, when the (hips tack in fucceffion.
As foon as the leading (hip of the centre, and the latl
of the lee bear from each other in a line perpendicular
to the wind, the centre fills, and tacks in fucceffion
when in the wake of the now van, and the (hips of the
weather column do the fame when their leading (hip
and the laft of the centre are under (imilar circum-
(lances. (See fig. 6.). pjg g
11. Suppofe the centre is to form the van, and the
weather the rear, in forming the line on the other tack.
The weather brings to, while the other columns make
fail, till they can pafs a-head of the former on the other
tack, when they tack fucceflively. The weather co¬
lumn, when the others have pafied it, fills, and tacks to
form the rear. (See fig. 7.).
12. Suppofe now the lee column is to form the van.
The weather and centre bring to, while the lee crowds
fail, and tacks when it can pals a-head of the weather
column. When the laft (hip of the now van has paffed
to windward of the former weather column, the van
(hortens fail, to give time for the other columns to form,
and the weather and centre fill at the fame time, to gain
the wake of the van, when they tack in fucceflion. (Seep;- 5
%• 8;)- _ 68
We mud now (hew how a fleet may be difpofed in To form
the principal orders of failing from the line of battle;°^en
and here, as before, we have feveral varieties. fiomtk
1. To form the firft order of failing from the line .of^eof
battle on the fame tack. All the (hips are to bear battle,
away together as many points as the admiral may direct,
keeping in the line of bearing for the proper tack. The
llernmoft firft bears away, and the others follow in
quick fucceflion to prevent running foul of each other.
2. If they are to form on the other tack ; the lead¬
ing (hip bears away four points to leeward, and the reft
follow in fucceflion. The fternmoft (hip having bore
away, the whole haul up, and will be in bearing for the
line on the other tack. (See fig. 9.). fig, ^
3. To form the fecond order of (ailing from the line
of battle, the whole fleet is to bear away together 10
points, fo that when the headmoft (hip, which firft pref-
fes fail, (hall come abreafl of the fecond (hip, the fecond
(hip adapts her fail to keep in this bearing, and fo in
fucceflion, each taking care to keep the preceding (hip
in a line with herfelf, perpendicular to the dire^lion of
the wind. The whole fleet will now be before the
wind. (See fig. 10.). Fig. w,
4. To form the third order, the whole fleet is to bear
aw7ay together ten points, the headmoft half, including
the centre (hip, carrying a degree of fail to preferve their
line of bearing, while each of the remaining (hips is
fucceflively to fliorten fail, fo as to form the other line
of bearing with refpedl to that on which thfcy were be¬
fore arranged. (See fig. 1. Plate DLXVII.).
5. To change from the line of battle to the fifth or¬
der on the fame tack. Of this evolution there are fe¬
veral varieties, but we (hall mention only two ; firft,
when the van is to form the weather, and the rear the
lee column, and the fleet to keep as much as poflible to
■windward.— In this cafe the van and centre tack to¬
gether, and run clofe hauled in boiv and quarter line,
while the rear proceeds in its former courfe under eafy
fail. When each fhip of the centre is abreaft of the
correfponding (hip of the rear, the centre retacks,
white
Plate
dlxvi:
fig. !•
ival
airs.
Fi S
s-
ft II.
while the van {lands on, till the centre and rear come
up, when it alfo retacks, and all the columns regulate
their diftances. (See fig. 2.). Secondly, when the van
[VII. is to form the lee, and the rear the weather column.—
. 2. ' The van bears away under eafy fail, and goes at right
angles with the line a-head, while the centre runs two
points free, each {hip {leering for that {hip of the van
which is to be a-breaft of her when in column. The
diiiance mull be determined by the leader of the van,
who is not to haul up with her divifion, till the and the
fternmoll (hip of the centre column are in a line at
right angles with the wind, when both Hand on under
eafy fail, while the rear crowds fail to pafs to windward
of both. (See fig. 3.).
6. To form the fifth order of failing from the line ot
battle on the other tack—of which there are alfo feve-
ral varieties ; but we fhall confine ourfelves to two : Firlt,
when the van is to form the weather, and the rear the
lee column ; the van tacks in fucceffion, while the lead¬
ing fiiip of the centre is to tack ivhen the leader of the
van paffes him exactly to windward, in which thesis fol¬
lowed by her divifion, and the rear manoeuvres in the
fame manner with refpeft to the centre. (See fig. 4.).
Secondly, when the rear-is to form the weather and the
van the lee column ; the-van tacks in fucceflion, and
when about, either ftiortens fail, or brings to, to allow
the other columns time to form. The centre and rear
then crowd fail, and tack in fucceffion, the former tack¬
ing when its leader has the centre ot the lee column in
a line at right angles with the wind, or when its centre
paffes a-ftern of the lee column. When the centre has
tacked, it regulates its rate of failing by the lee, and
both wait for the rear to pafs to windward. 1 he rear
tacks when the leader has the firlt ffiip of the lee in a
line at right angles with the wind, or when its centre
fiiip paffes a-ftern of the centre column. (See fig. 5.).
7. Fig. 6. reprefents the order of retreat formed
from the line of battle, the whole fleet going four
points free. This evolution is fo feldom. required m a
Britifli fleet, that we need not dwell on it.
There are various evolutions or manoeuvres peiform-
line by a fleet when in line of battle, fome of which we
't‘e‘ muft here defcribe.
Sometimes the fleet has to form the line on the other
tack, by tacking in fucceffion. ! o do this, the leading
fiiip of the fleet tacks firft, after. making more fail, or
after the fecond has fhortened fail, to increafe the in¬
terval between them. When the firft ftnp is aoout,
either the fecond makes more fail, or the third Ihortens
fail, and as foon as the fecond gets into the wake of the
leader, fhe tacks, putting down the helm juft a-, ffie
opens the weather quarter of the firft ftiip, already on
the other tack. In the fame manner, each of the other
fiiips tacks when in the wake of the leader ; and the
fliips already about muft preferve their proper diftance^,
by fhortening fail, if neceffary, till the wdiole fleet be
on the other tack. If a fhip ffiould mifs ftays, ffie muft
immediatelv fill again on the fame tack, and make fail
with all poffible expedition, taking care not to fall to
leeward. Thus fhe will get a-head, and to windward
of the following fhips, which will fucceffively peiform
their evolutions in the wake of the Ibips that are already
on the other tack, Handing on rather further than il the
fhip a-head had not miffed ftays. (See fig. yO’
7* But fuppofe the {hips are jiot to tack in fucceffion.
W A R.
621
>9
anceu-
Naval
Tactics.
To form the line on the other tack, the whole fleet
veers together ; the rear {hip hauls her wind on the .
other tack, and Hands on, while the reft go two points
free on the other tack, and haul up as they fucceffively
gain the wake of the leading {hip. (See fig. 8.). Fig. 8.
If the line is to veer in fuceeiiion, the van ftiip veers,
and Hands four points free on the other tack, hauling
her wind when clear of the llernmoit ffiip, and the reit
follow and haul up in fucceffion. (See hg. 9.). Fig. 9.
Sometimes the fleet lias to turn to windward while in.
line of battle. The beft way to do this, when there is
good lea-room, is for ail the {hips to tack together,
when the fleet will be in line of battle on the one board,
and in bow and quarter line on the other. If, however,
the fleet be turning to windward in a narrow channel,
it is beft tor the ftiips to tack, in lucceffion, as, were they
all to tack together, the van would be loon in with the
land on one lide, while the Hern ffiip, loon after the
fleet had retacked, would be too near the land on the
other fide.
If the van and centre are to interchange ; the van is
to bear away a little, and then bring to, while the centre
paffes on to windward, edging a little, to get a-head of
the former van on the lame line j the rear, coming on
under an eafy fail, edges away likewile, to gain the
wake of the now centre Iquadron. (See fig. 10.). Fig. I*.
If the van and rear are to interchange •, the van and
centre are to bear away a little, and then bring to, fo
that the van may bear away a little more to the lee¬
ward than the centre. The rear Hands on to gain the
head of the line ; and when a-brealt ot the former van,
the centre fills, and both Handing on, form a-head of the
now rear, by edging down till they are in a line with
it. (See fig. II.). _ Fig. 11.
If the centre and rear are to interchange 5 the van
Hands on under an eafy fail, while the centre bears
away a little, and brings to, and the rear at the lame
tim’e carries a prefs of fail to pals the centre to wind¬
ward, and get into the wake of the van. The van and
centre then edge aivay to gain the line, with the now
rear fquadron, which then fills. (See fig. 12.). ^
Several evolutions are required while a fleet is in theTomanoeu-
fifth order of failing, and of thefe we fliall notice lome '-'re in the
of the more important. offailb^
When the columns are to tack in fucceffion, the fliips
of the lee muft tack firft, as they have molt diftance to
run, and when the leader of the centre comes a-breail
of the leader to leeward, or at right angles with the
clofe-hauled line on the other tack on which the leader
of the lee is now moving, ffie tacks and is iollowed fuc-
ceffively by the ftiips of her divifion. The weather
column manoeuvres in the fame manner, paying the fame
regard to the centre. Flere the weather column is Hill
to windward, and ffiould the columns have doled too
much, or be too far afun ier, the order may be recover¬
ed, either by the lee or windward column bearing
away, fo as to make an angle equal to that propofed
between any column, and a line joining the leader of
that column, and the Iternmoft ftiip of the next. (See
fig* I3-)* Fig. 13.
When all the columns are to tack together j the
fternmoft {hips put in {lays together ; and when in ftays,
their feconds a-head put down their helms, and fo on
through the whole fleet. Each column will then be in
bow and quarter line. (See fig. 14.). ^ Fig. 14.
When
622
_ In' aval When the columns are to veer in fucceflion j the
, 1 acftics. |eacjer ^ ]ee coiumn muft fleer four points free on
Plate ^ie °ther tack, followed by the fliips of that divifion,
DLXVTL and when lire is clear of the fternmoft fliips of that divi-
%> IS- flon, die hauls up. The fame evolution is performed
by the centre and weather Ihips fueeeflively, (landing on
till they bring the point at which the lee column began
to veer to bear in a right line to leeward of them. They
likewife fucceflively fpring their luffs when the point at
which the lee column hauled its wind, bears right to
•leeward. (See fig. 15.).
Suppofe the fleet, when in the fifth order of failing is
to turn to windward ; let the fliips be fo arranged that
the leaders and correfponding fliips may be in the direc¬
tion of the wind. The van fliips muft tack together,
which are followed in fucceflion, each by the remain¬
ing fliips of the divifion, when they reach the wrake of
their leaders, or the fame point when they tacked ; fo
that there will always be three (hips in flays at once, till
the whole fleet is on the other tack. The fleet then
PIa1:e (lands on to any propofed diftance, and retacks as be-
DLXVIII. fore. (See fig. 1. Plate DLXVIIL).
I- When the weather and centre columns interchange j
the weather and lee lie to, or only keep fleerage way.
The centre column tacks together, and forming a bow
and quarter line, goes clofe hauled to gain the wake of
the weather column ; it then tacks together, and ftands
• on, while the weather column bears away to its new
-ftation in the. centre, and the lee column fills. (See fig.
3- .2.).
When the weather and lee columns are to inter¬
change -, the centre column muft bring to ; -while the
lee ftands on under a prefs of fail ; and when its ftern¬
moft fhip can pafs to windward of the van of the centre
column, that is, when the centre (hip of the lee is in a
perpendicular line to the direflion of the wind with the
van of the centre column, the lee column then tacks
together, and ftands on clofe hauled till it comes in a
line with the centre column, when it goes large two
points to get into the fituation which the weather co¬
lumn left; and then veers together, hauling the wind
for the other tack. At the beginning of the evolution
the weather column bears away together under little
fail, and goes large fix points on the other tack, to get
into the wake of the centre column ; it then hauls to
the former tack, going two points large, till it comes a-
breaft of the centre column, when it brings to, and
Fig. 3. waits for the now weather column. (See fig. 3.).
Suppofe the weather column is to pafs to leeward •
the weather column is to (land on under eafy fail, while
the centre and lee tack together, carrying a prefs of fail
till they reach the wake of the weather column, when
they retack, and crowd fail till they come up with it.
The weather column, when the others have gained its
wake, bears away two points, to gain its ftation to lee¬
ward, when it brings to, till the other columns, now the
4* weather and centre, come up. (See fig. 4.).
Suppofe the lee column is to pafs to windward. The
weather and centre columns bring to, while the lee co¬
lumn carries fail and tacks in fucceflion as foon as the
leading (hip can weather the headmoft (hip of the wea¬
ther column ; and when arrived on the line on which
the weather column is formed, it retacks in fucceflion,
forms on the fame line, and either brings to or ftands
en under eafy fail. If it brings to, the other two co-
Part 1]
lumns bear away together two points, to put themfelves Naval
a-breaft of the column now to windward ; but if the Ta&ics.
now weather column flood on under an eafy fail, they'"■“'v-—
may bear away only one point, to gain their proper ita-
tions.. (See fig. 5.). . Fi
It is of the greateft importance that each fhip of a
fleet or fquadron preferve her proper flation and di¬
ftance with refpect to the reft. Thefe may be regu¬
lated in two ways, either by obfervation with the qua¬
drant, or by what is called the navalfquare. This
fquare is ufually conftrudled in the following manner.
On fome convenient place in the middle of the quar-r 71
ter-deck is deferibed the fquare ABCD, fig. 6. havingtion andl
the fides AD and EC parallel to the keel of the fhip.ufeoftht
Through the centre G, the line EF is drawn parallel to "avai
AD or EC, and the diagonals AC and ED are drawn.5uar!1
The angles EGD, EGC are bifected by the ftraight “
lines GH, GI, and thus the naval fquare is completed.
Now the angles FGD, FGC are rr 4 points each, be¬
ing each half a right angle, therefore the angles EGD,
EGC, the complements of thefe angles, are each zr 12
points, and confequently the angles EGH, EG I are
each n: 6 points, being each half of the laft angles.
Now, if a ihip be running clofe hauled on the (lar¬
board tack, in the direftion EE, the dire6lion of the
wind will be IG, and her clofe-hauled courfe on the
•other tack will be GCj but if (lie be running clofe
hauled on the larboard tack in the fame diredlion, her
diredlion when .clofe hauled on the ftarboard tack will
•be GD.
Now, to apply the naval fquare to the keeping of
drips in their refpeclive ftations, fuppofe the fleet formed
on the fifth order of failing, clofe hauled, the cor-
xefponding drips of the columns coinciding with the di¬
redlion of the wind, in order to run to windward with
.greater facility. The correfponding fliips in the column
muft be kept in the diredlion of GH, or GI, according
to the diredlion of the wind and the tack they are on,
while all tire drips of the fame column muft be in the
diredlion of EF. (See fig. 7.). Fig. 7.
Again, fuppofe the (hips arranged in three columns
on one of the lines of bearing, and clofe hauled on the
other tack. The drips of each column will be in the
diredtion of one of the diagonals, while the correfpond- s
ing (hips of the other columns will be in the diredlion of
the other diagonal. (See fig. 8.). Fig. 8.
Sometimes the line of battle is difordered on the 72
wind’s drifting, and requires to be reftored. Of this^0 I^°
there are feveral cafes, a few of which we (hall notice. batt]e 0|
1. When the wind comes forward lefs than 6 points. Shifts of I
In this cafe the whole fleet except the leader brings to. wind.
The leading drip, that the fame diftances between the
(hips may be preferved on reftoring the line, (leers a
courfe a b (fig. 9.), Co as to be at right angles with Fig. p. j
the middle point between the former and prefent direc¬
tion of the wind. His required courfe may be known
by adding half the number of points the wind has fhifted
to eight points, and applying this fum to the former
clofe-hauled courfe. When the leader has arrived at
the new clofe-hauled line with refpedl to the (eccmd
drip a-head, this (hip immediately fills, and bears away
as many points as the leader j and when both thefe have
reached the clofe-hauled line with refpedl to the third
(hip, (lie alfo fills, and bears away 5 and thus with the
reft in fucceflion j and when they have got into the
clofe-hauled
W A R
aval
fries.
I- \r—•
.are
D LVIII.
Fi to.
r i ii. w
clofe-bauled line b c with the rxernmoR (hip, they all
haul their wind together, and the fternmott Ihip fills
and (lands on clofe hauled.
This may be expeditioufly performed, if the whole
fleet fall off as foan as the wind (hifts, the fame number
of points, and the leader bear away eight points from
the middle between the former and prefent dire&ions of
the wind, or when the %vind (hifts nearly fix points, if
the leader bear away eight points from the prefent di-
re£lion of the wind, and hauls her wind as foon as the
Hern mod fhip bears from her in the clofe-hauled line,
while the fecund (hip bears away when (lie reaches the
wake of the leader, and hauls her wind when (lie has
again gained his w-ake. The third, fourth, &c. (laps
bear away, and alfo haul their wind in fucceffion, till
the iternmoft and the whole line be formed again. (See
fig. 10.).
2. Suppofe the wind comes forward lefs than fix
points, and the order of battle is to be re-formed on
the other tack. In this eafe all the (hips are to veer
round till their heads come to the requifite point with
refpefl to their former courfe, when the rear fhip, now
become the van, hauls clofe by the wind, followed fuc-
ceffivelv by the other (hips. Should the wind come a-
head more than fix points, but lefs than twelve, the fleet
is to manoeuvre as before, but if it fhiit exactly twelve
points a-head, the tack muff be changed.
3. Laftly, fuppofe the wind to (liift oft—if lefs than
two points, the leader hauls her wind, while the fleet
(lands on as before, each fucceffively hauling her W’ind
as (lie gains the wake of her leader. If the tack is to be
changed, the whole fleet tack together, and the ftern-
mo(l (hip, now the leader, hauls up, while the reft bear
down and haul up in fucceffion.
Should the wind change 16 points, all the drips im¬
mediately brace about for the other tack, by which
means the fleet will be going four points large ; then
the drips inftantly tacking or veering together, the or¬
der of battle will be reftored or formed again on the
fame tack as before the wind changed.
It is inconfiftent with the nature of our plan to be
more minute on the various evolutions of a fleet, when
not in aflion with the enemy. Our nautical readers
will find abundant information of this kind in the ufual
works on naval taftics, efpecially the Elements and
PraBice of Rigging, Seaman fhip. Naval Ta Flics, &c.
of which the lateft edition is in 4 vols 8vo. : and lie
System of Naval TaFlics, voith coloured figures, both
publidved by Steel.
Having deferibed and iliiidrated the principal evo¬
lutions which are performed by fleets or fquadrons
under ordinary circumflances, we are prepared to con-
fider the nature and confequences of a naval engage¬
ment.
In forming a fleet for battle, it is proper to confider
^ tv. the fize and number of the (hips of which it is to con-
onffuk>r- fiff, and the didance at which they are to be placed
a fleet refp( fl to each other. In the prefent fyflem of
naval warfare, it is generally deemed of advantage to
have the (hips that are to form the principal line as large
as podihle ; for tlfbugh large drips are not fo eafily and
expeditioufly worked as tliofe of a fmaller fize, they are
mod ferviceable during the aflion, both as carrying a
greater weight of metal, and as being lefs expofed to
material injury, either from the enemy’s (hot, or from
Naval
TaCUcs,
A R. 623
the weather. In boarding too, a large (hip muff have
greatly the fuperiority over a fmaller, both from her
greater height, and from the number of bands which
(lie contains. With refpefl to the number of (hips, it is
of advantage that they be not too numerous, as if the
line be too exteniive, the fignals from the centre are
with difficulty obferved.
In arranging a fleet in line of battle, it is proper to
regulate the diftance fo that the (hips (hall be fufticient-
ly near to fupport each other, but not fo clofe as that
a difabled (hip may not readily be got out of the line
without difturbing the reft of the fleet. 74
73
urn
ces to
'•ftion.
It has long been deemed a point of great confequence Advantages-
with the commander of a fleet to gain the weather gage, *f
or to get to windward of the enemy, before coming to ^Wgatjiet
aftion. In deciding on the propriety of this, much will gage.
depend on the relative ftrength of each fleet, and on the
(late of the weather at the time. We (hall (late the ad¬
vantages and difadvantages of the weather gage, as
they are commonly laid down by writers on naval
tallies, though we may obferve by the way, that if a
fleet be much fuperior to its opponent, it is feldom of
confequence whether it engages to windward or to lee¬
ward.
A fleet to windward of the enemy is thought to pofi-
fefs the following advantages. It may approach the
leeward fleet at pleafure, and can of courfe accelerate or
delay the beginning of the engagement. If more nu¬
merous, it may fend down a detachment on the rear of.
the enemy, and thus throw him into confufion. It may
alfo readily fend down fireftiips on the enemy’s fleet,
when thrown into confufion or duabled. It may board
at any time, and is fcarcely incommoded by the fmoke
of the enemy. The reverfe of thefe circumftances, of
courfe, aft againft a leeward fleet.
The difadvantages of being to windward of the ene¬
my refpeft chiefly the circumftances attending a retreat,
(houid this be neceflary. The windward fleet can (el*
dom retire without paffing through the enemy’s line ;
and if in attempting to retreat, the windward (hips tack
together, thofe of the leeward fleet may do the fame-,
rake the weather (hips in (lays, and follow them on the
other tack, having now7 the advantage of the wind. In
ftormy weather, the windward (hips can feldom open
their low7er deck ports, and the lee guns are not eafily
managed after firing. Again, any difabled (hips can¬
not eafily quit the line without difordering the reft of
the fleet, and expofing either that or themfelves to be
raked by the enemy to leeward. A leeward fleet has
the advantages of ferving their loxver deck guns in all
weathers ; of being able to retreat at pleafuie ; of draw¬
ing off without difficulty their difabled fliips *, of form-
j^g- with more readinels the order of retreat •, or of con¬
tinuing the aftion as long as convenient; of having it
in their power when fuperior in number, to double the
enemy, and of cannonading w7ith great effsft the w ind¬
ward fliips as they bear down for toe attack.
As an engagement between two adverfe (hips is in
fome meafure an epitome of an engagement between two
fleets, we (hall firft briefly deferibe the former, as it
takes place under ordinary circumftances, and (hall then
notice the ufual manner of condufting a general engage-
ment.
A naval engagement may be divided into three flages,
the preparation, the aBion, and the repair.
When
624 W
Naval When an enemy’s fn?p heaves in fight, and it is thought
'ladies, adviiable to bring her to ah engagement, orders are firft
^. given to clear for a61ion, which is begun by the boat-
Defcription Avain and his mates piping up the hammocks, in order
of an en- to clear the fpace between decks, for the more eafy ma-
gagement nagement of the guns, as well as to afford the men on
two rlups t*ie quarter-deck, &c. a better protection againlt the
76 enemy’s (hot, the hammocks being (towed in the net-
Prepara- tings above the gunwale and bulwarks. After this,
the boatfwain’s mates go to work to fecure the yards,
which is done by fattening them with (trong chains or
ropes in addition to thofe by which they are fufpended.
They likewife get ready fuch materials as may be ne~
ceflary for repairing the rigging, if it (hould be cut a-
way, or othervvife damaged by the enemy’s (hot. In the
mean time the carpenter and his mates prepare (hot
plugs and mauls, to flop any dangerous (hot holes that
may be made in the hull near the furface of the water,
and provide the necelfary iron work for refitting the
chain-pumps, if their machinery fhould be injured dur¬
ing the engagement j while the gunner and his mates,
and the quarter gunners, examine the guns, to fee that
their charges are dry, and provide every thing that may
be required for fupplying the great guns and fmall arms
with ammunition. The mafter and mafter’s mates fee
that the fails are properly trimmed, according to the
fituation of the (hip, and increafe or reduce them as may
be found necelfary; and the lieutenants vifit the differ¬
ent decks, to fee that all is clear, and to take care that
the inferior officers do their duty.
When the hoitile (hips have approached within a pro¬
per diilance of each other, the drums beat to arms 5 the
boatfwainand his mates pipe all hands to quarters! All
the men who are to manage the great guns repair im¬
mediately to their refpeftive ftations. The crows, hand-
fpikes, rammers, fponges, powder-horns, matches, and
train tackles, are placed in order by the fide of the
guns: the hatches are immediately clofed, to prevent
iculkers from getting below; the marines are drawn up
on the quarter-deck, &.c. the lafhings of the guns are
caff loofe, and the tompions withdrawn. The whole
artillery, above and below, is run out at the ports, and
77 levelled to the point-blank range, ready for firing.
The adlicn. When thefe neceffary preparations are completed,
and the officers and crew ready at their refpedtive (ra¬
tions, and when the two (hips are fufficiently near each
cither, in -a proper relative fituation for the (hot to take
full effect, the action commences with a vigorous can¬
nonade from the great guns, accompanied by the whole
efforts of the Avivels and fmall arms. The firing is fel
<fom performed in vollies, as that would (hake the (hip
too much, but the guns are loaded and fired one after
another, with as much difpatch and as little confufion
as poffible, care being taken to fire only when each gun
is properly dire&ed to its objeft. During the firing,
the lieutenants traverfe the decks, to fee that the battle
is profecuted with vivacity, and that the men do their
duty, while the midfiiipmen fecond their injunctions,
and give the neceffary affiftance where required, at the
guns committed to their charge. The youngeft of thefe
inferior officers are generally employed to carry orders
from the captain. The gunners are all this time em¬
ployed in the magazines, filling cartridges, which are
carried along the decks in boxes by the boy3 of the
fhip. When the aCtion has continued fo long, or has
A R,
Rart ]]
Naval
Colics.
produced fuch an effeCt, that one of the (hips muft yield
or retreat, if the vanquiffied (hip cannot get off, (he
acknowledges her inferiority by ftriking, or hauling
down her colours, when (he is, as foon as pofiible, taken
poffeffion of by the viCtor, the commander of which
fends a part of his own crew into the captured (hip, and
brings away mo(t of her officers and men on board his
own (hip, as prifoners of war.
The engagement being concluded, they begin to re-R^j*
pair ; the guns are fecured by their breechings and 1
tackles, with all convenient expedition. Whatever fails
have been rendered unferviceable are unbent, and the
wounded malls and yards (truck upon deck, to be fiffied
or replaced by others. '1 he (landing rigging is knotted,
and the running rigging fpliced where neceffary. Pro¬
per fails are bent in the room of thofe which have been
difplaced as ufelefs. The carpenter and his mates are
employed in repairing the breaches made in the (hip’s
hull, by (hot plugs, pieces of plank, and (beet lead.
The gunner and his affiftants are bufied in repler.ifhing
the allotted number of charged cartridges, to fupply the
place of thofe which have been expanded, and in refitting
whatever furniture of the guns may have been damaged
by the action.
A .general engagement between twoadverfe fleets ofEngage-
courfe involves a greater variety of circumltances, andmentbe-
m
requires greater judgment, and more comprehenfive,ween
(kill in the commanding officer.
When the commander of a fleet has difeovered an
enemy’s fleet, his principal object, if he be fufficiently
Prong, is to bring it to action as foon as poffible. Every
inferior confideration gives way to this important object,
and all neceffary preparations are immediately made to
prepare for fueh an event. The ftate of the wind and
fituation of the enemy will in general regulate his con-
duff with regard to the difpofition of his (hips on that
occafion. To facilitate the execution of the admiral’s
orders, the whole fleet is difpoftd in three fquadrons, and
each of thefe claffed into three divifions, under the com¬
mand of different officers. Before the aftion begins,
the advene fleets are drawn up in two lines, as formerly
deferibed. As foon as the admiral difplays the fignal
for the line of battle, the feveral divifions feparate from
the columns in which they were difpofed in the ufual
order in failing, and every (hip crowds fail to get into
its ftation in the wake of the next ahead; and a proper
diftance from each other is regularly obferved from the
van to the rear. The admiral, however, occafionally
contracts or extends his line, foas to regulate the length
of his line by that of his adverfary. This is more par¬
ticularly neceffary to prevent his being doubled, by
which his van and rear would be thrown into diforder.
W hen the hoitile fleets approach each other, the courfes
are commonly hauled upon the brails, and the top-gal¬
lant fails and (lay fails furled. The movement of each
(hip is regulated chiefly by the main and fore-top fails
and the jib: the mizen-top fail being referved to halien
or retard the courfe of the (hip; and by filling or back¬
ing, hoifting or lowering it, to determine her velocity.
The fignal for a general engagement is ufually difplay-
ed when the fleets are fufficiently near each other, to be
within the range of point-blank (hot, fo that the guns
may be levelled with fome certainty of execution. Af¬
ter the battle has commenced, it is carried on much in
the fame manner as between two (hips, except that each
vefiel
fleets.
*1 par-
ticv
Briii na-
Tal ;ions,
p-tll. . ’ W
aval velTel of tlie fleet, befides attending to her own move-
' i merits, has to obferve the fignals made by the command-
U ing officer, and repeated by the frigates on the van and
rear. The chief objeft of the admiral is to keep his
line as complete as poffible, by ordering (hips from thofe
in referve to fupply the place of fuch as may have been
difabled, and to annoy the enemy as much as poffible,
both by ftrengthening the feeble parts of his own line,
and, if circumftances admit of it, by fending down fire-
fln'ps upon that of the enemy. When the engagement
draws near a clofe, either by the defeat of the enemy,
or by the difabled Hate of either fleet, fignals are made
from the admiral to take pofleflion of fuch of the ene¬
my’s fliips as have (truck, to tow his own difabled (hips
into a place of fecurity, and either to chafe the remain¬
der of the enemy’s fquadron, or, if that be impracti¬
cable, to draw off his own (hips to be refitted. *
Such are the general incidents attending an engage¬
ment at fea, modified of courfe by numerous circum-
fee mp- fiances, of which a general defcriptkm can convey no
teL Lives idea. There are, however, various movements and evo-
cf i Ad- iutions connected with a naval engagement, which it
'hL be neceffary for us to notice.
jVa and Where the weather-gage is deemed of fufficient im-
Mi ry portance, it is often an objeCt with two fleets to difpute
it with each other. When the enemy is to windward,
and it is wiihed to gain the weather-gage of him, the
fleet to leeward fliould avoid extending itfelf the
length of the enemy’s line, in order to oblige them to
edge down upon theirs, if they intend to attack them j
which will be a mean, if they dill perfift in doing fo,
of lofing the advantage of the wind. It is impoflible for
a fleet to leeward to gain to windward, fo long as the
enemy keep the wind, unlefs a change happens in their
favour ; therefore all that a fleet to leeward can do
mufl: be to wait with patience for fuch a change, of
which they will undoubtedly avail themfelves, as well
as of any inadvertency the enemy may commit in the
mean time. And as long as the fleet to leeward does
not extend its line the length of the enemy’s, it will be
impoffible for the latter to bring them to aClion without
running the hazard, by bearing down, of lofing the ad¬
vantage of the wind, which both fleets will be fo defi-
rous of preferving. That an admiral may take advan¬
tage of fuch fhifts of wind as occafionally happen, he
muft endeavour to get his (hips into fuch fituations
where thefe fhifts mofl: frequently take place. It is well
known to experienced naval officers, that particular
winds reign moft on certain coafts, or off certain head¬
lands. Here, therefore, the admiral ffiould await the
approach of the enemy ; and though by this plan he
may fometimes be unfuecefsful, he will more frequently
gain a material advantage. The difpofition of project¬
ing headlands, and the fetting of tides and currents,
often contribute materially towards gaining the wind of
the enemy. The fleet to windward ffiould keep that to
leeward as much as poffible abreafl of it 5 and thus, un¬
lefs the wind changes confiderably, they will preferve
the advantage they have gained. Thev ffiould alfo force
them to keep their wind, unlefs they think it prudent
not to engage, in which cafe it would be better to keep
altogether out of fight.
When the enemy appears defirous of avoiding an ac¬
tion, there are various methods of attempting to force him
to engage ; as firft, when he has the weather gage. In
VOL. XX. Part II.
Me irs
tfi at
hri 1.
|>
To >ute
the a-
thei ge
wit 1
eneif,
To
the
to
my
on.
A R.
this cafe the lee fleet, which is defirous of bringing on
an engagement, muft keep always on the fame tack
with the enemy to windward, taking care to keep their
own (hips fo exaClly abreaft of the enemy, as to prevent
lofing fight of them ; and hence be ready to take ad¬
vantage of the firft favourable drift of wind to make the
attack. An alteration of the courfe may be beft at¬
tempted in the night. The lee fleet muft have frigates
on the look-out, and thefe muft continually give notice
by fignal of the manoeuvres and courfe of the retreating
fleet to windward. Thus the w’eather fleet is always
expofed to purfuit, without being able to get off unfeen j
hence muft fooner or later be compelled to an engage¬
ment, unlefs they can get into fome friendly port, or
ffiould be favoured by a gale of wind fufficient to difperfe
both fleets, and thus prevent the poffibility of a gene¬
ral engagement.
Secondly, when the enemy is to leeward.—If the lee
fleet keep clofe to the wind in the order of battle, the
fleet to windward is to (land on in the fame manner till
it be abreaft of the enemy, (hip to (hip, and at the fame
time to bear away, and fleer fo as to bring their refpec-
tive opponents on the fame point of the compafs with
themfelves. Thus the adverfe fleets will be fufficiently
near each other to begin the aftion, by each (hip’s pre-
fenting her bow to the ffiip abreaft of her in the order
of failing, which may be eafily changed for the order
of battle, by all the (hips hauling together clofe to the
wind, in the moment which precedes the aflion. If the
fleet to leeward appear inclined to engage, it may bring
to, to prevent lofing time, and after this they will fill
as foon as the a6tion commences, becaufe it is of ad¬
vantage to a lee line to be advancing a-head. As the
lee fleet fills and (lands in clofe by the wind, the
weather line ffiould keep a-breaft, before it bears away,
to come within the requifite diftance, that the van ffiip
of the weather fleet may always keep to windward of
the leading ffiip of the lee line, and be guarded againfl
any ffiift of wind a-head.
If the lee fleet bear away four points to move their or¬
der of battle on the other tack, and avoid the aflion, filing-
off in fucceflion in the wake of the van ffiip, the wea¬
ther line, by bearing away all together eight points, can¬
not fail, as both fleets are fuppofed to fail equally, to
pafs through the middle of their line, and force them to
fight with difadvantage, if their extent be double the
diftance between the two fleets. If the extent of the
fleet be lefs than the above limitation, then the weather
fleet will divide the lee fleet more unequally ; and if
the diftance between the fleets be confiderable, the wea¬
ther fleet will be able to break through the line. If
the lee fleet bear away four points all together, being of
equal extent with the fleet to windward, and their di¬
ftance from each other equal to that of the length of
one of the lines ; fliould the weather fleet bear away at
the fame time eight points, they will approach very near
the fternmoft of the retreating fleet 5 but they will not
have it in their power to cut off any part of that fleet,
even with an equality of failing ; fo that the only ad¬
vantage gained by this manoeuvre will be an ability of
attacking the rear, and bringing it to a£lion.
If the van ffiip and the reft of the weather fleet had
a fufficient velocity to keep the centre (hip of the lee
line on the fame point of bearing; in that cafe, the lead¬
ing ffiip may break through the enemy’s line about the
4 K middle
62
Naval
Taftics.
626
Naval
Taftic5.
3l
To avoid
coming to
utlion.
Sa
To double
an enemy.
w
middle fldp c>F the centre divHion •, for, fuppofing the
fleets in the order of battle, on the (larboard tack, Iteei-
ing eaft, with the wind at fouth fouth-eaft, being at two
leagues diftance from each other, both the lines being
four leagues in extent •, then the lee line bearing away
all together four points, will run north-eaft; while the
fleet to windward, bearing away all together eight
points, will fleer north •, the van fhip of which will
keep the centre divifion of the lee line in thp point of
bearing north-well. As (lie is fuppofed to be ablt to
continue in this pofition, it follows, that the van of the
■weather line muff clofe the centre of the flying line to
leeward, after having run four leagues. 1 he time and
diftance neceflary to cut off a retreating fleet may al¬
ways be known according to the laft fuppofition. If
the lee fleet fliould get on the other tack, and run large,
Hill in the order of battle, they will be fooner forced to
a&ion by the weather fleet, who have only to bear
aAvay eight or nine points on tne fame tack, or run right
before the wind. # .
As in forcing a fleet to adlion, there are two princi¬
pal cafes in which a fleet may avoid an adlion, where
circumftances are not fufficiently favourable j firft, when
the enemy is to windward, and fecondly, when he is to
leeward. In the former cafe the lee fleet fhould form
the order of retreat, if the enemy are in view, and run
on the fame tack as their leading fhip ; but if he is ftill
out of fight, and they have received intelligence of his
approach, by their frigates on the look-aut, they may
bear away large, without confining themfelves to keep
the wind diredlly off, unlefs when in the order of re¬
treat. In the fecond cafe, it feldom happens that the
weather fleet can be forced to an engagement, becaufe
it can always Hand on that tack which increafes its di¬
ftance from the enemy ; that is, by Handing on one
tack while the enemy is on the other, he windward
fleet muft of courfe not keep too near the enemy, and
take all poflible means of avoiding being abreaft of
him.
It is often of advantage to double the enemy •, that is,
to bring a part of the fleet round upon his van or rear,
fo as to place him between two fires. This manoeuvre
alfo refolves itfelf into two principal cafes : firft, when
the enemy is to windward •, fecondly, when he is to lee¬
ward. In the firft cafe, the lee fleet that attempts, to
double the enemy, fhould extend itfelf abreaft of him,
fo that its van or rear may extend beyond bis line, in
order to overreach him, by tacking in fucceflion, fo that
the extended part of the line may get up to windward.
If this manoeuvre be properly executed, it will be im-
poflible for the ftiips of the weather line long ta main¬
tain their ftations, for no veffel clofely attacked by two
others of equal force can long refill.
It is of fome confequence to determine whether the
attempt to double fhould be made on the van or the rear
of the enemy, as on the propriety of adopting the one
or the other of thefe meafures, may in a great meafure
depend the iffue of the battle. In the prefent cafe, it
is moft eafy to double the van of the enemy, becaufe if
they are engaged by the {hips abreaft of them, thofe
which are advanced ahead will be able, by making all
foil, to get in the perpendicular to the diredtion of the
wind with the van of the enemy, and tack in fucceflion
to gain the wind of them on the other board, thus keep¬
ing, them to leeward} and when they are come fufficient-
A It. « Parti]
ly to windward, they are again to go about, in order to Naval
keep the two headmoft fliips of the enemy’s line conti- Tadics-
nually under their fire. If there be two or three Pnips v
to tack in fucceflion and gain the wind of the enemy,
they may edge down on the van of the water line at
pleafure, keeping themfelves a little to windward of it;
and as that van is already engaged by the other fliips a-
breaft on the other fide, {he muft neceflarily be foon dif-
abled. If they bear away, they muft drop upon the
line with which they are engaged to leeward, while the
fhips to windward ftill continue to cannonade them. If
they attempt going about, in order to attack more clofe¬
ly the fhips to windward, they will be raked, while in
flays, by their opponents to leeward and to windward,
who enfilading them with whole broadfides, which they
cannot return, muft complete their diforder. If they
make fail, in order to fruftrate the defign of the fhips
inclined to double, thofe with which they are engaged
abreaft to leeward have only to perform the fame ma¬
noeuvre, and keep them under their fire ; while the
others, after having haraffed them as much as poffible,
will do their beft to perform the fame manoeuvre on the
fucceeding fhips.
If any of the ftiips in the van of the weather line are
difabled in the mafts or yards, they will drop aftern,
and run foul of the next fucceeding fliip, and thefe again
on the next aftern. Thus, the enemy’s order of battle
will be broken, while on the other hand the lee line is
preferved ; and thofe ftiips which have gained the wind
of the enemy will, without engaging more ftiips than
they can manage, contribute to increafe the confufion.
When the enemy is to leeward, and the weather fleet
attempts to double, the fhips of the weather line muft
extend their van beyond that of the enemy, and then
veer in order to bring the headmoft ftiips of the lee line
between two fires. It muft not, however, be concealed,
that it is much more dangerous to the ftiips engaged in
this fervice to attempt doubling a fleet to leeward, than
one to windward, as if difabled, or feparated too far
from their own fleet, they cannot fo eafily extricate
themfelves, and rejoin the fleet. _ tj
When one fleet attempts to double another, this lat-To avoi
ter will of courfe do all in their power to avoid the im-||einS
pending danger j and this they will the more readily ou
do, according to their number, or their fituation. If the
fleet thus threatened be to windward, one of the me¬
thods propofed to avoid being doubled, is to extend the
line towards the point threatened, fo as to leave a great*
er fpace between the fhips j but in doing this, there is
a rifle of having the line broken by the fuperior enemy.
Another method fuggefted is, for the flag fhips of the
windward fleet to oppofe themfelves to thofe of the lee
line, which is fuppofed to render feveral of the enemy’s
ftiips in the intervals of little ufe } but one great incon¬
venience of this manceuvre is, that it leaves the van and
rear moft expofed to the enemy’s fire, and that the rear
divifion in particular is in great danger of being doubled.
To remedy thefe defers, the largeft (hips ftiould be
placed in the van and rear of each divifion, and the
fleet muft regulate its failing in fuch a manner that its
rear {hall never be aftern of the rear of the enemy..
When the enemy is to leeward, the weather fleet is to
keep aftern of the enemy, fo that the van of the wea¬
ther fleet, may be oppofed to, and attack the enemy s
centre. Hence the enemy’s van will become ufeleis tor
fomse
I -t II. w
aval fome time j and fliould it attempt to tack and double
fr05, on the weather Heet, much time will be loft in perform-
w ing that evolution j and it alfo runs the rifk of being fe-
parated by the calm which often happens in the courfe
of an engagement, occafioned by the difcharge of the
guns. A confiderable interval might alfo be left be¬
tween the centre and van, if neceffary precautions be
4 taken to prevent the van from being cut off.
0 alwg- There are feveral circumftances of importance to be
confidered in the fubjedl of chafing, i. e. when one fliip
or fleet purfues another, called the chafe, either to bring
her or them to action, or to oblige them to furrender.
Ir e"5cafe When a fingle (hip chafes another, it is to be prefum-
olgle ed in general, that one of them is the better failer,
111 though this is not always the cafe, and ftill by proper
manoeuvring the chafing fliip, or chafer, may gain on
the chafe. In the following obfervations, however, we
fliall fuppofe the chafer to fail fafter than the chafe. The
manoeuvres of the chafer will depend on her being to
windward or leeward of the chafe.
When the chafe is to windward, it is evident that as
foon as flie perceives a ftrange Ihip which flie takes for
an enemy, the will haul her wind, in order to prolong
the chafe, as otherwife her retreat would foon be cut off.
The chafer then ftands on alfo nearly clofe hauled, till
the has the chafe on her beam ; flie then tacks, and
Hands on clofe hauled till the chafe is again on her
beam, and then retacks. In this manner file continues
tacking every time the brings the chafe perpendicular to
her courfe on either board ; and by thus manoeuvring, it
is certain that the chafer will, by the fuperiority only
of her failing, join the other in the ftiorteft time, ior
fince the chafer tacks always as foon as the chafe is per¬
pendicular to her courfe, flie is then at the fhorteft di-
ftance poflible on that board j and fince toe chaier is
fuppofed to be the fafteft failer, thefe fliorteft diflances
will decreafe every time the chafer tacks. It is there¬
fore of advantage to the chafe to keep conftantly on the
fame courfe, without lofing her time in going about, as
tacking cannot be fo favourable to her as to her adver-
fary, whofe failing is fuperior. If the captain of the
chafer ftiould fo little underftand his profeflion as to
Hand on a long way, and tack in the wake of the chafe,
the beft thing flie can do is to heave in flays, and pafs
to windward of him on the other tack, except flie fliould
find herfelf likely gaining advantage by going large ;
for if the chafer perfifts in tacking in the wake of the
other fliip, the purfuit will be very much prolonged.
When the chafe is to leeward, the chafer is to fleer
that courfe by which flie thinks flie will gain moft on
the chafe. If, after having run a fliort time, the chafe
is found to draw more aft, the chafer fliould then bear
away a little more \ but if the chafe draw a- head, the
chafer fliould haul up a little, and thus the courfe may
be fo regulated that the chafe may always bear on the
fame point, and then the chaier will get up with the
chafe in the ftiorteft time poflible •, for if any other
courfe were fleered, the chaier would be either too far a-
head or too far aftern, and hence the purfuit would be
prolonged. The chafe fliould run on that courfe which
will carry her diredtly from the chafer, and fliould con-
fider which is her beft trim with refpe<ft to the wind,
that flie may move with the greateft poflible rapidity
from the chafer j for forrte fliips have more advantage in
A R. 627
going large, others with the wind right aft, and others Naval
when clofe hauled. ladies. ^
Another method has been propofed for chafing a fliip 35
to leeivard, that is, by conftantly fleering diredlly for Curve of
the chafe : in this cafe, the tradt deferibed by the chafer purfuit.
is called the line or curve of purfuit. To illuftrate this, Plate
let A (fig. 11. Plate DLXVIII.) reprefent the chafer, DLXVIII.
and B the chafe diredtly to leeward of her, and running I1*
with lefs velocity than the purfuer, in the diredlion BC,
perpendicular to that of the wind. Now, to conftrudt
this curve, let B be the diftance run by the chafe in
any ftiort interval of time ; join A b and make A I
equal the diftance run by the chafer in the fame time.
Again, make be, cd, de, ef, &c. each equal to B
join 1 c, and make I, 2= A 1 j join ^d, and make
2, 3 equal to A 1 •, proceed in like manner till the two
diflances carried forward meet as at C, and a curve de¬
feribed through the points A, I, 2, 3, &c. will repre¬
fent nearly the curve of purfuit ; and the lefs the inter¬
val A 1 is taken, the more accurately will the curve be
formed. In this particular cafe, the length of the di¬
ftance BC may be found as follows, provided the di¬
ftance AB and the proportional velocities of the two
Ihips be known.
Let the velocity of the chafe be denoted by a frac¬
tion, that of the chafer being unity. Multiply the gi¬
ven diftance AB by this fra&ion, and divide the pro¬
duct by the complement of the fquare of the fame frac¬
tion, and the quotient will be the diftance run by the
chafe B. Suppofe AB, the diftance of the chafe di-
re&ly to leeward of the chafer, be taken at 12 miles,
and fuppofe the velocity of the chafe three-fourths of
that of the chafer j what will be the diftance run by
i 2 ^ o
the chafe before the is overtaken ? Now -A —— ~
16
9 x—=20- miles ; and fince the velocity of the chafer
7 7
to that of the chafe is as 4 to 3, hence the diftance run
22 3
by the chafer will be = 20- X -=27- miles. As the
7 4 7
chafer alters her courfe at every point, and probably ,
fails better with the wind in one dire&ion with refpedt
to her courfe than when the wind is in another direc¬
tion, her velocity will be different at different points of
the courfe. Thus, fuppofe her to fail fafter when the
wind is on the quarter, her velocity will conftantly in-
creafe to a certain point, and will then diminifti. Hence
in real praftice the curve of purfuit will not be exactly
what is laid down in the above problem, and of courfe
the meafure of BC will differ a little from what we have
there laid down. See Resistance of Fluids and Sea¬
manship. _ > 87
If the whole fleet is to give chafe, the admiral xvillln the cafo
make the proper fignal, and then each Ihip will inftant- of fleets,
ly make all the fail poflible. If the retreating fleet is
not much inferior to the other, a few of the fafteff fail¬
ing veffels only are to be detached from the fuperior
fleet, in order to pick up any ftragglers, or thofe Ihips
which may have fallen aftern ; and the remaining part
of the fleet will keep in the fame line or order of (ailing
as the retreating fleet, fo that they may, if poflible,
force them to a&ion. But if the retreating fleet is much
inferior, the admiral of the fuperior fleet will make the
4 K 2 fignal
62 B
Naval
Tallies.
88
Defedls of
the ufual
line of
battle.
89
Principles
of de Gre¬
nier’s me¬
thod of tac
tics.
Plate
DLXVIII.
6g. is.
fignal for 3 general chafej and then each fhip tv ill itn-
mediately crowd all the fail poflible after the retreating
fleet j or, if the chafe be ftill lefs numerous, the admi¬
ral will detach one of the fquadrons of his fleet, by
hoifting the proper fignal for that purpofe, and he will
follow with the remainder of the fleet. '1 he fquadron
that chafes, fhould be very careful not to engage too
far in the chafe, for fear of being overpowered } but at
the fame time to endeavour to fatisfy themfelves with
regard to the objeft of their chafe. They mull pay
great attention to the admiral’s fignals at all times ; and
in order to prevent feparation, they ftiould colledl them¬
felves before night, efpecially if there be any appearance
of foggy weather coming on, and endeavour to join the
fleet" again. The {hips are diligently to obferve when
the admiral makes the fignal to give over chafe ; that
each regarding the admiral’s fliip as a fixed point, is. to
work back into her ftation, to form the order of line
again as quickly as the nature of the chafe and the di-
ftance will permit. -
When a fleet is obliged to run from an enemy who is
in fight, it is ufual to draw up the (hips in that form or
order, called the order of reti'eat; and the admiral,
when hard purfued, without any probability of efcaping,
ought, if practicable, to run his {hips afliore, rather
than fuffer them to be taken afloat, and thereby give
additional ftrength to the enemy. In flnort, nothing
fhould be negledted that may contribute to the prefer-
vation of his fleet, or prevent any part of it from falling
into the hands of the conqueror.
We have now gone through the principal evolutions
of fleets and fquadrons, nearly as they are deferibed in
the Elements of rigging, feamanfhip, and naval taBics,
and other approved publications on fimilar fubjefts. We
have indeed omitted the method of forcing an enemy’s
line, and of avoiding being forced, becaufe the former
will be readily underftood from what we have to add on
the improved method of taftics of M. Grenier, and Mr
Clerk of Eldin.
Various defeats have been obferved in the taftics
ufually employed at fea, efpecially in a line of battle,
and in the mode of bringing an enemy to aftion. The
ufual order of battle firit introduced by the duke of
York, afterwards James II. of England, is defe&ive
from its length. Its great extent makes it difficult for
fhe admiral to judge what orders are proper to be iffued,
to the {hips ftationed at the extremities, while his lig-
nals, however diftinftly made, are liable to be miftaken
by the commanders of thefe fhips. Befides, the extre¬
mities of a long line, efpecially if it be to leeward, are
neceffarily defencelefs, as the enemy may throw himfelf
with a fuperior force on the van or rear, and cut either
of thefe off before it can be properly fupported by the
other fquadrons. Vifcount de Grenier, who was, we be¬
lieve, one of the firft to notice thefe defefts, propo-
fed to remedy them by introducing a new order of
battle.
The leading principles of De Grenier’s tallies are
founded on the following confiderations. It is evident
that each ftiip of a fleet muff at all times occupy the
centre of a certain horizon. This horizon De Grenier
divides into two unequal parts, calling the greater the
direfd and graduated [pace, and the lefs the indirect,
crojfed, and ungraduatedfpace. The reafon of thefe ap¬
pellations is, that on the greater fegment of the horizon-
WAR. Parti
tal circle there are 20 different points, which maybe Naval
marked by degrees from one of the clofe-hauled lines to Ta&*cs.
the other, and to which a ffiip may fail from the centre v"'“
by fo many diredl courfes without tacking 5 whereas
from the other 12 points, including that from which the
wind blows, {he cannot arrive but by fleering crofs
courfes, which muft neceffarily delay her progrefs. Sup-
pofe now a fleet to leeward, fo difpofed that only a part
of it can fight with another equally numerous, and
ranged to windward in a fingle line, and let the lee
fleet be ranged on three fides of a lozenge ab, c d, ef
(fig. 12.) The fquadron ab, which is moft to wind¬
ward, being drawn up in line of battle, cannot be
fought but by an equal number AB, CD, EE. All
the reft of that fleet therefore muft remain inaftive, un-
lefs the fhips which are not engaged Ihould try to pafs
to leeward of the fleet ab,cd,ef But ffiould the
{hips of the weather fleet, which are placed between B
and F, bear away as they appear in the figure between
C i and F 2, the fhips between A and B, which are
fighting to windward, cannot bear away with them.
Suppofe now that the {hips between C i and F 1 have
paffed to leeward, the fquadrons c d, ef which are
ranged according to De Grenier’s fyftem, and have not
yet been engaged, ffiould come to windward and join
with their friends a b againft that fquadron of the ene¬
my AB which is ftill to windward and engaged ; it is
aim oft impoffible but that the fquadron AB muft bede-
ftroyed by fo great a fuperiority, before it could receive
affiftance from the ftiips to leeward between C i and
F 2. . . 50
De Grenier propofes only three orders of failing, one ord j
Avhen a fleet is to pafs a ftrait 5 a fecond when it fteers of failin|
in open fea, on the look-out for an enemy, or with a
view to avoid him •, and a third when on an extenfive
cruife difpofed fo that it cannot be eafily furprifed or
broken. Of thefe three orders, only the fecond and
third differ from the ufual orders of failing. The former
of thefe is reprefented by fig. I. Plate DLXIX. where p]at|
the columns a b, c d, ef are difpofed on three tides of DLX
a regular lozenge, on the two clofe-hauled lines. 1 he fig'I'
ftiips of the two divifions <r 2/, ef fometimes to wind-
ward (as in fig. 2.) and fometimes to leeward (as in
fig. 1.) of the third divifion a b, are to be formed on
two parallels of one of the clofe-hauled lines in the
wakes of their refpeftive headmoft ffiips 5 while the
third divifion <2 & is to be Tanged ahead or aftern of the
others on the other clofe-hauled line, fleering chequer-
wife the fame courfe as the other divifions.
When a £ is to windward of cd and ef (fig. I.)»
De Grenier calls that the windward primitive order of
failing, and when to leeward (fig. 2.), the fleet is faid
to be in the leeward primitive order of failing. Thefe
are the two principal pofitions in almoft every cafe, and
with very little variety, may become the order of battle,
of chafing, &c.
His third order is illuftrated by fig. 3. where the di-Fig. 3
vifions ab and ef are fuppofed at the diftance. o£
about fix leagues from each other •, c d and cf refiing
on the extremities of the bafe of a triangle SI V, while
the centre {hip of the divifion ab refts on its fummit T }
none of the divifions could be cut off by an enemy, how¬
ever formidable, feen from its centre ftiip at the diftance
of fix leagues. For if, on the proper fignal, the divi¬
fion a b ffiould fleer from T toward X, on the courle
oppoute
aval
flics.
Pi
f, irder
o ittle.
late
XIX,
.6.
I -t IT. . W
oppofite to tlie clofe-hauled line it fleered before, and
the two divilions c d and ef fleer from V and S to¬
wards X likewife, it is plain that each of thefe divifions
would have only three leagues to run to join the other
two, while the enemy which was firft perceived at the
diftance of fix leagues, mutt run nine before he can
come up with the neareft of thefe fquadrons.
To form De Grenier’s order of battle reprefented in
fig. 4. and 5. it will be fufficient for the fhips of the
three divifions ranged in the windward primitive order
I ,4. and of failing (fee N° 90.) to heave in flays all together, and
d get on the other tack on the oppofite line of. bearing
(fig. 4.) j or for the (hips in the leeward primitive order
at once to haul the wind on the fame tack as thev fleer *,
and they will find themfelves in order of battle, fig. 5.
When the two columns cd and e f, are to leeward of
the third divifion ab, ranged in order of battle, this is
called the natural order of battle, and when cd and ef
are to windward of a b, this is the inverted order of bat¬
tle. The former of thefe is calculated for a fleet com¬
bating to leeward, and the latter for a fleet which muft
fight to windward.
To explain the advantages of thefe difpofitions, let us
fuppofe the line AB, CD, EF, fig. 6. to reprtfent an
enemy’s fleet to windward in the ufual order of battle,
on the clofe-hauled line, and on the (larboard tack, and
let a £ be one of the divifions of a fleet difpofed accord¬
ing to the now natural order, on the (larboard tack,
while the line c d, ef, reprefent the other two divifions
(landing on chequerwife on the fame tack, but formed
on the oppofite clofe-hauled line. When the enemy
comes to attack this latter fleet on a fuppofition that it
is inferior to their own, their divifions AB and EF, in
order to attack the (hips a or b, muft bear away. Now,
to prevent the attack, each of the divifions cd. ef,
mud make the following evolutions according to their
refpe&ive fituations, and the manoeuvres of the enemv.
I. The (hips of the divifion ab are to (lacken as much as
poflible their headway, and form a very clofe line, till
the enemy makes a movement to attack the headmoft or
fternmoft (hip of that divifion. 2. The (hips of the di¬
vifion c d are to make fail till they come under the fe-
cond or third (hip of the rear of the line of battle ab,
when they will take the fame fail as the fhips of that di¬
vifion, to preferve that pnfition until the hoflile (hips
make their evolution to attack the rear (hips of.that di¬
vifion. In this fituation the (bios of the divifion c d
will be able to obferve the manoeuvres of the.enemy, in
order to change tack, and form themfelves in order.of
battle on the oppofite board as foon as the hoftile.fh’rps
(hall have run over a certain fpace ; becaufe the (hips of
the divifion c d, fleering afterwards clofe hauled in the
wake of the fternmoft (hip of the divifion ab. will he
able to cover the rear (hips of that divifion, and get the
weather-gage of the hoftile divifions wmch are bearing
away, rake their (hips *, run along fide of them •, .double
their rear-guard, and put it between two fires, if thofe
hoftile (hips are following in the wake of each other; di¬
vide it, if thev bear away chequerwife •, or gain to .wind¬
ward, and put between two fires the enemy’s divifion
CD, while engaged with the divifion ab. 3. The di¬
vifion ef may abandon their poft, and run chequerwife
under a pre.fs of fail as foon as the enemy falls a-head of
a b ; that if the enemy’s divifion AB attempts to fall
on e f or on the van of « b, they may, by going about,
3
A R. 629
fleer in order of battle clofe hauled on the oppofite line,
and cover the (hip a, double the hoftile divifion CD a-
head, or divide AB which is running chequerwife on
the oppofite tack
Fig. 7. marks another method of manoeuvring by the Fig. 7.
divifions c d, ef, when the enemy’s (hips are arranged
in a (ingle line not well formed. 92
Figs. 8. and 9. illuftrate De Grenier’s method ofDeGre-
placing the admiral’s (hip, and the frigates and tranf-
ports attached to a fleet. A, fig. 8. is the admiral rangjn^
placed a-head of the fleet, at a (hort diftance from the admiral’s
headmoft of the fecond divifion, and in the fame direc- thip, lo¬
tion of the wind as the headmoft (hip of the firft divifion •, ™s.
//are two frigates obferving the fame rule and pofition FigS 3. and
with refpedh to the van (hip of the third, and rear of the
firft divifion. When the fleet is in order of battle, as in
fig. 9. the admiral’s (hip A is in the centre of the lo¬
zenge, and two of the frigates,//, on the fourth fide of
the lozenge. The tranfports and ftore-ftfips, when the
fleet is in order of failing or convoy, occupy the fpace cir-
cumfcribed by the lozenge, but in order of battle they
are difpofed in a line oppofite to that of the enemy.
We cannot enter on a more minute or fatisfaflory ac¬
count of this fyftem •, for a full expofition of which W'e
muft refer to the original work entitled VArt de Guerre
en Mer, ou TaElique Nava/e, &cc. par M. le Vifcompte
de Grenier, or the extrafrs from it contained in the
Elements and Praftice of Rigging and Seamanfhip. 93
We muft; now turn our attention to the improvements Mr clerk’s
in taftics fuggefted by our countryman Mr Clerk;—tadtics.
improvements which have received the approbation of
feveral diftinguiftied officers of the Britifh navy, and to
hints derived from which we are in a great meafure
indebted for feme of the mod fignal vi&ories which
have heaped additional honour on the naval power of
Britain. 94 ?
Before entering on an explanation of Mr Clerk’s tac- ^Tr Gerk’s
tics, we muft briefly ftate his obje£Hons to the u^'u>a^ t^thc ufual
method of bringing (hips to adlion, by the weather fhip method of
or fleet fleering diredlly down upon the enemy. By attack,
doing this, the enemy to leeward often has an oppor¬
tunity of completely difabling the (hips making the at¬
tack, as the former can ufe all their guns on one fide,
while the latter can only ufe their bow chafes. Sup-
pofe B, fig. JO. Plate DLXIX. to reprefent a (hip of
80 guns to windward, in fight of an enemy’s (hip of ( I0.*
equal force F, to leeward. Now, if B bears down di-
reftly upon F, the latter, by lying to, as in fig. II.
will prefent a broadfide of 40 guns, all bearing for a
confiderable time on B, while the latter coming down
headwife, can only bring the two light guns of her fore-
caftle to bear on F, not to mention that.F, by lying
broadfide to, will have her mafts and rigging little ex-
pofed to the enemy’s (hot, while B (landing head, on, is
expofed to be raked by every (hot from F, and in par¬
ticular her rigging is in the utmoft danger. 95
Inftead of this objectionable mode of attack, Mr His new
Clerk propofes that B having the wind, fhould run™g.°^
dowm aftern as in the dotted line at fig. 1 2. till (lie getsaiKi
into the courfe of F, near her wake, or in fuch a .pofi¬
tion as will bring her parallel to F’s courfe, and within
a proper diftance, when (lie can run up clofe along fide
of F, and engage on equal terms; or, that (he (hould
(hoot a-head, then veer, and run down on the weather
bow of F, as in fig. 13. till (he can force the chafe to
bear
630
W
Naval
Tadlics.
96
Effects of
firing at
the hull or
rigging.
Elate
DLXIX.
fig. 14.
97
One Ihip
Itile fhips
at once.
iS-
bear away to leeward, keeping elofe by her, on equal
terras, taking care in both cafes not to put it in the
power of F to bring her broadfide to bear on her with¬
out retaliation.
Fig. 14. is employed by Mr Clerk to illuftrate the
different procedure of a French and Britifh man of war
in firing, the former at the rigging, and the latter at
the hull of the enemy, with their effefts. Let F repre-
fent a large Ihip defirous of avoiding a elofe engage¬
ment, but lying to, to receive with advantage an ene¬
my’s Ihip B, of equal force. Suppofe that F, by firing
at the rigging of B, may have carried away fome of
the principal Hays, feveral of the windward Ihrouds, a
fore-topmaft, or other rigging of lefs confequence, with¬
out having wounded a fingle man j and fuppofe a fecond
fhip confort to F, receiving an enemy’s Ihip like B, but
firing only at her hull, fo as to kill 30 or 40 men, with¬
out damaging her rigging. Now, when F and her
confort wilh to avoid a elofe engagement, it is evident
that that Ihip B, which has loft part of her rigging, is
much more difabled from coming to elofe a£tion than
her confort whofe rigging is entire, though flie may
have loft a great number of her men.
, - By the feheme at fig. 15. it is intended to illuftrate
battle-116 ° ^)e imP°ffibility of one fliip being expofed to the fire of
cannot be rnany fhips at one time. Let I, H, F, H, I, reprefent
expofed to five ftiips in line of battle u-head, about a cable’s length,
the fire of or 240 yards afunder, and fuppofe the length of each
. y 0 fhip to be 40 yards, fo that the whole Ipace between
the head of one fhip and the head of that next adiacent
equals 280 yards. Let the perpendicular line FK, ex¬
tending from the beam of b fix cables lengths or 1440
yards, be divided into fix equal parts. It is evident
that any ihip ftationed at E in the line FK, 720 yards
diftant, cannot long be expofed to the fire of more than
the centre fhip F of this fquadron. For if we fuppofe
♦hat H and K a-head and a-ftern of F, can bring their
broadfides to bear on E ; by putting themfelves in pofi-
tions for that purpofe, they will not only diforder their
own line, but one will leave her head and the other her
ftern expofed to a raking fire from the oppofite fhips
BB in the enemy’s line. If B can fuffer little from the
two fhips H, H, at the diftance of 720 yards, it is evi¬
dent that the will fuffer ftill lefs from thefe fhips as fhe
approaches nearer the enemy’s line. Again, if inftead
of a cable’s length afunder, we fuppofe the ftiips I, F, I,
two cables length afunder, to bear on the fhip B. It is
evident from the figure that in this cafe B will not be
more expofed to the fire of I and I at the diftance of
1440 yards than fhe was to that of H and FI at half
that diftance •, and fo in fimilar cafes.
In explaining the principles on which we are to judge
r. s- ?f the advantages or defefts of different modes of bring¬
ing of fhips mg ftiips to aflion, Mr Clerk fuppofes a fleet of 10 20
to a<ftion is or more ftiips of 80 guns each, drawn up in line of’bat-
tle to leeward, as at F, fig. 16. and lying to with an
intention to avoid an adlion ; while another fleet, as B,
of equal number and force, alfo drawn up in line of
battle, three or four miles to windward, wiflies to make
an attack, and come to elofe quarters on equal terms
Fhe fleets being.thus difpofed, ftiould the fleet at B at¬
tempt running down to.attack the fleet at F, each Ihip
uanding head on to the oppofite fhip in the leeward
fine, it is to be expe&ed, from what we have already
ftated, that the attacking ftiips will be difabled, at leaf!
4
98
Principles
on which
the bring
founded
Fig. 17.
A II. ^ . Part i]
in their rigging, before they can come to elofe a£Hon ; Naval
but fuppofe that the commander of the weather fleet Tadics.I
though his ftiips have been difabled in their rigging du- —v—-
ring their courfe a a a to leeward, fig. 17. has madeFlS’17*
them bring to at a great diftance, but fufficiently near
to injure F. This latter fleet, which has been endea¬
vouring to avoid an adlion, will now bear away with
little injury to a new ftation, as G, and there remain
out of the reach of B’s ftiot, and this fleet muff repair
its rigging before it can make another attack.
Again, fuppofe that the fleet B, inftead of Handing
head on, were to run down in an angular courfe, as at
fig. 18. It is plain that if any fhip in this angular line Fig. il.
ftiould be crippled, her defedt in failing will occafion a
confuiion of feveral of the other fhips in that line. It
may be faid that the ftoppage of one fhip a-head will
not neceffarily produce a ftoppage of every ftiip a-ftern
of her, becaufe they may run to leeward of the difabled
fhip ; but we muft obferve that by this time the fliips
a-head in the van A may be engaged, and confequently
not having much head way, are nearly flationary, fo
that each fhip a-ftern, in attempting to bear down as at
I), I), muft be confined to a certain courfe, and muft run
the rifk of being raked in coming down before the wind,
and confequently of being difabled before coming up
with the enemy.
Thirdly, the van of the fleet B having attained their
ftation at A, a-breaft of the van of F, fig. ig. and ha-Fig. 15.
ving begun the aflion, the van fliips of F, with a view
to retreat, may throw in a broadfide on the van of B,
and then bear away in fucceftion, as at H, followed by
the reft of the fleet F, which, after exchanging broad¬
fides with the van of B, may draw up in a newline two
or three miles to leeward at I I, fig. 20.
Suppofe again, for further illuftration, that B, fig. 1.
Plate DLXX. reprefents a fleet putting before the wind,
each ftiip intending, when brought to at a determined
diflance at A, to take up her particular antagonifts in
the line of the enemy F to leeward ; and let F be fup-
poled at reft, without any motion a-head. It is eafy to
conceive that while the alternate ftiips of F’s line, under
cover of the fmoke, withdraw from battle to GGG, the
intermediate fliips left behind them in the line will be
fufticient to amufe even the whole of B’s fleet, till the
ftiips G fliall form a new line HH as a fupport from the
leeward. In fuch cafe B, after being difabled, and not
having forefeen the manoeuvre, will neither be able to
prevent the intermediate fliips with which he is engaged
from bearing away to join their friends, nor, were he
able, would it be advifable to follow them, for the fame
manoeuvre with equal fuccefs can again and again be re¬
peated.
To explain the relative motion of thefe two fleets, let
F, fig. 2. reprefent a fleet of 12 ftiips in line of battle, a fi
cable’s length afunder, and fuppofe the length of each
fliip from the end of the jib-boom to the ftern to be 36-}
fathom^. I he whole fleet will occupy a fpace of two
Englifh miles 5 and if it be fuppofed to fail in the di¬
rection FG, at the rate of four knots an hour, it will
in an hour have moved to G, four miles from its former
pofition.
Now, let there be an oppofite fleet B, alfo 12 ftiip',
fituated four miles to windward, and let the point Abe
a quarter of a mile right to windward of the point G.
Then, if *B by bearing awaj in the direction Bi\, gain
the
Flat®
DLXX.
fig-1*
It II.
w
the point A at the fame time that the leeward fleet F
has arrived at G, B will have moved nearly at the rate
of 5ltniles an hour, and the angle contained between
the direftion of its line of bearing and its prefent courfe
will be nearly four points.
Secondly, in fig. 3. if F, by carrying more fail, move
at the rate of fix miles an hour, from F to G, then B,
with a more fianting courfe, will have more difficulty
in keeping the line a-breaft while coming down to the
attack, owing to the additional obttruftion which will
attend each fucceeding ffiip in fuch a fianting courfe.
Again, if the leeward fleet ffiall lie up one point higher,
as FG, fig. 4. the rears of the two fleets will be removed
to a much greater diftance, and the van A mull be
fooner up with the enemy’s van, and of courfe fo much
farther from fupport, while F bringing up his fliips in
fucceflion, may difable the van of A, and afterwards
bear away at pleafure with little injury, as at H. Now
B being fuppofed difabled, and having his rear D di-
ftra£ted, will be unable to prevent F from efcaping.
From thefe confiderations it appears that a fleet to
windward, by extending its line of battle with a view
to flop and attack the whole line of an enemy’s fleet to
leeward, muft labour under confiderable difadvantages,
and will fcarcely fucceed in the attempt.
, , On thefe principles Mr Clerk explains the reafon
(I tack why» before the commencement of the prelent contelt
f|ithe between Britain and France, the French fleets fo re-
' iward. peatedly efcaped from the Britifh, without any ferious
defeat or lofs, viz. by avoiding a general engagement,
and difabling the Britiih van as it bore down to attack
them. He therefore recommends a different mode of
attack from the windward, which we ffiall proceed to
illuftrate by proper diagrams.
5. Let F (fig. 5.) reprefent a fleet in line of battle,
under eafy fail, willing to avoid an action, but ready to
receive an attack in the ufual way, from another fleet
B, three or four miles to windward, arranged in three
columns. How fliall B make the attack on F, fo as,
without aiming at the improbable advantage of taking
or deftroying the greater part of this fleet, they may fe-
cure three or four of the ffernmoft fliips ? Mr Clerk
advifes, that a fufficient flrength be detached to fecure
thefe ffiips, while the admiral keeps aloof with the reff
of .his fleet, difpofed as in the figure, ready to make the
neceffary obfervations and give the requifite fupport to
the detached fliips. If F continues to avoid an action
by Handing on in line, the detachment, coming into
the pofition BA, will fecure the three fliips at I 5 and
if the headmofl: ffiips of F were to tack, and be follow-
F <y( ed by the reft, in fucceflion as at fig. 6. not only the
the three fliips at I will be left at the mercy of the fliips
detached from B, but two more, as G, will be expofed
to an attack from another fquadron of B at C. If all
* 7. the ffiips of F tack together, as in fig. 7. the delay, and
probably the confufion, confequent on this manoeuvre,
will ftill more endanger the fternmoft ffiips, or will
bring on a general and clofe aftion. Again, if F at¬
tempts to haul off, beginning with his fternmoft ffiip G,
^ S. and and then runs to leeward, as at fig. 8. he will expofe his
fliips to a raking fire from B, and ftill endanger his
fternmoft ffiips by getting too far to leeivard for their
fupport 5 or if the headmoft ffiips at H, fig. 9. veer firft,
to be followed by the reft aftern, the danger would be
fltll greater. Thus it appears that in every affignable
A R. 631
cafe, a fleet to leeward, avoiding an attack from an equal Mival
or fuperior windward, as here advifed, by preferving the , ^
line, will rifk the lofs of three or more of their fternmoft
fliips.
Now, let us fuppofe that F, while {landing on a Fig. 10, ir,
line on the larboard tack, when threatened with an at-14*
tack on Ids rear from B, veers and paffes on oppofite
tacks to leeward (fee fig. 10.). The confequence of
this will be, that his headmoft ffiips will be forced to
leeward by B, and compelled to engage under difad-
vantageous circumftances, and the difadvantage to F
will be much the fame, whether he again veers and re¬
fumes his former pofition, as at G, fig. 11. or Hands on
before the wind, as at P, fig. x 2.
We have hitherto luppofed that the wind has beeny;^
fixed in one point j but let us fuppofe it to ftiift, and
let us inquire what will be the effeft of fuch a circum-
ftance on the two lines F and B. While the fleets are
in the former pofition, F in line, and B in four divi-
fions, B, B, B, A, fleering E, w ith the wind at N, fig.
13. let the wind fliift to the weft. The only conle-
quence of this will be, that F will be thrown ftill far¬
ther to leewrard, to its greater difadvantage. But let
the wind ftiift to E, fo as to be a-head, as in figs. 14. Figs. 14.
and 15. Still if the admiral of B manages properly,and 15.
and carefully watches the motions of F, this change
will produce no advantage to the latter. For B has
nothing to do but veer as the wind comes round, fo as
to bring his {hips to windward of the three fternmoft
fliips of F, and to l&eward of the reft of his line, fo as
to cut off the three fternmoft (hips.
If the wind ftiould be fuppofed to veer from point to
point all round the compafs, fo that the fleet F, main¬
taining the weather-gage of B, {hall make a circuit
round B to leeward ; ftill if B ad cautioufly, F will lofe
the three threatened fliips.
Laftly, fuppofe the wind fliould' inftantly fliift to aFig. 16.
point oppofite to what it wTas at the commencement of
the attack, as from N. to S. Before it can be afeer-
tained whether fuch a.change will be to the advantage
or difadvantage of F, the relative fituations of the two
fleets muft be confideted. Suppofe that the van and
centre be feparated at fume diftance from his rear, and
that in confequence this fleet ffiall'have taken fuch a
pofition as is ffiown at fig. 16. Though in this cafe he pig. kj.
will have got to windward, his three ftiips can never ^
be regained or preferved from the attack of B. The
moft favourable fituation for F would be when the fleets
were in the pofition denoted by fig. 13. as then ha-
could not only fupport his three ffiips with advantage,
but even threaten, and cut off a part of B’s detachment..
In attempting this, however, he incurs the rilk of com¬
ing to a clofe engagement, which we have fuppofed him :
to be feduloufly avoiding.
Befides this method of attack from the windward byprom tj,e
detachments from the main fleet, Mr Clerk (hows bow leeward,
a fuccefsful attack may be made by a fleet to leeward,
by its breaking the enemy’s line, and this either near
the rear, near the centre, or not far from the van, of
which cafes the two former will be moft likely to prove
fuccefsful. The enemy’s line can only be cut when
the two hoftile fleets veer on oppofite tacks. The moft
Ample method of effecting this is for the van fhip of the
attacking fquadron, inftead of ranging, parallel to that
of the enemy, and to leeward of him, to pafs through
the..
632
Naval
Tallies.
W A R.
^ See
Clerk's
JEffa.y on
Naval
Tallies,
fecond
Edition.
I°i
Battle of
Trafalgar,
Odlober
3lft, X805.
the firft interval that offers, followed by the reft of the
line, which is thus led acrofs that of the enemy. In
confequence of this manoeuvre, the van of the leeward
fleet will be to windward of the enemy’s rear, and thus
the attacking fquadron will have its line entire, while
that of its adverfary is divided. Again, the fhips of the
rear divifion, having their progrefs obftrufted, will pro¬
bably crowd on each other, get into confufion, and be
driven to leeward. We cannot detail the different cafes
mentioned by Mr Clerk ; but for thefe and many other
valuable fuggeftions on the fubjeft of naval tadics, we
muft refer to his ufeful and ingenious Effay *.
The above is a very faint and meagre outline of Mr
Clerk’s tadics, but it is all which our limits enable us to
give. It wTill afford general readers fome idea of the
nature of the propofed improvements, and profeflxonal
men will naturally confult the original ejfay.
On thefe or fimilar principles is founded the method
of breaking through the enemy's line, and thus cutting oft'
a part of his fleet, fo fuccefsfully adopted by the Britifh
admirals in the great naval adions that have diftinguifli-
ed the late and prefent wars with France. We cannot
better illuftrate the principles above laid down, than by
giving a ftiort detail of the laft of thefe memorable en¬
gagements, the Battle of Trafalgar. With this
we fhall conclude our Iketch of naval taffies, and our
pradical obfervations on the art of War.
After having been long blocked up in the harbour of
Cadiz, the combined French and Spanifli fleet effeded
their efcape, while the Britifti fleet, under the com¬
mand of Lord Nelfon, was at a conftderable diftance.
On the 19th of Odober 1805, the Ihips which had
been left to watch the motions of the enemy, communi¬
cated to the commander in chief the agreeable intelli¬
gence, that the combined fleet had put to lea, and was
failing with light Avinds in a wefterly diredion. Lord
Nelfon concluding that their deftination muft be the
Mediterranean, immediately made all fail Avith his {hips
for the entrace of the ftraits. Here he was informed
by Captain Blackwood, that the enemy had not yet
palled the ftraits.
On the 21ft of Odober, at daylight, Cape Trafal¬
gar bearing eaft by fouth about feven leagues diftant,
the combined fleet was difeovered about fix or feven
miles to the eaftAvard. 1 he Avind was about weft, and
very light As Lord Nelfon had long expeded to fall
in with the enemy’s fleet, he had concerted Avitb his of¬
ficers the beft and moft expeditious meafures for bring¬
ing them to a fpeedy and decifive adion. As foon,
therefore, as they hove in fight, he immediately made
the fignal for the Britifh fleet to bear up in Iavo co¬
lumns, as they formed in order of failing. The com¬
bined fleet Avas draAvn up in line of battle, with their
heads to the northward, and had formed the line with
great clofenefs and corrednefs. It confifted of 33 fhips
of the line, 18 French, and 15 Spanilh, under Admiral
Villeneuve, as commander in chief, who occupied the
centre in the Bucentaure, while the Spanifh admiral,
Grayina, led the rear in the Prince of Afturias. The
Biitifh fleet confifted of 27 Ihips, including three fixty-
iours. Lord Nellon headed the van in the Vidory,
Part 1,
having under him the Temeraire, Neptune, Conqueror,
Leviathan, Ajax, Orion, Agamemnon, Minotaur, Spar-
tiate, Britannia, Africa, Avith the Euryalus, Sirius,
Phoebe, and Naiad frigates, Pickle fchooner, and En-
treprenante cutter j while the rear, confifting of the
Royal Sovereign, Mars, Belleifle, Tonnant, Bellero-
phon, Coloffus, Achille, Polyphemus, Revenge, SAvift-
fure, Defence, Thunderer, Defiance, Prince, and Dread¬
nought, Avas led by Vice-admiral Collingwood in the
Royal Sovereign.
As the mode of attack adopted by the Britifh Avas
unufual, the combined fleet Avas obliged to draw up
their line in a new manner. It formed a crefcent, Avith
its convexity to leeward, fo that in leading down to
their centre, the rear divifion of the Britilh had both
their van and rear abaft the beam. Before the adion
commenced, every alternate Ihip was about a cable’s
length to windward of her fecond ahead and aftern,
thus forming a kind of double line, and appearing, when
on their beam, to leave a fmall interval betAveen them
Avithout crowding their fhips. The French and Spani¬
ards were not formed in feparate divifions, but inter¬
mixed Avithout any apparent regard to order of national
fquadrons. As the Britifh commander had previoully
communicated to his flag-officers and captains his pre¬
concerted mode of attack, feAV fignals were neceffary,
and none were made on approaching the enemy, except
to dired clofe order as the lines bore doAvn.
The adion commenced at noon, by the leading Ihips
of both columns breaking through the enemy’s line,
the Vidory about the tenth Ihip from the van, and the
Royal Sovereign about the twelfth from the rear j the
fucceeding Ihips breaking through in every part aflern
of their leaders, and engaging the enemy at the very
muzzles of their guns. By this manoeuvre the van of
the enemy was unengaged, and thus the inferiority of
the Britifh, in point of number, Avas of lefs confequence,
Avhile the fuperior Ikill and bravery of Britifh feamen
foon acquired a decided advantage. The conflid Avas
fevere, as the enemy’s ihips Avere fought Avith a gallan*
try highly honourable to their commanders. The Bri-
tilh attack, however, Avas irrefiftible. About three
P. M. many of the enemy’s Ihips had ftruck their co¬
lours, and their line had given way. Ten Ihips of the
line, and the frigates, under Admiral Gravina, made
their efeape, and flood to leeAvard torvards Cadiz. The
five headmoft Ihips of their van tacked, and, Handing
to the fouthward, to AvindAvard of the Britiflr line, Avere
brought to adion, and the fternmoft of them taken.
Nineteen Ihips of the line, with three flag-officers, in¬
cluding the commander in chief, remained in the hands
of the Britiflr. Never Avas there a vidory more glori¬
ous or more decifive ; never Avas the pre-eminence of the
Britilh flag more triumphantly confpicuous.
The events fubfequent to this memorable battle, and
the Ioffes fuftained on either fide, having little connec¬
tion Avith the fubjed of the prefent article, need not be
here detailed. '1 hey are frefh in the memory of our
readers, and Britain Hill laments the lofs of her immor
tal Nelfon *.
* See 1 f
Jon.
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j?arburton.
R
Man-of-W AR Bird. See Pelicakus, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
WAR-Cry was formerly cuftomary in the armies of
moft nations, when juft upon the point of engaging.
Sometimes they were only tumultuous (bouts, or horrid
yells, uttered with an intent to ftrike terror into their
adverfaries j fuch as is now ufed by the Indians in Ame¬
rica, called the war-whoop.
WARBLES, a difeafe of horfes. See Farriery In-
WARBURTON, William, a learned Englifti bi-
(hop, was defcended from an ancient family in Cheftiire,
and was the fecond fon of George Warburton, an attor¬
ney at Newark in the county of Nottingham, was born
at Newark, December 24. 1698. He was firft put to
Ichool there under a Mr Twells, but had the chief part
of his education at Okeham in Rutlandfture, where he
continued till the beginning of the year 1714, and foon
after he was put out clerk to an eminent attorney of
Great Markham in Nottinghamftiire, where he conti¬
nued till the year 1719, when he returned to his family
at Newark ; but whether he praftifed there or elfewhere
as an attorney, is not known.
He had always exprefled a ftrong inclination to take
orders ; and the love of letters, which tended to retard,
rather than forward, his progrefs in the profeflion chofen
for him by his friends, growing every day ftronger in
him, it was deemed expedient to give way to that in¬
clination. He therefore devoted himfelf to the (Indies
neceffary to fit him for the church, and at length in
1723 he was ordained deacon, and pried in 1727.
In 1728 he was prefented by Sir Robert Sutton to
the re&ory of Brand-Broughton, in the diocefe of Lin¬
coln, where he fpent the greater part of his life, and
compofed all the great works which will carry his fame
down to pofterity. In the fame year he was put upon
the king’s lift of Matters of Arts, ere&ed on his ma-
jefty’s vifit to the univerfity of Cambridge. He had al¬
ready publifhed fome juvenile performances, which dif-
played genius and reading, and attra&ed confiderable
notice $ but it was not till the year 1736 that he may
be faid to have emerged from the obfcurity of a private
life into the notice of the world.—The firft publication
which rendered him afterwards famous now appeared,
under the title of “ The Alliance between Church and
State ; or, the Neceflity and Equity of an Eftablifhed
Religion and a Teft Law ; demonftrated from the Ef-
fence and End of Civil Society, upon the fundamental
Principles of the Law of Nature and Nations.” In
«w<t>o/this treatife, fays Biftiop Hordey *, the author “ hath
p^0/ (hown the general good policy of an eftabliftnnent, and
if £>(/-' t^ie neceflity of a Test for its fecurity, upon principles
'ers, which republicans tbemfelves cannot eafily deny. His
work is one of the fined fpecimens that are to be found
^age. perhaps in any language, of fcientific reafoning applied
to a political fubjeft.”
At the clofe of the Alliance was announced the
fcheme of the Divine Legation of Mofes, in which he
had then made confiderable progrefs. The firft volume
of this work was publiftied in January 1737-8, under
the title of “ The Divine Legation of Mofes demon¬
ftrated on the Principles of a religious Deift, from
the Omiflion of the Doftrine of a future State of Re¬
wards and Puniftiments in the Jewifh Difpenfation, in
fix books, by William Warburton, M. A. author of
Vol. XX. Part II.
r 633 7
WAR
the Alliance between Church and State j” and met Warburton.
with a reception which neither the fubjeft, nor the man- -v"-
ner in which it was treated, feemed to authorife. It
was, as the author afterwards obferved, fallen upon in
fo outrageous and brutal a manner as had been fcarce
pardonable, had it been “ The Divine Legation of Ma¬
homet.”—It produced feveral anfwers, and fo much
abufe from the authors of “ The Weekly Mifcellany,”
that in lefs than two months he w^as conftrained to de-
fend himfelf, in “ A Vindication of the Author of the
Divine Legation of Mofes, from the Afperfions of the
Country Clergyman’s Letter in the Weekly Mifcellany
of February 24. 1737-8, 8vo.”
Mr Warburton’s extraordinary merit had now at-
tradted the notice of the heir apparent to the crown, in
whofe immediate fervice we find him in June 1738,
when he publiflied “ Faith working by Charity to
Chriftian Edification, a Sermon, preached at the laft
epifcopal Vifitation for Confirmation in the Diocefe of
Lincoln ; with a Preface, (bowing the Reafon of its
Publication ; and a Poftfcript, occafioned by fome Let¬
ters lately publiflied in the Weekly Mifcellahy ; by
William Warburton, M. A. Chaplain to his Royal
Highnefs the Prince of Wales.”
The “ Eflay on Man” had now been publiflied fome
years j and it is univerfally fuppofed, that the author
had, in the compofition of it, adopted the philofophy of
Lord Bolingbroke, whom, on this occafion, he had fol¬
lowed as his guide, without underftanding the tendency
of his principles. In 1738, M. de Croufaz wrote fom’e
remarks on it, accufing the author of Spinozifm and Na-
turalifm ; which falling into Mr Warburton’s hands, he
publiflred a defence of the firft epiftle, and foon after of
the remaining three, in feven letters ; of which fix were
printed in 1739, and the feventh in June 1740, under
the title of “ A Vindication of Mr Pope’s Eflay on
Man, by the author of the Divine Legation.” The
opinion which Mr Pope conceived of thefe defences, as
well as of their author, will be beft feen in his letters.
In confequence, a firm friendfhip was eftablifhed be¬
tween them, which continued with undiminifhed fervour
until the death of Mr Pope •, who, during the remainder
of his life, paid a deference and refpeiR to his friend’s
judgment and abilities, which will be confidered bv
many as almoft bordering on fervility.
Towards the end of the year 1 739, Mr Warburton
publiftied a new and improved edition of the firft vo¬
lume of the Divine Legation •, and in 1741, appeared
the fecond part, which completed the argument, though
not the entire plan of that work. “ A work, fays
Bifhop Hurd *, in all views of the moft tranfcendant *
merit, whether we confider the invention or the execu-Warburton
tion. A plain Ample argument, yet perfectly r\exv.PrcJixed to
proving the divinity of the Mofaic law, and laying
fure foundation for the fupport of Chriftianity, is there
drawn out to a great length by a chain of reafoning fo
elegantly connedled, that the reader is carried along it
with eafe and pleafure j while the matter prefented to
him is fo ftriking for its own importance, fo embelliftied
by a lively fancy, and illullrated from all quarters by
exquifite learning and the moft ingenious difquifition,
that in the whole cornpafs of modern or ancient theolo¬
gy, there is nothing equal or fimilar to this extraordi¬
nary performance.”
This is the panegyric of a man refle&ing with ten-
4 depiefs
W A R
[ 634 ]
WAR
* Life of
Tope.
Wnrburtcn. clerntfs on the merriory of his friend and benefadtor;
1,1 ■ but it approaches much nearer to the truth than the
cenfures of thofe cabaliftic critics, who, faftening upon
feme weak part of the Divine Legation, or perhaps
never having looked into it, have ridiculoully contended
that the author was far from being eminent as a fcho-
lar, and that Ids work is inimical to the caufe of Chri-
Itiaidty ! Putting partiality afide, there is in the Divine
Legation of Moles abundant evidence of the malignant
folly of this charge, as no man can read and underftand
that work without being convinced that its author was
a Chriflian, not only fmcere but zealous •, that he was,
what johnfon calls him *, “ a man of vigorous faculties,
of a mind fervent and vehement, fupplied, by unlimited
and inceffant inquiry, with a wonderful extent and va¬
riety ot knowledge, which had neither depreffed his
imagination nor clouded his perfpicuity ; and that to
every work, and this work in particular, he brought a
memory full fraught, with a fancy fertile of original
combinations, exerting at once the powers of the Icho-
lar, the reafoner, and the wit.” But we think it mull
be acknowledged, that his learning was too multifarious
to be always exaft, and his inquiries too eagerly pufhed
to be always cautious. We have no hefitation, how¬
ever, to fay, that to the divine this great work, with all
its imperfedlions, is, in our opinion, one of the molt
valuable that is to be found in any language.
In the fummer 1741, Mr Pope and Mr Warburton,
in a country ramble, took Oxford in their v'ay. The
univerfity was naturally pleafed at the arrival of two
fuch ftrangers, and feemed defirous of enrolling their
names among their graduates. The degree of D. D.
was intended for the divine, and that of LL. D. for
the poet: but intrigue and envy defeated this fcheme;
and the univerfity loll the honour of decorating at the
fame time the two greateft geniufes of the age, by the
fault of one or two of its members. Pope retired with
fome indignation to Twickenham, where he confoled
himfelf and his friend with this farcaftic reflexion—
“ We (hall take our degree together in fame, whatever
we do at the univerfity.”
The friendfhip of this eminent poet was of fervice to
Mr Warburton in more refpefts than that of increafing
his fame. He introduced and warmly recommended
him to moft of his friends, and among others to Mr
Murray, afterwards earl of Mansfield, and Ralph Al¬
len, Efq. of Prior-park. In confequence of this intro¬
duction, we find Mr Warburton at Bath 1742 ; where
he printed a fermon which had been preached at the
Abbey-church on the 24th of OCtober, for the benefit
of Mr Allen’s favourite Charity, the General Hofpital
or Infirmary. In this year alfo he printed a Difierta-
tion on the origin of books of chivalry, at the end of
Jarvis’s Preface to a tranllation of Don Quixote, which
Mr Pope tells him, he had not got over two para¬
graphs of, before he cried out, Aut Erafmus, aut Diet-
bolus.
In 1742, Mr Warburton publilhed“ A Critical and
Philofophical Commentary on Mr Pope’s Effay on Man,
in which is contained a Vindication of the ’faid Effay
from the Mifreprefentation of M. de Refnal, the French
Tranflator, and of M. de Croufaz, Profeffor of Philo-
fophy and Mathematics in the Academy of Laufanne,
the Commentator.” It was at this period, when Mr
Warburton had the entire confidence of Mr Pope, that
he advifed him to complete the Dunciad, by changing WarWto
the hero, and adding to it a fourth book. This was y—
accordingly executed in 1742, and publifiied early in
1743, with notes by our author j who, in confequence
of it, received his (hare of the abufe which Mr Cibber
liberally bellowed on both Mr Pope and his annotator.
In the latter end of the fame year he publifiied complete
editions of “ The Elfay on Man,” and “ The Effay on
Criticifm j” and from the fpecimen which he there ex¬
hibited of his abilities, it may be prefumedMr Pope de¬
termined to commit the publication of thofe works
which he fhouid leave to Mr War bur ton’s care. At
Mr Pope’s defire, he, about this time, revifed and cor¬
rected the “ Effay on Homer,” as it now {lands in the
lait edition of that tranflation.
The publication of“ The Dunciad” was the lalt fer¬
vice which our author rendered Mr Pope in his lifetime.
After a lingering and tedious illnefs, the event of which
had been long forefeen, this great poet died on the 30th
of May 1744 •, and by his will, dated the 12th of the
preceding December, bequeathed to Mr Warburton one
half of his library, and the property of all fuch of his
works already printed as he bad not otherwife difpofed
of or alienated, and all the profits which fliould arife
from any edition to be printed after his death : but at
the fame time diredled that they Ihould be publiflmd
without any future alterations.
“In 1744, Mr Warburton turned his attention to
the feveral attacks which had been made on the “ Di¬
vine Legation,” and defended himfelf in a manner
which, if it did not prove him to be poffeffed of much
humility or diffidence, at leafl demonftrated, that he
knew how to wield the weapons of controverfy with the
hand of a mafter. His firft defence now appeared, un¬
der the title of “ Remarks on feveral occafional Reflec¬
tions, in Anfwer to the Reverend Dr Middleton, Dr
Pococke, the Mailer of the Charter-houfe, Dr Richard
Grey, and others ; ferving to explain and jullify divers
Paffages in the Divine Legation, objected to by thofe
learned Writers. To which is added, A general Re¬
view of the Argument of the Divine Legation, as far
as it is yet advanced ; wherein is confidered the Rela¬
tion the feveral Parts bear to each other and the whole.
Together xvith an Appendix, in Anfwer to a late Pam¬
phlet intitled, An Examination of Mr W -’s fecond
Propofition.” This was followed next year by “ Re¬
marks on feveral occafional Reflexions, in Anfwer to
the Reverend DoXors Stebbing and Sykes j ferving to
explain and juflify the Two Diflertations in the Divine
Legation, concerning the command to Abraham tq
offer up his Son, and the Nature of the Jewifh Theo¬
cracy, objeXed to by tbefe learned Writers. Part II.
and laft.” Both thefe anfvvers are couched in thofe
high terms of confident fuperiority, which marked al-
moft every performance that fell from his pen during
the remainder of his life.
On the 5th of September 1745, the friendfhip be¬
tween him and Mr Allen was more clofely cemented by
his marriage with Mifs Tucker, who furvived, and is
now, if alive, Mrs Stafford Smith of Prior-park. At
that important crifis our author preached and publifhed
three feafonable fermons : 1. “ A faithful Portrait of
Popery, by which it is feen to be the Reverfe of Chrif-
tianily, as it is the DeflruXion of Morality, Piety, and
Civil Liberty, Preached at St James’s, Weflrriinfter,
OXober
W A Tt C 635 ] WAR
Wburton. O&ober 1745.” 2. “ A Sermon occafioned by the
prefent unnatural Rebellion, &c. Preached in Mr Al¬
len’s Chapel at Prior-park, near Bath, November 1745.”
3. “ The Nature of National Offences truly Rated.—
Preached on the General Fail-day, Dec. 18. I745'^•,,
On account of the laif of thefe fermons, he was again
involved in a controverfy with his former antagonill Dr
Stebbing, which occaiioned “ An Apologetical Dedica¬
tion to the Reverend Dr Henry Stebbing, in Anfvver to
hisCenfure andMifreprefentations of the Sermon preach¬
ed on the General Fall, &c.
Notwithftanding his great conneclions, his acknow¬
ledged abilities, and his eftablifbed reputation, a repu¬
tation founded on the durable bails of learning, and up¬
held by the decent and attentive performance of every
duty incident to his Ration ; yet we do not find that he
received any addition to the preferments given him in
1728 by Sir Robert Sutton (except the chaplainfliip to
the prince of Wales), until April 1746, when he was
unanimoufly called by the Society of Lincoln’s Inn to
be their preacher. In November he publiflied “ A Ser¬
mon preached on the Thankfgiving appointed to be ob-
ferved the 9th of October, for the Suppreflion of the
late unnatural Rebellion.” In 1747 appeared his edi¬
tion of Shakefpeare and his Preface to ClarifTaj and in
the fame year he publifhed, 1. “ A Letter from an Au¬
thor to a Member of Parliament concerning Literary
Property.” 2. “ Preface to Mrs Cockburn’s Remarks
upon the Principles and Reafonings of Dr Rutherford’s
Effay on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue, Sic.”
4. “ Preface to a Critical Inquiry into the Opinions and
Praftice of the ancient Philofophers, concerning the
Nature of a Future State, and their Method of teach¬
ing by double Doflrine,” (by Mr Towne) 1747, fe-
cond edition. In 1748, a third edition of “ The Alli¬
ance between Church and State, corrected and enlar-
ged.”
“ In J749, a very extraordinary attack was made on
the moral character of Mr Pope, from a quarter where
it could be leaR expedited. An infignificant pamphlet,
under the name of A Patriot King, was that year pub-
liflied by Lord Bolingbroke, or by his direction, with
a preface to it, reflecting highly on Mr Pope’s honour.
The provocation was Amply this : The manufcript of
that trivial declamation had been intruded to the care
of Mr Pope, with the charge (as it was pretended) that
only a certain number of copies fliould be printed. Mr
Pope, in his exceffive admiration of his guide, philofo-
pher, and friend, took that opportunity, for fear fo in¬
valuable a treafure of patriot eloquence fhould be lofl to
the public, to exceed his commiffion, and to run oflf
more copies, which were found, after his death, in the
printer’s warehoufe. This charge, however frivolous,
was aggravated beyond meafure ; and, notwithflanding
the proofs which Lord Bolingbroke, had received of
Pope’s devotion to him, envenomed with the utmoR ma¬
lignity. Mr Warburton thought it became him to vin¬
dicate his deceafed friend ; and he did it fo effeClually,
as not only to filence his accufer, but to cover him with
Hurd's confufion
’£r°f About this time the publication of Dr Middleton’s
r* Inquiry concerning the miraculous Powers of the Chrif-
tiarw church, gave rife to a controverfy, which was ma¬
naged with great warmth and afperity on both fides, and
not much to the credit of either party. On this occa-
fion Mr Warburton publiflred an excellent performance, ^tburton.
written with a degree of candour and temper, which, it ■—
is to be lamented, he did not always exercife. The
title of it was “ Julian j on a Difcourfe concerning the
Earthquake and fiery Eruption which defeated that Em¬
peror’s attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jerufalem,
1750.” A fecond edition of this difcourfe, with Ad¬
ditions,” appeared in 1751, in which year he gave the
puolic his edition of Mr Pope’s Works, with Notes, in
nine volumes 8vo ; and in the fame year printed “ An
Anfwer to a Letter to Dr Middleton, inferted in a
Pamphlet intitled, The Argument of the L, rue Lega¬
tion fairly Rated,” &c. ; and “ An Account ot he
Prophecies of Arife Evans, the WelRi Prophet in the
laR Century,” annexed to the firfi volume of Dr Jortin’i
Remarks on Ecclefiaflical Hiltory, which afterwards
fubjedted him to much trouble.
In 1752, Mr Warburton publiflied the firfl volume
of a courfe of fermons, preached at Lincoln’s Inn, in-r
titled, “ The Principles of Natural and Revealed Reli¬
gion, occafionally opened and explained;” and this was
two years afterwards followed by a fecond. After the
public had been fome time promifed, it may, from the
alarm which was taken, be almoR faid threatened with,
the appearance of Lord Bolingbroke’s Works, they were
about this time printed. The known abilities and infi¬
delity of this nobleman had created apprehenfions in the
minds of many people, of the pernicious effe6ls of his
do&rines ; and nothing but the appearance of his whole
force could have convinced his friends, how little tlnrc
was to be dreaded from arguments againfi religion fo
weakly fupported. Many anfwers were foon publifhed,
but none with more acutenefs, folidity, and fprightli-
nefs, than “ A View of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philofophy,
in two Letters to a Friend, 1754 the third and
fourth letters were publithed in 1755, with another edi¬
tion of the two former ; and in the fame year a fmaller
edition of the whole ; which, though it came into the
world without a name, was univerfally aferibed to Mr
Warburton, and afterwards publicly owned by him. To
fome copies of this is prefixed an excellent complimen¬
tary epiflle from the prefident Montefquieu, dated May
26. 1754.
At this advanced period of his life, that preferment
which his abilities might have claimed, and which had
hitherto been withheld, feemed to be approaching to¬
wards him. In September 1754, he was appointed one
of his majefly’s chaplains in ordinary ; and in the next
year was prefented to a prebend in the cathedral of
Durham. About this time the degree of Do6lor of Di¬
vinity was conferred on him by Dr Herring, then arcli-
bithop of Canterbury. A new impreflion of The Di¬
vine Legation being now called for, he printed a fourth
edition of the firfl part of it, correfted and enlarged, di¬
vided into two volumes, with a dedication to the earl of
Hardwicke. The fame year appeared “ A Sermon
preached before his Grace Charles Duke of Marlbo¬
rough, Prefident, and the Governors of the Hofpital
for the Smallpox and for Inoculation, at the Parifh-
church of St Andrew, Holborn, April the 24th, 1755.”
And in 1756, Natural and Civil Events the Inflru-
ments of God’s Moral Government; a Sermon, preach¬
ed on the lafl pdblic Fafl-day, at Lincoln’s Inn Cha¬
pel.”
In 1757, Dr Warburton meeting with Mr Hume’s
4 L 2 tra£l,
WAR [ 6,6 ] WAR
Wart) nrton. f raft, entitled, The Natural Hi (lory of Religion, filled
w v— the margin of the book, as well as fome interleaved flips
of paper, with many fevere and ilirewd remarks on the
infidelity and nataralifm of the author. Thefe he put
into the hands of his friend Dr Hurd, who, making a
few alterations of the ftyle, added a ftiort introdudtion
and conclufion, and pubiilhed them in a pamphlet, en¬
titled, “ Remarks on Mr David Hume’s Natural Hi-
Ifory of Religion, by a Gentleman of Cambridge, in a
Letter to the Reverend Dr Warburton.” This lively
attack upon Mr Hume gave him fo much offence, that
he thought proper to vent his fpleen on the fuppofed au¬
thor, in the pofthumous difcourfe which he called his
Life ; and thus to do greater honour to Dr Hurd than
to any other of his numerous antagonifts.
Towards the end of the year 1757, Dr Warburton
was promoted to the deanery of Briilol j and in the be¬
ginning of the year ] 760, he was, through Mr Allen’s
intereft with Mr Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, ad¬
vanced to the bifhopric of Gloucefter. That great mi-
nifter is known to have declared, “ that nothing of a
private nature, fince he had been in office, had given
him fo much pleafure as bringing our author on the
bench.” There was, however, another minifter, who
dreaded his promotion, and thought he faw a fecond
Alter bury in the new biffiop of Gloucefter; but War¬
burton, fays Biffiop Hurd, had neither talents nor incli¬
nation for parliamentary intrigue or parliamentary elo¬
quence: he had other inftruments of fame in his hands,
and was infinitely above the vanity of being caught
* Dr) den. “ With the fine notion of a bufy man*.”
He was confecrated on the 20th of January 1760,
and on the 30th of the fame month preached before the
houfe of lords. In the next year he printed “ A Ra¬
tional Account of the Nature and End of the Sacra¬
ment of the Lord’s Supper.” In 1762, he publiffied
‘ 1 he Doflrine of Grace; or the Office and Opera¬
tions of the Holy Spirit vindicated from the Infults of
Infidelity and the Abufes of Fanaticifm,” 2 vols l2mo;
and in the fucceeding year drew upon himfelf much il¬
liberal abufe from fome writers of the popular party, on
©ccafion of his complaint in the houfe of lords, on the
15th of November 1763, againft Mr Wilkes, for put¬
ting his name to certain notes on the infamous Effay
on Woman.”
In 1765 he publiffied a new edition of the fecom
part of the Divine Legation, in three volumes; and a
it had now received his laft hand, he prefented it to hi
great friend Lord Mansfield, in a dedication which de
lerves to be read by every perfon whoefteems the well
oeing of fociety as a concern of any importance. It wa
toe appendix to this edition which produced the well
known controverfy between him and Dr Lowth, whicl
we have noticed elfewhere (fee Lowth), as doing m
great honour, by the mode in which it was conducted
to either party. In the next year he gave a new an<
much improved edition of the Alliance between thi
Church and State. This was followed, in 1767, by !
thu-d volume of fermons, to which is added, his firf
-triennial Charge to the Clergy of the Diocefe of Glou
1 ^ ,.leh may be fafdy pronounced one of the mof
valuable difeourfes of the kind that is to be found it
eur own or any other language. With this publicatim
he clofed his literary courfe; except that he made ai
1
effort towards publiffiing, and a finally printed, the ninth Warburton
and laft book of the Divine Legation. This book, with Ward,
one or two occafional fermons, and fome valuable direc- ““v—
tions for the ftudy of theology, have been given to the
world in the fplendid edition of his works in feven vo¬
lumes 4to, by his friend and biographer the prefent bi¬
ffiop of Worcefter. That prelate confeffes, that the'
ninth book of the Divine Legation difplays little of that
vigour of mind and fertility of invention which appear
fo confpicuous in the former volumes; but he adds, per¬
haps truly, that under all the difadvantages with which
it appears, it is the nobleft effort which has hitherto
been made to give a rationale of Chriftianity.
While the biffiop of Gloucefter was thus exerting his
laft ftrength in the caufe of religion, he projefted a me¬
thod by which he hoped to render it effeflual fervice
after his death. He transferred 500I. to Lord Mans¬
field, Sir Eardley Wilmot, and Mr Charles Yorke, up¬
on truft, to found a leflure, in the form of a courfe of
fermons, to prove the truth of revealed religion in ge¬
neral, and of the Chriftian in particular, from the com¬
pletion of the prophecies in the Old and New Tefta-
ment, which relate to the Chriftian church, efpeeially
to the apoftafy of Papal Rome. To this foundation we
owe the admirable Introduflory Le&ures of Hurd, and
the well-adapted Continuation of Halifax and Bagot.
It is a melancholy reflexion, that a life fpent in the
conftant purfuit of knowledge, frequently terminates in
the lofs of thofe powers, the cultivation and improve¬
ment of which are attended to with too ftridt and una¬
bated a degree of ardour. This was the cafe with Dr
Warburton; and it feems probable that this decline of
intelle&ual vigour was aggravated by the lofs of his on¬
ly fon, a promifing young man, who died of a confump-
tion but a ffiort time before the biffiop, who himfelf re-
figned to fate in the year 1779, and in the 81ft of his
age. A neat marble monument was erefled to his me¬
mory in the cathedral of Gloucefter.
WARD, Dr Seth, an Engliffi prelate, chiefly di-
ftinguiffied for his knowledge in mathematics and aftro-
nomy, was born at Buntingford in Hertfordffiire, about
the year 1617. He was admitted of Sidney college,
Cambridge, where he applied with great vigour to his
ftudies, particularly to the mathematics, and was chofen
fellow of his college. He was much involved in the
confequences of the civil war, but foon after the Refto-
ration obtained the biffiopric of Exeter; in 1667, he
was tranflated to Saliffiury ; and in 1671 was made
chancellor of the order of the Garter; he was the firft
Proteftant biffiop that enjoyed that honour, and he pro¬
cured it to be annexed to the fee of Saliffiury, Biftiop
Ward was one of thofe unhappy perfons who have the
misfortune to furvive their fenfes, which happened in
confequence of a fever ill cured ; he lived to the Revo¬
lution, without knowing any thing of the matter, and
died in 1690. He was the author of feveral Latin
works in mathematics and aftropomy, which were
th ought excellent in their day; but their ufe lias been
fuperfeded by later difeoveries and the Newtonian phi-
lofiphy.
Ward, is varioufly ufed in our old books: a ward
in London is a diftrict or divifion of the city, commit¬
ted to the fpecial charge of one of the aldermen ; and
in London there are 26 wards, according to the num¬
ber of the mayor and aldermen, of which every one has
WAR [ 63
Ward his ward for his proper guard and jurifdiftion. A fo¬
il reft is divided into wards ; and a prifon is called a ward.
Wardrobe. £(aftlyj the heir of the king’s tenant, that held in capite,
~ r was termed a iwarr/ during his nonage j but this ward-
(hip is taken away by the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
WARD-Ho/ding, in Scots Law. See Law, N° elxv.
I. and clxvi. 3.
WARD-Hook, or Wadd-hook, in Gunnery, a rod or
ftaff, with an iron end turned ferpentwife, or like a
ferew, to draw the wadding out of a gun when it is to
be unloaded.
WARDEN, or Guardian, one who has the charge
or keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. Such is
the warden of the Fleet, the keeper of the Fleet pri¬
fon ; who has the charge of the prifoners there, efpeci-
aliy fuch as are committed from the court of chancery
for contempt.
WARDHUYS, a port of Norwegian Lapland, 120
miles fouth-eaft of the North Cape. E. Long. 31. 12.
N. Lat. 70. 23.
WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called,
which is kept in every ward of the city j anfwering to
the curiata comitia of Rome.
WARDROBE, a clofet or little room adjoining to a
bedchamber, ferving to difpofe and keep a perfon’s ap¬
parel in $ or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to
wait, &c.
Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment
wherein his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceffa-
ries, are preferved under the care and dire£Hon of pro¬
per officers.
In Britain, the Majler or Keeper of the Great Ward¬
robe was an officer of great antiquity and dignity.
High privileges and immunities were conferred on him
by King Henry VI. which were confirmed by his fuc-
ceflors; and King James I. not only enlarged them, but
ordained that this office fhould be a corporation or body
politic for ever.
It was the duty of this office to provide robes for the
coronations, marriages, and funerals of the royal fami¬
ly } to furnilh the court with hangings, cloths of ftate,
carpets, beds, and other neceffaries ; to furnifh houfes
for ambafladors at their firft arrival *, cloths of ftate, and
other furniture, for the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and
eatfon's all his maiefty’s ambaftadors abroad ; to provide all
'ohtical robes for foreign knights of the garter, robes for the
ndex, vol. Iin|g]1ts {)f tlie garter at home ; robes and all other fur»
niture for the officers of the garter j coats for kings,
heralds, and purfuivants at arms •, robes for the lords of
the treafury, and chancellor of the exchequer, &c. ; li¬
very for the lord chamberlain, grooms of his majefty’s
privy chamber, officer of his majefty’s robes ; for the
two chief juftices, for all the barons of the exchequer,
and feveral officers of thefe courts ; all liveries for his
majefty’s fervants, as yeomen of the guard, and war¬
dens of the Tower, trumpeters, kettle-drummers, and
fifes j the meflengers, and all belonging to the flables,
as coachmen, footmen, littermen, poftilions, and grooms,
&c. all the king’s coaches, chariots, harnefles, faddles,
bits, bridles, &c. the king’s watermen, game-keepers,
&c. alfo furniture for the royal yachts, and all rich em¬
broidered tilts, and other furniture for the barges.
Befides the mafter or keeper of the wardrobe, who
had a falary of 2000I. there was his deputy, who had
150I. and a comptroller and a patent clerk, each of
7 ] WAR
whom has a falary of 300I. Befides many other infe- Wardrobe,
rior officers and fervants, who were all fworn fervants Wardfhip.*
to the king. ¥
There was likewife a removing wardrobe, who had
its own fet of officers, and ftanding wardrobe-keepers at
St James’s, Windfor Caftle, Hampton Court, Kenfing-
ton, and Somerfet Houfe •, but the whole of the ward¬
robe eftablifhment was abolilhed by aft of parliament in
1782, and the duty of it in future to be done by the
lord chamberlain.
WARDSHIP, in chivalry, one of the incidents of
tenure by knight-fervice. See FeoDAL System, KNIGHT
Service, and Tenure.
Upon the death of a tenant, if the heir was under the
age of 21, being a male, or 14, being a female, the
lord was infilled to the wardfhip of the heir, and was
called the guardian in chivalry. This wardfhip con-
fifted in having the cuftody of the body and lands of
fuch heir, without any account of the profits, till the
age of 21 in males, and 16 in females. For the law
fuppofed the heir-male unable to perform knight-fervice
till 21 ; but as for the female, fhe was fuppofed capable
at 14 to marry, and then her hufband might perform
the fervice. The lord therefore had no wardfhip, if at
the death of the anceftor the heir-male was of the full
age of 21, or the heir-female of 14 : yet if fhe was then
under 14, and the lord once had her in ward, he might
keep her fo till 16, by virtue of the ftatute of Weftmin-
fter, I. 3 Edw. I. c. 22. the two additional years being
given by the legiflature for no other reafon but merely
to benefit the lord.
This wardfhip, fo far as it related to land, though it
was not nor could be part of the law of feuds, fo long
as they were arbitrary, temporary, or for life only $ yet
•when they became hereditary, and did confequently of¬
ten defcend upon infants, who by reafon of their age
could neither perform nor ftipulate for the fervices of
the feud, does not feem upon feudal principles to have
been unreafonable. For the wardfhip of the land, or
cuftody of the feud, was retained by the lord, that he
might out of the profits thereof provide a fit perfon to
fupply the infant’s fervices till he fhould be of age to
perform them himfelf. And if we confider a feud in its
original import, as a ftipend, fee, or reward for aftual
fervice, it could not be thought hard that the lord fhculd
withhold the ftipend fo long as the fervice was fufpend-
ed. Though undoubtedly to our Englifh ancefton*,
where fuch ftipendary donation was a mere fuppofition
or figment, it carried abundance of hardfhip ; and ac¬
cordingly it was relieved by the charter of Henry I.
which took this cuftody from the lord, and ordained
that the cuftody, both of the land and the children,
fhould belong to the widow or next of kin. But this
noble immunity did not continue many years.
The wardfhip of the body was a confequence of the'
wardfhip of the land ; for he who enjoyed the infant’s
eftate was the properefl perfon to educate and maintain
him in his infancy : and alfb, in a political view, the
lord was moft concerned to give his tenant a fuitable
education, in order to qualify him the better to perform
thofe fervices which in his maturity he was bound to
render.
When the male heir arrived at the age of 21, or the
heir female at that of 16, they might fue out their li¬
very or oujierlemain i that is, the delivery of their lands
out
"WAR t 63
' Warifiiip ctit of their guardian’s hands. For this they were obli-
ged to pay a Hne, namely, hali-a-year’s profits of the
land $ though this feems exprefsly contrary to magna
charta. However, in coniideration of their lands hav¬
ing been fo long in ward, they were exculed all reliefs,
and the king’s tenants alfo all primer feifins. In order
to afcertain the profits that arofe to the crown by tbefe
fruits of tenure, and to grant the heir his livery, the
itinerant juilices, or justices in eyre, had it formerly in
charge to make inquifition concerning them by a jury
of the county, commonly-called an inquijuiopojl mor¬
tem; which was inftituted to inquire (at the death of
any man of fortune) the value of his eftate, the tenure
by which it w'as holden, and who, and of what age,
his heir was *, thereby to afeerlain the relief and value
of the primer feifin, or the wardihip and livery accruing
to the king thereupon. A manner of proceeding that
came in precefs of time to be greatly abufed, and at
length an intolerable grievance ; it being one of the
principal acculations againft Empfon and Dudley, the
wicked engines of Henry VII. that by colour of falfe
inquifitions they compelled many perfons to fue out li¬
very from the crown, who by no means w'ere tenants
thereunto. And afterwards a court of wards and live¬
ries was erefted, for conducing the fame inquiries in a
more folemn and legal manner.
When the heir thus came of full age, provided he
held a knight’s fee, he was to receive the order of
knighthood, and w'as compelled to take it upon him,
or elfe pay a fine to the king. For in thofe heroical
times no perfon was qualified for deeds of arms and chi¬
valry who had not received this order, which was con¬
ferred with much preparation and folemnity. We may
plainly dileover the footfteps of a fimilar curtom in what
lacitus relates of the Germans, who, in order to qua¬
lify their young men to bear arms, prefented them in a
full affembly with a fhield and lance ; which ceremony
is fuppofed to have been the original of the feodal
knighthood.. 'I his prerogative, of compelling the vaf-
fals to be knighted, or to pay a fine, was exprefsly re-
cognifed in parliament by the ftatute de tmlitibus,
1 Edw. II. j was exerted as an expedient for raifing
money by many of our belt princes, particularly by
Edw. VI. and Queen Elizabeth ; but this was the oc-
cafion of heavy murmurs when exerted by Charles I. •
among whofe many misfortunes it was, that neither him-
felf nor his people feemed able to diftinguilh between
the arbitrary ftretch and the legal exertion of preroga¬
tive. However, among the other conceffions made by
that unhappy prince before the fatal recourfe to arms
he agreed to divert himfelf of this undoubted flower of
the crown ; and it was accordingly abolifhed by flatute
16. Car. I. e. 20.
WARE, a town of Hertfordfhire, with a market on
Tuefdays and a fair on the laft Tuefday in April, and
luefday before St Matthew’s day (Sept. 21.) for horfes
and othei cattle It is a large, well frequented, and
well inhabited thoroughfare town, feated on the river
Lea, 21 miles north of London. It carries on a great
ade in malt and corn, which they are continually fend¬
ing ,n large quantities to London. E. Lone, o 2
J\. Lat. 51. 50. 6 ’ 3'
» aVcowtNof jumcT' “ t0 rUmm°n 3 Perf0n t0
Warnin'
, I! s
Warrant
] w A R
WARNING of Tenants, in Scots Law.
Law, N° clxvii. 16.
WARP, in the manufa&ures, a name for
threads, whethei; of filk, wool, linen, hemp, &c.
are extended lengthwife on the weaver’s loom ;
acrofs which the workman, by means of his fliuttle, part
fes the threads of the woof, to form a cloth, ribband,
fuftian, or the like.
Warp, a fmall rope employed occafionally to remove
a fliip from one place to another, in a port, road, or ri¬
ver. And hence,
To Wake, is to change the fituation of a fliip, by-
pulling her from one part of a harbour, &e. to tome
other, by means of warps, which are attached to buoys;
to anchors funk in the bottom j or to certain flations
upon the ftiote, as ports, rings, trees, &.c. The (hip is
accordingly drawn forwards to thole, ftations, either by
pulling on the warps by hand, or by the application of
fome purchafe, as a tackle, windlals, or capitern, upon
her de^k.
When this operation is performed by the ftiip’s leffer
anchors, thefe machines, together with their warp.-, are
carried out in the boats alternately towards the place
where the rtiip is endeavouring to arrive : fo that when
ftie is drawn up clofe to one anchor, the other is carried
out to a competent diflance before her, and being funk,
ferves to fix the other warp,'by which ftie is farther ad¬
vanced.
Warping is generally ufed when the fails are unbent,
or when they cannot be fuccertfully employed, which
may either arife from the unfavourable flate of the wind,
the oppofition of the tide, or the narrow limits of the
channel.
WARRANDICE, in Scots Law. See Law, N°
clxiv. 11.
WARRANT, is a power and charge to a conftable
or other officer to apprehend a perfon accufed of anv
crime. It may be iffued in extraordinary cafes by the
privy council, or fecretaries of ftate ; but moft com¬
monly it is iffued by juftices of the peace. This they
may do in any cafes where they have a jurifdiclion over
the offence, in order to compel the perfon accufed te
appear before them ; for it would be abfurd to give
them power to examine an offender, unlefs they had alfo
power to compel him to attend and fubmit to iuch exa¬
mination. And this extends to all treafons, felonies, and
breaches of the peace ; and alfo to all fuch offences as Comment.
they have power to punifh by ftatute. Before the grant-voi. iv. p*
ing of the warrant, it is fitting to examine upon oath2^0'
the party requiring it, as well as to afcertain that there
is a felony or other crime actually committed, without
which no warrant Ihould be granted } as alfo to prove
the caufe and probability of fufpe&ing the party againft
whom the warrant is prayed.
This warrant ought to be under the hand and feal of
the juftice ; fliould fet forth the time and place of mak-
ing, and the caufe for which it is made •, and ftiould be
dire&ed to the conflable or other peace officer, or it
may be to any private perfon by name. A general war¬
rant to apprehend all perfons fufpefled, without naming
or particularly deferibing any perfon in fpecial, is ille¬
gal and void for its uncertainty j for it is the duty of the
magiftrate, and ought not to be left to the officer, to
judge of the ground of fufpicion. Alfo a warrant to ap¬
prehend
WAR
[ ^39 ]
W A 1
prehend all perfons guilty of fuch a crime, is no legal
warrant ; for the point upon which its authority refts, is
a fa& to be decided on a fubfequent trial; namely,
whether the perfon apprehended thereupon be guilty or
not guilty. When a warrant is received by the officer,
he is bound to execute it, fo far as the jurifdi&ion of
the magiftrate and himfelf extends. A warrant from
any of the juftices of the court of king’s bench extends
overall the kingdom, and is tefted or dated England:
but a warrant of a juftice of the peace in one county,
muft be backed, that is, figned, by a juftice of another
county, before it can be executed there. And a war¬
rant for apprehending an Englith or a Scotch offender,
may be indorfed in the oppofite kingdom, and the of¬
fender carried back to that part of the united kingdom
in which the offence was committed.
WARRANTY, Warrantia, in Law, a promife,
or covenant by deed, made by the bargainer for him¬
felf and his heirs, to warrant and fecure the bargainee
and his heirs, againft all men, for enjoying the thing a-
greed on or granted between them.
WARREN, SirPeter, an admiral, diftinguiffied by
his virtue,learning, and undaunted courage, was defcend-
ed from an ancient family in Ireland, and received a
fuitable education to qualify him for a command in the
royal navy, in which he ferved for feveral years with
great reputation j but the tranfaftion which placed his
great abilities in their full light, was the taking of
Louiftxmrg in the year 1745, when he was appointed
commodore of the Britifti fquadron fent on that h rvice.
He joined the fleet of tranfports from Bofton in Canfo
bay on the 25th of April, having under his command
the Superb of 60, and the Launcefton and Eltham of
40 guns ; he was afterwards joined by feveral other
men of war fent from England, and took poffeffion of
Louiffiourg on the 17th of June. The French, exafper-
ated at this lofs, were conftantly on the watch to retake
it; and in 1747 fitted out a large fleet for that purpofe,
and at the fame time another fquadron to profecute their
fuccefs in the Eaft Indies. Thefe fquadrons failed at
the fame time ; but the views of the French were ren¬
dered abortive by the gallant admiral Anfon and Sir
Peter Warren, who had been created rear-admiral, who
with a large fleet of (hips fell in with the French, de¬
feated the whole fleet, and took the greateft part of the
men of war. This was the laft fervice Sir Peter render¬
ed to his country as a commander in the Britifti fleet ;
for a peace being concluded in the fucceeding year, the
fleet was laid up in the feveral harbours.
He was now chofen one of the reprefentatives in par¬
liament for Weftminfter ; and in the midft of his popu¬
larity he paid a vifit to Ireland, his native country,
where he died of an inflammatory fever in 1752, fin-
cerely lamented by all ranks of people ; and an elegant
monument of white marble was erefted to his memory
in Weftminfter abbey.
Warren, is a franchife or place privileged by pre-
fcription or grant from the king, for the keeping of
beafts and fowls of the warren ; which are hares and
coneys, partridges, pheafants, and feme add quails, wood¬
cocks, and water-fowl, &c. Thefe beingnature,
every one had a natural right to kill as he could : but
upon the introduction of the foreft laws at the Norman
conqueft, thefe animals being looked upon as royal game,
and the foie property of our favage monarchs, this fran¬
chife of free-warren was invented to protect them, by
giving the grantee a foie and exclufive power of killing
fuch game, fo far as his warren extended, on condition
of his preventing other perfons. A man therefore that
has the franchife of warren, is in reality no more than a
royal game-keeper : but no man, not even a lord of a
manor, could by common law juftify fporting on ano¬
ther’s foil, or even on his own, unlefs he had the liberty
of free-warren. This franchife is almoft fallen into dil-
regard fince the new ftatutes for preferving the game ;
the name being now chiefly preferved in grounds that
are fet apart for breeding hares and rabbits. There are-
many inltancesof keen fportfmen in ancient times, who
have fold their eftates, and referved the free-warren, or
right of killing game, tothemfelves : by which means it
comes to pafs that a man and his heirs have fometimes
free-warren over another’s ground.
A warren may lie open; and there is no neceffity of
inclofing it as there is of a park. If any perfon offend
in a free-warren, he is punifhable by the common law,
and by ftatute 21 Edw. III. And if any one enter
wrongfully into any warren, and chafe, take, or kill, any
coneys without the confent of the owner, he fliall forfeit
treble damage, and fuller three months imprifonment.
Sec. by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. When coneys are on
the foil of the party, he hath a property in them by rea-
fon of the poffeffion, and aclion lies for killing them ;
but if they run out of the warren and eat up a neigh¬
bour’s corn, the owner of the land may kill them, and
no aClion will lie.
WARSAW, a large city of Poland, the capital of
that country, and of the province of Mafovia. It is built
partly in a plain, and partly on a gentle afeent rifing
from the banks of the Viftula, which is about as broad
as the Thames at Weftminfter, but very (hallow in fum-
mer. This city and its fuburbs occupy a vail extent of
ground, and are feppofed to contain 70,000 inhabitants,
among whom is a great number of foreigners. The whole
has a melancholy appearance, exhibiting the ftrong con¬
trail of wealth and poverty, luxury and diftrefs, which
pervades every part of this unhappy country. The ftreets
are fpacious, but ill paved; the churches and public
buildings are large and magnificent; the palaces of the
nobility are numerous and fplendid ; but the greateft
part of the lionfes, particularly in the fuburbs, are mean
and ill conftnnRed wooden hovels.—Warfaw is 160 miles,
louth-eaft by fouth of Dantzic, 130 north-north-eaft of
Cracow, and 300 north-eaft by north of Vienna. E.
Long. 21.6. N. Lat. 50. 14.
WART. See Surgery Index.
WARWICK, the capital of Warwicklhire in Eng¬
land, and from which this county derives its name. It
is very ancient, and fuppofed by Camden to be the place
called by the Romans Prcejvdium, where the Dalmatian
horfe were polled. It Hands on a rock of freeftone, of
which all the public edifices in the town are built. At
the Norman invafion it was a confiderable place; and
had many burgeffes, of whom 12 were obliged by their
tenure to accompany the king in his wars. It is fup-
plied with water brought in pipes from fprings half a
mile from the town, belides what it derives from the
wells within it made in the rock : and it is eafily kept
clean, by being fituated upon a declivity. Four llreets,
from the four cardinal points of the compafs, meet in the
centre of the town. The principal public buildings are
St
Warren
II.
Warwick,
WAR
Warwick, $t Mary’s, a very ftately edifice, an hofpital, a town-
^ilrre ^' ^ou^e freeftone, three charity fchools, and a noble
< bridge over the Avon. It has had feveral charters $ but
is governed at prefent by a mayor, I 2 brethren, 24 bur-
geffes, &c. It contains 5775 inhabitants 5 and gives
title of earl to the family of the Grevilles. W. Long.
I. 36. N. Lat. 52. 20.
WARWICKSHIRE, a county of England, 47
miles in length, by 30' in breadth. It is bounded at its
northern extremity by a point of Derbylhire ; on the
north-well by Staffordfhire ; on the north-eall by Lei-
delterfhire ; on the call by Northamptonfhire 5 on the
fouth-weft by Gloucefterlhire, and on the fouth-eaft by
Oxfordlhire. It is fituated partly in the diocefe of
Lichfield and Coventry, and partly in that of Wor-
cefter ; it contains four hundreds, and one liberty, one
city, 12 market towns, 158 parilhes ; fends fix mem¬
bers to parliament, and the population is computed at
208,190. The air is mild, pleafant, and healthy. The
river Avon divides the north part of it, or the Wood¬
lands, from the fouth, called the Feldon ; and the foil of
both is rich and fertile. Its produflions are corn, malt,
wood, wool, cheefe, coal, iron, and limelfone. The
chief rivers of this county are the Avon, Tame, and
Arrow. Warwick is the capital ; but Birmingham is
far fuperior to it in refpedf of trade and manufactures,
and even to any other town in England.
_ Birmingham, in this county, of which the account
•given in the order of the alphabet is very deficient, is
one of the molt remarkable towns in England, or per¬
haps in Europe, for the extent, variety, elegance, and
utility of its manufactures. This town was little di-
-ftinguilhed previous to the reign of Charles II. but
fince that period it continued to increafe in extent and
importance. In the year 1700, the number of Itreets
in Birmingham was only 30 ; they are now nearly 250.
In the year 1779 there were only three houfes on a par¬
ticular fpot, which in 1791 contained 833.
Birmingham owes its profperity and population to its
manufactures, which are in a great meafure the confe-
quence of its vicinity to coal, aided by the fpirited and
mdultnous exertions of a few individuals. It has been
Rated, and no doubt with great truth, that its profperity
is nv no fmall degree indebted to its exemption from the
reltriCtions of borough and corporate laws. To give
iome notion of the progrefs and extent of the manufac-
tures of this place, it may be mentioned that the late
Mr I ay lor, ^ who introduced gilt buttons, japanned,
,gilt, and pamted fnuff-boxes, with various articles of
manufacture in enamel, died in 1775, at the age of 64
having a mailed a fortune of 2oo,oool. In painting
fnuff-boxes at fo low a rate as one farthing each, one man
could gain 3I. ios. per week. The weekly produce of
Mr I ay lor s manufaflure of buttons amounted to 8ool.
befide many other valuable and curious produaions.
1 he manufaaory of Meffrs Boulton and Watt
which for its extent, variety, and importance, Rands
unrivalled in Europe, has been already noticed under
the word SOHO. The new coinage of copper, which is .
fo often defervedly admired, and the re-ftamped dollars
jre the produaions of the Soho manufaaory. The
.rft coining null was ereaed at Soho in 1-82. It is
ih7L imprOVed’ that eiSht machines driven by
^e Ream-engine, are going on at the fame time. Each
* th°* machlnes ftr*es ^m .70 to 84. pieces of the
[ 640 ]
WAS
fize of' a guinea per minute, and hence the whole eight Warwick
machines work off in one hour between 30,000 and (hire
4O5OQ-' coins. 1 he different proceffes of the machinery
are, 1. Rolling the maffes of copper into ftieets. 2. Roll¬
ing them through cylindrical Reel rollers. 3. Clipping
the pieces of copper for the dye. 4. Shaking the coin
in bags.. 5. Striking both fides of the coin, and then
milling it; after which it is difplaced, and another is
introduced, to be fubjeaed to the lame operation. But
the moft extraordinary contrivance of this ingenious
machinery is, that a precife account of every coin which
paffes through it is regularly kept, fo that it is impof-
lible to praaife fraud.
Befide the branches of induftry already mentioned,
there are manufaaories of guns, bayonets, and fwords,
of fporting guns, of whips, of japan ware, of numerous
works in brafs and Reel, both for ornament and ufe,
and at one time of leather to a confiderable extent.
Birmingham contains a mufeum of natural and arti¬
ficial curiofities, a handfome theatre, rebuilt fince 1791,
feveral churches belonging to the efiablilhment, various
diffenting meeting houtes* and a number of charitable
eftabliflrments. In the neighbourhood of Birmingham
there are three extenfive breweries ; and by means of
canals this place has the advantage of eafy communi¬
cation with almofl every part of the kingdom.
WASH, among diflillers, the fermentable liquor
ufed by malt diflillers. See Brewery.
WASHING, in Painting, is when a defign, drawn
with a pen or crayon, has fome one colour laid over it
with a pencil, as Indian ink, biftre, or the like, to make
it appear the more natural, by adding the ftiadow of
prominences, apertures, &c. and by imitating the par¬
ticular matters whereof the thing is fuppofed to confifl.
1 hus a pale red is employed to imitate brick and
tile •, a pale Indian blue, to imitate w ater and Rate j
green, for trees and meadows j faffron or French berries,
for gold or brafs; and feveral colours for marbles.
IVashiNG of Ores, the feparation of the ores of me¬
tals, by means of water, from earths and Rones, which
would otherwife render it difficult of fufion. See Ores,
ReduBion of.
WASHINGTON, a city of North America, and
now the metropolis of the United States. It is feat-
ed at the junction of the rivers Potomac and the Ea-
Rern Branch, extending about four miles up each, in¬
cluding a tra<ft of territory fcarcely to be exceeded, in
point of convenience, falubrity, and beauty, by any in
the world.^ This territory, which is called Columbia,
lies partly in the Rate of Virginia, and partly in that of
Maryland, and was ceded by thofe two Rates to the U-
nited States of America, and by them eRabliffied to be
the feat of government after the year 1800. It is di¬
vided into fquares or grand diviRons, by flreets running
due north and fouth, and eaR and weft, which form
the ground-work of the plan. However, from the Ca¬
pitol, the prefident’s houfe, and fome of the important
areas in the city, run diagonal ftreets, from one material
(objeift to another, which not only produce a variety of
charming profpeifts, but remove the infipid famenefs
which renders fome other great cities unpleafing. The
great leading ftreets are all 160 feet wide, including a
pavement of 10 feet, and a gravel walk of 30 feet plant¬
ed with trees on each fide, which will leave 80 feet of
paved ftreet ior carriages. The reft of the ftreets are in
general
Wafting
ton.
WAS [ 641 ] WAS
afiiing- gctieral no feet wide, with a few only 90 feet, except
to11. North, South, and Eaft Capitol Streets, which are 160
’~v feet. The diagonal ftreets are named after the refpec-
tive ftates compofing the Union, while thofe running
north and fimth are, from the Capitol eaftward, named
Eajl Tvjl Street, Eq/i Second Street, &c. and thofe well
of it are in the fame manner called Wejl Firjl Street,
Wejl Second Street, &c. Thofe running call and welt
are from the Capitol northward named North A Street,
North B Street, &c. and thofe fouth of it are called
South A Street, South B Street, &c. The fquares or di~
vilions of the city amount to 1150. The re&angular
fquares generally contain from three to fix acres, and
are divided into lots of from 40 to 80 feet in front, and
their depth from about no to 300 feet, according to
the fize of the fquare. The irregular divifions produced
by the diagonal ilreets are fome of them fmall, but ge¬
nerally in valuable fituations. Their acute points are all
to be cut off at 40 feet, fo that nohoufe in the city will
have an acute corner. All the houfes muft be of brick
©r Hone. The area for the Capitol (or houfe for the le-
giflative bodies) is htuated upon the molt beautiful emi-
. nence in the city, about a mile from the Eaftern Branch,
and not much more from the Potomac, commanding a
full view’ of every part of the city, as well as a confider-
able extent of the country around. The prefident’s houfe
will Hand upon a rifmg ground, not far from the banks
of the Potomac, poffefling a delightful water profpedil,
with a commanding view of the Capitol, and fome other
material parts of the city.
The city being fituated upon the great poll road, ex-
a£ily equidiftant from the northern and fouthern extre¬
mities of the Union, and nearly fo from the Atlantic
ocean to the river Ohio, upon the bell navigation, and
in the midlt of the richeft commercial territory in Ame¬
rica, commanding the molt extenlive internal refources,
is by far the moft eligible fituation for the refidence of
congrefsj and it is now prefling forward, by the public-
fpirited enterprife, not only of the people of the United
States, but alfo of foreigners.
Washington, George, the celebrated commander of
the American army, and the firft prefident of the Uni¬
ted States, after their feparation from the motherTcoun-
try, was born in the year 1732, in the parifti of Wafti-
ington in Virginia. He was defcended from an ancient
family in Chefhire, of which a branch was eftablifhed
in Virginia about the middle of the 17th century. Lit¬
tle is known concerning his education, or the early
years of his life. Before he was 20 years of age, he
Was appointed a major in the colonial militia, and had
then an opportunity of difplaying thofe military and po¬
litical talents which have fince rendered his name fo fa¬
mous throughout the world. In the difputes which
arofe between the French and Englifti officers, about
fettling the limits of Canada and Louifiana, Major
Walhington was employed by the governor of Virginia
as a negociator, and hefucceeded in preventing a threat¬
ened invafion of the Engliffi frontiers by the French
and their Indian allies *, but, in the following year,
when hoftilities feemed inevitable, he was appointed
lieutenant-colonel, and foon after to the command of a
regiment raifed by the colony for its own defence. In
1 755, Colonel Waffiington ferved as a volunteer in the
unfortunate expedition of General Braddock, and in that
expedition, which was attended with great difficulty,
Yol. XX. Part. II.
he exhibited fo much calmnefs and intrepidity, that the
utmoft confidence was repofed in his talents, and per-
fe£t obedience paid to his commands by the whole ar¬
my. After having been employed in a different and
more fuccefsful expedition to the river Ohio, the Hate
of his health required him, about the year 1758, to re-
fign his military fituation; and in the fixteen following
years, during which period he married Mrs Curtis, a
Virginian lady, of amiable character and refpedlable
connedlions, it W'ould appear that he refided chiefly at
his beautiful feat of Mount Vernon, and was occupied
in the cultivation of his eftate.
When the difaffedlion of the Americans to the Bri-
tifli government had become pretty general, and had at
laft fpread to the colony of Virginia, Colonel Wafhing-
ton was appointed a delegate from that ftate to the con-
grefs which met at Philadelphia on the 26th October
1774, and foon after he was appointed to the command
of the American army, which had affembled in the pro¬
vinces of New England. The condudt of Wafhington
during the whole of the war, as well as during the pe¬
riod that he prefided in the government of the United
States, has been fo fully detailed in another part of
this work, that it would be unneceffary repetition, even
to give a general outline of it in this place. See Ame¬
rica.
Waflrington refigned the prefidency in 1796, after
having publiffied a farewell addrefs to his. countrymen.
This addrefs was remarkably diftinguifhed for the fim-
plicity and ingenuoufnefs, moderation and fobriety, the
good fenfe, prudence and honefty, as well as fincere af-
fedlion for his country and for mankind, which the au¬
thor of it had always exhibited; it feemed to be a perfedl
piflure of his whole life. From the time of his refigna-
tion till the month of July 1798, he lived in retirement
at his feat of Mount Vernon. At this period, when the
unprincipled aflors in the French revolution were carry¬
ing on their wicked machinations in every part of the
world to which their influence extended, the United
States refolved to arm by land and fea in their own de¬
fence. General Wafhington was called from his re¬
tirement, and the command of the army was beftowed
upon him. This he accepted, becaufe heconfidered, as
he himfelf expreffed it, “ every thing we hold dear and
facred was ferioufly threatened, although he had flatter¬
ed himfelf that he had quitted for ever the boundlefs
field of public a<rtion, inceffant trouble, and high refpon-
fibility, in which he had long afted fo confpicuous a
part.” In this fituation he continued duringthe remain¬
ing ffiort period of his life. Gn Thurfday the 12th of
December 1799, he was feized with an inflammation in
the throat, and was carried off on Saturday the 14th of
the fame month, in the 68th year of his age. In his
dying moments he difplayed the fame calmnefs, fimpli-
city, and regularity, which had uniformly marked his
condudl through life. He faw the approaches of death
without fear; and he met them without parade. Even
the perfeftly well ordered ftate of the minuteft particu-
Jws of his private bufinefs bears the ftamp of that conftant
authority of prudence and practical reafon over his ac¬
tions which was always the molt prominent feature of
his character.
Washington is the name of many counties, towns,
and villages in the American dates; a circumftance
which affords a ftriking proof in what degree of efteem
4 M and
Wafln'njS
ton!,
WAT [ 642 ] W A T
Watch.
Wafliing- and veneration the name from ivhich they are derived
t°n was held by the inhabitants of the new world.
WASP. See Vespa, Entomology Index.
WATCH, in the art of war, a number of men poll¬
ed at any paflage, or a company of the guards who go
on the patrole.
Watch, in the navy, the fpace of time wherein one
divifion of a Ihip’s crew remains upon deck, to perform
the neceffary fervices, whilft the reft are relieved from
duty, either when the veffel is under fail or at anchor.
The length of the fea-watch is not equal in the ftiip-
ping of different nations. It is always kept four hours
bv our Britifti feamen, if we except the dog-watch, be¬
tween four and eight in the evening, that contains two
reliefs, each of which are only two hours on deck. The
intent of this is to change the period of t he night-watch
every 24 hours ; fo that the party watching from eight
till 12 in one night, Ihall watch from midnight till four
in the morning on the fucceeding one. In France the
duration of the watch is extremely different, being in
fome places fix hours, and in others feven or eight •, and
in Turkey and Barbary it is ufually five or fix hours.
A Ihip’s company is ufually claffed into two parties \
one of which is called theJlarbeard and the other the
larboard watch. It is, however, occafionally feparated
into three divifions, as in a road or in particular voyages.
In a fhip of war the watch is generally commanded
by a lieutenant, and in merchant ftiips by one of the
mates ; fo that if there are four mates in the latter, there
are two in each watch 5 the firft and third being in the
larboard, and the fecond and fourth in the liarboard
watch : but in the navy, the officers who command the
watch ufually divide themfelves into three parties, in or¬
der to lighten their duty.
Watch, is alfo ufed for a imall portable movement,
or machine, for the meafuring of time ; having its mo¬
tion regulated by a fpiral fpring.
Watches, ftriftly taken, are all ftieh movements as
ffiow the parts of time as clocks are fuch as publifh it,
by ftriking on a bell, &c. But commonly the name
watch is appropriated to fuch as are carried in the
pocket; and cloch to the large movements, whether
they ftrike the hour or not. See Clock.
- The invention of fpring or pocket watches belongs to
the prefent age. It is true, we find mention made of a
watch prefented to Charles V. in the hiftory of that
prince : but this, in all probability, was no more than
a kind of clock to be let on a table, fome refemblance
whereof we have ftill remaining in the ancient pieces
made before the year 1670. There was alfo a ftory of
a watch having been difcovered in Scotland belonging
to King Robert Bruce ; but this we believe has turned
out altogether apocryphal. The glory of this very ufe-
ful invention lies between Dr Hooke and M. Huygens ;
but to which of them it properly belongs, has been
greatly difputed j the Englifti afcribing it to the former,
and the French, Dutch, &c. to the latter. Mr Derham
in his Artificial Clockmaker, fays roundly, that Dr
Hooke was the inventor j and adds, that he contrived
various ways of regulation. One way was with a load-
ftone : Another with a tender ftraight fpring, one end
whereof played backwards and forwards with the ba¬
lance ; fo that the balance was to the fpring as the bob
to a pendulum, and the fpring as the rod thereof: A
third method was with two balances, of which there
2
were divers forts j fome having a fpiral fpring to the ba¬
lance for a regulator, and others without. But the way
that prevailed, and which continues in mode, -was with
one balance, and one fpring running round the upper part
of the verge thereof : Though this has a difadvantage,
which thole with two fprings, &c. were free from in
that a fudden jerk, or confufed (hake, will alter its vi¬
brations, and put it in an unufual hurry.
T he time of thefe inventions was about the year
1658 5 as appears, among other evidences, from an in-
fcription on one of the double balance watches prefented
to King Charles II. viz. Rob. Hooke inven. 1658. T.
Tompion fecit, 1675. The invention prefently got into
reputation, both at home and abroad 5 and two of them
were lent for by the dauphin of France. Soon after
this, M.Huygens’s watch with a fpiral fpring got abroad,
and made a great noife in England, as if the longitude
could be found by it. It is certain, however, that his
invention was later than the year 1673, 'v^en his book
de Horol. Ofcil/at. was publiffied j wherein he has not
one word of this, though he has of feveral other con¬
trivances in the fame way.
One of thefe the lord Brouncker fent for out of
France, where M. Huygens had got a patent for them.
This -watch agreed with Dr Hooke’s in the application
of the fpring to the balance ; only M. Huygens’s had a
longer fpiral fpring, and the pulles and beats were much,
flower. I he balance, inftead of turning quite round, as
Dr Hooke’s, turns feveral rounds every vibration.
Mr Derham fuggefts, that he has reafon to doubt M.
Huygens’s fancy firft was fet to work by fome intelli¬
gence he might have of Dr Hooke’s invention from Mr
Oldenburgb, or fome other of his correfpondents in Eng¬
land ; and this, notwithftanding Mr Oldenburgh’s at¬
tempt to vindicate himfelf in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, appears to be the truth. Huygens invented divers
other kinds of watches, fome of them without any
firing or chain at all ; which he called, particularly,
pendulum watches.
Sinking Watches are fucli as, befides the proper
watch-part for meafuring of time, have a clock-part for
ftriking the hours, &e.
Repeating WATCHES, are fuch as by pulling a firing,
&.c. repeat the hour, quarter, or minute, at any time of
the day or night.—This repetition was the invention of
Mr Barlow, and firft put in practice by him in larger
movements or clocks about the year 1676. The con¬
trivance immediately fet the other artilts to work, who
foon contrived divers ways of effedling the fame. But
its application to pocket-watches was not known before
King James II.’s reign ; when the ingenious inventor
above mentioned, having directed Mr Thompfon to
make a repeating watch, was foliciting a patent for
the fame. The talk of a patent engaged Mr Ouare
to refume the thoughts of a like contrivance, which
he had had in view fome years before : he now ef-
fedled it 5 and being preffed to endeavour to prevent
Mr Barlow’s patent, a watch of each kind was produced
before the king and council ; upon trial of which, the
preference was given to Mr Quare’s. The difference
between them was, that Barlow’s was made to repeat
by puftiing in two pieces on each fide the watch-box ;
one of which repeated the hour, and the other the quar¬
ter : whereas Quare’s was made to repeat by a pin that
ftruck out near the pendant, which being thruft in (as
now
Plate
.XXI.
W A T t
notv it is done by thrufting in the pendant it felt), re¬
peated both the hour and quarter with the fame thruft.
Of the Mechanifm of a IVaTCH, properly fo called.
Watches, as well as clocks, are compofed of wheels and
pinions, and a regulator to direct the quicknefs or flow-
nefs of the wheels, and of a fpring which communicates
motion to the whole machine. But the regulator and
fpring of a watch are vaftly inferior to the weight and
pendulum of a clock, neither of which can be employed
in watches. In place of a pendulum, therefore, we are
obliged to ufe a balance (fig. I.) to regulate the motion
of a watch $ and a fpring (fig. 2.) which ferves in place
of a weight, to give motion to the wheels and balance.
The wheels of a watch, like thofe of a clock, are
placed in a frame formed of two plates and four pillars.
Fig. 3. reprefents the infide of a watch, after the plate
(fig. 4.) is taken off. A is the barrel which contains the
fpring (fig. 2.) *, the chain is rolled about the barrel,
with one end of it fixed to the barrel A (fig. 5.), and
the other to the fufee B.
When a watch is wound up, the chain which w'as up¬
on the barrel wdnds about the fufee, and by this means
the fpring is ftretched j for the interior end of the fpring
is fixed by a hook to the immoveable axis, about which
the barrel revolves; the exterior end of the fpring is
fixed to the infide of the barrel, which turns upon an
axis. It is therefore eafy to perceive how the fpring
extends itfelf, and how its elafticity forces the barrel to
turn round, and confequently obliges the chain which is
Upon the fufee to unfold and turn the fufee j the motion
of the fufee is communicated to the wheel C (fig. 5.) ;
then, by means of the teeth, to the pinion c, which car¬
ries the wheel D j then to the pifton d, which carries
the wheel E: then to the pinion e, which carries the
wheel F; then to the point upon which is the ba¬
lance-wheel G, whole pivot runs in the pieces A called
the potance, and B called a follower, which are fixed on
the plate fig. 4. This plate, of which only a part is
reprefented, is applied to that of fig. 3. in fuch a manner
that the pivots of the wheels enter into holes made in
the plate fig. 3. Thus the impreffed force of the fpring
is communicated to the wheels: and the pinion /'being
then connected to the wheel F, obliges it to turn (fig.
5.). This wheel a&s upon the palettes of the verge,
I, 2, (fig. I.), the axis of which carries the balance
HH, (fig I.). The pivot I, in the end of the verge,
enters into the hole c in the potance A (fig. 4.) In
this figure the palettes are reprefented ; but the balance
is on the other fide of the plates, as may be feen
in fig. 6. The pivot 3 of the balance enters into a hole
of the cock BC (fig. 7.), a perfpe&ive view of which
is reprefented in fig. 8. Thus the balance turns be¬
tween the cock and the potance c (fig. 4.), as in a kind
of cage. The action of the balance-wheel upon the
palettes x, 2, (fig. 1.), is the fame with what we have
deferibed with regard to the fame wheel in the clock ;
i. e. in a watch, the balance-wheel obliges the balance
to vibrate backwards and forwards like a pendulum.
At each vibration of the balance a palette a1lows a tooth
of the balance-wheel to efcape j fo that the quicknefs
of the motion of the wheels is entirely deterniined by
the quicknefs of the vibrations of the balance ; and thefe
vibrations of the balance and motion of the wheels are
produced by the action of the fpring.
But the quicknefs or flownefs of the vibrations of the
A T
balance depend not folely upon the aftion of the great Watch,
fpring, but chiefly upon the action of the fpring a, b, c, v
called the fpiral fpring (fig. 9.), fituated under the ba-Fig. 5.
lance H, and reprefented in perfpe£tive (fig. 6.). The
exterior end of the fpiral is fixed to the pin a, (fig. 9.).
This pin is applied near the plate in a, (fig. 6.) ; the
interior end of the fpiral is fixed by a peg to the centre
of the balance. Hence if the balance is turned upon
itfelf, the plates remaining immoveable, the fpring will
extend itfelf, and make the balance perform one revo¬
lution. Now, after the fpiral is thus extended, if the
balance be left to itfelf, the elafticity of the fpiral will
bring back the balance, and in this manner the alter¬
nate vibrations of the balance are produced.
In fig. 5. all the wheels above deferibed are repre¬
fented in fuch a manner, that you may eafily perceive
at firft fight how the irfoiion is communicated from the
barrel to the balance.
In fig. 10. are reprefented the wheels under the dial-Fig. is.
plate by which the hands are moved. The pinion a is
adjufted to the force of the prolonged pivot of the wheel
H (fig. 5.), and is called a cannon pinion. This wheel
revolves in an hour. The end of the axis of the pinion
a, upon which the minute-hand is fixed, is fquare *, the
pinion (fig. 10.) is indented into the wheel b, which is
carried by the pinion a. Fig. 11. is a wheel fixed upon Fig. it.
a barred, into the cavity of which the pinion a enters,
and upon which it turns freely. This V/heel revolves in
12 hours, and carries along with it the hour-hand. For
a full account of the principles upon which watches and
all time-keepers are conllrudled, we mull refer our read¬
ers to a fliort treatife, entitled Thoughts on the Means
of improving Watches, by Thomas Mudge.
WATCU-GlaJfes, in a ftiip, are glalfes employed to
meafure the period of the watch, or to divide it into any
number of equal parts, as hours, half-hours, &c. fo that
the feveral ftations therein may be regularly kept and
relieved, as at the helm, pump, look-out, &c.
IVATCH-Work. There is one part of the movements
of clocks and watches of which we have yet given no
particular account. This is the method of applying the
maintaining power of the wheels to the regulator of the
motions, fo as not to injure its power of regulation.
This part of the conftruttion is called ScAPEMENT, and
falls to be deferibed under the prefect article, to which
We have referred from SCAPEMENT.
The motions of a clock or watch are regulated by Qiqc^s 0f
a pendulum or balance, without Which check the wheels fcapements.
impelled by the weight in the clock, or fpring in the
xvateh, would run round with a rapidly accelerating mo¬
tion, till this ftiould be rendered uniform by friftion,
and the refiftance of the air. If, however, a pendulum
or balance be put in the way of this motion, in fuch a
manner that only one tooth of a wheel can pals, the re¬
volution of the wheels will depend ori the vibration of
the pendulum or balance.
We cannot here enter on an hiftorical account of the
improvements that have been made on the regulating
powers of clocks and watches, nor can -we detail the
principles on which their action depends. It will be
fuffu-ient here to notice the moft Ample conftruftion of
fcapements, and then to deferibe two or three of the
moft improved conftru&ions that have been applied to
time-keepers.
We know that the motion of a pendulum or balance
4 M 2 is
Watch.
Ueft ordi¬
nary fcape.
ment for
•locks.
Jig. 12.
3
Vibrations
of pendu¬
lums are ifo
S&xonous.
WAT [
is alternate, while the preffure o£ the wheels is conflant-
1 ly exerted in the fame direction. Hence it is evident
that feme means muft be employed to accommodate
thefe different motions to each other. Now, when^a
tooth of the wheel has given the pendulum or balance
a motion in one direction, it muft quit it, that the pen¬
dulum or balance may receive an impulfion in the op-
pofite direction. This efcape of the tooth has given
rife to the term fcape?nent.
The ordinary fcapement is extremely fimple, and
’ may bp thus illuftrated. Let xy fig. i 2. Plate 13LXXI.
reprefent a horizontal axis, to which the pendulum p is
attached by a flender rod. This axis has twro leaves
c and r/, one near each end, and not in the fame plane,
but fo that when the pendulum hangs perpendicularly
at reft, c fpreads a few degrees to the right, and d as
much to the left. Thefe are dhlled the pallets. Let
afb reprefent a wheel, turning on a perpendicular axis
e o \n the order oyV£. The teeth of this wheel are
in the form of thofe of a faw, leaning forward in the
dire&ion of the rim’s motion. This wheel is ufually
called the crown-wheel, or in watches the balance-wheel.
See Clock and Watch. It generally contains an odd
number of teeth. In the figure the pendulum is repre-
fented at the extremity of its excurfion towards the right,
the tooth a having juft efcaped from the pallet f, and b
having juft dropt on d. Now it is evident that while
the pendulum is moving to the left, in the arch pg, the
tooth b ftill preffes on the pallet c/, and thus accelerates
the pendulum, both in its defeent along jo/;, and its af-
cent up hg, and that when by turning round the
axis x y, raifes its point above the plane of the wheel,
the tooth b efcapes from it, and z drops on c, now near¬
ly perpendicular. Thus c is preffed to the right, and
the motion of the pendulum along p is accelerated.
Again, while the pendulum hangs perpendicularly in
the line x h, the tooth by prefting on d, will force
the pendulum to the left, in proportion to its lightnefs,
and if it be not too heavy, will force it fo far from the
perpendicular, that b will efcape, and i will catch on c,
and force the pendulum back to />, when the fame mo¬
tion will be repeated. 1 his eflfedft will be more remark¬
able, if the rod of the pendulum be continued through
xy, and have a ball q on the other end, to balance p.
When b efcapes from d, the balls are moving with a
certain velocity and momentum, and in this condition
the balance is checked when i catches on c. It is not,
however, inftantly flopped, but continues to move a
little to the leit, and i is forced a little backward by the
pallet c. It cannot make its efcape over the top of the
tooth z, as all the momentum of the balance was gener¬
ated by the force of b, and i is of equal power. Be-
fides, when i catches on c, and the motion of c to the
left continues, the lower point of c is applied to the
face of z, which now adls on the balance by a long lever,
foon flops its motion in that dire&ion, and continuino-
to prefs on c, urges the balance in the oppofite direiftiom
It is eafy to fee that the motion of the wheel here muft
be hobbling and unequal, which has given to this fcape¬
ment the name of the recoiling fcapement.
In confidering the utility of the following improved
fcapement for clocks, we muft keep in mind the fol¬
lowing propofition, which, after the above illuftration,
fcarcely requires any direft proof. It is, that the natu¬
ral vibrations of a pendulum are ifochronouSj ox are per-
<544 ] W / A T
formed in equal times. The great objeft of the fcapement Watct
is to preferve this ifochronous motion of the pendulum. ' v-
As the defedl of the recoiling fcapement was long 4
apparent, feveral ingenious artifts attempted to fubftitute £umrain
in its place a fcapement that Ihould produce a more re- fur dock I
gular and uniform motion. Of thefe, the fcapement
contrived by Mr Gumming appears to be one of the
moft ingenious in its conftru&ion, and moft perfeft in
its operation. The following conifrueftion is fimilar to
that of Mr Gumming, but rendered rather kfs complex
for the purpofe of fhortening the defeription.
Let ABC, fig. 13. reprefent a portion of the fwingp;
wheel, of which O is the centre, and A one of the g
teeth; Z is the centre of the crutch, pallets, and pendu¬
lum. The crutch is reprefented of the form of the let¬
ter A, having in the circular crofs piece a flit ik, alfo
circular, Z being the centre. The arm ZF forms the
firft detent, and the tooth A is reprefented as locked on
it at F. D is the firft pallet on the end of the arm Z d
moveable round the fame centre with the detents, but
independent of them. The arm de to which the pallet
D is attached, lies wholly behind the arm ZF of the
detent, being fixed to a round piece of brafs ef g, hav¬
ing pivots turning concentric with the axis of the pen¬
dulum. To the fame piece of brafs is fixed the horizon¬
tal arm e H, carrying to its extremity the ball H, of
fuch fize, that the adion of the tooth A on the pallet
D is juft able to raife it up to the pofition here drawn.
ZP p reprefents the fork, or pendulum rod, behind
both detent and pallet. A pinp projedts forward, coming
through the flit z k, without touching either margin of
it. Attached to the fork is the arm mn, of fuch length
that, when the pendulum rod is perpendicular, the an¬
gular diflance of zz ^ from the rod e ^ H is juft equal to
the angular diftance of the left fide of the pin p from
the left end 2 of the flit i k.
Now, the natural pofition of the pallet D is at $, re¬
prefented by the dotted lines, refting on the back of the
detent F. It is naturally brought into this pofition by
its own weight, and ftill more by the weight of the ball
H. The pallet D, being fet on the forefide of the arm
at Z, comes into the fame plane with the detent F and
the fwing-wheel, though here reprefented in a different
pofition. The tooth G of the wheel is fuppofed to have
efcaped from the fecond pallet, on which the tooth A
immediately feizes the pallet D, fituated at 2, forces it
out, and then refts on the detent F, the pallet D lean¬
ing on the tip of the tooth. After the efcape of C, the
pendulum, moving down the arch of fe mi vibration, is
reprefented as having attained the vertical pofition.
Proceeding ftill to the left, the pin p reaches the extre¬
mity z of the flit ib ; and, at the fame inftant, the arm
11 touches the rod eH in 17. The pendulum proceeding
a hairsbreadth further,^withdraws the detent F from the
tooth, which now even pufties off the detent, by a&ing
on the inclining face of it. The wheel being now un¬
locked, the tooth following C on the other fide a<fts on
its pallet, pufhes it off, and refts on its detent, which
has been rapidly brought into a proper pofition by the
a&ion of A on the inclining face of F. By a fimilar
aftion of C on its detent at the moment of efcape, F
was brought into a pofition proper for the wheels being
locked by the tooth A. As the pendulum ftill goes on,
1 the ball FI, and pallet connefted with it, are carried by
the arm m r?7 and before the pin p again reaches the
end.
WAT E 645 ] WAT
yitch. end of the flit, which had been fuddenly withdrawn by
the action of A on F, the pendulum comes to reft. It
now returns towards the right, loaded with the ball H
on the left, and thus the motion loft during the laft vi¬
bration is reftored. When the pin p, by its motion to
the right, reaches the end k of ii, the wheel on the
right fide is unlocked, and at the fame inftant the weight
H being railed from the pendulum by the action of a
tooth like B on the pallet D, ceafes to a6l.
In this fcapement, both pallets and detents are de¬
tached from the pendulum, except in the moment of un¬
locking the wheel, fo that, except during this ftiort in¬
terval, the pendulum may be faid to be free during its
whole vibration, and of courfe its motion muft be more
equable and undifturbed.
5^ Xhe conftrudting of a proper fcapement for watches
watche'. reclu*res peculiar delicacy, owing to the fmall fize of the
machine, from which the error of of an inch has as
much effect as the error of a whole inch in a common
cloek. From the neceflary lightnefs of the balance, too,
it is extremely difficult to accumulate a fufficient quan¬
tity of regulating power. This can be done only by
giving the balance a great velocity, which is effected by
concentrating as much as poflible of its weight in the
rim, and making its vibrations very wide. The balance
rim of a tolerable watch ftiould pafs through at leaft ten
inches in every fecond.
I In confidering the moft proper fcapements for watches,
a balancewe ma7 afl"111116 following principle, viz. that the
Ieifuchro-ofcillations of a balance urged by its fpring, and undi-
'us. fturbed by extraneous forces, are ifochronous.
7 In ordinary pocket watches, the common recoiling
try fcape- fcaperaent of clocks is ftill employed, and anfwers the
ent for common purpofes of a watch tolerably well, fo that, if
atches. properly executed, a good ordinary watch will keep time
£• within a minute in the day. Thefe watches, however,
are fubjeft to great variation in their rate of going, from
any change in the power of the wheels.
The following is confidered as the beft conftru&ion
of the common watch fcapement, and is reprefented by
fig. 14. as it appears when looking ftraight down on the
end of the balance arbor. C marks the centre of the
balance and verge ; CA reprefents the upper pallet, or
that next the balance, and CB the lower pallet *, F and
D are two teeth of the crown wheel, moving from left
to right; E, G, are two teeth in the lower part, moving
from right to left. The tooth D appears as having juft
efcaped from the point of CA, and the tooth E as
having juft come in contact with CB. In praftice, the
fcapement ffiould not be quite fo clofe, as by a fmall in¬
equality of the teeth, D might be kept from efcaping at
all. The follpwing are thought the beft proportions :
The diftance between the front of the teeth (that is, of
G, F, E, D), and the axis C of the balance, is ^ of FA,
the diftance between the points of the teeth. The
length C A, CB of the pallets is ^ of the fame degrees,
and the front DH or FK of the teeth makes an angle of
2$° with the axis of the crown wheel. The floping
fide of the tooth muft be of an epicycloidal form, fuited
to the relative motion of the tooth and pallet.
It appears from thefe proportions, that by the aftion
of the tooth D, the pallet A can t/irow out till it reach
o, 120° from CL, the line of the crown-wheel axis. To
this if we add BCA—950, we ffiall have LC am 20°.
Again, B wrill throw out as fax on the other fide.
3
Now, if from 240°, the fum of the extent of vibration Watch,
of both pallets, we take 950 the angle of the pallets,
the remainder 1450 will exprefs the greateft vibration
which the balance can make, without ftriking the front
of the teeth. From feveral caufes, however, this mea-
fure is too great, and 1200 is reckoned a fufficient vibra¬
tion in the beft ordinary fcapement. s
Of the improvements on the feapements of watches, Graham’s
one of the moft important is that by Mr George Graham, horizontal
which we ftiall proceed to defcribe. DE, fig. ij.fcaperaent.
reprefents part of the rim of the balance wheel j A and Fig. 15. and-
C, two of its teeth with their faces be formed intoi6*
planes, inclined to the circumference of the wheel in an
angle of about 150, fo that the length b e oi the face
may be nearly quadruple of its height e m. Let a cir¬
cular arch ABC be defcribed round the centre of the
wheel, and through the middle of the faces of the teeth.
The axis of the balance will pafs through fome point B
of this arch, and the mean circumference of the teeth
may be faid to pafs through the centre of the verge. On
this axis is fixed a portion of a thin hollow cylinder b c
made of hard tempered fteel, or of fome hard and tough
ftone, fuch as ruby or fapphire. By this conftrudtion
the portion of the cylinder occupies 2io°of the circum¬
ference. The edge b, to which the tooth approaches
from without, is rounded off on both angles. The
other edge d is formed into a plane, inclined to the ra¬
dius about 30°. Nowr, fuppofe the wheel preffed for¬
ward in the direction AC, the point b of the tooth,
touching the rounded edge, will pufli it outwards, turn¬
ing round the balance in the direction b c d. The
heel e of the tooth will efcape from this edge when it is
in the pofition h, and e is in the politico f The point b
of the tooth will now be at r/, but the edge of the cy¬
linder will be at i. The tooth therefore refts in the in-
fide of the cylinder, while the balance continues its vi¬
bration a little way, in confequence of the impulfe it
has received from the a6tion of the inclined plane.
When this vibration is ended, by the oppofition of the
balance fpring, the balance will return, and the tooth
now in the pofition B, rubbing on the infide of the cy¬
linder, the balance comes back into its natural pofi¬
tion bed, with an accelerated motion by the a£tion of
its fpring, and would of itfelf vibrate as far as the other
fide. It is, however, affifted again by the tooth, which
preffes on the edge d, pufties it afide till it attain the pofi¬
tion k, when the tooth entirely efcapes from the cylin¬
der. At this inftant the other edge of the cylinder,
having attained the pofition /, is in the way of the next
tooth, which is now in the pofition A, while the balance
continues its vibration, the tooth refting and rubbing on
the outfide of the cylinder. When this vibration is finiffi-
ed, the balance, by the action of the fpring, refumes its
firft motion, and as foon as the balance gets into its na¬
tural pofition, the tooth begins to aft on the edge b,
pufties it afide, efcapes from it, and drops as before in the
infide of the cylinder. In this conftruftion the arch of
aftion or fcapement is 30° r= twice the angle which the
face of a tooth makes with the circumference.
It is neceffary to explain how the cylinder is conneft-
ed with the verge, fo as to make fuch a great revolution
round the tooth of the wheel. The triangular tooth
e b mh placed on the top of a little pillar fixed into
the end of the piece of brafs tn D formed in the rim of
the wheel. Thus the plane of the wedge tooth is pa-
xalleL
I
Watch.
=—V—
9
Lepaute’s
improve¬
ment.
Fig. 18.
and i^.
W A T'
rallel to tlie plane of the wheel, but at a fmall diitance
above it. The verge is reprefen ted at fig, 16. and con-
; iifts of a long hollow cylinder of caft Heel, having a
great portion of the metal cut out. If fpread out flat,
this cylinder would aflume the form of fig. 17.; and if
we conceive this flat piece rolled up till the’ edges GH
and G'H7 unite, we fliall have the exaft form. The
part a6ted on by the point of the tooth is denoted by
the dotted line b d, and the part .D, I, F, E ferves to
connedt the two ends.
This fcapement of Mr Graham is called a hvri'ZM-
tal fcapement, becaufe the balance is parallel to the
other wheels.
Another fcapement of a fuperior conftruclion w’as
contrived by M. Lepaute of Paris, and is of fuch a An¬
gular form as to render it extremely difficult toilluftrate
it by a figure. The reprefentations at fig. 18. and 19.
will, however, give general readers fome idea of its
mode of adfion, and a fkilful artift will eafily fee how
the feveral parts may be adapted to each other. ABC
fig. 18. reprefents part of the rim of the balance wheel,
having the pins x, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. projecting from its
faces ; the pins 1, 3, 5, being on the fide next the eye,
and the pins 2 and 4 on the oppofite fide. D is the
centre of the balance and verge, and the fmall circle
round D reprefents its thicknels. But the verge in this
place is crooked, that the rim of the wheel may not be
intercepted by it. To it is attached a piece of hard
tempered fleel abed, of which the part n b c is a con¬
cave arch of a circle, having D for its centre. It wants
about 30° of a femieircle. The reft erf is alfo an arch
of a circle having the fame radius with the balance,
wheel. In the natural pofition of the balance, a line
drawn from D, through the middle of the face cd is a
tangent to the circumference of the wheel. But if the
balance be turned round till the point d of the horn
come to a , and the point c come to 2 in the circumfe¬
rence in which the pins are placed, the pin preffing on
the beginning of the horn or pallet, puffies it afide, Hides
along it,, and efcapes at d, having generated a certain
velocity in the balance. Let another pallet fimilar to
that now deferibed be placed on the other fide of the
wheel, but in a contrary pofition, with the a6ting face
Ol the pallet turned away from the centre of the wheel.
Let it be fo placed at E, that the moment the pin 1 on
the upper fide of the wheel efcapes from the pallet c d,
the pin 4 on the lower fide of the wheel falls on the end
of the circular arch efg of the other pallet. Now, if the
pallets be conne&ed by equal pulleys G and F on the
axis of each, and a thread round both fo that they ftiall
turn one way j the balance on the axis D having received
an impulfe from the pin 1, will continue its motion from
A towards /, and will carry the other pallet with a fi-
milar motion round the centre E from h to L The pin 4
will therefore reft in the concave arch gfe as the pallet
turns round. When the force of the balance is fpent, the
pallet c d returns towards its firft pofition. The pallet
gh turns with it, and when the point of the firft has ar¬
rived at d, the beginnings of the other arrives at the pin
4 ; and, proceeding farther, this pin efcapes from the
concave arch efg, and Aides along the pallet gh, pufti-
mg it afide, and of courfe urging the pallet round the
centre.E, and the balance on the axis D round at the
-fame time, and in the fame direftion. The pin 4 efcapes
.-rom the pallet £■//, when h arrives at 3 j but while the
646 ] W A T
pm 4 is Aiding along the yielding pallet g/i, the pin 3 Watch,
is moving m the circumference BDA j and the inftant v**
that the pin 4 efcapes from /i at 3, the pin 3 arrives at
2, where the beginningcof the concave arch cb is readv
to receive it.. It therefore refts on this arch, while the
balance continues its motion, and this may continue till
the point b of the arch comes to 2. The balance now
flops, its force being fpent, and then returns 5 and the
pin 3 efcapes from the circle ate, Aides along the yield¬
ing pallet cd, and when it efcapes at 1, another pin on
the lower fide of the wheel arrives at 4, and finds the
arch gfe ready to receive it. And thus the vibration
of the balance will be continued.
From the above defeription we may deduce the pro¬
per dimenfions of the parts'of the pallet. Thus, the
length of the pallet c d or g h, muft be equal to the in¬
terval between two fucceeding pins, and the diftance of
the centres BE, muft be double of that interval. The
radius De or Eg, may be as fmall as we choofe. The
concave arches eba and gfe, muft be continued fo far
as to allow a pin to reft on them during the whole ex-
curfion of the balance. The angle of fcapement, in
which the balance remains under the influence of the
wheels, is obtained by drawing the lines D c and D d,
and we ftiall find that this angle eBc/ is here about 30°,
though it may be made either greater or lefs than this.
. Fig. 19. explains how the two pallets may be com- Fig. ip,
bined on one verge. KL is the verge with a pivot at
each end. It is bent like a crank MNO, to admit the
balance wheel between its branches. BC reprefents this
wheel, feen edgewife, with its pin alternately on differ¬
ent fides. I he pallets are alfo reprefented by bed and
Jigf fixed to the infrde of the branches of the crank, front¬
ing each other. The pofition of their adling faces may be
feen in the preceding figure, on the verge D, where the
pallet gh is reprefented by the dotted line 2 i', as fituat-
ed behind the pallet c d. The remote pallet 2 i is fo
placed, that when the point d of the near pallet is quit¬
ted by a pin 1 on the upper fide of the wheel, the angle
formed by the face and the arch of reft of the other pal¬
let is juft ready to receive the next pin 2, which lies on
the lower fide of the rim. It is plain that the a&ion
here will be the fame as if the pallets were on leparatc
axes. The pin 1 efcapes from d, and the pin 2 is receiv¬
ed on the arch of reft, and locks, the wheel, while the
oalance continues in motion. When the balance returns,
2 gets off the arch of reft, puffies afide the pallet 2/, e-
fcapes from it when 1 gets to 1, and then the point c is
ready to receive the pin 3, Sec. The vibrations may be
increafed by giving a fufficient impulfe through the angle
of fcapement, but they cannot exceed a certain quantity,
otherwife N, the top of the crank, would ftrike the rim
of the wheel. The vibrations may be eafily increafed
to 1800, by placing the pins at the very edge of the
wheel; and by placing them at the points of long teeth,
fo that the crank may get in between them, the vibra¬
tions may be carried to a much greater extent.
1 he conftruftion juft deferibed is exceedingly inge¬
nious; and if the machinery be well executed, this fcape¬
ment will excel the horizontal fcapement of Graham,
both as it has but two adling faces to form, and as it ad¬
mits of making the circle of reft extremely fmall, with¬
out le.ffeni.ng the afting face of the pallet. The con-
ftru&ion is, however, very delicate and difficult, and
muft require a very nice workman.
An
PLATE DLMH.
jy.
c
Ts*r . / <3 .
WATCH WORK.
W A T
Watch An excellent fcapement of much more eafy conftruc-
,11 tion, is,that commonly called Duplaie's fcapement^ and
J^ter' ■ with this we (hall conclude our account of watch-work.
I0 Fig. 20. reprefents the effential parts fomewhat magni-
luplaie’s fied. AD a portion of the balance-wheel, having teeth
apement. at the circumference. Thefe teeth are for pro-
rS*20, ducing the rejl of the wheel, while the balance is ma¬
king excurfions beyond the fcapement. This is effefted
by an agate cylinder spg, on the verge. This cylinder
has a notch o. When the cylinder turns round in the
direftion opg, the notch eafily paffes the tooth B which
js refting on the cylinder furface ; but when it returns in
the direction qpo, the tooth B gets into the notch, and
follows it, prefling on one fide of it till the notch comes
into the pofition o. The tooth being then in the pofi-
tion //, efcapes from the notch, and another tooth drops
on the convex furface of the cylinder at B. The ba¬
lance-wheel is alfo furnifhed with a fet of flat-fided pins,
{landing upright on its rim reprefented by a D. There
is likewife fixed on the verge a larger cylinder GFC
above the fmaller one opq, with its lower furface clear
of the wheel, and having a pallet C, of fapphire, firmly
indented into it, and proje&ing fo far as to keep clear
of the pins on the wheel. The pofition of this cylinder,
with refpefl to the fmaller one below it, is fuch that
the tooth b being efcaped from the notch, the pallet C
has juft paft the pin a, which was at A while B refted
on the fmall cylinder *, but it moved from A to a, wkile
B moved to b. The wheel being now at liberty, the
pin a exerts its preflure on the pallet C in the moft di¬
rect manner, and gives it a ftrong impulfion, following
and accelerating it till another tooth flops on the little
cylinder. The angle of fcapement depends partly on the
projection of the pallet, and partly on the diameter of
the fmall cylinder, and the advance of the tooth B into
the notch. Independent of the aCtion on the fmall cy¬
linder, the angle of fcapement would be the whole arch
of the larger cylinder between C and k. But a flops be¬
fore it be clear of the pallet, and the arch of impulfion
is (hortened by all the fpace defcribed by the pin while
a tooth moves from B to It flops at d.
For an account of other fcapements we muft refer our
readers to the Mernoh's of th.e Academy of Sciences at
Paris for 1748, Cumming’s Elements of Clock and Watch-
work, a French work entitled Machines approuve'es par
PAcademic des Sciences, and Young’s LeElures on Na¬
tural Philofophy, vol. i. p. 193, and Plate 16, vol. ii.
p. 193.
WATCHING, in Medicine, is when the patient
cannot fleep. In fevers it is a dangerous fymptom, and
if long continued ends in a delirium.
WATER, a well known fluid, diffufed through the
atmofphere, and over the furface of the globe, and
abounding in a certain proportion in animals, vegetables,
and minerals.
The ufes of water are fo univerfally known, that it
would be fuperfluous to enumerate them in this article.
It is eflential to animal and vegetable life ; it makes eafy
the intercourfe between the moft diftant regions of the
world ; and it is one of the moft ufeful powers in the
mechanic arts. It is often found combined with various
fubftances, and is then frequently beneficial in curing or
alleviating difeafes.
Thofe properties of water which fit it for anfwering
mechanical purpofes are explained in other articles of
WAT
this work (fee Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, N° 3. Water.
Resistance, and Rivers) 5 and for the difcovery of'"“““V"”
the compofition of water, fee CHEMISTRY Index.
Mineral WATERS. For the method of analyfing them,
fee alfo Chemistry Index.
Under the title of MINERAL iMaters, Ave have given
an analyfis of the moft remarkable waters in Europe.
Holy WATER, which is made ufe of in the church of
Rome, as alfo by the Greeks, and by the other Chri-
ftians of the Eaft of all denominations, is water ivith a
mixture of fait,, blefled by a prieft according to a fet
form of benediction. It is ufed in the blefling of per-
fons, things, and places j and is likewife confidered as a
ceremony to excite pious thoughts in the minds of the
faithful.
The priefts, in blefling it, firft, in the name of God,
commands the devils not to hurt the perfons ivho (hall
be Iprinkled with it, nor to abufe the things, nor dif-
quiet the places, which fhall likewife be fo fprinkled.
He then prays that health, fafety, and the favour of
heaven, may be enjoyed by fuch perfons, and by thofe
who fhall ufe fuch things, or dwell in fuch places. Veft-
ments, veflels, and other fuch things that are fet apart
for d ivine fervice, are fprinkled ivith it. It is fometimes
fprinkled on cattle, with an intention to free or pre-
ferve them from diabolical enchantments •, and in fome
ritual books there are prayers to be faid on fuch oc-
cafions, by which the fafety of fuch animals, as being a
temporal blefling to the pofleffors, is begged of God,
whofe providential care is extended to all his creatures.
The hope which Catholics entertain of obtaining fuch
good effedls from the devout ufe of holy water, is
grounded on the promife made to believers by Chrift
(St Mark xvi. 17.), and on the general efficacy of the
prayers of the church j the petition of which prayers
God is often pleafed to grant; though fometimes, in his
Providence, he fees it not expedient to do fo. That
fuch effefts have been produced by holy water in a re¬
markable manner, has been aflerted by many authors of
no fmall weight ; as, namely, by St Epiphanius, Haer.
30th; St Hierom, in the Life of St Hilarion ; Theo-
doret Hif. Eccl.Aib. v. cap. 21. 3 Palladius, ////?. Laif;
Bede, lib. v. cap. 4.
As a ceremony (fays the Catholic), water brings to
our remembrance our baptifm 3 in which, by water, we
were cleanfed from original fin. It alfo puts us in mind
of that purity of confcience which we ought to endea¬
vour always to have, but efpccially when we are going-
to worlhip our God. The fait, which is put into the
Avater to preffirve it from corrupting, is- alfo a figure of
divine grace, which preferves our fouls fr<«n the corrup¬
tion of fin 3 and is likewife an emblem of that wifdorn
and diferetion which ought to feafon every adlion that a
Chriftian does, and every word that he fays. It is ivont
to be blefled and fprinkled in churches on Sundays, in
the beginning of the fblemn office. It is kept in veflels
at the doors of the fame churches, that it may be taken
by the faithful as they enter in. It is alfo often kept in
private houfes and chambers.
Putrid WATER, is that which has acquired an offen-
five fmell and tafte by the putrefcence of animal or ve¬
getable fubftances contained in it. It is in the highefl:
degree pernicious to the human frame, and capable of
bringing on mortal difeafes even by its fmell. It is not
always from the apparent muddinefs of waters that Ave
can
r 647 1
WAT [ 648 ] W A T
'Water. Can judge of tlieir difpofition to putrefy j fome which it unneceffary to ufe more than a third part of the char-
are feemingly very pure, being more apt to become pu- coal powder which would otherwife be wanted j and the
trid than others which appear much more mixed with lefs of that powder is employed, the lefs is the quantity
rr J — .1 .t.i. A  - 0£ water £0fl. by ,-be operation, which, in fea-voyages, is
Water,
heterogeneous matters. Under the article Animalcule,
N° 33, is mentioned a fpecies of infe£ts which have the
property of making water {link to an incredible degree,
though their bulk in proportion to the fluid which fur-
rounds them is lefs than that of one to a million. Other
fubftances no doubt there are which have the fame pro¬
perty ; and hence almoft all water which is confined
from the air is apt to become offenfive, even though
kept in glafs or ftoneware veflels. Indeed it is a common
obfervation, that water keeps much longer fweet in
glafs veflels, or in thofe of earthen or ftoneware, than in
tbofe of wood, where it is exceedingly apt to putrefy.
Hence, as ftiips can only be fupplied with water kept in
wooden cafks, failors are extremely liable to thofe dif-
eafes which arife from putrid water 5 and the difeovery
of a method by which water could eafily be prevented
from becoming putrid at fea would be exceedingly va¬
luable. This may indeed be done by quicklime ; for
when water is impregnated with it, all putrefeent mat¬
ters are either totally deftroyed, or altered in fuch a
manner as never to be capable of undergoing the putre-
faftive fermentation again. But a continued ufe of lime-
water could not fail of being pernicious, and it is there¬
fore neceflary to throw down the lime; after which the
water will have all the purity neceflary for preferving it
free from putrefa&ion. This can only be done by means
of fixed air; and mere expofure in broad {hallow veflels to
the atmofphere would do it without any thing elfe, only
taking care to break the cruft which formed upon it.
Two methods, however, have been thought of for doing
this with more expedition. The one, invented by Dr
Alfton, is, by throwing into the water impregnated with
lime a quantity of magnefia. The lime attrafts fixed
air more powerfully than magnefia ; in confequence of
which the latter parts with it to the lime : and thus be¬
coming infoluble, falls along with the cauftic magnefia
to the bottom, and thus leaves the water perfeflly pure.
Another method is that of Mr Henry, who propofes to
throw down the lime by means of an effervefeing mix¬
ture of oil of vitriol and chalk put down to the bottom
of the water calk. His apparatus for this purpofe is as
Ample as it can well be made, though it is hardly pro¬
bable that failors will give themfelves the trouble of
ufing it ; and Dr Alfton’s fcheme would feem better
calculated for them, were it not for the expence of the
magnefia ; which indeed is the only obje&ion made to
it by Mr Henry. Putrid water may be reftored and
made potable by a procefs of the fame kind.
Of late it has been difeovered that charcoal pofleflfes
many unexpected properties, and, among others, that of
preferving water from corruption, and of purifying it af¬
ter it has been corrupted. Mr Lowitz, whofe experi¬
ments on charcoal have been publifhed in Crell’s Che¬
mical Journal, has turned his attention to this fubjeCt in
a memoir read to the Economical Society at Peterf-
burgh. He found that the effeCt of charcoal was ren¬
dered much more fpeedy by ufing along with it fome
fulphuric acid. One ounpe and a half of charcoal in
powder, and 24 drops of concentrated fulphuric acid
t oil of vitriol), are fufficient to purify three pints and a
half of corrupted water, and do not communicate to it
any fenfible acidity. Ibis fmall quantity of acid renders
an objeCt worthy of confideration. In proportion to the
quantity of acid made ufe of, the quantity of charcoal
may be diminifhed or augmented. All acids produce
nearly the fame effeCts : neutral falts alfo, particularly
nitre and fea-falt, may be ufed, but fulphuric acid is pre-
terable to any of thefe ; water which is purified by
means of this acid and charcoal will keep a longer time
than that which is purified by charcoal alone. When
wre mean to purify any given quantity of corrupted wa¬
ter, we Ihould begin by adding to it as much powder of
charcoal as is neceflary to deprive it entirely of its bad
fmell. To afeertain whether that quantity of powdered
charcoal was fufficient to effeft the clarification of the
faid water, a fmall quantity of it may be pafled through
a linen bag, two or three inches long; if the water,
thus filtrated, ftill has a turbid appearance, a frefh quan¬
tity of powdered charcoal muft be added, till it is be¬
come perfedlly clear: the whole of the water may then
be pafled through a filtering bag, the fize of which ffiould
be proportioned to the quantity of water. If fulphuric
acid, or any other, can be procured, a fmall quantity
of it ftiould be added to the water, before the charcoal
powder.
The cleaning of the cafks in which water is to be
kept in fea-voyages ffiould never be negledled : they
fliould be well waffied with hot water and fand, or with
any other fubftance capable of removing the mucilagi¬
nous particles, and afterwards a quantity of charcoal
duft Ihould be employed, which will entirely deprive
them of the mufty or putrid fmell they may have con-
tradled.—The charcoal ufed for purifying water ffiould.
be well burnt, and afterwards beat into a fine powder.
Sea-WATER. See SEA-Water.
IVATER-Carts, carriages conftrudled for the purpofe
of watering the roads for feveral miles round London ;
a precaution abfolutely neceflary near the metropolis,
where, from fuch a vaft daily influx of carriages and
horfes, the duft would otherwife become quite infuffer-
able in hot dry weather. Pumps are placed at proper
diftances to fupply thefe carts.
WATER-Ordeal. See OrDEAL.
Water, among jewellers, is properly the colour or
luftre of diamonds and pearls. The term, though lefs
properly, is fometimes ufed for the hue or colour of
other ftones.
WATER-Be//ows. See Machines for blowing Air in¬
to Furnaces.
IVATER-Colours, in Painting, are fuch colours as are
only diluted and mixed up with gum-water, in eontra-
diftin&ion to oil-colours. See COLOUR-Making.
IVATER-Gang, a channel cut to drain a place by car¬
rying off a ftream of water.
IVATER-Hen. See Parra, Ornithology Index.
WATER-Lmes of a Ship, certain horizontal lines fup-
pofed to be drawn about the outfide of a fliip’s bottom,
clofe to the furface of the water in which ftie floats.
They are accordingly higher or lower upon the bottom,
in proportion to the depth of the column of water re¬
quired to float her.
JVATER-Logged, the ftate of a fhip when, by receiving
a great quantity of water into the hold, by leaking, S-c.
{he
WAT
Water¬
logged
II
Water-
fpout.
ftie has become heavy and ina&ive upon the fea, fo as to
yield without refiftance to the efforts of every wave rurti-
ing over her decks. As, in this dangerous fituation, the
centre of gravity is no longer fixed, but flu&uating from
— place to place, the liability of the fiiip is utterly loft :
the is therefore almoft totally deprived of the ufe of her
fails, which would operate to overfet her, or prefs the
head under ivater. Hence there is no refource foV the
crew, except to free her by the pumps, or to abandon
her by the boats as foon as poflible.
IVaiER-Sau, a fmall fail fpread occafionally under
the lower ftudding-fail, or driver boom, in a fair wind
and fmooth fea.
Water-Ouzel. See Turdus, Ornithology Index.
IVsITER-Spout, an extraordinary meteor, confifting of
a large mafs of water colletfted into a fort of column, and
moved with rapidity along the furface of the ft a.
The beft account of the water-fpout which we have
met with is in the Phil. 1 ranf. Abridged, vol. iii. as
obferved by Mr Jofeph Harris, May 21. 1732, about
funfet, lat. 3 20 30' N.; long. 90 E. from Cape Florida.
“ When firft we law the fpout (fays he), it was whole
and entire, and much of the ftiape and proportion of a
fpeaking trumpet; the fmall end being downwards, and
reaching to the lea, and the big end terminated in a
black thick cloud. T. he fpout itfelf was very black,
and the more fo the higher up. It feemed to be exaft-
ly perpendicular to the horizon, and its fides perfectly
fmooth, without the leaft ruggednefs. Where it fell
the fpray of the fea rofe to a confiderable height, which
made fomewhat the appearance of a great fmoke. From
the firft time we far it, it continued whole about a mi¬
nute, and till it was quite diftipated about three minutes.
It -began to wafte from below', and fo gradually up,
while the upper part remained entire, without any vi-
fible alteration, till at laft it ended in the black cloud
above ; upon which there feemed to fall a very heavy
rain in that neighbourhood—There was but little wind,
and the Iky elfewhere wras pretty ferene.”
Water-fpouts have by fome been fuppofed to be mere¬
ly ele&rical in their origin 5 particularly by Signior
Beccaria, who fupported his opinion by fome experi¬
ments. But if we attend to the fucceflive phenomena
neceflary to conftitute a complete w'ater-fpout through
their various ftages, we {hall be convinced, that recourfe
muft be had to fome other principle in order to obtain a
complete folution.
Dr Franklin, in his Phyfical and Meteorological Ob-
fervations, fuppofes a water-fpout and a whirlwind to pro¬
ceed from the fame caufe ; their only difference being,
that the latter paffes over the land, and the former over
the water. This opinion is corroborated by M. de la
Pryme, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, where he de-
fcribes two fpouts obferved at different times in York-
fliire, whofe appearances in the air w'ere exaftly like
thofe of the fpouts at fea, and their effe<Ts the fame as
thofe of real whirlwinds.
A fluid moving from all points horizontally towards
a centre, muft at that centre either mount or defcend.
If a hole be opened in the middle of the bottom of a
tub filled with water, the w'ater will flow from all fides
to the centre, and there defcend in a whirl: but air
flowing on or near the furface of land or water, from all
fides towards a centre, muft at that centre afcend j be-
caule the land or -water will hinder its defcfent.
Vol. XX. Part II.
f 649 1
WAT
The doflor, in proceeding to explain his conceptions,,
begs to be allowed two or three pofitions, as a founda¬
tion for his hypothefis. 1. That the lower region of air
is often more heated, and fo more rarefied, than the up¬
per, and by confequence fpecifically lighter. The cold-
nefs of the upper region is manifefted by the hail, which
falls from it in warm weather. 2. That heated air may
be very moift, and yet the moifture fo equally diffufed
and rarefied as not to be vifible till colder air mixes with
it j at which time it condenfes and becomes vifible.
1 hus our breath, although invifible in fummer, becomes
vifible in winter.
Thefe circumftances being granted, he prefuppofes a
traft of land or fea, of about 60 miles in extent, un-
fheltered by clouds and unrefrefhed by the wind, during
a fummer’s day, or perhaps for feveral days without in-
termiflion, till it becomes violently heated, together with
the lower region of the air in contaft wfith it ; fo that
the latter becomes fpecifically lighter than the fuperin-
cumbent higher region of the atmofphere, wherein the
clouds are ufually floated : he fuppofes alfo that the air
furrounding this traft has not been fo much heated du¬
ring thofe days, and therefore remains heavier. The
confequence of this, he conceives, (hould be, that the
heated lighter air fhould afcend, and the heavier de¬
fcend ; and as this rifing cannot operate throughout the
whole tradl at once, becaufe that would leave too ex-
tenfive a vacuum, the riling will begin preeifely in that
column which happens to be lighted or moft rarefied j
and the warm air will flow horizontally from all parts
of this column, where the feveral currents meeting, and
joining to rife, a whirl is naturally formed, in the fame
manner as a whirl is formed in a tub of water, by the
defcending fluid receding from all fides of the tub to¬
wards the hole in the centre.
And as the feveral currents arrive at this central
rifing column with a confiderable degree of horizontal
motion, they cannot fuddenly change it to a vertical
motion : therefore as they gradually, in approaching
the whirl, decline from right to curve or circular lines,
fo, having joined the whirl, they afcend by a fpiral mo¬
tion ; in the fame manner as the water defcends fpirally
through the hole in the tub before mentioned.
Laftly, as the lower air neareft the furface is more
rarefied by the heat of the fun, it is more impreffed by
the current of the furrounding cold and heavy air which
is to aflame its place, and confequently its motion to¬
wards the whirl is fwifteft, and fo the force of the
lower part of the whirl Urongeft, and the centrifugal
force of its particles greateft. Hence the vacuum which
inclofes the axis of the whirl fhould be greateft near the
earth or fea, and diminifli gradually as it approaches the
region of the clouds, till it ends in a point.
This circle is of various diameters, foinetimes very-
large.
If the vacuum paffes over water, the water may rife
in a body or column therein to the height of about 32
feet. The whirl of air may be as invifible as the air
itfelf, though reaching in reality from the water to the
region of cool air, in which our low fummer thunder¬
clouds commonly float ; but it will foon become vifible
at its extremities. The agitation of the water under
the whirling of the circle, and the fwelling and rifing
of the water in the commencement of the vacuum, ren¬
der it vifible below. It is perceived above by the
4 ^ warm
Wiiter-
fpoat,
Water¬
works.
i—
WAT [ 65
warm air being brought up to the cooler region, where
its moifture begins to be condenfed by the cold into
thick vapour, and is then firft difcovered at the Mgheft
^ part, which being now cooled condenfes what rifes be¬
hind it, and this latter a£ts in the fame manner on the
fucceeding body 5 where, by the contact of the vapours,
the cold operates fafter in a right line downwards, than
the vapours themfelves can climb in a fpiral line up¬
wards: they climb however j and as by continual ad¬
dition they grow denfer, and by confequence increafe
their centrifugal force, and being rifen above the con¬
centrating currents that compofe the whirl, they fly off,
and form a cloud.
It feems eafy to conceive, how, by this fucceflive con¬
densation from above, the fpout appears to drop or de-
fcend from the cloud, although the materials of which
it is compofed are all the while afcending. The con-
denfation of the moifture contained in fo great a quan¬
tity of warm air as may be fuppofed to rife in a fliort
time in this prodigioufly rapid whirl, is perhaps fufficient
to form a great extent of cloud; and the friftion of the
whirling air on the Tides of the column may detach
great quantities of its water, difperfe them into drops,
and carry them up in the fpiral whirl mixed with the
air. The heavier drops may indeed fly off, and fall in¬
to a fhccver about the fpout; but much of it will be
broken into vapour, and yet remain vifible.
As the whirl weakens, the tube may apparently fe-
parate in the middle; the column of water fubfiding,
the fuperior condenfed part drawing up to the cloud.
The tube or whirl of air may neverthelefs remain en¬
tire, the middle only becoming invifible, as not contain¬
ing any vifible matter.
Dr Lindfay, however, in feveral letters publilhed in
the Gentleman’s Magazine, has controverted this theory
of Dr Franklin, and endeavoured to prove that water-
fpouts and whirlwinds are diftimft phenomena; and that
the water which forms the water-fpout, does not a-
fcend from the fea, as Dr Franklin fuppofes, but de-
fcends from the atmofphere. Our limits do not permit
us to infert his arguments here, but they may be feen
in the Gentleman’s Magazine, volume li. p. 559, 615 ;
vol. liii. p. 1025; and vol. Iv. p. 594. We cannot
avoid obferving, however, that he treats Dr Franklin
with a degree of afperitv to which he is by no means
entitled, and that his arguments, even if conclufive,
prove nothing more than thatfome water-fpouts certain¬
ly defcend; which Dr Franklin hardly ever ventur¬
ed to deny. There are fome very valuable differtations
on this fubjeft by Profelfor Wilcke of Upfal.
WATER-Work r. Under this name may be com¬
prehended almoft every hydraulic ftrufture or contri¬
vance; fuch as, canals, conduits, locks, mills, water en¬
gines, &c. But they may be conveniently arranged
under two general heads, ift, Works which have for
their objeft the conducing, raifing, or otherwife ma¬
naging, of water; and, 2dly, Works which derive their
efficacy from the impulfe or other aftion of water.
Theyf/y? clafs comprehends the methods of limply con¬
ducting water in aquedufls or in pipes for the fupply of
domeftic confumption or the working of machinery :
It comprehends alfo the methods of procuring the fup-
plies neceflary for thefe purpofes, by means of pumps,
water, or fire engines. It alfo comprehends the fub-
5
o ] ‘ WAT
fequent management of the water thus conduced,
whether in order to make the proper diftribution of it
according to the demand, or to employ it for the pur-
pofe of navigation, by lockage, or other contrivances.
—And in the profecution of thefe things many fubor-
dinate problems will occur, in which pradice will de¬
rive great advantages from a fcientific acquaintance
with the' fubjeft. The fccond clafs of water-works is
of much greater variety, comprehending almoft every
kind of hydraulic machine ; and would of itfelf fill
volumes. Many of thefe have already occurred in va¬
rious articles of this Diftionary. In defcribing or treat¬
ing them, we have tacitly referred the difcufiion of
their general principles, in which they all referable
each other, to fome article where they could be taken
in a connected body, fufceptible of general feientific dif-
cuflion, independent of the circumftances which of ne-
ceffity Introduced the particular modifications required
by the ufes to which the ftru&ures were to be applied.
That part of the prefent article, therefore, which em¬
braces thefe common principles, will chiefly relate to
the theory of water mills, or rather of water wheels ;
becaufe, when the neceffary motion is given to the axis
of the water wheel, this may be fet to ths performance
of any talk whatever.
Water¬
works.
CLASS I.
I. Of the conducing of water.
This is undoubtedly a bufinefs of great importance,
and makes a principal part of the pra&ice of the civil
engineer: It is alfo a bufinefs fo imperfeftly underftood,
that we believe that very few engineers can venture to
fay, with tolerable precifion, what will be the quantity
of water which his work -will convey, or what plan and
dimenfions of conduit will convey the quantity which
may be propofed. For proof of this we ihall only refer
our readers to the fafts mentioned in the article Ri¬
vers, N° 27, &.c.
In that article we have given a fort of hiftory of the
progrefs of our knowledge in hydraulics, a branch of
mechanical philofophy which feems to have been entire¬
ly unknown to the ancients. Even Archimedes, the
author of almoft all that we know in hydroftatics, feems
to have been entirely ignorant of any principles by
which he could determine the motion of water. The
mechanical fcience of the ancients feems to have reach¬
ed no farther than the doftrine of equilibrium among
bodies at reft. Guglielmini firft ventured to confider
the motion of water in open canals and in rivers. Its
motion in pipes had been partially confidered in de¬
tached fcraps by others, but not fo as to make a body
of do&rine. Sir Ifaac Newton firft endeavoured to
render hydraulics fufceptible of mathematical demon-
ftration : But his fundamental propofition has not yet
been freed from very ferious objections; nor have the
attempts of his fucceffors, fuch as the Bernoullis, Euler,
D’Alembert, and others, been much more fuccefsful:
fo that hydraulics may ftill be confidertd as very im-
perfeCt, and the general conclufions which we are ap-
cuftomed to receive as fundamental propoiitions are not
much better than matters of obfervation, little fupported
by principle, and therefore requiring the moft fcrupu-
i @tr- X
! ftffc' »
XT--
hi
»»k :
h>
WAT
vVater- lous caution in the application of them to any hitherto
works, untried cafe. When experiments are multiplied fo as
—jnc]uje as great a variety of cafes as poflible •, and
when thefe are cleared of extraneous circumftances, and
properly arranged, we muft receive the conelunons
drawn from them as the general laws of hydraulics.
The experiments of the abhe Boffut, narrated in his Hi/-
drodynnmique, are of the greateft value, having been
made in the cafes of moft general frequency, and being
made with great care. The greateft fervice, however,
has been done by the chevalier Buat, who faw the
folly of attempting to deduce an accurate theory from
any principles that we have as yet learned , and the ne-
cefTity of adhering to fuch a theory as could be deduced
from experiment alone, independent of any more gene¬
ral principles. Such a theory mult be a juft one, if the
experiments are really general, unafife&ed by the parti¬
cular circumftances of the cafe, and if the clafies of ex¬
periment are fufficiently comprehenfive to include all
the cafes which occur in the moft important practical
queftions. Some principle was neceffary, however, for
connefting thefe experiments. The fufficiency of this
principle was not eafily afeertained. M. Buat’s way of
eftablilhing this was judicious. If the principle is ill-
founded, the refults of its combination in cafes of actual
experiments muft be irregular ; but if experiments,
feemingly very unlike, and in a vaft variety of diftimilar
cafes, give a train of refults which is extremely regular
and confiftent, we may prefume that the principle, which
in this manner harmonizes and reconciles things fo un¬
like, is founded in the nature of things *, and if this
principle be fuch as is agreeable to our cleareft notions
ef the internal mechanifra of the motions of fluids, our
prefumption approaches to convi&ion.
Proceeding in this way, the chevalier Buat has col-
le&ed a prodigious number of faffs, comprehending al-
moft every cafe of the motion of fluids. He firft clafled
them according to their refemblance in fome one parti¬
cular, and obferved the differences which accompanied
their differences in other circumftances j and by conftder*
ing what could produce thefe differences, he obtained
general rules, deduced from faff, by which thefe dif¬
ferences could be made to fall into a regular feries. He
then arranged all the experiments under fome other
circumftances of refemblance, and purfued the fame me¬
thod j and by following this out, he has produced a ge¬
neral propefition, which applies to the whole of this
[ 651 ] w ,A T
numerous lift of experiments with a precifion far exceed¬
ing our utmoft hopes. This propofttion is contained in ^
N° 59. of the article Rivers, and is there oftered as
one of the moft valuable refults of modern fcience.
We muft, however, obferve, that of this lift of ex¬
periments there is a very large clais, which is not di-
re£t, but requires a good deal of reflection to enable us
to draw a confident conclufion 5 and this is m caies
which are very frequent and important, viz. where the
declivity is exceedingly fmall, as in open canals and
rivers. The experiments Were of the following forms :
Two large citterns were made to communicate with
each other by means of a pipe. The furtaces of the
water in thefe cifterns were made to differ only by a
fmall fraCtion of an inch : and it is fuppofed that the
motion in the communicating pipe will be the fame a$
in a very long pipe, or an open canal, having this very
minute declivity. We have no difficulty in admitting
the conclufion j but we have feen it contefted, and it is
by no means intuitive. We had entertained hopes that
this important cafe would have been determined by direft
experiments, which the writer of this article was com-
miftioned to make by the Board for Encouraging Im¬
provements and Manufactures in Scotland : But the in¬
firm ftate of his health was always an effectual bar to
the accomplifhment of this deArable objeCt. This, how¬
ever, need not occafion any hefitation in the adoption
of M. Buat’s general propofition, becaufe the experi¬
ments which we are now criticifing fall in precifely with
the general train of the reft, and fhow no general de¬
viation which would indicate a fallacy in principle.
We apprehend it to be quite unneceffary to add much
to what has been already delivered on the motion of wa¬
ters in an open canal. Their generalprogrejjive mo¬
tion, and confequently the quantity delivered by an
aqueduCt of any flope and dimenfion, are fufficiently de¬
termined ; and all that is wanted is the tables which
we promifed in N° 65. of the article Rivers, by which
any perfon who underftands common arithmetic may,
in five minutes time or lefs, compute the quantity of
water which will be delivered by the aquedud, canal,
conduit, or pipe 5 for the theorem in N° 59. of this ar¬
ticle applies to them all without diftinCtion. We there¬
fore take this opportunity of inferting thefe . tables,
which have been computed on purpofe for this work
with great labour.
4 N 2
Water*.
works.
Table
WAT
[ 652 ]
Wat
Table I. LoSaruJms of thl Values of ,le Nu^asor of ,ke VraSion w,.y Fo/af of tlc
mean Depth d : Alfu the Value of 0,3 (  0,1)/
’3
to,5
),6
>.7
>,8
>>9
>o
,1
,2
>3
Ii4
»5
,6
x»7
1,8
r>9
2,0
2.1
2.2
2>3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2,9
3,
3,
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4, °
4
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
1.82208
2.02786
2,I3753
2.21343
2.27040
2.31618
2-3 5441
2.38719
2.41588
2.44138
2.46431
2.48518
2.50426
2.52185
2.53818
M5345
2.56769
2.58112
2.59381
2.60580
2.61713
2.62803
2.63839
2.64827
2.65772
2.66681
2.67556
2.68395
2.69207
2.69989
2.70743
2.71472
2.72181
2.72866
2-7 3 531
2.74178
2.74805
2,754I7
2.76009
2.76589
2-77I53
2.77704
2.78240
2.7876c
2.79277
2.79779
2.80269
2.80747
0,06
0,1
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,2
0,22
0,24
0,25
0,27
0,28
o,3
0,31
0,32
°,34
°,35
°,36
o,37
0,38
o,39
0,4
0,41
0,42
°,44
°,45
°,45
0,46
o,47
0,48
o,49
o,5
0,51
0,52
o,53
o,53
o,54
o,55
0,56
0,56
o,57
0,58
o,59
o,59
0,6
0,6
0,6 r
0,62
0,63
4,9
5,o
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6,0;
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7,o
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8.1
8.2
*,3
u
!,5
8,6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9,
9,
9,
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
2.81216
2.81674
2.82125
2.82567
2.83000
2.83222
2.83840
2.84248
2.84648
2.85043
2-85431
2.85812
2.86185
2.86554
2.86916
2.87271
2.87622
2.87966
2.88306
2.88641
2.88971
2.89296
2.89614
2.89930
2.90241
2.90549
2.90851
2-91150
2.91445
2.91734
2.92022
2.92305
2.92584
2.92860
2-93133
2-93403
2.93670
2-93933
2.94192
2.94449
2.94703
2-94954
2.95202
2-95447
2.95690
2-95930
2.96167
2.96402
0,63
0,63
0,65
0,65
0,66
0,67
0,67
0,68
0,68
0,69
0,69
°>7
°,7
0,71
0,72
°,73
o,73
°»74
o,75
o,75
0,76
0,76
°>77
o,77
0,78
0,78
o,79
o,79
0,8
0,8
0,81
0,82
0,82
0,83
0,83
0,84
0,84
0,85
0,85
0,86
0,86
0,87
0,87
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,89
0,9
9,9
|i°
|i 1
12
13
14
15
16
n
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
2 96634
2.96865
2.97093
2.97319
2.99454
3.01401
3.03189
3-04843
3-06383
3 07820
3.09170
3.10441
3.11644
3-12783
3-13867
3.14899
3-i5885
3.16828
3-17734
3.18601
3-19438
3.20243
3.21020
3.21770
3.22495
3.23196
3-23877
3-24537
3-25176
3-25799
3.26404
3.26993
3.27566
3.28125
3.28669
3.29201
3.29720
3.30227
3.30722
3.31207
3.31681
3-32I45
3-32599
3-33043
3-3348o
3-33908
3-34327
0,9
0,91
0,91
0,92
°,97
1,01
2,05
1,09
MS
M7
1,21
1,24
1,28
I»34
1,38
1,41
M4
M7
!,5
J»53
M6
*♦58
1,61
1,64
1,67
2,69
1,72
i,74
i,77
i,79
1,82
1,84
1,87
1,89
i,9j
i,93
i,95
1,98
2,00
2,03
2,05
2,07
2,09
2, u
2,13
2,15
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7
71
72
! 73
74
75
76
77
78
79
8c
81
82
8
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
3-34738
3-35143
3-35539
3-35928
3-36312
3.36687
3-37057
3-37421
3-37778
3-38130
3-38477
3-38817
3-39158
3-39483
3-39809
3.40130
3.40446
3.40758
3-4io65
3-41369
3.41667
3.41962
3-42253
3.42540
3.42823
3-43103
3-4338o
3-43653
3-43923
3.44189
3-44452
3.44712
3.44968
3.45222
3-45473
3-45721
3-45965
3.46208
3.46448
3.46685
3.46920
3-47152
3-4738i
3.47608
3-47833
3.48056
3.48277
2,17
2,19
2,21
2,23
2,25
2,27
2,3
2,31
2-33
2,35
2,37
2,39
2.41
2.42
2,44
2,46
2.48
2.49
2,51
2,53
2,55
2.57
2.58
2,60
2.62
2.63
2,65
2,67
2,69
2,7
2,72
2.74
2.75
2,77
2.76
2,79
2,81
2,83
2.85
2.86
2.88
2.89
2,91
2.93
2.94
2.95
2,97
Table,
W A T
[ 653 ]
W A T
Table II. Logarithm of the Values of the Denominator of the Fracllon ——°’1^- for every of Value of the Slopes,
f S —~-\u J -{“
1,0
1,1
1,2
1.3
1.4
1.6
f,7
1,
i,
2,0
2.1
2.2
2’3
2>4
2>5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2,9
3,0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4,o
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5,c
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
■5,5
5.6
5.7
5.8
Log. of 
’ — L\f ,4-i.
6.3
6.4
6,8
6,9
17,0
7.1
7.2
97t784
9.74210
9.76388
9.78376
9.80202
9.81882
9.83461
9.84930
0.86314
9.87622
9.88857
0.00031
9-9115.3
9.92267
9-93 247
9.94231
9*95173
9.96085
9.96942
9.97818
9.98632
9.99427
0.00200
0.00945
0.01669
0.02373
0.030^4
0.03733
0.04383
' 0.05015
0.05638
0.06245
0.06839
0.07412
0.07898
0-08533
0.09081
0.09615
0,10131
0.10644
0.11147
0.11635
o.12108
°-I2595
0.13061
°-l35i9
0.13970
0.14410
0.14844
°-I5274
0.15697
0.16113
0.16522
0.16927
°-I7322
0,17713
0.18099
0.184.77
0.18854
0.19229
0.19 584
0.19886
0.20298
s.
7,3
7,4:
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8,6
8.7
8.8
9,0
9
9.2
9.3
9.4
9
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10,
r9
20
21
22
23
24
2 5
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
3 5
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Log. of
— L \/ +
1.6
O.2065I
0.20997
O.21336
O.21674
O.22I09
0.22335
O.22663
O.22982
O.23297
O.2361I
O.23923
O.24229
O.24532
O.24832
O.25I28
O.25422
O.25709
O.25996
O.26281
O.26560
O.26839
O.27116
O.27387
O.27656
O.2792I
O.28186
O.2845O
O.28709
0.3117b
0-33425
O.35488
0.37420
0-39235
0.40926
O.42521
0.44028
0-45439
O.46776
0.48044
O.49262
0.50433
°-51548
0.52621
0-53656
o.54654
0.55606
o. ;6 C26
0.57415
c.58263
o-59°95
o-59901
0.60692
0.61448
0.62180
0.62900
0.63599
0.64276
0.64933
0.65571
0.66200
0.66811
0.67413
45
46
47
48
49
54
5
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7
7'
7
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
°7
88
89
90
Log. of
xTs— L-v/.r-fl
97
98
99
100
110
I 2C
130
140
r50
160
0.67997
0.68574
0.69135
0.69688
0.70226
0.70749
0.71265
0.71767
0.72263
0.72746
0.73 223
0.73695
0.74155
0.74601
0.75043
0.75481
0.75906
0.76328
0.76745
0.77151
0.78276
0-77945
0.78333
0.78718
0.79092
0.76463
0.79824
0.80182
0.80536
0.80882
0.81231
0.81571
0.81908
0.82236
0.82562
c.8288‘5
0.83206
0.83525
0.83835
0.84142
0.84442
0.84739
0.85034
0.85327
0.85618
0.85908
0.86189
0.86463
0.86741
0.87017
‘ 86-
o.
0.87552
0.87818
0.88076
0.88338
0.88593
0.91014
0.93212
0.95236
0.97109
0.98843
1.00466
Log. of
\l s — L •y/j-f-
1 70
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300.
3ro
3 20
33°
340
35°
36 c
370
380
39
40-
141c
42c
43c
j44°
45°
460
47c
480
490
50c
5 ic
520
53°
54c
li55°
1560
157°
(58
59°;
600
61
62
630
64
650
66c
670
68
69
70
710
72c
73°
740
750
760
770
780
790
it6
1.01983
1.03410
1.04751
1.06026
1.07237
1.08390
1.09489
1.10542
I.II553
1.12523
I-I3453
1.14345
1.15204
1.16035
j.16838
1.17612
1.18363
1.19092
1.19803
1.20490
1.21158
1.21806
1.22435
1.23048
1.23647
1.2423 2
1.24805
1.25360
1.25903
1.26433
1.26951
1.27461
1.27957
1.28445
1.28923
1.29391
1.29851
1.30300
1.307-40
1.31172
1.31597
i-320I5
1.32426
1.32830
1.33226
1-33614
1-33997
1-34373
1*34743
1.35108
1.35468
i‘35823
1.36170
1-36513
36851
1-37185
1.37513
1-37839
1-38157
1-38371
1.38782
1.39089
1..39391
80
810
820
850
840
850
86
870
880
890
900
910
920
93°
940
95°
960
970
980
990
1000
1100
1200
130
1400
1500
1600
1700
180c
1900
2000
2100
2 20
2300
24OO
2500
260
Log. of
r •— L ■%/ -|-
1.6
27°C
280c
29OO,
3 00
3100
3 200
33°°
3400
35°°
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5100
1.39690
1.39985
1.40277
1-40564
1.40678
1.41128
1.41408
1.41683
1.41953
1.422 20
1.42487
1.42746
i-430°5
1.43263
1.43515
1.43464
1.44011
1.44254
1.44498
1-44737
1.44976
1.47223
1.49269
1.51148
1-52885
1-54497
1. C6014
1.57416
1.58747
1.60004
1.61195
1.62325
i-634°3
1.64432
1.65414
j .66358
1.67261
1.68133
1.68971
1.69780
1.70558
1.71313
1.72042
1.72750
I-73435
1.74099
1.74746
1-75373
1.75984
1.76578
1.77159
1.77725
1.78277
1.78814
1-79339
1.77851
1.80352
1.80875
1.81321
1.81790
1.82249
1.82699
5200
53°°
54©0
55co
5600
57°°
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300
6400
6500
6600
67
6800
6900
7000
7100
7200
7300
7400
7500
7600
7700
8co
Log. of
■\/ j—LyA + i,6
/
79QO
80OC
8lOO
8200
83OO
84OO
8300
8600
8700
8800
89OO
9000
91OO
9200
9300
94OC
9502
9600
9700
980c
99CO
I 0000,
I 1000
1 2000
13000:
14000
1 5000
16OQC
17000
180OO
19000
20000
21000
22000
23000
2400c
1.83142
1.83575
1.84002
1.84421
1.84833
1.85237
1.85634
1.86022
1.86404
1.86778
1.87146
1.87507
1.87863
1.88213
1.88558
1.88898
1.89233
1.89 564
1.89891
1.90214
1.90532
1.90845
1.9H54
i.9x458
i-9I757
1.92052
1.92344
1.92632
1.92916
i.93i97
J-93475
1-93749
1.94020
1.94287
J-9455I
1.94811
1.9 3069
i-95324
I-95576
1.95826
1.96073
1.963! 7
1-96559
1:96797
I-97033
1.97267
1.97497
1.97726
1.97952
2.00099
2.02056
2.03855
2.05518
2.07065
2:08512
2.09869
2.11148
2.12357
2.13503
2.M594
2.15633
2.16624
2.17573
WAT [ 65
Water- TaBLE I. confifts of three columns.—Column 1. en-
v^crks. ^ ^ contains the hydraulic mean depths of any con¬
duit in inches. This is fet down for every 10th of an
inch in the firft 10 inches, that the anfwers may be
more accurately obtained for pipes, the mean depth of
which feldom exceeds three or four inches. The column
is continued to 100 inches, which is fully equal to the
hydraulic mean depth of any canal.
Column 2. contains the logarithms of the values of
/y/ d—0.1, multiplied by 307 j that is, the logarithm of
307 (y'd-—O.l)
the numerator of the fra£lion
in N°
65. of the article Rivers.
Column 3. contains the
multiplied by 0.3.
Table II. confifts of two columns.—Column 1. en¬
titled s, contains the denominator of the fraction exprefs-
ing the Hope or declivity of any pipe or canal ; that is,
the quotient of its length divided by the elevation of
one extremity above the other. Thus, if a canal of one
mile in length be three feet higher at one end than the
other, then s is =11760.
'3
Column 2. contains the logarithms of the denomina¬
tors of the above-mentioned fraftion, or of the different
values of the quantity x/s—^s/J
Thefe quantities were computed true to the third
decimal place. Notwithftanding this, the laft figure
in about a dozen of the firft logarithms of each table is
not abfolutely certain to the neareft unit. But this can¬
not produce an error of 1 in 100,000.
Examples of the life of thefe Tables.
Example 1. Water is brought into the city of Edin¬
burgh in feveral mains. One of thefe is a pipe of five
inches diameter. The length of the pipe is 14.637 feet}
and the refervoir at Comifton is 44 feet higher than the
refervoir into which it delivers the water on the Caftle
Hill. Query, The number of Scotch pints which this
pipe fliould deliver in a minute ?
1. We have inches. The logarithm
©orrefponding to this d, being nearly the mean be¬
tween the logarithms correfponding to 1.2 and 1.3 is
2.49472.
2. We have or 332.7. The logarithm
r t
■correfponding to this in Table II. is had by taking pro¬
portional parts for the difference between the logarithms
for ^=330 and J-=340, and is 1.18533.
3. From 2.49472
Take 1.18533
Remains 1.30939, the logarithm of 20.385 inches.
4. In column 3. of Table I. oppofite to <fc:i.2 and
him.3 are 0.3 and O.31, of which the mean is 0.305
inches, the correflion for vifeidity.
5. Therefore the velocity in inches per fecond is
20.38 c—0.305, or 20.08.
6. To obtain the Scotch pints per minute (each con¬
taining 103.4 cubic inches), multiply the velocity by
So, and this produft by 5», and this by 0.7854 (the
54 ] WAT
area of a circle whole diameter is 1), and divide by
103.4. Or, by logarithms,
Add the log. of 20.08 - - 1.30276
log. of 60" - - 1.77815
log. of 5* or 25 - - 1.39794
log. of 0.7854 - - 9.89509
Subtraft the log. of 103.4
4—L^/j--f-1.6
produfl of the values of
Remains 1.12833==^. of 13.438 inches.
Subtra£t for vifeidity 1.58
Velocity per fecond
11.858
works.
4-37394
2.0145!
Remains the log. of 228.8 pints - 2 3 4 5 6*35943
Example 2. The canal mentioned in the article
Rivers, N° 63. was feet broad at the furface, and
7 feet at the bottom. It was 4 feet deep, and had a
declivity of 4 inches in a mile. Query, The mean ve¬
locity ?
1. 1 he flant fide of the canal, correfponding to 4 feet
deep and 5^- projeftion, is 6.8 feet ; therefore the border
touched by the water is 6.8-j-7-{-6.8, ~20.6. The
18 “J-" *7
area is 4X———, =50 fquare feet. Therefore d~
50
i—g-, =2.427 feet, or 29.124 inches. The logarithm
correfponding to this in Table I. is 3.21113, and the
corredlion for vifeidity from the third column of the
fame 'Fable is 1.58.
2. The Hope is one-third of a foot in a mile, or one
foot in three miles. Therefore s is 15.840. The loga¬
rithm correfponding to this is 2.08280.
3. From 3.21113
Subtraft 2.08280
This velocity is confiderably fmaller than what was
obferved by Mr Watt. And indeed we obferve, that
in the very fmall declivities of rivers and canals, the for¬
mula is a little different. We have made feveral com-
parifons with a formula which is effentially the fame ivith
Buat’s, and comes nearer in thefe cafes. Inffead of ta¬
king the hyperbolic logarithm of >y/j--{-i.6, multiply
its common logarithm by 2-3-, or multiply it by 9, and
divide the produft by 4 ; and this procefs is vaftly eafier
than taking the hyperbolic logarithm.
We have not, however, prefumed to calculate tables
on the authority of our own obfervations, thinking too
refpe&fully of this gentleman’s labours and obfervations.
But this fubje6l will, ere long, be fully eftablilhed on a
feries of obfervations on canals of various dimenfions and
declivities, made by feveral eminent engineers during the
execution of them. Fortunately Mr Buat’s formula is
chiefly founded on obfervations on fmall canals} and is
therefore moll accurate in fuch works where it is moft
neceffary, viz. in mill courfes, and other derivations for
working machinery.
We now proceed to take notice of a few circum-
ftances which deferve attention, in the conftru£tion of
canals, in addition to thofe delivered in the article
Rivers.
When a canal or aquedud is brought off from a bafon
or
'ater-
rorks.
Plate
VV ^ x L u
or larger ftream, it ought always to be widened at the
entry, if it is intended for drawing off a continued
^ ft ream of water : For fuch a canal has a flope, without
which it can have no current. Suppofe it filled to a
dead level to the farther end : Take away the bar, and
the water immediately begins to flow off at that end.
But it is fome time before any motion is perceived at
the head of the canal, during all which time the motion
of the water is augmenting in every part of the canal;
confequently the flope is increafing in every part, this
being the foie caufe of its ftream. When the water at
the entry begins to move, the flope is fcarcely fenfible
there ; but it fenfibly deepens every moment with the
increafe of velocity, which at laft attains its maximum
relative to the flope and dimenfions of the whole canal;
and this regulates the depth of water in every point
down the ftream. When all has attained a ftate of per¬
manency, the flope at the entry remains much greater
than in any other part of the canal 5 for this flope muft
be fuch as will produce a velocity fufficient for fupplying
its TRAIN.
And it muft be remembered, that the velocity which
muft be produced greatly exceeds the mean velocity cor-
refponding to the train of the canal. Suppofe that this
is 25 inches. There muft be a velocity of 30 inches at
the furface, as appears by the Table in the article Ri¬
vers, N° 80. This muft be produced by a real fall at
the entry.
In every other part the flope is fufficient, if it merely
ferves to give the water (already in motion) force
enough for overcoming the friftion and other refinances.
But at the entry the water is ftagnant, if in a bafon, or
it is moving paft laterally, if the aqueduft is derived
from a river 5 and, having no velocity whatever in the
diredtion of the canal, it muft derive it from its flope.
The water therefore which has acquired a permanent
form in fuch an aquedudl, muft neceffarily take that form
which exaftly performs the offices requifite in its diffe¬
rent portions. The furface remains horizontal in the
riaie  r . . #
XXIII; bafon, as to KC (fig. till it comes near the entry
cf the canal AB, and there it acquires the form of an
undulated curve CDE j and then the furface acquires
an uniform flope EF, in the lower part of the canal,
where the water is in train.
If this is a drain, the difcharge is much lefs than
might be produced by the fame bed if this fudden flope
could be avoided. If it is to be navigated, having only
a very gentle flope in its whole length, this fudden flope
is a very great imperfedlion, both by diminifliing the
depth of water, which might otherwife be obtained along
the canal, and by rendering the paffage of boats into
the bafon very difficult, and the coming out very ha¬
zardous.
All this may be avoided, and the velocity at the en¬
try may be kept equal to that which forms the train of
the canal, by the Ample procefs of enlarging the entry.
Suppofe that the water could accelerate along the flopes
of the canal, as a heavy body would do on a finely po-
liftied plane. If we now make the width of the entry
in its different parts inverfely proportional to the fic¬
titious velocities in thofe parts, it is plain that the flope
of the furface will be made parallel to that of the canal
which is in train. This will require a form fomewhat
like a bell or fpeaking trumpet, as may eafily be {hown
by a mathematical difcuffion. It would, however, be
00 J ^
fo much evafated at the bafon as to occupy much room,
and it would be very expenfive to make fuch an exca- ,
vation. But we may, at a very moderate expence of '
money and room, make the increafe of velocity at the
entry almoft infenfible. This ftiould always be done,
and it is not all expence : for if it be not done, the wa¬
ter will undermine the banks on each fide, becaufe it is
moving very fwiftly, and will make an excavation for
itfelf, leaving all the mud in the canal below. We
may obfcrve this enlargement at the entry of all natural
derivations from a bafon or lake. It is a very inftruc-
tive experiment, to fill up this enlargement, continuing
the parallel fides of the drain quite to the fide of the
lake. We lhall immediately obferve the water grow
lhallower in the drain, and its performance will diminilh.
Suppofing the ditch carried on with parallel fides quite
to the fide of the bafon, if we build two walls or dykes
from the extremities of thofe fides, bending outwards
with a proper curvature (and this will often be lefs coft-
ly than widening the drain), the difcharge will be greats
ly increafed. We have ieen inftances where it wah •
nearly doubled.
The enlargement at the mouths of rivers is generally
owing to the iame caufe. The tide of flood up the ri¬
ver produces a fuperficial flope oppofite to that of the
river, and this widens the mouth. This is moft re¬
markable when the tides are high, and the river has lit¬
tle flope.
After this great fall at the entry of the canal, in
which all the filaments are much accelerated, and the
inferior ones moft of all, things take a contrary turn.
The water, by rubbing on the bottom and the fides, is
retarded ; and therefore the leiftion muft, from being
(hallow, become a little deeper, and the furface will be
convex for fume diftance till all comes into train. When
this is eftablifhed, the filaments neareft the bottom and
fide are moving flowed, and the furface (in the middle
efpecially) retains the greateft velocity, gliding over the
reft. The velocity in the canal, and the depth of the
feftion, adjuft therrifelves in fuch a manner that the dif¬
ference between the furface of the bafon and the furtace-
of the uniform feftion of the canal corresponds exaftly
to the velocity. Thus, if this be obferved to be two
feet in a fecond, the difference of height will be T55ths
of an inch.
All the practical queftions that are of confiderable
importance refpedling the motion of water in aquedudls,
may be eaflly-, though not elegantly, folved by means of
the tables.
But it is to be remembered, that thefe tables relate
only to uniform motion, that is, to water that is in train,
and where the velocity fuffers no change by lengthening
the conduit, provided the flope remain the fame. It is
much more difficult to determine what will be the velo¬
city, &c. in a canal of which nothing is given but the
form, and flope, and depth of the entry, without faying
how deep the water runs in it. And it is here that the
common do&rines of hydraulics are moft in fault, and
unable to teach us how deep the water will run in a ca¬
nal, though the depth of the bafon at the entry be per-
fedlly known. Between the part of the canal which
is in train and the bafon, there is an interval where the
water is in a ftate of acceleration, and is afterwards re¬
tarded.
The determination of the motions in this interval is
exceedingly
Water¬
works.
WAT [
exceedingly difficult, even in a re£fangular canal. __
was one great aim of M. Buat’s experiments to ascertain
this by meafuring accurately the depth of the water.
But he found that when the Hope was but a very few
inches in the whole length of his canal, it was not in
train for want of greater length ; and when the dope
was ftill lefs, the fmall fradtions of an inch, by which
he was to judge of the variations of depth, could not be
meafured with fufficient accuracy. It would be a moft
definable point to determine the length of a canal, whofe
dope and other dimenfions are given, which will bring
it into train 5 and what is the ratio which will then ob¬
tain between the depth at the entry and the depth which
will be maintained. 1 ill this be done, the engineer
cannot afcertain by a diredt procefs what quantity of
■water will be drawn off from a refervoir by a given
canal. But as yet this is out of our reach. Experi¬
ments, however, are in view which will promote the in-
vedigation.
But this and fimilar quedions are of fuch importance,
that w^e cannot be faid to have improved hydraulics, un-
lefs we can give a tolerably precife anfwer. This we
can do by a fort of retrograde procefs, proceeding on
the principles of uniform motion edablifhed by the Che¬
valier Buat. We may fuppofe a train maintained in the
canal, and then examine whether this train can be pro¬
duced by any fall that is poffible at the entry. If it can,
we may be.certain that it is fo produced, and our pro¬
blem is folved.
We (hall now point out the methods of anfwering
fome chief queftions of this kind.
1. Given the flope s and the breadth w of a
canal, and the height PI of the furface of the water in
the bafon above the bottom of the entry; to find the
depth /i and velocity V of the dream, and the quantity
of water £) which is difcharged ?
1 he chief difiiculty is to find the depth of the dream
where it is in train, fior this end, we may fimplify the
hydraulic theorem of uniform motion in N° 59. of the
article River ; making V — d
velocity (in inches) acquired in a  
ing, d is the hydraulic mean depth, and y'S dands for
—L ^/S-f-i.6. N is a number to be fixed by ex¬
periment (fee River, N° 53O depending on the con-
tra&ion or obdru&ion fudained at the entry of the
canal, and it may in mod common cafes be taken =: 244;
fo that s/N g may be fomewhat lefs than 307. To
find it, we may begin by taking for our depth of dream
a quantity A, fomewhat fmaller than H the height of
the furface of the bafon above the bottom of the canal.
With this depth, and the known width w of the canal,
we can find the hydraulic depth d (fee Rivers, N°48.).
Then with d and the flope find V by the Table :
make this V—. This gives v/N p-~ —
V ^ ^/d
This value of is fufficiently exa<R ; for a fmall error
of depth hardly aflFetds the hydraulic mean depth.
After this preparation, the expreffion of the mean ve¬
656
it
]
WAT
where g is the
a fecond by fall-
y;
w h
locity in the canal will be
VS
The
height which will produce thisvelocity is —\
2GS\w+27iJ
Now this is the flope at the entry of the canal which
proouces the velocity that is afterwards maintained
againd the obflru&ions by the flope of the canal. It
is therefore ~H—/i. Hence we deduce
1=
-(
W(^+I)-2H)
+
y*Hw+Hi^+i)-2H7
the entry, ^ —G and
If there be no contraction at
9 __ *
2 G 2*
Having thus obtained the depth 7/ of the dream, wc
obtain the quantity of water by combining this with the
width tu and the velocity V.
But as this was but an approximation, it is neeeflary
to examine whether the velocity V be poflible. This is
very eafy. It mud be produced by the fall H—7. We
fliall have no occafion for any correction of our firfi af-
fumption, if 7 has not been extravagantly erroneous, be-
cauie a fmall miflake in 7 produces almod the fame va¬
riation in d. The ted of accuracy, however, is, that
7, together with the height which will produce the ve¬
locity V, mud make up the whole height H. Aflum-
ing 7 too fmall, leaves H—7 too great, and will give a
fmall velocity V, which requires a fmall value of H—7.
The error of H—7 therefore is always greater than
the error we have committed in our fird afiumption.
Therefore when this error of H—7 is but a trifle, fuch
as one-fourth of an inch, we may red fatisfied with our
anfwer.
Perhaps the eafied procefs may be the following :
Suppofe the whole dream in train to have the depth PI.
The velocity V obtained for this depth and flope by the
Table requires a certain productive height u. Make
: HrrH : 7, and 7 will be exceedingly near
the truth. The reafon is obvious.
_ ^uej. 2. Given the difcharge (or quantity to be fur-
nilhed in a fecond) Q, the height H of the bafon above
the bottom of the canal, and the flope : to find the di¬
menfions of the canal ?
Let x and y be the depth and mean width. It is
plain that the equation —- — v/G" G v/H — x will
„r y
give a value of y in terms of x. Compare with this the
value of y obtained from the equation ——,sr
J-
■ y
xy v/S
. This will give an equation containing
y -J^zx
only x and knowTn quantities. But it will be very com¬
plicated, and we mud have recourfe to an approxima¬
tion. This wrill be bed underflood in the form of an
example.
Suppofe the depth at the entry to be 18 inches, and
the flope ToVs* Let 1 2°0 cubic feet of water per mi¬
nute be the quantity of water to be drawn off, for work¬
ing machinery or any other purpofe j and let the canal
be
Water.
works.
W A T [
be fappofed of the bell form, recommended in N° 69.
of the article River, where the bafe of the Hoping fide
is four-thirds of the height.
The flighteft confideration will fiiow us that if —^
744
be taken for the height producing the velocity, it can¬
not exceed 3 inches, nor be lefs than t. Suppofe it
— 2, and therefore the depth of the ftream in the canal
to be 16 inches ; find the mean width of the canal by
1 . Q
the equation w-z   r, m which (£
is 20 cubic feet (the 60th part of 1200), S is ~
28.153, —y/1000—Ly/ iooo-f^-i.6, and/iz=i6. This
gives 5.52 feet. The fedlion feet, and
V—3 2.6 inches. This requires a fall of 1.52 inches
inftead of 2 inches. Take ibis from 18, and there re¬
mains 16.48, which we lhall find not to differ one-tenth
of an inch from the exafl depth which the water will
acquire and maintain. We may therefore be fatisfied
v;ith aifuming 5.36 feet as the mean width, and 3.53
feet for the width at the bottom.
This approximation proceeds on this confideration,
that when the width diminifhes by a fmall quantify, and
in the fame proportion that the depth increafes, the hy¬
draulic mean depth remains the fame, and therefore the
velocity alfo remains, and the quantity difcharged chan¬
ges in the exadl proportion of the feftion. Any minute
error which may refult from this fuppofition, may be
corre&ed by increafing the fall producing the velocity,
in the proportion of the firft hydraulic mean depth to
the mean depth correfponding to the new dimenfions
found for the canal. It will now become 1.53, and V
will be 32.72, and the depth will be 16.47. The
quantity difcharged being divided by V, will give the
fe&ion =7.335 feet, from which, and the new depth,
we obtain 5.344 for the width.
This and the foregoing are the moft common quef-
tions propofed to an engineer. We afferted with fome
confidence that few of the profeflion are able to anfwer
them with tolerable precifion. We cannot offend the
profeflional gentlemen by this, when we inform them
that the Academy of Sciences at Paris were occupied
during feveral months with an examination of a plan
propofed by M. Parcieux, for bringing the waters of
the Yvette into Paris ; and after the mod mature con¬
fideration, gave in a report of the quantity of water
which M. De Parcieux’s aqueduft would yield, and
that their report has been found erroneous in the pra-
portion of at lead 2 to 5 : For the waters have been
brought in, and exceed the report in this proportion.
Indeed long after the giving in the report, M. Perro-
net, the mod celebrated engineer in France, affirmed
that the dimenfions propofed were much greater than
Were neceflary, and laid that an aquedudt of 54 feet
wide, and 3-i deep with a Hope of 15 inches in a thou*
fand fathoms, would have a velocity of 12 or 13 inches
per fecond, which would bring in all the water furnifh-
ed by the propofed fources. The great diminution of
expence occafioned by the alteration encouraged the
community to undertake the work. It was accordingly
begun, and a part executed. The water was found to
run with a velocity of near 19 inches when it was 31-
feet deep. M. Perronet founded his computation on
Vol. XX. Part II.
657 ] WAT
his own experience alone, acknowledging that lie had
no theory to inftruft him. The work was carried no
farther, it being found that the city could be fupplied
at a much fmaller expence by fteam-engines erefted by
Boulton and Watt. But the fa<5ts which occurred in
the partial execution of the aqueduft are very valuable*
If M. Perronet’s aqueduft be examined by our general
formula, s will be found =^-^-'^, and ^=18.72, from
which we deduce the velocity =i8y, agreeing with the
obfervation with ationifhing precifion.
The experiments at Turin by Michaelotti on canals
were very numerous, but complicated with many cir-
cumftances which would render the difcuffion too long
for this place. Wlien cleared of thefe circumftances,
which we have done with fcrupulous care, they are alfo
abundantly conformable to our theory of the uniform
motion of running waters. But to teturh to out fub-
jeft:
Should it be required to bring off at ohce from the
bafon a mill-courfe, having a determined velocity for
driving an undtrfhot wheel, the problem becomes eafier,
becaufe the velocity and Hope combined determine the
hydraulic mean depth at once ; and the depth of the
ftream will be had by means of th^ height which nmft
be taken for the whole depth at the entry, in order to
produce the required velocity.
# like manner, having given the quantity to be
difcharged, and the velocity and the depth at the en*
try, we can find the other dimenfions of the channel;
and the mean depth being found, we can determine
the flope.
When the Hope of a canal is very fmall, fo that the
depth of the uniform ftream differs but a little from that
at the entry, the quantity difcharged is but fmall. But
a great velocity, requiring a great fall at the entry,
produces a great diminution of depth, and therefore it
inay not cotnpenfate for this diminution, and the quan¬
tity difcharged may be fraaller. Improbable as this
may appear, it is not demonftrably falfe ; and hence we
may fee the propriety of the following
^uejlion 3. Given the depth H at the entry of a
re£fangular canal, and alfo its width vo; required the
fiope, depth, and velocity which will produce the sreat-
eft poftible difeharge ?
Let x be the unknown depth of the ftream. H -ix
is the productive fall, and the velocity is
nj^-—x» 1 his multiplied by vjx will give the quan¬
tity difcharged. Therefore <wx yjTQ */H—* muft
be made a maximum. The common procefs for this
will give the equation^ H=3 at, 0r The mean
velocity will be a/2 G, v/^H ; the fe&ion will be
4 H, and the difeharge =4 v/2GmHN/’4H, and
4H‘ thefe data the flope is eafily had
by the formula for uniform motion.
If the canal is of the trapezoidal form, theinveftiga-
tion is more troublefome, and requires the refolution of
a cubic equation.
It may appear ftrange that increafing the flope of a
canal beyond the quantity determined by this problem
can diminilh the quantity of water conveyed. But one
of thefe two things muft happen ; either the motion will
cot acquire uniformity in fucii a canal for want of
4 ® length,
Water¬
works.
WAT [65
Water- length, or the difcharge muft dimimflv Suppofing,
works. ^ however, that it could augment, we can judge how far
this can go. Let us take the extreme cafe by making
the canal vertical. In this cafe it becomes a iimple
weir or wafteboard. Now the difcharge of a waile-
board is 4v/2Giu(^--(i/0^ The maximum de¬
termined by the preceding problem is to that of the
wafteboard of the fame dimenfons as H^/1 H : H " —
(4 H ) % or as : Hy'H—•I-LIav/^I'Ij—5773 :
6465, nearly = 9 : 10.^
Having given the dimenfions and Hope of a canal,
we can difcover the relation between its expenditure and
the time ; or we can tell how much it will fink the fur-
face of a pond in 24 hours, and the gradual progrefs of
this effe& ; and this might be made the fubjeft of a
particular problem. But it is complicated and difficult.
In cafes where this is an interefling objeft, we may
folve the queftion with fufficient accuracy, by calculat¬
ing the expenditure at the beginning, fuppofing the ba-
fon kept full. Then from the known area of the pond,
we can tell in what time this expenditure will fink an
inch ; do the fame on the fuppofition that the water is
one-third lower, and that it is two-thirds lower (noti¬
cing the contrail ion of the furface of the pond occafion-
ed by this abftraftion of its waters). Thus we fhall ob¬
tain three rates of diminution, from which we can ea-
fily deduce the defired relation between the expenditure
and the time.
Aquedu&s derived from a bafon or river are com¬
monly furniftied with a fluice at the entry. This changes
exceedingly the ftate of things. The Hope of the
canal may be precifely fuch as will maintain the mean
velocity of the water which paffes under the fiuice : in
which cafe the depth of the ttream is equal to that of
the lluice, and the velocity is produced at once by the
head of water above it. But if the flope is lefs than
this, the velocity of the iffuing water is diminifhed, and
the water muft rife in the canal. This muft check the
efflux at the fluice, and the water will be as it were
flagnant above what comes through below it. It is ex¬
tremely difficult to determine at what precife flope the
water will begin to check the efflux. The contra£Hon
at the lower edge of the board hinders the water from
attaining at once the whole depth which it acquires af¬
terwards, when its velocity diminifhes by the obftrue-
tions. While the regorging which thefe obftruflions
pccafion does not reach back to the fluice, the efflux is
not affected by it.—Even when it does reach to the
fluice, there will be a lefs depth immediately behind it
than farther down the canal, where it is in train ; be-
caufe the fwift moving water which is next the bottom
drags with it the regorged water which lies on it : but
the canal muft bejapid to make this difference of depth
fenfible. In ordinary canals, with moderate Hopes and
velocities, the velocity at the fluice may be fafely taken
as if it were that which correfponds to the difference of
depths above and below the fluice, where both were in
train.
Let therefore H be the depth above the fluice, and h
the depth in the canal. Let e be the elevation of the
fluice above the foie, and let b be its breadth. The
difcharge will be e b+jYi—h ^/TG for tkp fluice, and
3
8 ]
WAT
for the canal. Thefe muft be
yr vo -j- 2 h v
the fame. This gives the equation e
7 V Np- j W h , . , r , • -
= fi  — fj   containing the lolution of
y'r ic -f 2 a ^
all the queftions which can be propofed. The only un¬
certainty is in the quantity G, which expreffes the velo¬
city competent to the paffage of the water through the
orifice, circumftanced as it is, namely, fubjefted tocon-
traftion. This may be regulated by a proper form gi¬
ven to the entry into this orifice. The contraction may
be almoft annihilated by making the mafonry of a cy¬
cloidal form on botli fides, and alfo at the lower edge
of the fluice-board, fo as to give the orifice a form re-
fembling fig. 5. D, in the article Rivers. If the fluice
is thin in the face of a bafon, the contraftion will reduce
2G to 296. If the fluice be as widens the canal, 2G
will be nearly 500.
^uejlion 4. Given the head of water in the bafon H,
the breadth b, and the elevation e of the fluice, and the
breadth w and flope j of the canal, to find the depth h
of the ftream, the velocity, and the difcharge ?
We muft (as in ^ueJHon 2.) make a firft fuppofition
for /z, in order to find the proper value of d. Then the
equation e b H—h 2 G rr /z ^ gives
Water¬
works.
G e2 b% s
+
/GSb* - H /
^ ic* Nv</ +\
h =
If this va-
llfiitfr
u’1 d 1 it’* N £• </
lue fttall differ confiderably from the one which we af-
fumed in order to begin the computation, make ufe of
it for obtaining a new value of z/, and repeat the opera¬
tion. We {hall rarely be obliged to perform a third
operation.
The following is of frequent ufe :
^uejlion 5. Given the dimenfions and the flope, with
the velocity and difcharge of a river in its ordinary
ftate, required the area or feflion of the fluice which
will raife the waters to a certain height, {till allowing
the fame quantity of w^ater to pafs through ? Such an
operation may render the rivers navigable for fmall craft
or rafts above the fluice.
The problem is reduced to the determination of ths
fize of orifice which will difcharge this water with a ve¬
locity competent to the height to which the river is to
be raifed ; only we muft take into confideration the ve¬
locity of the water above the fluice, confidering it as
produced by a fall which makes a part of the height
productive of the whole velocity at the fluice. There¬
fore H, in our inveftigation, muft confift of the height
to which we mean to raife the waters, and the height
which will produce the, velocity with which the waters
approach the fluice : h, or the depth of the ftream, is
the ordinary depth of the river. Then (ufing the for¬
W //jy/N g d
\TlG~s (H. — /z)
mer fymbois) we have e b
Q
a/ 2 G (H—/z )‘
If the area of the fluice is known, and we would
learn the height to which it will raife the river, we have
Q*
H———-jj-s for the expreffion of the rife of the
water
WAT [ 659 j W A T
water above its ordinary level. But from this we muft
•orks. t]ie height which would produce the velocity of
y ^ the river j fo that if the fluice were as wide as the river,
and were raifed to the ordinary furface of the water,
 21—,
2G e2 bx'
which expreffes the height that produces the
velocity under the fluice, muft be equal to the depth of
the river, and H—h will be =ro.
The performance of aqueduft drains is a very import¬
ant thing, and merits our attention in this place. While
the art of managing waters, and of conducing them fo
as to anfwer our demands, renders us very important
fervice by embelliftiing our habitations, or promoting
our commercial intercourfe, the art of draining creates
as it were new riches, fertilizing trafts of bog or marfh,
which was not only ufelefs, but hurtful by its unwhole-
fome exhalations, and converting them into rich paf-
tures and gay meadows. A wild country, occupied by
parities which are "maeceftible to herds or flocks, and
ferve only for the haunts of water-fowls, or the retreat
«f a few poor fifhermen, when once it is freed from the
waters in which it is drowned, opens its lap to receive
the moft precious feeds, is foon clothed in the richeft
garb, gives life and abundance to numerous herds, and
never fails to become the delight of the induftrious cul¬
tivator who has enfranchifed it, and is attached to it by
the labour which it coft him. In return, it procures
him abundance, and fupplies him with the means of
daily augmenting its fertility. No fpecies of agricul¬
ture exhibits fuch long-continued and progreffive im¬
provement. New families flock to the fpot, and there
multiply *, and there nature feems the more eager to re¬
pay their labours, in proportion as fhe has been obliged,
againft her will, to keep her treaf ires locked up for a
longer time, chilled by the waters. The countries
newly inhabited by the human race, as is a great part
of America, efpecially to the fouthward, are ftill co¬
vered to a great extent with raarfhes and lakes j and
they would long remain in this condition, if population,
daily making new advances, did not increafe induftry,
by multiplying the cultivating hands, at the fame time
that it increafes their wants. The Author of this beau¬
tiful world has at the beginning formed the great maf-
fes of mountain, has fcooped out the dales and Hoping
hills, has traced out the courfes, and even formed the
beds of the rivers : but he has left to man the care of
'making his place of abode, and the field which muft
feed him, dry and comfortable. For this tafk is not be¬
yond his powers, as the others are. Nay, by having
this given to him in charge, he is richly repaid for his
labour by the very ftate in which he finds thofe coun¬
tries into which he penetrates for the firft time. Being
covered with lakes and forefts, the juices of the foil are
kept for him as it were in referve. The air, the burn¬
ing heat of the fun, and the continual wafhing of rains,
would have combined to expend and diflipate their ve¬
getative potvers, had the fields been expofed in the fame
degree to their aftion as the inhabitated and cultivated
countries, the moft fertile moulds of which are long
iince lodged in the bottom of the ocean. All this would
have been completely loft through the whole extent of
South America, had it not been protected by the fo¬
refts which man muft cut. down, by the rank herbage
which he muft burn, and by the marfh and bog which
he muft deftroy by draining. Let not ungrateful man Water-
complain of this. It is his duty to take on himfelf the t works’
talk of opening up treafures, preferved on purpofe for *
him with fo much judgment and care. If he has dif-
cernment and fenfibility, he will even thank the Author
of all good, who has thus hulbanded them for his ufe.
He will co-operate with his beneficent views, and will
be careful not to proceed by wantonly fnatehing at pre-
fent any partial good, and by picking out what is moft
ealily got at, regardlefs of him who is to come after¬
wards to uncover and extract the remaining riches of
the ground. A wife adminiftration of Inch a country
will think it their duty to leave a juft (hare of this inhe¬
ritance to their defendants, who are entitled to expert
it as the laft legatees. National plans of cultivation
ihould be formed on this principle, that the fteps taken
by the prefent cultivators for realizing part of the riches
of the infant country lhall not obftruft the works which
will afterwards be neceflary for aifo obtaining the re¬
mainder. This is carefully attended to in Holland and
in China. No man is allowed to conduct the drains, by
which he recovers a piece of marfti, in fuch a way as to
render it much more difficult for a neighbour, or even
for his own fucceffor, to drain another piece, although
it may at prefont be quite inacctflible. There remains
in the middle of the moft cultivated countries many
marfties, which induftry has not yet attempted to drain,
and Avhere the legiflature has not been at pains to pre¬
vent many little abufes which have produced elevations
in the beds of rivers, and rendered the complete drain¬
ing of fome fpots impoflible. Adminiftration ftrould at¬
tend to fuch things, becaufe their confequences are
great. The fciences and arts, by which alone thefe dif¬
ficult and coftly jobs can be performed, ftiould be pro-
te£led, encouraged, and cherifhed. It is only from
fcience that we can obtain principles to direft thefe
arts. The problem of draining canals is one of the
moft important, and yet has hardly ever occupied the
attention of the hydraulic fpeculatift. We apprehend
that M. Buat’s theory rrill throw great light on it j
and regret that the very limited condition of our pre¬
fent work will hardly afford room for a ftight (ketch of
what may be done on the fubje£l. We (hall, however,
attempt it by a general problem, which will involve
moft of the chief circumftances which occur in works of
that kind.
^uejl. 6. Let the hollow ground A (fig. 2.) be in- Fig. 2,
undated by rains or fprings, and have no outlet but
the canal AB, by which it difcharges its water into the
neighbouring river BCDE, and that its furface is nearly
on a level with that of the river at B. It can only
drain when the river finks in the droughts of fummer $
and even if it could then drain completely, the putrid
marfti would only be an infecting neighbour. It may
be propofed to drain it by one or more canals ; and it is
required to determine their lengths and other dimen-
fions, fo as to produce the beft effects ? . r
It is evident that there are many circumftances to
determine the choice, and many conditions to be at¬
tended to.
If the canals AC, Al), AG, are refpe£HveIy equal
to the portions BC, ED, BE, of the river, and have
the fame (lopes, they will have the fame discharge ; but
they are not for this reafon equivalent. The long ca¬
nal AE may drain the marfti completely, while the ftiort
4 O 2 ®ne
V=-
\/ j1 s 1,6
give x and y ; but the logarithmic term renders it very
complicated. We may make ufe of the Ample form
xt g d /—
V=“VS-’ makin§ VnS nearly zyb. This will be
Efficiently exaft for all cafes which do not deviate far
from this, becaufe the velocities are very nearly in the
fubduplicate ratio of the flopes.
To introduce thefe data into the equation, recolleft
that V=— ,• d=-—j. As to S, recoiled! that
the canal being fuppofed of nearly equal length with
the rh er, will exprefs the whole difference of height,
comes
WAT [660
Water- one AC will only do it in part ; becaufe the difference
works. 0f ievei between A and C is but inconfiderable. Alfo ancf
the frefhes of the river may totally obftrud! the opera¬
tion of AC, while the canal AE cannot be hurt by
them, E being fo much lower than C. Therefore the
canal muff be carried fo far down the river, that no frefhes
there {hall ever raife the waters in the canal fo high as
to reduce the Hope in the upper part of it to fuch a level
that the current (hall not be fufficient to carry off the
ordinary produce of water in the marlh.
Still the problem is indeterminate, admitting many
folutions. This requifite difcharge may be accomplilhed
by a Ihort but wide canal, or by a longer and narrower, y
Let us firft fee what folution can be made, fo as to accom-
plifti our purpofe in the moft economical manner, that is,
by means of the fmalleft equation.—We fhall give the
folution in the form of an example.
Suppofe that the daily produce of rains and fprings
raifes the w'ater inch on an area of a fquare league,
which gives about 120,000 cubic fathoms of water.
Let the bottom of the bafon be three feet below the fur-
face of the frefhes in the river at B in winter. Alfo,
that the dope of the river is 2 inches in 100 fathoms, or
T-ffoodth* and that the canal is to be 6 feet deep.
The canal being fuppofed nearly parallel to the river,,
it muft be at leaft 1800 fathoms long before it can be
admitted into the river, otherwife the bottom of the bog
will be lower than the mouth of the canal 5 and even
then a hundred or two more fathoms added to this will
give it fo little flope, that an immenfe breadth wrill be
neceffary to make the difcharge with fo fmail a velocity.
On the other hand, if the flope of the canal be made
equal to that of the river, an extravagant length will be
neceflary before its admiffion into the river, and many
obftacles may then intervene. And even then it muft
have a breadth of 13 feet, as may eafily be calculated by 2 /
the general hydraulic theorem. By receding from each
of thefe extremes, we (hall diminifli the expence of ex¬
cavation. Therefore,
Let x and y be the breadth and length, and/z the
depth (6 feet), of the canal. Let y be the depth of
the bog below the furface of the river, oppofite to the
bafon, D the difcharge in a fecond, and - the flope of
a l
the river. We muft make hxy a. minimum, or
xy+yx=o.
The ^general formula gives the velocity.
V'ng (v'J—o, 1)
■°> 3 (V^—*o, t)* This would
WAT
is the difference of height for the canal.
This quantity being divided by y, gives the value of
y 
Therefore the equation for the canal be-
I_-—7
— ~ ft .
Vn7
X -f- 2 h
g q h* x3
_ N ^ /z3 x3
Hence we deduce
3 Ng q 7i3 x* x
-D1 (x-\-2li) andyrr
 N^/z3.*3
-D*(#-b2/z)
N g q h3 x3 X ( —— ^X*.
\ a
N g h3 x3
-D*
D1 -f- 2
Z))*
If we fubftitute
thefe values in the equation y x-^-x yzzo, and reduce it,
we obtain finally,
N g h3 x3
-3 7u
zzD1
If we refolve this equation by making N<§-=r(296)*, or
:T^oo> and D=518400, we
87616 inches; ^=72,-:
D
obtain *=392 inches, or 32 feet 8 inches, and 7-, or
fix
V=i8,36 inches. Now putting thefe values in the-
exaft formula for the velocity, we obtain the flope of
the canal, which is nearly 0,62, inches in 100
fathoms.
Let / be the length of the canal in fathoms. As the
river has 2 inches fall in 100 fathoms, the whole fall is
and that of the canal is
0,62,
The difference of
100 100
thefe two muft be 3 feet, which is the difference between
the river and the entry of the canal. We have there-
- / 2—0.62''
lore
(—1 no ') inches. Hence /—2604 fa*
thorns; and this multiplied by the fe&ion of the canal
gives 14177 cubic fathoms of earth to be removed.
This may furely be done, in moft cafes, for eight (hil¬
lings each cubic fathom, which does not amount to 6ocol.
a very moderate fum for completely draining of nine
fquare miles of country.
In order to judge of the importance of this problem,
we have added two other canals, one longer and the
other Ihorter, having their widths and flopes fo adjufted
as to enfure the fame performance.
Slope. Length.
Width.
Feet.
42
32t
21
Velocity.
Inches.
14.28
18.36
28.57
t it tstt
TT-s-^-g:
1
2221
2604
7381
Excavatioa.
15547
I4I77
*5833
We have conftdered this important problem in its
moft: Ample ftate. If the bafon is far from the river, lo
that the drains are not nearly parallel to it, and there¬
fore have lefs flope attainable in their courfe, it is more
difficult. Perhaps the beft method is to try two very
extreme cafes and a middle one, and then a fourth, nearer
to that extreme which differs leaft from the middle one in
the
2
WAT
[ 66s ]
WAT
Water- the quantity of excavation. This will point out on
works. which fide the minimum of excavation lies, and alfo the
^ * law by which it diminifhes and afterwards increafes.
Then draw a line, on which fet off from one end the
lengths of the canals. At each length ereft an or¬
dinate reprefenting the excavation j and draw a regular
curve through the extremities of the ordinates. From
that point of the curve which is neareft to the bafe line,
draw another ordinate to the bafe. This will point out
the beft length of the canal with fufficient accuracy. The
length will determine the dope, and this will give the
width, by means of the general theorem. N. B. Thefe
draining canals muft always come off from the bafon with
evafated entries. This will prevent the lofs of much fall
at the entry.
Two canals may fometimes be neceflary. In this cafe
expence may frequently be faved, by making one canal
flow into the other. This, however, mult be at fuch a
diftance from the bafon, that the fwell produced in the
other by this addition may not reach back to the imme¬
diate neighbourhood of the bafon, otherwrfe it would
impede the performance of both. For this purpofe, re-
courfe muft be had to Problem III. in N° 104. of the
article River. We muft here obferve, that in this re-
fpeft canals differ exceedingly from rivers ; rivers en¬
large their beds, fo as always to convey every increafe
of waters j but a canal may be gorged through its
whole length, and will then greatly diminifh its dif-
charge. In order that the lower extremity of a canal
may convey the waters of an equal canal admitted into
it, their jundtion muft be fo far from the bafon, that
the fwell occafioned by raifing its waters nearly •§• more
(viz. in the fubduplicate ratio of 1 to 2) may not reach
back to the bafon.
This obfervation points out another method of econo¬
my. Inftead of one wide canal, we may make a narrower
one of the whole length, and another narrow one reach¬
ing part of the way, and communicating with the long
canal at a proper diftance from the bafon. But the
lower extremity will now be too (hallow to convey the
waters of both. Therefore raife its banks by ufing the
earth taken from its bed, which muft at any rate be dif-
pofed of. Thus the waters will be conveyed, and the
expence, even of the lower part of the long canal, will
fcarcely be increafed.
Thefe obfervations muft; fuffice for an account of the
management of open canals j and we proceed to the con-
fideration of the conduft of water in pipes.
This is much more fimple and regular, and the ge¬
neral theorem requires very trifling modifications for
adapting it to the cafes or queftions that occur in the
practice of the civil engineer. Pipes are always made
round, and therefore d is always -3-
The velocity of water in a
_y _ 307 (y/c/—0,1)
y/J-—B/y/j" -j- 1,(5
th of the diameter,
pipe which is in train, is
—0,3 (y </—0,) or= (v/i
— O, 1) (•
Vi
3°7
—0,3).
1 \/ j’—L/^/ j- —}-1,6
The chief queftions are the following :
1. Given the height H of the refervoir above
the place of delivery, and the diameter and length of
the pipe, to find the quantity of water difcharged :n a
fecond.
Let L be the length, and h. the fall which would pro¬
duce the velocity with which the water enters the pipe,
and actually flows in it, after overcoming all obftruc-
tions. This may be exprefled in terms of the velocity
Va . . .
by G denoting the acceleration of gravity, cor-
refponding to the manner of entry. When no methods
are adopted for facilitating the entry of the water, by a
bell-fhaped funnel or otherwife, 2 G may be affumed
as — 500 inches, or 42 feet, according as we meafure
the velocity in inches or feet. The (lope is =r
H—
V*
2 G, which muft be put into the general formula.
This would make it very complicated. We may Ampli¬
fy it by the confideration that the velocity is very fmall
in comparifon of that arifing from the height H :
confequently h is very fmall. Alfo, in the fame pipe,
the refiftances are nearly in the duplicate ratio of the ve¬
locities when thefe are fmall, and when they differ little
among tbemfelves. Therefore make b — —taking
h by guefs, a very little lefs than H. Then compute
the mean velocity v correfponding to thefe data, or take
v*
it from the table. If h -J- be “ H, we have found
2 G
the mean velocity V = v.
proportion :
h : ~ = H V‘ V
2 G"
If not, make the following^
, which is the fame with
this, 7/-J-
2 G
H
2 G ' 2 G
H : V*, and V* is =
2GH
H
7-f
2 G*
rr 2 G 7 -j- 1;*,  ——.
 11*4-2 G h
2 Lr
If the pipe has any bendings, they muft be calculated
for in the manner mentioned in the article River, N°
ioi j and the head of water neceffary for overcoming
.V*
this additional refiftance being called —, the laft pro¬
portion muft be changed for
//4-n* + : i>*—H ; V\.
\ 2 (j m /
Quejl. 2. Given the height of the refervoir, the
length of the pipe, and the quantity of water which is
to be drawn off in a fecond ; to find the diameter of the
pipe which will draw it off ?
Let d be confidered as rr -Jtb of the diameter, and let
I j creprefent the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its
circumference. The fe6Hon of the pipe is 4 c d*. Let
the quantity of water per fecond be then —ia
the mean velocity. Divide the length of the pipe by
the height of the refervoir above the place of delivery,
diminifhed by a very fmall quantity, and call the quo¬
tient S. Confider this as the (lope of the conduit j the.
general formula now becomes
Q 307 (^<7—0,1)
7s^/T+^6 ~°’3 0*
a
4 c d*'
Water¬
works.
W ater-
works.
W A
(307C \/d—0,1)
a/S
t r
-0,3 (a/^—0»i)- We may
662 }
WAT
negledl: the laft term in every cafe of civil pra&ice, and
alfo the fmall quantity 0,1. This gives the very fimple
formula,
&
4 C f/*
307
from -which we readily deduce
a/S
T ^a/'St
Water-.
works.
4CX307
This procefs gives the diameter fomewhat too fmall'.
But we eaiily reftify this error by computing the quan¬
tity delivered by the pipe, which will differ a little
from the quantity propofed. Then obferving, by this
equation, that two pipes having the fame length and
the fame Hope give quantities of water, of which the
fquares are nearly as the fifth powers of the diameter,
we form a new diameter in this proportion, which will
be almoft perfedfly exa£t.
It may be obferved that the height aflumed for deter¬
mining the flope in thefe two queftions will feldom dif¬
fer more than an inch or two from the whole height of
the refervoir above the place of delivery; for in conduits
of a few hundred feet long, the velocity feldom exceeds
four feet per fecond, which requires only a head of three
inches.
As no inconvenience worth minding refults from
making the pipes a tenth of an inch or fo wider than is
barely fufficient, and as this generally is more than the
error arifing from even a very erroneous aflumptidn of
h, the anfwer firft obtained may be augmented by one
or two-tenths of an inch, and then we may be confident
that our conduit will draw off the intended quantity of
water.
We prefume that every perfon who affumes the name
of engineer knows haw to reduce the quantity of water
meafured in gallons, pints, or other denominations, to
cubic inches, and can calculate the gallons, &c. furnifh-
ed by a pipe of known diameter, moving with a veloci¬
ty that is meafured in inches per fecond. We farther
fuppofe that all care is taken in the conffruftion of the
conduit, to avoid obftru&ions occafioned by lumps of
folder hanging in the infide of the pipes j and, particu-
larly, that all the cocks and plugs by the Way have
waterways equal to the fedtion of the pipe. Underta¬
kers are moft tempted to fail here, by making the cocks
too fmall, becaufe large cocks are very coftly. But the
employer (hould be ferupuloufly attentive to this j be¬
caufe a fimple contradlion of this kind may be the
throwing away of many hundred pounds in a wide pipe,
which yields no more water than can pafs through the
fmall cock.
The chief obftrudtions arife from the depofition of
fand or mud in the lower parts of pipes, or the collec¬
tion of air in the upper parts of their bendings. The
velocity being always very moderate, fuch depofitions of
heavy matters are unavoidable. The utmoft care fliould
therefore be taken to have the water freed from all fuch
things at its entry by proper filtration ; and there ought
to be cleanfing plugs at the lower parts of the bendings,
or rather a very little way beyond them. When thefe
are opened, the water iifues with greater velocity, and
■carries the depofitions with it.
I is much more difficult to get rid of the air which
chokes the pipes by lodging in their upper parts. This
is fometimes taken in along with the water at the re¬
fervoir, when the entry of the pipe is too near the fur-
face. This fhould be carefully avoided, and it cofts no
trouble to do fo. If the entry of the pipe is two feet
under the furface, no air can ever get in. Floats fhould
be placed above the entries, having lids hanging from
them, which will fhut the pipe before the water runs
too low.
But air is alfo difengaged from fpring-water by mere¬
ly palling along the pipe. When pipes are fupplied by
an engine, air is very often drawn in by the pumps in a
difengaged {fate. It is alfo difengaged from its ftate of
chemical union, when the pumps have a fudtion-pipe of
10 or 12 feet, which is very common. In whatever
way it is introduced, it colleffs in all the upper part of
bendings, and chokes the paflage, fo that fometimes not
a drop of water is delivered. Our cocks fhould be
placed there, which fhould be opened frequently by
perfons who have this in charge. Defaguliers defcribes
a contrivance to be placed on all fuch eminences, which
does this of itfelf. It is a pipe with a cock, terminat¬
ing in a fmall ciftern. The key of the cock has a hol¬
low ball of copper at the end of a lever. When there
is no air in the main pipe, water comes out by this dif-
charger, fills the ciftern, raifes the ball, and thus fliuts
the cock. But when the bend of the main contains
air, it rifes into the ciftern, and occupies the upper part
of it. Thus the floating ball falls down, the cock opens
and lets out the air, and the ciftern again filling with
water, the ball rifes, and the cock is again fhut.
A very neat contrivance for this purpofe was invent¬
ed by the late Profeflbr Ruflel of Edinburgh. The cy¬
lindrical pipe BCDE (fig. 3.), at the upper end of a Fig. 3.
bending of the main, is fcrewed on, the upper end of
■which is a flat plate perforated with a fmall hole E.
This pipe contains a hollow copper cylinder G, to the
upper part of which is faftened a piece of foft leather
H. When there is air in the pipe, it comes out by the
hole A, and occupies the difcharger, and then efcapes
through the hole F. The water follows, and, rifing in
the difcharger, lifts up the hollow cylinder G, caufing
the leather H to apply itfelf to the plate CD, and fhut
the hole. I hus the air is difcharged without the fmall-
eft lofs of water-
It is of the moft material confequence that there be
no contrattion in any part of a conduit. This is evi¬
dent $ but it is alfo prudent to avoid all unneceffary en¬
largements. For when the conduit is full of -water
moving along it, the velocity in every fe£Hon is inverfe-
ly proportional to the area of the feftion : it is therefore
diminifhed wherever the pipe is enlarged j but it muff
again be increafed where the pipe contrafls. This can¬
not be without expending force in the acceleration.
This confumes part of the impelling power, whether
this be a head of wrater, or the force of an engine. See
what is faid on this fubjedl in the article Pumps, N® 83,
&c. Nothing is gained by any enlargement j and every
contraftion, by requiring an augmentation of velocity,
employs a part of the impelling force precifely equal to
the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is the con-
trafted paflage, and whofe height is the fall which
would produce a velocity equal to this augmentation.
This point feems to have been quite overlooked by enr
gineers of the firft eminence, and has in many inftances
greatly
I »r-
| jorte
WAT [ 663 ] WAT
Water- greatly dirmruilied the performance of their befi: works,
works. j(. js no iefs detrimental in open canals ; becaufc at
' ‘‘ every contraftion a fmall fall is required for reftoring
the velocity loft in the enlargement of the canal, by
which the general Hope and velocity are diminiftied.
Another point which muft be attended to in the con¬
ducing of water is, that the motion fhould not be fub-
fultory, but continuous. When the water is to be driven
along a main by the ftrokes of a reciprocating engine,
it ftiould be forced into an air-box, the fpring of which
may preferve it in motion along the whole fubfequent
main. If the water is brought to reft at every fuccef-
five ftroke of the pifton, the whole mafs muft again be
put in motion through the whole length of the main.
This requires the fame ufelefs expenditure of power as
to communicate this motion to as much dead matter ;
and this is over and above the force which may be ne-
ceflary for raifing the water to a certain height j which
is the only circumftance that enters into the calculation
of the power of the pump-engine.
An air-box removes this imperfeCion, becaufe it
keeps up the motion during the returning ftroke of the
pifton. The compreflion of the air by the aCive ftroke
of the pifton muft be fuch as to continue the impulfe in
oppofition to the contrary preffure of the w7ater (if it is
to be raifed to fome height), and in oppufition to the
friCion or other refiftances which arife from the motion
that the water really acquires. Indeed a very confider-
able force is employed here alfo in changing the motion
of the water, which is forced out of the capacious air -
box into the narrow pipe 5 and when this change of mo¬
tion is not judicioufly managed, the expenditure of
power may be as great as if all were brought to reft
and again put in motion. It may even be greater,
by cauftng the water to move in the oppofite direCion
to its former motion. Of fuch confequence is it to have
all thefe circumftances fcientifically confidered. It is in
fuch particulars, unheeded by the ordinary herd of en¬
gineers or pump-makers, that the fuperiority of an in¬
telligent practitioner is to be feen.
Another material point in the conduCt of water in
pipes is the diftribution of it to the different perfons
who have occafion for it. This is rarely done from the
rifing main. It is ufual to fend the whole into a ciftern,
from which it is afterwards conducted to different places
in feparate pipes. Till the difcovery of the general
theorem by the chevalier Buat, this has been done with
great inaccuracy. Engineers think that the different
purchafers from water-works receive in proportion to
their refpeCtive bargains when they give them pipes
whofe areas are proportional to thefe payments. But
we now' fee, that when thefe pipes are of any confider-
able length, the waters of a larger pipe run Avith a
greater velocity than thofe of a fmaller pipe having the
fame dope. A pipe of two inches diameter will give
much more water than four pipes of one inch diameter j
it will give as much as five and a half fuch pipes, or
more *, becaufe the fquares of the difcharges are very
nearly as the fifth powers of the diameters. This point
ought therefore to be carefully confidered in the bar¬
gains made with the proprietors of water-works, and
the payments made in this proportion. Perhaps the
moft unexceptionable method Avould be to make a dou¬
ble diftribution. Let the water be firft let off in its
proper proportions into a.fecond feries of fxnall cifterns,
and let each have a pipe which AVill convey the whole Water-
water that is difcharged into it. The firft diftribution wejrk'‘
may be made entirely by pipes of one inch in diame¬
ter 5 this Avould leave nothing to the calculation of the
diftributor, for every man Avould pay in proportion to
the number of fuch pipes Avhich run into his own cif¬
tern.
In many cafes, however, Avater isdiftributed by pipes
derived from a main. And here another circumftance
comes into a£tion. When Avater is paffing along a pipe,
its preffure on the fides of the pipe is diminifhed by its
velocity } and if a pipe is now derived from it, the
quantity d'raAvn off is alfo diminiftied in the fubduplicate
ratio of the preffures. If the preffure is reduced to
one-fourth, one-ninth, one-fixteenth, &c. the difcharge
from the lateral pipe is reduced to one-half, one-third,
one-fourth, &c.
It is therefore of great importance to determine, Avhafc
this diminution of preffure is which arifes from the mo¬
tion along the main.
It is plain, that if the Avater fuffered no refiftance in
the main, its velocity Avould be that Avith which it en¬
tered, and it would pafs along Avithout exerting any
preffure. If the pipe Avere ftiut at the end, the preflure
on the fides Avould be the full preffure of the head of
water. If the head of water remain the fame, and the
end of the tube be contradled, but not ftopped entirely,
the velocity in the pipe is diminiftied. If avc Avould
have the velocity in the pipe Avith this contracted mouth
augmented to Avhat it Avas before the contraction was
made, avc muft employ the preflure of a pifton, or of a
head of water. This is propagated through the fiuid,.
and thus a preflure is immediately excited on the fides
of the pipe. Ncav obftruCtions of any kind, arifing
from friCtion or any other caufe, produce a diminution
of velocity in the pipe. But Avhen the natural velocity
is checked, the particles reaCt on what obftruCts their
motion j and this aCtion is uniformly propagated through
a perfeCt fluid in every direction. The reliftance there¬
fore which we thus afcribe to friCtion, produces the
fame lateral preflure, which a contraction of the ori¬
fice, which equally diminifties the A'elocity in the pipe,
Avould do. Indeed this is demonftrable from any di-
ftinCt notions that Ave can form of thefe obftruCtions.
They proceed from the Avant of perfeCt fmoothnefs,
Avhich obliges the particles next the fides to move in
undulated lines. This excites tranfverfe forces in the
fame manner as any conftrained curvilineal motion. A
particle in its undulated path tends to efcape from it,
and aCts on the lateral particles in the fame manner that
it Avould do if moving fingly in a capillary tube having
the fame undulations j it Avould prefs on the concave
fide of every fuch undulation. Thus a preffure is ex¬
erted among the particles, Avhich is propagated to the
fides of the pipe ; or the diminution of velocity may
arife from a vifcidity or want of perfeCt fluidity. rl his
obliges the particle immediately preffed to drag along
with it another particle Avhich is withheld by adhe-
fion to the fides. This requires additional preflure
from a pifton, or an additional head of Avater; and
this preffure alfo is propagated to the fides of the
pipe.
Hence it fhould follow, that the preffure Avhich water,
in motion exerts on the fides of its conduit is equal to
that which is competent to the head of water which
impels
[ 664 ] Wat
of water wliofe ler.gtli alfo is x. In like manner H ^atePv
WAT
Uater- JmpC|3 Jt into the pipe, diminifhed by tlxe bead of water
< . competent to the actual velocity with which it moves
along the pipe. Let H reprefent the head of water
which impels it into the entry of the pipe, and /i the
head which would produce the ,aftual velocity $ then
H—/i is the column which would produce the prefi'ure
exerted on its {ides.
This is abundantly verified by very firarple experi¬
ments. Let an upright pipe be inferted into the fide of
the main pipe. When the water runs out by the mouth
of the main, it will rife in this branch till the weight
of the column balances the preffure that fupports it-j
and if we then afeertain the velocity of the iffuing wa
ter by means of the quantity difeharged, and compute
the head or height neceflary for producing thi-s veloci
ty, and fubtraft this from the height of water above the
entry of the main, we (hail find the height in the branch
precifely equal to their difference. Our readers may
fee this by examining the experiments related by Gravef-
ande, and {fill better by confulting the experiments
narrated by Bolfut, § 558. which are detailed with
great minutenefs; the refults correfponded arcurately
with this propofition. The experiments indeed were
not heights of water fupported by this prelTure, but
water expelled by it through the fame orifice. Indeed
the truth of the propofition appears in every wray wTe
can confider the motion of water. And as it is of the
firft importance in the pradtice of conducing water (for
reafons which will presently appear), it merits a parti¬
cular attention. When an inclined tube is in train,
the accelerating power of the water (or its weight dimi-
nifhed in the proportion of the length of the oblique co¬
lumn to its vertical height, or its weight multiplied by
the fradlion 1, which exprelfes the Hope), is in equili-
brio with the obftrudlions $ and therefore k exerts no
prelfure on the pipe but what arifes from its weight
alone. Any part of it would continue to Aide down
the inclined plane with a conftant velocity, though de¬
tached from what follows it. It therefore derives no
preflure from the head of water which impelled it into
the pipe. The fame muft be faid of a horizontal pipe
infinitely fmooth, or oppofing no refiflance. The water
would move in this pipe with the full velocity due to
the head of water which impels it into the entry. But
when the pipe oppofes an obftrudtion, the head of water
is greater than that which would impel it into the pipe
with the velocity that it adlually has in it; and this ad¬
ditional preffure is propagated along the pipe, where it
is balanced by the adlual refinance, and therefore ex¬
cites a quaqua verfum preffure on the pipe. In fhort,
whatever part of the head of water in the refervoir, or
of the preffure which impels it along the tube, is not
employed in producing velocity, is employed in a&ing
againft fome obftruftion, and excites (by the readtion
of this obftrudlion) an equal preffure on the tube. The
rule therefore is general, but is fubjed to fome modifi¬
cations which deferve our attention.
Fig. 4. 1° the fimply inclined pipe BC (fig. 4.) the preffure
on any point S is equal to that of the head AB of water
\thich impels the water into the pipe, wanting ox minus
that of the head of water which would communicate to
k the velocity with which it adlually moves. This we
fhall call vV, and confider it as the weight of a column
may be the column AB, which impels the water into works,
the pipe, and would communicate a certain velocity j ‘v
and h may reprefent the column which would commu¬
nicate the adual velocity. We have therefore
H—h.
In the pipe HIKL, the preffure at the point I is
AH—h—10, =H—-6—10 $ and the preffure at K is
H—/i-j-PK.
And in the pipe DEFG, the preffure on E is ~ AB
—-//—EM, — H—h—EM j and the preffure at F is H
—,6+FN.
W e muft carefully diftinguifti this preffure on any
fquare inch of the pipe from the obftruftion or refiftance?
which that inch adually exerts, and which is part of the
caufe of this preffure. The preffure is (by the laws of
hydroftaiics) the fame with that exerted on the water
by a frjuare inch of the pifton or forcing head of water.
1 his muft balance the united obitrudions of the whole
pipe, in as far as they are not balanced by the relative
weight of the water in an encloled pipe. Whatever be
the inclination of a pipe, and the velocity of the water
in it, there is a certain part of this refiftance which may
not be balanced by the tendency which the water ha£
to Aide along it, provided the pipe be long enough ; or
if the pipe is too fhort, the tendency down the pipe may
more than balance all the refiftances that obtain below.
In the firft cafe, this overplus muft be balanced by an
additional head of water ; and in the latter cafe the pipe
is not in train, and the water will accelerate. There is
femething in the mechanifm of thefe motions which
makes a certain length of pipe neceffary for bringing it
into train ; a certa*»i portion of the fur-face which ads
in concert in obftruding the motion. We do not com¬
pletely underftand this circumftance, but we can form a
pretty diftind notion of its mode of ading. The film
of water contiguous to the pipe is withheld by the ob-
ftrudion, but glides along; the film immediately with¬
in this is withheld by the outer film, but glides through
it : and thus all the concentric films glide within thofe
around them, fome what like the Aiding tubes of a fpy-
glafs, when we draw it out by taking hold of the end
of the innermoA. Thus the fecond film paffes beyond
the firft or outermoft, and becomes the outermoft, and
rubs along the tube. The third does the fame in its
turn ; and thus the central filaments come at laft to the
outfide, and all fuftain their greateft poftible obftrudion.
When this is accomplilhed, the pipe is in train. This
requires a certain length, which we cannot determine
by theory. We fee, however, that pipes of greater dia¬
meter muft: require a greater length, and tbk in a pro¬
portion which is probably that of the number of fila¬
ments, or the fquare of the diameterr Buat found this
fuppofition agree well enough with his experiments. A
pipe of one inch in diameter fuftarned no change of ve¬
locity by gradually ftiortening k till he reduced it to fix
feet, and then it difeharged a little more water. A pipe
of two inches diameter gave a fenfible augmentation of
velocity when ftiortened to 25 feet. He therefore fays,
that the fquare of the diameter in inches, multiplied by
72, will exprefs (in inches) the length neceffary for put¬
ting any pipe in train.
The refiftanee exerted by a fquare inch of the pipe
makes but a fmaB part of the preffure which the whole
refiftanees
WAT [ 665 ] WAT
'ater- refinances occafion to be exerted there before they can
orks. ^
^ be overcome. The refiftance may be reprefented by —,
when d is the hydraulic depth (one-fourth of the dia¬
meter-), and s the length of a column whofe vertical
height is one inch, and it is the relative weight of a
column of water whofe bale is a fquare inch, and height
is </. For the refinance of anv length .r of pipe which
Is in train, is equal to the tendency of the water to Aide
down (being balanced by it) ; that is, is equal to the
weight of this column multiplied by —. The magni¬
tude of this column is had by multiplying its length by
its fedlion. The feftion is the prodydl of the border h
or circumference, multiplied by the mean depth d, or it
is bd. This multiplied by the length, is b ds ; and this
multiplied by the dope
1
s
is b d,
the relative weight of
the column whofe length is r. The relative weight of
one inch is therefore ; and this is in equilibrio with
the refiftance of a ring of the pipe one inch broad.
This, when unfolded, is a parallelogram b inches in
d
length. One inch of this therefore is —, the relative
s
weight of a column of water having d for its height and
a fquare inch for its bafe. Suppofe the pipe four inches
in diameter, and the Hope = 253, the refiftance is one
grain •, for an inch of water weighs 253 grains.
This knowledge of the prefiure of water in motion is
of great importance. In the management of rivers and
canals it inftru£ts us concerning the damages which they
produce in their beds by tearing up the foil ; it informs
us of the ftrength which we muft give to the banks :
but it is of more confequence in the management of clofe
conduits. Bv this we muft regulate the ftrength of our
pipes ; by this alfo we muft afcertain the quantities of
water which may be drawn off by lateral branches from
any main conduit.
With refpeiff to the firft of thefe objefls, where fe-
curity is our foie concern, it is proper to confider the
preffure in the moft unfavourable circumftances, viz.
when the end of the main is fhut. This cafe is not
unfrequent. Nay, when the water is in motion, its ve¬
locity in a conduit feldom exceeds a very few feet in a
fecond. Eight feet per fecond requires only one foot
of water to produce it. We ftiould therefore eftimate
the ftrain on all conduits by the whole height of the re-
fervoir.
In order to adjnfl: the ftrength of a pipe to the ftrain,
we may conceive it as confifting of two half cylinders
of infuperable ftrength, joined along the two feams,
where the ftrength is the fame with the ordinary
ftrength of the materials of which it is made. The in-
fide preffure tends to burft the pipe by tearing open
thefe feams ; and each of thefe two Teams is equal to the
weight of a column of water whofe height is the depth
of the feam below the furface of the refervoir, and whofe
bafe is an inch broad and a diameter of the pipe in
length. This follows from the common principles of
hydroftatics.
Suppofe the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter
and 100 feet under the furface of the refervoir. Water
Vol. XX. Part II.
weighs 62^ pounds per foot. The bafe of our column
is therefore T\rth of a foot, and the tendency to burft
the pipe is 100x624 X r5th=tfr4°, =521 pounds
nearly. Theretore an inch of one feam 1 ftrdined by
260^ pounds. A rod of lead one inch iquare is pulled
a funder by 860 pounds (fee STRENGTH of Materials,
N 40.). d herefore, if the thieknels of the feam is
—44^ inches, or one-third of an inch, it will juft with-
ftand this ftrain. But we muft make it much ftronger
than this, eipecially if the pipe leads from an engine
which fends the water along it by ftarts. Belidor and
Defaguliers have given tables of the tbicknefs and
weights of pipes -which experience has found fufficient
for the different materials and depths. Defaguliers fays,
that a leaden pipe of three-tourths of an inch in thick-
nefs is ftrong enough for a height of 140 feet and dia¬
meter of feven inches. From this we may calculate all
others. Belidor fays, that a leaden pipe 1 2 inches dia¬
meter and 60 feet deep ftiould be half an inch thick :
but thele things will be more properly computed by
means of the lift given in N° 40 of the article STRENGTH
of Materials.
The application which we are moft anxious to make
of the knowledge of the preffure of moving waters is
the derivation from a main conduit by lateral branches.
This occurs very frequently in the diftribution of wa¬
ters among the inhabitants of towns j and it is fo im-
pcrfe&ly underftood by the greateft part of thofe who
take the name of engineers, that individuals have no fe-
curity that they fhall get even one half of the water
they bargain and pay for ; yet this may be as accurate¬
ly afcertained as any other problem in hydraulics by
means of our general theorem. The cafe therefor®
merits our particular attention.
It appears to be determined already, when we have
afcertained the preffures by which the water is impelled
into thefe lateral pipes, efpecially after we have laid
that the experiments of Boffut on the a&ual difeharges
from a lateral pipe fully confirm the theoretical doclrine.
But much remains to be confidered. We have feen that
there is a vaft difference between the difeharge made
through a hole, or even through a ftiort pipe, and the
difeharge from the far end of a pipe derived from a
main conduit. And even when this has been afcer¬
tained by our new theory, the difeharge thus modified
will be found confiderably different from the real ftate
of things : For when water is flowing along a main
with a known velocity, and therefore exerting a known
preffure on the circle which we propofe for the entry of
a branch, if we infert a branch there water will go along
it: but this will generally make a confiderable change
in the motion along the main, and therefore in the pref¬
fure which is to expel the water. It alfo makes a con¬
fiderable change in the whole quantity which paffes
along the anterior part of the main, and a Hill greater
change on what moves along that part of it which lies
beyond the branch : it therefore affe&s the quantity ne-
ceffary for the whole fupply, the force that is required
for propelling it, and the quantity delivered by other
branches. This part therefore of the management of
water in conduits is of confiderable importance and in¬
tricacy. We can propofe in this place nothing more
than a folution of fuch leading queftions as involve the
chief circumftances, recommending to our readers the
perufal of original works on this fubjeft. M. Boffut’s
4 P experimfcnts
Water
woks.
 V—=
U
W A T [ 666 ] WAT
W ater- experiments are fully competent to the eftablilhment of
. the fundamental principle. The hole through which the
lateral difcharges were made was but a few feet from
the refervoir. The pipe was fucceflively lengthened, by
which the refiftances were increafed, and the velocity
diminilhed. But this did not affe£t the lateral dif¬
charges, except by affefting the preffures 5 and the dif¬
charges from the end of the main were fuppofed to be
the fame as when the lateral pipe was not infer ted-
Although this was not ftridtly true, the difference was
infenlible, becaufe the lateral pipe had but about the
18th part of the area of the main.
Suppofe that the difcharge from the refervoir remains
the fame after the derivation of this branch, then the
motion of the water all the way to the infertion of the
branch is the fame as before ; but, beyond this, the dif¬
charge is diminifhed by all that is difeharged by the
branch, with the head x equivalent to the preffure on
the fide. The difcharge by the lower end of the main
being diminilhed, the velocity and refiftance in it are
alfo diminifhed. Therefore the difference between x
and the head employed to overcome the fridion in
this fecond cafe, w'ould be a needlefs or inefficient
part of the whole load at the entry, which is impoffible ;
for every force produces an effeft, or it is deftroyed by
fome reaction. The effeft of the forcing head of water
is to produce the greateft difcharge correfponding to
the obllruftions 5 and thus the difcharge from the re¬
fervoir, or the fupply to the main, muft be augmented
by the infertion of the branch, if the forcing head of
water remains the fame. A greater portion therefore
of the forcing head was employed in producing a great¬
er difcharge at the entry of the main, and the remain¬
der, lefs than produced the prelfure on the fides. This
head was the one copapetent to the obffrudlions refult-
ing from the velocity beyond the infertion of the
branch ; and this velocity, diminifhed by the difcharge
already made, wras lefs than that at the entry, and even
than that of the main without a branch. This will ap¬
pear more diftinffly by putting the cafe into the form
of an equation. I herefore let H—x be the height due
to the velocity at the entry, of which the effeft obtains
only horizontally. I he head x is the only one which
afts on the fides of the tube, tending to produce the
diicharge by the branch, at the fame time that it muff:
overcome the obftru&ions beyond the branch. If the
orifice did not exift, and if the force producing the ve¬
locity on a fhort tube be reprefented by 2 G, and the
feftion of the main be A, the fupply at the entry of the
main would be A +/2Gk/H—x; and if the orifice
had no influence on the value of at, the difcharge by the
• / X
orifice would be D ^ D being its difoharge by
means of the head H, when the end of the main is fhut j
for the difcharges are in the fubduplicate ratio of the
heads of water by which they are expelled j and there¬
fore rl : \/x~T) : D But we havefeen
that x muft diminifh j and we know that the obftruc-
tions are nearly as the fquare roots of the velocities,
when thefe do not differ much among themfelves.
Therefore calling y the preffure or head which balances
the refiftances of the main without a branch, while x
is the head neceffary for the main with a branch, we Water
may inftitute this proportion, y : H—.y—x°^~—^LL • —
andthis4th term will exprefsthehead producing the velo¬
city in the main beyond the branch (as H—y would have
done in a main without a branch). This velocity beyond
y . , f x(PI y')
the branch will he J - , and the difcharge
at the end will he A 2 G>JIf to this we
y
add the difcharge of the branch, the fum will be the
whole difcharge, and therefore the whole fupply. There¬
fore we have the following equation, A*J 2 G*JH—y
=r A^yTG/^/^——^ From this we de-
y H
duce the value of x
2GHA*
(AWiy^J^GA.
■. This va¬
lue of x being fubftituted In the equation of the difcharge*
$ of the branch, which was=D V^jr» will give the dif¬
charges required, and they will differ fo much the more
from the dilcharges calculated according to the fimple
theory, as the velocity in the main is greater. By the
fimple theory, we mean the fuppofition that the lateral
difcharges are fuch as would be produced by the head
H—h, where H is the height of the refervoir, and h
the head due to the aflual velocity in the main.
And thus it appears that the proportion of the dif¬
charge by a lateral pip« from a main that is Ihut at the
far end, and the difcharge from a main that is open,
depends not only on the preffurcs, but alfo on the fize
of the lateral pipe, and its diftance from the refervoir.
When it is large, it greatly alters the train of the main,
under the lame head, by altering the difcharge at its
extremity, and the velocity in it beyond the branch}
and if it be near the refervoir, it greatly alters the
train,becaufe the diminiftied velocity takes place through
a greater extent, and there is a greater diminution of the
refiftances.
When the branch is taken off at a confiderable di¬
ftance from the refervoir, the problem becomes more
complicated, and the head x is refolved into two parts}
one of which balances the refiftance in the firft part of
the main, and the other balances the refiftances beyond
the lateral pipe, with a velocity diminiflied by the
difcharge from the branch.—A branch at the end of
the main produces very little change in the train of the
pipe.
When the lateral difcharge is great, the train maybe
fo altered, that the remaining part of the main will not
run full, and then the branch will not yield the fame
quantity. The velocity in a very long horizontal tube
may be fo fmall (by a fmall head of water and great
obftruftions in a very long tube) that it will juft run
full. An orifice made in its upper fide will yield no¬
thing; and yet a fmall tube inferted into it will carry
a column almoft as high as the refervoir. So that we
cannot judge in all cafes.of the preffures by the dif-
charges, and vice verfa.
If
WAT
iter- If tliefe be an inclined tube, having a head greater
rk5, than what is competent to the velocity, we may bring
y it into train by an opening on its upper fide near the re¬
fer voir. This will yield fume water, and the velocity
will diminifii in the tube till it is in train. If we thould
now enlarge the hole, it will yield no more water than
before.
And thus we have pointed out the chief circumltances
which affe£l thefe lateral difcharges. The difcharges
are afterwards modified by the conduits in which they
are conveyed to their places of dettination. Thefe be-
ing generally of fmall dimenfions, for the fake of eco¬
nomy, the velocity is much diminilhed. But, at the
fame time, it approaches nearer to that which the fame
conduit would bring direftly from the refervoir, becaufe
its fmall velocity will produce a lefs change in the train
of the main conduit.
We thould now treat of jets of water, which ftill
make an ornament in the magnificent pleafure grounds
of the wealthy. Some of thefe are indeed grand ob-
je&s, fuch as the two at Peterhoff in Rufiia, which fpout
about 6o feet high a column of nine inches diameter,
which falls again, and thakes the ground with its blow.
Even a fpout of an inch or two inches diameter, lancing
to the height of 150 feet, is a gay object, and greatly
enlivens a pleafure-ground ; efpecially when the changes
of a gentle breeze bend the jet to one fide. But we
have no room left for treating this fubjeft, which is of
fome nicety j and mufi: conclude this article with a very
fhort account of the management of water as an adlive
power for impelling machinery.
II. Of Machinery driven by Water.
This is a very comprehenfive article, including almoft
every poffible fpecies of mill. It is no lefs important,
and it is therefore matter of regret, that we cannot enter
into the detail which it deferves. The mere defcription
of the immenfe variety of mills which are in general ufe,
would fill volumes, and a fcientific defcription of their
principles and maxims of conftruflion would almoft
form a complete body of mechanical fcience. But this
is far beyond the limits of a work like ours. Many of
thefe machines have been already defcribed under their
proper names, or under the articles which give an ac¬
count of their manufaftures •, and for others we muft re¬
fer our readers to the original works, where they are de¬
fcribed in minute detail. The great academical collec¬
tion Des Arts et Metiers, publilhed at Paris in many
folio volumes, contains a defcription of the peculiar ma¬
chinery of many mills •, and the volumes of the Ency¬
clopedic Methodique, which particularly relate to the me¬
chanic arts, already contain many more. All that we
can do in this place is, to confider the chief circum-
ftances that are common to all water-mills, and from
which all muft derive their efficacy. Thefe circum-
ftances are to be found in the manner of employing wa¬
ter as an afling power, and moft of them are compre¬
hended in the conftruftion of water-wheels. When we
have explained the principles and the maxims of con-
ftruflion of a water-wheel, every reader converfant in
mechanics knows, that the axis of this wheel may be
employed to tranimit the force impreffed on it to any
fpecies of machinery. Therefore nothing fubfequent to
this can with propriety be confidered as water-works.
WAT
Water-wheels are of two kinds, diftinguiffied by the Water-
manner in which water is made an impelling power, W0lk-‘-
viz. by its weight, or by its impulfe. This requires a v—“
very different form and manner ol adaptation j and this
forms an oftenlible diftin&ion, fufficiently obvious to
give a name to each clafs. When water is made to aft
by its weight, it is delivered from the fpout as high on
the wheel as poffible, that it may continue long to ptefs
it down ; but when it is made to ftrike the wheel, it is
delivered as low as poffible, that it may have previoufly
acquired a great velocity. And thus the wheels are
faid to be overshot or undershot.
Of Overfhot Wheels.
This is nothing but a frame of open buckets, fo dif-
pofed round the rim of a wheel as to receive the water
delivered from a fpout j fo that one fide of the wheel is
loaded with water, while the other is empty. The con-
fequence muft be, that the loaded fide muft defcend.
By this motion the water runs out of the lower buckets,
while the empty buckets of the riling fide of the wheel
come under the fpout in their turn, and are filled with
water.
If it were poffible to conftruft the buckets in fucb a
manner as to remain completely filled with water till
they come to the very bottom of the wheel, the prefiure
with which the water urges the wheel round its axis
would be the fame as if the extremity of the horizontal
radius were continually loaded with a quantity of water
fufficient to fill a fquare pipe, whofe feftion is equal to
that of the bucket, and whofe length is the diameter of
the wheel. For let the buckets BD and EF (fig. 5.) p[g ^
be compared together, the arches DB and EFare equal.
The mechanical energy of the water contained in the
bucket EF, or the preffure with which its weight urges
the wheel, is the fame as if all this water were hung on
that point T of the horizontal arm CF, where it is cut
by the vertical or plumb-line BT. This is plain from
the moft elementary principles of mechanics. There¬
fore the effeft of the bucket BD is to that of the bucket
EF as CT to CF or CB. Draw the horizontal lines
PB b b, QD d d. It is plain, that if BD is taken very
fmall, fo that it may be confidered as a ftraight line,
BD : BOrrCB : BP, and EF : b d—CY : CT, and
EF X CT=Z> dX CF. Therefore if the prifm of water,
whofe vertical feftion \s b b d d, were hung on at F, its
force to urge the wheel round would be the fame as that
of the water lying in the bucket BD. The fame may
be faid of every bucket 5 and the effeftive preffure of
the whole ring of water A/'HKFI, in its natural fitua-
tion, is the fame with the pillar of water a h h a hung
on at F. And the effeft of any portion BF of this ring
is the fame with that of the correfponding portion b Yf h
of the vertical pillar. We do not take into account
the fmall difference which arifes from the depth B or Yf
becaufe we may fuppofe the circle defcribed through
the centres of gravity of the buckets. And in the far¬
ther profecution of this fubjeft, we ftiall take fimilar li¬
berties, with the view of Amplifying the fubjeft, and
faving time to the reader.
But fuch a ftate of the wheel is impoffible. The
bucket at the very top of the wheel may be completely
filled with water j but when it comes into the oblique
pofition BD, a part of the water muft run over the
outer edge and the bucket will only retain the quan-
4 P 2 tity
[ 667 1
WAT E 668 ] W A T
Water- tJty ZBDl‘, and if the buckets are formed by parti-
t W0lks- tions direfted to the axis of the wheel, the whole water
muft be run out by the time that they defeend to the
level of the axis. To prevent this many contrivances
have been adopted. The wheel has been furrounded
with a hoop or fweep, confiding of a circular board,
which comes almoft into cpntaft with the rim of the
wheel, and terminates at H, where the water is allowed
to run off. But unlefs the work is executed with un¬
common accuracy, the wheel made exiafitly round, and
the fweep exaftly fitting it, a great quantity of water
efcapes between them *, and there is a very fenfible ob-
ftruftion to the motion of fuch a wheel, from fomething
like fri&ion between the water and the fweep. Frolt
alfo effectually fteps the motion of fuch a wheel. Sweeps
h$ve therefore been generally laid afide, although there
are fituations where they might be ufed with good
effc-a.
Mill-wrights have turned their whole attention to the
giving a form to the buckets which lhall enable them
to retain the water along a great portion of the circum¬
ference of the wheel. It would be endlefs to deferibe
all thefe contrivances ; and we (hall therefore content
ourfelves with one or two of the mod approved. The
intelligent reader will readily fee that many of the cir-
cumdances which concur in producing the ultimate ef-
feft (fuch as the facility with which the rvater is re¬
ceived into the buckets, the place which it is to occupy
during the progrefs of the bucket from the top to the
bottom of the wheel, the readinefs with which they are
evacuated, or the chance that the water has of being
dragged beyond the bottom of the wheel by its adhefion,
&c. &c.) are fuch as do not admit of preeife calculation
or reafoning about their merits; and that this or that
form can feldom be evidently demondrated to be the
very bed podible. But, at the fame time, he will fee
the general reafons of preference, and his attention will
be dire&ed to circumdances which mud be attended to,
1 in order to have a good bucketed wheel.
Fig. 5, ^ Fig. 6. is the outline of a wheel having 40 buckets.
The ring of board contained between the concentric
circles QDS and P AR, making the ends of the buckets,
is called the Shrouding, in the language of the art,
and QP is called the depth of /branding. The inner
circle P AR is called the Sole of the wheel, and ufually
confids of boards nailed to drong wooden rings of coitit
pafs timber of confiderable fcantling, firmly united with
the Arms or radii. 1 he partitions, which determine
the form of the buckets, confid of three different planes
or boards AB, BC, CD, which are varioufly named by
different artids. We have heard them named the Start
or .Shoulder, the Arm, and the Wrest (probably for
wrid, on account of a refemblance of (he whole line to
lig- 7* the human arm) ; B is alfo called the Elbow. Fig. y.
reprefents a fmall portion of the fame bucketing on a
largt r icale, tnat the proportions of the parts may be
1X101 e diftin&ly feen. AO, the foie of one bucket, is
made about fth more than the depth GH of the (hroud-
ing. The dart AR js 4 of A I. Tire plane BC is fo
inclined to A R that it would pafs through H •, but it is
made to terminate in C, in fuch a manner that FC is
•gtns or GH or AI. 1 hen CD is fo placed that HD is
about fth of IH.
. By this condruftion, it follows that the area FABC
is very nearly equal to DABC j fo that the water
/ 5
which will fill the fpace FABC will all be contained Water,
in the bucket when it fhall come into fuch a polition works,
that AD is a horizontal- line j and the line AB will 'T'»
then make an angle of nearly 350 with the vertical, or
the bucket will be 350 from the perpendicular. If the
bucket defeend fo much lower that one half of the water
runs out, the line AB will make an angle of 250, or
240 nearly, with the vertical. Therefore the wheel,
filled to the degree now mentioned, will begin to lofe
water at about -^th of the diameter from the bottom,
and half of the water will be difeharged from the lowed
bucket, about -^th of the diameter farther down. Thefe
fituations of the difeharging bucket are marked at T
and V in fig. 6. Had a greater proportion of the buc¬
kets been filled with water when they were under the
fpout, the difeharge would have begun at a greater
height from the bottom, and we Ihould lofe a greater
portion of the whole fall of water. The lofs by the
prefent condru&ion is lefs than ^th (fuppofing the wa¬
ter to be delivered into the wheel at the very top), and
may be edimated at about T\th ; for the lofs is the
verfed fine of the angle which the radius of the bucket
makes with the vertical. The verfed fine of 350 is
nearly ^th of the radius (being 0.18085),. or xyJi of
the diameter. It is evident, that if only 4 of this wa¬
ter w’ere fupplied to each bucket as it paffes the fpout,
it would have been retained for io° more of a revo¬
lution, and the lofs of fall would have been only about
Tyh.
Thefe obfervations ferve to {how, in general, that an
advantage is gained by having the buckets fo capacious
that the quantity of w7ater which each can receive as it
paffes the {pout may not nearly fill it. This may be ac-
compliftied by making them of a fufficient length, that
is, by making the wheel fufficiently broad between the
two fhroudings. Economy is the only obje6f ion to this
practice, and it is generally very ill placed. When the -
work to be performed by the wheel is great, the addi¬
tion of power gained by a greater breadth will foon com-
penfate for the additional expence.
-The third plane CD is not very frequent; and mill¬
wrights generally content themfelves with continuing
the board all the way from the elbow B to the outer
edge of the wheel at H 5 and AB is generally no more
than one-third of the depth AI. But CD is a very evi¬
dent improvement, caufing the wheel to retain a very
fenfible addition to the water. Some indeed make this
addition more confiderable, by bringing BC more out¬
ward, fo as to meet the rim of the' wheel-at H, for in-
ftanee, and making HD coincide with the rim. But this
makes the entry of the water fomewhat more difficult
during the very ffiort time that the opening of the
bucket paffes the fpout. To facilitate this as much as
poffible, the water Ihould get adire&ion from the fpout,
fuch as will fend it into the buckets in the moft perfeft
manner. This may be obtained by delivering the water
through an aperture that is divided by thin plates of
board or metal, placed in the proper pofition, as we
have reprefented in fig. 6. The form of bucket laft
mentioned, having the wreft concentric with the rim, is
unfavourable to tire ready admiffion of the water j where¬
as an oblique wreft conduftsthe water which has miffed
one bucket into the next below.
The mechanical confideration of this fubjedt alfo {hows
us; that a deep fhrouding, in order to make a capacious
bucket,
If!
WAT [ 669 ] W A T
Water- bucket, is net a good method ; it does not make the
works, buckets retain their water any longer j and it diminilhes
the effective fall of water : for the Avater received at the
top of the wheel immediately falls to the bottom of the
bucket, and thus (hortens the fictitious pillar of water,
which vve fhowed to be the meafure of the effective or
ufeful preffure on the wheel: and this concurs with our
former reafons for recommending as great a breadth of
the wheel, and length of buckets, as economical confi-
derations will permit.
A bucket wheel was fome time ago executed by Mr
Robert Burns, at the cotton mills of Houlton, Burns, and
Co. at Cartfide in Renfrewfhire, of a conftruCtion en¬
tirely new, but founded on a good principle, which is
cr. 8. fufceptible of great extenfion. It is reprefented in fig. 8.
The bucket confifts of a ftart AB, an arm BC, and a
wreft CD, concentric with the rim. But the bucket is
alfo divided by a partition LM, concentric with the foie
and rim, and fo placed as to make the inner and outer
portions of nearly equal capacity. It is evident, with¬
out any farther reafoning about it, that this partition
will enable the bucket to retain its water much longer.
When they are filled one-third, they retain the whole
water at 180 from the bottom ■, and they retain one half
at li°. They do not admit the water quite fo freely as
buckets of the common conftru&ion 5 but by means of
the contrivance mentioned a little ago for the fpout (al¬
fo the invention of Mr Burns, and furnifhed with a rack-
work, which raifed or depreffed it as the fupply of water
varied, fo as at all times to employ the whole fall of
the water), it is found, that a llow^moving wheel al¬
lows one-half of the water to get into the inner buckets,
efpecially if the partition do not altogether reach the ra¬
dius drawn through the lip D of the outer bucket.
This is a very great improvement of the bucket
wheel and when the wheel is made of a liberal breadth,
fo that the water may be very (hallow in the buckets, it
feems to carry the performance as far as it can go. Mr
Burns made the firft trial on a wheel of 24 feet diame¬
ter ; and its performance is manifeftly fuperior to that of
the wheel which it replaced, and which was a very good
one. It has alfo another valdable property : When the
fupply of water is’very fcanty, a proper adjuftment of
the apparatus in the fpout will direft alrrioft the whole
of the water into the outer buckets-, which, by placing
it at a greater diftance from the axis, makes a very fen-
fible addition to its mechanical energy.^
We-faid that this principle is fufceptible of confider-
able extenfion ; and it is evident that two partitions will
increafe the effeft, and that it will increafe with the
number of partitions: fo that when the practice now be¬
gun, of making water-wheels of iron, (hall oecome ge¬
neral, and therefore very thin partitions are ufed, their
number may be greatly increafed without any inconve¬
nience : and it is obvious, that this feries of partitions
mult greatly contribute to the iliffnefs and general firm-
nefs of the whole wheel.
There frequently occurs a difficulty in the making of
bucket wheels, when the half-taught mill-wright at¬
tempts to retain the water a long time in the buckets.
The water gets into them with a difficulty which he can¬
not account for, and 1 pills all about, even when the buc¬
kets are not moving away from the fpout. Ibis arifes
from the air, which muft find its way out to admit the
water, but is obftrufted by the entering water, and oc-
cafions a greatfpluttering at the entry. This may been- Water-
tirely prevented by making the (pout confiderably nar- works,
rower than the wheel. This will leave room at the two
ends of the buckets for the efcape of the air. This ob-
(trudion is vaitly greater than one would imagine; for
the water drags along with it a great quantity of air,
as is evident in the Water-blajl deferibed by many au¬
thors.
There is another and very ferious obftru&ion to the
motion of an overfhot or bucketed wheel. When it
moves in back water, it is not only refilled by the wa¬
ter, when it moves more (lowly than the wheel, which
is very frequently the cafe, but it lifts a great deal in
the riling buckets. In fome particular dates of back
water, the defeending bucket fills itfelf completely with
water 5 and, in other cafes, it contains a very confider-
able quantity, and air of common denfity •, while in
fome rarer cafes it contains lefs water, with air in a con-
denied (late. In the firlt cafe, the riling bucket muft
come up filled with water, which it cannot drop till its
mouth get out of the water. In the fecond cafe, part
of the water goes out before this } but the air rarefies,
and therefore there is (till fome water dragged or lifted
up by the wheel, by fu&ion as it is ufually called. In
the laft cafe there is no fuch back load on the riling fide
of the wheel, but (which is as detrimental to its per¬
formance) the defeending fide is employed in condenf-
ing air ; and although this air aids the afeent of the rif-
ing fide, it does not aid it fo much as it impedes the de¬
feending fide, being (by the form of the bucket) nearer
to the vertical line drawn through the axis.
All this may be completely prevented by a few holes
made in the ftart of each bucket. Air being at lead
800 times rarer than water, will efeape through a hole
almoft 30 times faller with the fame prefibre. Very mo¬
derate holes will therefore fuffice for this purpofe : and
the fmall quantity of water which thefe holes difeharge
during the defeent of the buckets, produces a lofs which
is altogether infignificant. The water which runs out
of one runs into another, fo that there is only the lofs of
one bucket. We have feen a wheel of only 14 feet dia¬
meter working in nearly three feet of back water. It
laboured predigioufly, and brought up a great load of
water, which fell from it in abrupt dallies, which ren¬
dered the motion very hobbling. When three holes of
an inch diameter were made in each bucket (12 feet
long), the wheel laboured no more, there was no more
plunging of water from its riling fide, and its poAver on
the machinery Avas increafed more than one-fourth.
Thefe practical obfervations may contain information
that is neAv even to feveral experienced mill-Avrights.
To perfons lefs informed they cannot fail of being ufe¬
ful. We noAV proceed to confider the adlion of Avater
thus lying in the buckets of a wheel; and to afeertain
its energy as it may be modified by different circum-
ftances of fall, velocity, &e.
With refpeeft to variations in the fall, there can be
little room for difeuffion. Since the a£tive preffure is
meafured by the pillar of Avater reaching from the hori¬
zontal plane Avhere it is delivered on the wheel, to the
horizontal plane Avhere it is fpilled by the wheel, it is
evident that it muft be proportional to this pillar, and
therefore Ave muft deliver it as high and retain it as long
as poffible.
This maxim obliges us, in the fir ft place, to ufe a ‘
wheel
Pig. 9.
WAT [ 67
wlieel whofe diameter is equal to the whole fall. We
fhall not gain any thing by employing a larger wheel j
for although we fhould gain by uling only that part of
the circumference where the weight will aft more per¬
pendicularly to the radius, we fhall lofe more by the ne-
cefTity of difcharging the water at a greater height from
the bottom : For we muft fuppofe the buckets of both
the wheels equally well conftrufted; in which cafe, the
heights above the bottom, where they will difeharge the
water, will increafe in the proportion of the diameter of
the wheel. Now, that we fhall lofe more by this than
we gain by a more direft application of the weight, is
plain, without any further reafoning, by taking the ex¬
treme cafe, and fuppofing our wheel enlarged to fuch a
fize, that the ufelefs part below is equal to our whole
fall. In this cafe the avater will be fpilled from the
buckets as foon as it is delivered into them. All inter¬
mediate cafes, therefore, partake of the imperfeftion of
this.
When our fall is exceedingly great, a wheel of an
equal diameter becomes enormoufly big and expenfive,
and is of itfelf an unmanageable load. We have feen
wheels of 58 feet diameter, however, which worked ex¬
tremely well; but they are of very difficult conftruc-
tion, and extremely apt to warp and,go out of ihape by
their weight. In cafes like this, where we are unwill¬
ing to lofe any paii of the force of a fmall ftream, the
belt form of a bucket wheel is an inverted chain pump.
Inflead of employing a chain pump of thebeft conftruc-
tion, ABODE A (fig. 9.) to raife water through the
upright pipe CB, by means of a force applied to the
upper wheel A, let the water be delivered from a fpout
F, into the upper part of the pipe BC, and it will prefs
down the plugs in the lower and narrower bored part of
it with the full weight of the column, and efcape at the
dead level of C. This weight will urge round the wheel
A without any defalcation; and this is the molt power¬
ful manner that any fall of water whatever can be ap¬
plied, and exceeds the mofi: perfeft overffiot wheel. But
though it excels all chains of buckets in economy and in
effeft, it has all the other imperfeftions of this kind of
machinery. Though the chain of plugs be of great
flrength, it has fo much motion in its joints that it needs
frequent repairs; and when it breaks, it is generally in
the neighbourhood of A, on the loaded fide, and all
comes down with a great craffi. There is alfo a lofs of
power by the immerfion of fo many plugs and chains in
the water; for there can be no doubt but that if the
plugs were big enough and light enough, they would
buoy and even draw up the plugs in the narrow part at
C. They mull therefore diminiffi, in all other cafes, the
force with which this plug is preffed down.
The velocity of an overffiot wheel is a matter of very
great nicety; and authors, both fpeculative and prafti-
cal, have entertained different, nay oppofite, opinions
on tne fubjeft. IVIr Belidor, whom the engineers of
Europe have long been accuftomed to regard as facred
authority, maintains, that there is a certain velocity re¬
lated to that obtainable by the whole fall, which will
procure to an overffiot wheel the greateft performance.
Defaguliers, Smeaton, Lambert, De Parcieux, and
ethers, maintain, that there is no fuch relation, and that
the performance of an overffiot wheel will be the greater,
as it moves more llowly by an increafe of its load of
work. Behdor maintains, that the aftive power of wa-
O ] \V A T
ter lying in a bucket wheel of any diameter is equal lo Water,
that of the impulfe of the fame water on the floats of an W0|bs.
underffiot wheel, when the water ilfues from a lluice in ‘—'V—
the bottom of the dam. The other writers whom we
have named affert, that the energy of an underlhot
wheel is but one half of that of an overffiot, aftuated by
the lame quantity of water falling from the fame height.
1 o a manufacturing country like ours, which derives
aftoniffiing Superiority, by which it more than compen-
fates for the impediments of heavy taxes and luxurious
living, chiefly from its machinery, in which it leaves all
Europe far behind, the decifion of this queftion, in fuch
a manner as ffiall leave no doubt or mifconception in
the mind even of an unlettered artift, muff be confider-
ed as ,a material fervice: and we think that this is eafily
attainable.
When any machine moves uniformly, the accelerating
force or preffure actually exerted on the impelled point
of the machine is in equilibrio with all the refiftances
which-are exerted at the working point, with thofe arif-
ing from friftion, and thofe that are excited in different
parts of the machine by their mutual aftions. This is
an inconteftable truth ; and though little attended to by
the mechanicians, is the foundation of all praftical
knowledge of machines. Therefore, when an overffiot
wheel moves uniformly, with any velocity whatever, the
water is afting with its whole weight: for gravity would
accelerate its defcent, if not completely balanced by
fome reaftion; and in this balance gravity and the re-
afting part of the machine exert equal and oppofite pref-
fures, and thus produce the uniform motion of the ma¬
chine. We are thus particular on this point, becaufe
we obferve mechanicians of the firft name employing a
mode of reafoning on the queftion now before us which
is fpecious, and appears to prove the conclufion which
they draw; but is neverthelefs contrary to true mecha¬
nical principles. They affert, that the flower a heavy
body is defcending (fuppofe in a fcale fufpended from an
axis in peritrochea), the more does it prefs on the fcale,
and the more does it urge the machine round : and
therefore the flower an overffiot wheel turns, the greater
is the force with which the water urges it round, and
the more work will be done. It is very true that the
machine is more forcibly impelled, and that more work
is done: but this is not becaufe a pound of water preffes
more ftrongly, but becaufe there is more water preffing
on the wheel; for the fpout fupplies at the fame rate,
and each bucket receives more water as it paffes by it.
_ Let us therefore examine this point by the unque-
ftionable principles of mechanics.
Let the overfliot wheel A/H (fig. 5.) receive the Fig. £
water from a fpout at the very top of the wheel; and,
in order that the wheel may not be retarded by drag¬
ging into motion the water fimply laid into the upper-
moil bucket at A, let it be received at B, with the ve¬
locity (direfted in a tangent to the wheel) acquired by
the head of water AP. This velocity, therefore, muft
be equal to that of the rim of the wheel. Let this be
y, or let the wheel and the water move over v inches
in a fecond. Let the buckets be of fuch dimenfions,
that all the water which each receives as it paffes the
fpout is retained till it comes to the pofition R, where it
is difcharged at mice. It is plain that, in place of the
feparate quantities of water lying in each bucket, w«
may fubftitute a continued ring of water, equal to their
W
W A f f 67
Water- funi, and uniformly diftributed in the fpace BER g//3.
works. This conftitutes a ring of uniform thicknefs. Let the
y "" area of its crof, fedion /3 B or F/ be called a. We
have already demonfirated, that the mechanical energy
with which this water on the circumference of the wheel
urges it round, is the fame with what would be exerted
by the pillar 6 rr6 preffing on F/^ or a&ing by the
lever CF. The weight of this pillar may be exprefftd
by 0 X £ r, or « X PS ; and if we call the radius CF of
the wheel R, the momentum or mechanical energy of
this weight will be reprefented by o X PS X R-
Now, let us fuppofe that this wheel is employed to
raife a weight W, which is fufpended by a rope wound
round the axis of the wheel. Let r be the radius of
this axle. Then Wx^ is the momentum of the work.
Let the weight rife with the velocity » when the rim
of the wheel turns with the velocity v, that is, let it rife
a inches in a fecond.
Since a perfed equilibrium obtains between the power
and the work when the motion is uniform, we muft have
W x X PS X R* But it is evident that R : rrr'y : u.
Therefore W X «=« X ^ X PS.
Now the performance of the machine is undoubtedly
meafured by the weight and the height to which it is
railed in a fecond, or by Wx«. Therefore the ma¬
chine is in its beft poffible Rate when cX^X PS is a
maximum. But it is plain that aXv is an invariable
quantity 5 for it is the cubic inches of water which the
fpout fupplies in a fecond. If the wheel moves fall,
little water lies in each bucket, and a is fmall. When
■y is fmall, a is great, for the oppofite reafon ; but 0 X ^
remains the fame. Therefore we mull make PS a maxi¬
mum, that is, we muft deliver the water as high up as
polfible. But this diminilhes AP, and this diminifties
the velocity of the wheel: and as this has no limit, the
propofition is demonftrated ; and an overfhot wheel does
the more work as it moves floweft.
Convincing as this difcuflion muft be to any mecha¬
nician, we are anxious to imprefs the fame maxim on
the minds of pradical men, unaceuftomed to mathema¬
tical reafoning of any kind. We therefore beg indul¬
gence for adding a popular view of the queftion, w hich
requires nafuch inveftigation.
We may reafon in this w*ay : Suppofe a wheel having
30 buckets, and that fix cubic feet of water are deliver¬
ed in a fecond on the top of a wheel, and difcharged
without any lofs by the way at a certain height from
the bottom of the wheel. Let this be the cafe, what¬
ever is the rate of the wheel’s motion •, the buckets be¬
ing of a fufficient capacity to hold all the water which
falls into them. Let this wheel be employed to raife a
weight of any kind, fuppofe water in a chain of 30
buckets, to the fame height, and with the fame velo¬
city. Suppofe, farther, that when the load on the
rifing fide of the machine is one half of that on the
wheel, the wheel makes four turns in a minute, or one
turn in 15 feconds. During this time 90 cubic feet of
water have flowed into the 30 buckets, and each has
received three cubic feet. Then each of the rifing
buckets contains li feet ; and 45 cubic feet are deli¬
vered into the upper eiftern during one turn of the
wheel, and j 80 cubic feet in one minute.
Now, fuppofe. the machine fo loaded, by making the
rifing buckets more capacious, that it makes only two
turns ia a minute, or one turn in 30 feccnds. Then
1
[ ] WAT
each defcending bucket muft contain fix cubic feet of
water. If each bucket of the rifing fide contained three
cubic feet, the motion of the machine would be the
fame as before. "I his is a point which no mechanician
will controvert. When two pounds are fufpended to
one end of a firing which paffes over the pulley, and
one pound to the other end, the defcent of the two
pounds will be the fame with that of a four pound
W'eight, w'hich is employed in the fame manner to draw
up two pounds. Our machine would therefore continue
to make four turns in the minute, and would deliver 90
cubic feet during each turn, and 360 in a minute. But,
by fuppofition, it is making but two turns in a minute :
this muft proceed from a greater load than three cubic
feet of water in each rifing bucket. The machine
muft therefore be rafing more than 90 feet of water du¬
ring one turn of the wheel, and more than 180 in the
minute.
'J bus it appears, that if the machine be turning twice
as flow as before, there is more than twice the former
quantity. in the rifing buckets, and more will be raifed
in a minute by the fame expenditure of power. In
like manner, if the machine go three times as flow,
there muft be more than three times the former quantity
of water in the rifing buckets, and more work will be
done.
But we may go farther, and aflert, that the more we
retard the machine, by loading it with more work of a
fimilar kind, the greater will be its performance. This
does not immediately appear from the prefent difcuflion :
But let us call the firft quantity of water in the rifing
bucket A j the water raifed by four turns in a minute
will be 4 X 3° X A, —120 A. I he quantity in this
bucket, when the machine goes twice as flow, has been
ftiown to be greater than 2 A (call it 2 A -}-.r) ; the
water raifed by two turns in a minute will be 2x30
X 2 A -j-ar~i 20 A-j-60 x. Now, let the machine go
four times as flowr, making but one turn in a minute,
the rifing bucket muft now contain more than twice
2 A -f.r, or more than 4 A -}- 2 x ; call it 4 A -f 2 -f (•'.
The work done by one turn in a minute will now be
3°-f 4 A-f-2.v-\-y~ 120 A-f-60 *-{-30 y.
By fuch an indmftion of the work, done with any
rates of motion we choofe, it is evidenk that the per¬
formance of the machine increafes with every diminu¬
tion of its velocity that is produced by the mere addition
of a fimilar load of work, or that it does the more work,
the flower it goes.
We have fuppofed the machine to be in its ftate of
permanent uniform motion. If we confider it only in
the beginning of its motion, the refult is ftill more in
favour of flow motion : For, at the firft aftion of the
moving power, the inertia of the machine itfelf. con-
fumes part of it, and it acquires its permanent fpeed by
degrees ; during which, the refinances arifing from the
work, fri&ion, &c. increafe, till they exaflly balance
the preffure of the water ; and after this the machine
accelerates no more. Now the greater the power and
the refiftance arifing from the work are, in proportion
to the inertia of the machine, tire fooner will all arrive
at its ftate of permanent velocity.
There is another circumftance which impairs the per¬
formance of an overfliot wheel moving with a great ve¬
locity, viz. the effc&s of the centrifugal force on the
water
W ater-
works.
Water¬
works.
fig. 10.
WAT •[ 672 ]
water in the buckets. Our mill-wrights know well mathematicians
enough, that too great velocity will throw the water
” out of the buckets j but few, if any, know exaftly the
diminution of power produced by this caufe. The fol¬
lowing very Ample conftrudtion will determine this:
Let AOB (fig. 10.) be an overfhot wheel, of which
AB is the upright diameter, and C is the centre.
Make CF the length of a pendulum, which will make
two vibrations during one turn of the wheel. Draw
FE to the elbow of any of the buckets. The water in
this bucket, inftead of having its furface horizontal, as
NO, wall have it in the direction n O perpendicular to
FE very nearly.
For the time of falling along half of FC is to that of
two vibrations of this pendulum, or to the time of a re¬
volution of the wheel, as the radius of a circle is to its
circumference: and it is well known, that the time of
moving along half of AC, by the uniform action of the
centrifugal force, is to that of a revolution as the radius
of a circle to its circumference. Therefore the time of
defcribing one half of AC by the centrifugal force, is
equal to the time of defcribing one half of FC by gra¬
vity. Thefe fpaces, being fimilarly defcribed in equal
times, are proportional to the accelerating forces.
Therefore 4- FC : 4- AC, or FC : AC rr gravity : cen¬
trifugal force. Complete the parallelogram FCEK.
A particle at E is urged by its weight in the diredlion
KE, with a force which may be exprefied by FC or
KE; and it is urged by the centrifugal force in the
diredtion CE, with a force rr AC or CE. By their
combined adlion it is urged in the diredlion FE.
Therefore, as the furface of (landing water is always at
right angles to the adlion of gravity, that is, to the
plumb-line, fo the furface of the water in the revolving
bucket is perpendicular to the adlion of the combined
force FE.
Let NEO be the pofition of the bucket, which juft
holds all the water which it received as it paffed the
fpout when not affedled by the centrifugal force j and
let NDO be its pofition when it would be empty. Let
the vertical lines through D and E cut the circle de¬
fcribed round C with the radius CF in the points H
and I. Draw HC, IC, cutting the circle AOB in L
and M. Make the arch d’ 3 equal to AL, and the
arch e’s equal to AM : Then C $ and C e will be the
pofitions of the bucket on the revolving wheel, corre-
fpondirig to CDO and CEO on the wheel at reft. Wa¬
ter will begin to run out at 1, and it will be all gone at
—The demonftration is evident.
The force which now urges the wheel is (fill the
weight really in the buckets: For though the water be
urged in the diredlion with the force FE, one of its
conftituents, CE, has no tendency to impel the wheel 5
and KE is the only impelling force.
It is but of late years that mills have been conftrucled
or attended to with that accuracy and fcientific fkill
which are neceffary for deducing confidential conclufions
from any experiments that can be made with them ; and
it is therefore no matter of wonder that the opinions of
mill-wrightshavebeen fo different onthisfubjedl. There
is a natural wi(h to fee £ machine moving brifkly ; it has
the appearance of activity : but a very flow motion al¬
ways looks as if the machine were overloaded. For this
reafon mill-wrights have always yielded flowly, and
with fotne reludance, to the repeated advices of the
W AT
but they have yielded ; and we fee
them adopting maxims of conftrudion more agreeable to
found theory ; making their wheels of great breadth,
and loading them with a great deal of work. Mr Euler
fays, that the performance of the beft mill cannot ex¬
ceed that of the worft above fth : but we have feen a
Bream of water completely expended in driving a fmaU
flax mill, which now drives a cotton mill of 4000
fpindles, with all its carding, roving, and drawing
machinery, befides the lathes and other engines of the
fmith and carpenters workfhops, exerting a force not
lefs than ten times what fufficed for the flax mill.
The above difcuftion only demoni'trates in general the
advantage of flow motion ; but does not point out in
any degree the relation between the r£te of motion and
the work performed, nor even the principles on which
it depends. Yet this is a fubjeef fit for a mathematical
inveftigation ; and we would profecute it in this place,
if it were neceffary for the improvement of pradtical
mechanics. But we have feen that there is not, in the
nature of things, a maximum of performance attached
to any particular rate of motion which fliould therefore
be preferred. For this reafon v’e omit this difeuflion of
mere fpeculative curiofity. It is very intricate : For
■we muft not now exprefs the preflure on the wheel by a
conftant pillar of water incumbent on the extremity of
the horizontal arm, as we did before w hen we fuppofed
the buckets completely filled ; nor by a fmaller conjlant
pillar, correfponding to a fmaller but equal quantity ly¬
ing in every bucket. Each different velocity puts a
different quantity of water into the bucket as it pafie.s
the fpout ; and this occafions a difference in the place
where the difeharge is begun and completed. This cir-
cumftance is fome obftacle to the advantages of very
floAV motions, becaufe it brings on the difeharge fooner.
All-this may indeed be expreffed by a fimple equation
of eafy management ; but the whole procefs of the me¬
chanical difeuflion is both intricate and tedious, and the
refults are fo much diverfified by the forms of the buc¬
kets, that they do not afford any rule of fufficient gene¬
rality to reward our trouble. The curious reader may
fee a very full inveftigation of this fubjeiff in two differ-
tations by Elvius in the Swedifh Tranfafiiojns, and in
the Hydrodynamique o{ Profeflbr Karftner of Gottingen j
Avho has abridged thefe Diflertations of Elvius, and
confiderably improved the whole inveftigation, and has
added fome comparifons of his deduftions with the aftual
performance of fome great works. Thefe comparifons,
however, are not very fatisfadlory. There is alfo a
valuable paper on this fubjeft by Mr Lambert, in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for the year 1775.
From thefe differtations, and from the Hydrodynamique
of the abbe Boffut, the reader will get all that theory
can teach of the relation between the preffures of the
power and wbrk on the machine .and the rates of its
motion. The praftical reader may reft w’ith confidence
on the fimple demonftration we have given, that the
performance is improved by diminilhing the velocity.
All we have to do, therefore, is to load the macliine,
and thus to diminifti its fpeed, unlefs other phyfical cir-
cumftances throw obftacles in the way : but there are
fueh obftacles.^ In all machines there are little inequali¬
ties of a£lion that are unavoidable. In the a&ion of a
wheel and pinion, though made with theutmoft judge¬
ment and care, there are fuch inequalities. Thefe in-
creafs
Water¬
works.
J r , w A T r 6
*«.J| ater* create by the changes of form occafioned by the wearing
■>1 ^rks. 0f the machine—much greater irregularities arife from
i ■ the fubfultory motions of cranks, ftampers, and other
parts which move unequally or reciprocally. A ma¬
chine may be fo loaded as juft to be in equilibrio with
its work, in the favourable pofition of its parts. When
this changes into one lefs favourable, the machine may
ftop ; if not, it at leaft ftaggers, hobbles, or works un¬
equally. The rubbing parts bear long on each other,
with enormous preffures, and cut deep, and increafe fric¬
tion. Such flow motions muft therefore be avoided.
A little more velocity enables the machine to get over
thofe increafed refiftances by its inertia, or the great
quantity of motion inherent in it. Great machines pof-
fefs this advantage in a fuperior degree, and will there¬
fore work fteadily wuth a fmaller velocity. Thefe
circumftances are hardly fufceptible of mathematical
difcuflion, and our beft reliance is on well-diredled ex¬
perience.
For this purpofe, the reader will do well to perufe
with care the excellent paper by Mr Smeaton in the
Philofophical Tranfadlions for J 759. This diflertation
contains a numerous lift of experiments, moft judici-
oufly contrived by him, and executed with the accu¬
racy and attention to the moft important circumftances,
which is to be obferved in all that gentleman’s perfor-
tnances.
It is true, thefe experiments wrere made with fmall
models j and we muft not, without great caution, tranf-
fer the refults of fuch experiments to large works. But
we may fafely transfer the laws of variation which re- ■
fult from a variation of circumftances, although we muft
not adopt the abfolute quantities of the variations them-
felves. Mr Smeaton was fully awrare of the limitations
to which conclufions drawn from experiments on models
are fubjett, and has made the applications with his ufual
fagacity.
His general inference is, that, in fmaller works, the
rim of the overftiot-wheel ftiould not have a greater ve¬
locity than three feet in a fecond j but that larger mills ,
may be allowed a greater velocity than this. When
every thing is executed in the beft manner, he fays that
the work performed will amount to fully two-thirds of
the power expended; that is, that three cubic feet of
water defcending from any height will raife two to the
fame height.
It is not very eafy to compare thefe dedudtions with
•bfervations on large works j becaufe there are few cafes
where we have good meafures of the refiftances oppofed
by the work performed by the machine. Mills employ¬
ed for pumping water afford the beft opportunites. But
the inertia of their working gear diminiibes their ufeful
performance very fenfibly ; becaufe their great beauw,
pump-rods, &c. have a reciprocating motion, which
muft be deftroyed, and produced anew in every ftroke.
We have examined fome machines of this kind which
are efteemed good ones; and we find few of them whofe
performance exceeds one half of the power expended.
By comparing other mills with thefe, v’e get the beft
information of their refiftances. The comparifon with
mills worked by Watt and Boulton’s fteam-engines is
perhaps a better meafure of the refiftances oppofed by
different kinds of work, becaufe their power is very
diftinclly known. We have been informed by otie of
the moft eminent engineers, that a ton and a half of
Vox.. XX. Part II.
73 1 WAT
water per minute falling one foot will grind and dreis Water*
one bufhel of wheat per hour. This is equivalent to 9 works,
tons falling 10 feet. y——
If an overfhot-wheel oppofed no refiftance, and only
one bucket were filled, the wheel would acquire the ve¬
locity due to a fall through the whole height. But
when it is in this flate of accelerated motion, if another
bucket of water is delivered into it, its motion muft be
checked at the firft, by the necefflty of dragging forward
this water. If the buckets fill in fucceflion as they
pafs the fpout, the velocity acquired by an unrefifting
w'heel is but half of that which one bucket would give.
In all cafes, therefore, the velocity is diminifhed by the
inertia of the entering water when it is fimply laid into
the upper buckets. The performance will therefore be
improved by delivering the water on the wheel with
that velocity with which the wheel is really moving.
And as we cannot give the direction of a tangent to the
wheel, the velocity with which it is delivered on the
wheel muft be fo much greater than the intended Veloci¬
ty of the rim, that it (ball be precifely equal to it when
it is eftimated in the direction of the tangent. Three or
four inches of fall are fufficient for this purpofe ; and it
fliould never be negle&ed, for it has a very fenfible in¬
fluence on the performance. But it is highly improper
to give it more than this, with the view of impelling
the wheel by its ftroke. For even although it were
proper to employ part of the fall in this way (which we
fhall prefently fee to be very improper), we cannot pro¬
cure this impulfe; becaufe the water falls among other
water,, or it ftnkes the boards of the wheel with fucb
obliquity that it cannot produce any fuch effeft.
It is a much debated queftion among mill-wrights,
Whether the diameter of the wheel fhould be fuch as
that the water will be delivered at the top of the wheel?
or larger, fo that the water is received at fome diftance
from the top, where it will a6t more perpendicularly to
the arm ? We apprehend that the obfervations formerly
made will decide in favour of the firft pra&i«e. The
fpace below, where the water is difeharged from the
wheel, being proportional to the diameter of the wheel,
there is an undoubted lofs of fall attending a large wheel;
and this is not compenfated by delivering the water at a
greater diftance from the perpendicular. We fhould
therefore recommend the ufe of the whole defcending
fide, and make the diameter of the wheel no greater
than the fall, till it is fo much reduced that the centri¬
fugal force begins to produce a fenfible effeft. Since
the rim can hardly have a fmaller velocity than three
feet per fecond, it is evident that a fmall wheel muft
revolve more rapidly. This made it proper to infert
the determination that we .have given, of the lofs of
power produced by the centrifugal force. But even
with this in view, we fhould employ much fmaller wheels
than are generally done on fmall falls. Indeed the lofs
of water at the bottom may be diminifhed, by nicely
fitting the arch which furrounds the wheel, fo as not to
allow the water toefcape by the Tides or bottom. While
this improvement remains in good order, and the wheel
entire, it produces a very fenfible cffe’ft; but the paflage
widens continually by the wearing of the wheel. A
bit of ftick or ftone falling in about the wheel tears off
part of the fhrouding or bucket, and frofty Weather fre¬
quently binds all fall. It therefore ftldom anfvvers ex¬
pirations. We have nothing to add on this cafe
4 Q to
WAT [ 674 ] W A T
Water- to wliat we have already extrafted from Mr Smeaton’s
works. Differtation on the Subjeft of Brealt or half Overlhot
'   ’ Wheels.
There is another form of wheel by which water is
made to a£t on a machine by its weight, which merits
confideration. This is known in this country by the
name of Barker's mill, and has been defcribed by Defa-
guliers, vol. ii. p. 460. It confifts of an upright pipe
Fig. 11. or trunk AB (fig. 11.), communicating with two hori¬
zontal branches BC, B c, which have a hole Cc near
their ends, opening in oppofite dire&ions, at right angles
to their lengths. Suppoi’e water to be poured in at the
top from the fpout F, it will run out by the holes C
and c with the velocity correfponding to the depth of
thefe holes under the furface. The confequence of this
muft be, that the arms will be preffed backwards-, for
there is no foiid farface at the hole C, on which the
lateral preffure of the water can be exerted, while it adls
with its full force on the oppofite fide of the arm. This
unbalanced preflure is equal to the weight of a column
having the orifice for its bafe, and twice the depth under
the furface of the water in the trunk for its height.
This meafure of the height may feem odd, becaufe if
the orifice were (hut, the preffure on it is the weight of
a column reaching from the furface. But when it is
open, the water iffues with nearly the velocity acquired
by falling from the furface, and the quantity of motion
produced is that of a column of twice this length, mov¬
ing with this velocity. This is a&ually produced by
the preffure of the fluid, and mail therefore be accom¬
panied by an equal rea&ion.
Now fuppofe this apparatus fet on the pivot E, and
to have a fpindle AD above the trunk, furniftied with
a cylindrical bobbin D, having a rope wound round it,
and pafling over a pulley G. A weight W may be
fufpended there, which may balance this backward pref¬
fure. If the weight be too fmall for this purpofe, the
retrograde motion of the. arms will wind up the cord,
and raife the weight j and thus we obtain an afting
machine, employing the preffure of the water, and ap¬
plicable to any purpofe. A runner millftone may be
put on the top of the fpindle ; and we fliould then pro¬
duce a flour mill of theutmoft fimplicity, having neither
wheel nor pinion, and fubjeft to hardly any wear. It
is fomewhat furprifing, that although this was invented
at the beginning of this century, and appears to have
fach advantage in point of fimplicity, it has not come
into ufe. So little has Dr Defaguliers’s account been
attended to (although it is mentioned by him as an ex¬
cellent machine, and as highly inftru&ive to the hy-
draulift), that the fame invention was again brought
forward by a German profeffor (Segner) as his own,
and has been honoured by a feries of elaborate difquifi-
tions concerning its theory and performance by Euler
and by John Bernoulli. Euler’s Differtations are to be
found in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, 1751,
&c. and in the Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. vi. Ber¬
noulli’s are at the end of his Hydraulics. Both thefe
authors agree in faying, that this machine excels all
other methods of employing the force of water. Simple
as it appears, its true theory, and the belt form of con-
flruftion, are moft abftrufe and delicate fubje&s •, and it
is not eafy to give fuch an account of its principles 35
will be underftood by an ordinary reader.
We fee, in general, that the machine ntuft prefs back-
3
wards ; and little inveftigation fuffices for underftanding Wan
the intenfity of this preffure, when the machine is at reft, worn
But when it is allowed to run backwards, withdrawing *
itfelf from the preffure, the intenfity of it is diminiftied ;
and if no other circumftances intervened, it might .not
be difficult to fay what particular preffure correfponded
to any rate of motion. Accordingly, Defaguliers, pre¬
fuming on the fimplicity of the machine, affirms the
preffure to be the weight of a column, which would
produce a velocity of efflux equal to the difference of the
velocity of the fluid and of the machine ; and hence he
deduces, that its performance will be the greateft pof-
fible, when its retrograde velocity is one-third of the
velocity acquired by falling from the furface, in which
cafe, it will raife ^tta of the water expended to the
fame height, which is double of the performance of a
mill adled on by the impulfe of water.
But this is a very imperfeft account of the operation.
When the machine (conftrufted exaftly as we have
defcribed) moves round, the water which iffues defcends
in the vertical trunk, and then, moving along the hori¬
zontal arms, partakes of this circular motion. This ex¬
cites a centrifugal force, which is exerted againft the
ends of the arms by the intervention of the fluid. The
whole fluid is fubjefted to this preffure (increafing for
every fedlion acrofs the arm in the proportion of its di-
ftance from the axis), and every particle is preffed with
the accumulated centrifugal forces of all the fe&ions
that are nearer to the axis. Every fe&ion therefore
fuftains an aftual preffure proportional to the fquare of
its diftance from the axis. This increafes the velocity
of efflux, and this increafes the velocity of revolution j
and this mutual co-operation would feem to terminate in
an infinite velocity of both motions. But, on the other
hand, this circular motion muff be given anew to every
particle of water as it enters the horizontal arm. This
can be done only by the motion already in the arm, and
at its expence. Thus there muft be a velocity which
cannot be overpaffed even by an unloaded machine.
But it is alfo plain, that by making the horizontal arm
very capacious, the motion of the water from the axis to
the jet may be made very flow, and much of this dimi¬
nution of circular motion prevented. Accordingly,
Euler has recommended a form by which this is done
in the moft eminent degree. His machine confifts of
a hollow coneidal ring, of which fig. 12. is a feftion. pjg, 1:
The part AH A a is a fort of a funnel bafon, which re¬
ceives the water from the fpout F; not in the direflion
pointing towards the axis, but in the direction, and with
the precife velocity, of its motion. This prevents any
retardation by dragging forward the water. The water
then paffes down between the outer conoid AC ca and
the inner conoid HG g h along fpiral channels formed
by partitions foldered to both conoids. The curves of
thefe channels are determined by a theory which aims at
the annihilation of all unneceffary and improper motions
of the water, -but which is too abftrufe to find a place
here. The water thus conduced arrives at the bottom
CG, eg. On the outer circumference of this bottom
are arranged a number of fpouts (one for each channel),
which are all diredled one way in tangents to the cir¬
cumference.
Adopting the common theory of the rea&ion of fluids,
this fflould be a very powerful machine, and Ihould raife
■33ths of the water expended. But if we admit the re-
. ' ' aftion
WAT
fater- a£t!on to be equal to the force of the iiTuing fluid (and
•orks. we jo not fee ijo^y this can be refufed), the machine
mutt be nearly twice as powerful. We therefore repeat
our wonder, that it has not been brought into ufe. But
it appears that no trial has been made even of a model j
fo that we have no experiments to encourage an engineer
to repeat the trial. Even the late author, Profeffor
Segner, has not related any thing of this kind in his
Exercitationes Hydraulics, where he particularly de-
fcribes the machine. This remiffnefs probably has pro¬
ceeded from fixing the attention on Euler’s improved
conftruftion. It is plain that this muft be a moft cum¬
brous mafs, even in a fmall fize requiring a prodigious
veffel, and carrying an unwieldy load. If we examine
the theory which recommends this conftru&ion, we find
that the advantages, though real and fenfible, bear but
a fmall proportion to the whole performance of the Am¬
ple machine as invented by Dr Barker. It is therefore
to be regretted, that engineers have not attempted to
realize the firft proje£t. We beg leave to recommend
it, with an additional argument taken from an addition
made to it by Mr Mathon de la Cour, in Rozier’s
Journal de Phyjique, January and Augufl 1775. This
13. gentleman brings down a large pipe FEH (fig. 13.)
from a refervoir, bends it upward at H, and introduces
it into two horizontal arms DA, DB, which have an
upright fpindle DK, carrying a millftone in the ftyle
of Dr Barker’s mill. The ingenious mechanician will
have no difficulty of contriving a method of joining thefe
pipes, fo as to permit a free circular motion without
lofing much water. The operation of the machine in
this form is evident. The water, prefled by the column
EG, flows out at the holes A and B, and the unba¬
lanced preflure on the oppofite fides of the arms forces
them round. The compendioufnefs and other advan¬
tages of this conftruftion are moft ftriking, allowing us
to make ufe of the greateft fall without any increafe of
the fize of the machine. It undoubtedly enables us to
employ a ftream of water too fcanty to be employed in
any other form. The author gives the dimenfions of an
engine which he had feen at Bourg Argental. AB is
92 inches, and its diameter 3 inches ; the diameter of
each orifice is EG is 21 feet; the pipe D was fit¬
ted into C by grinding 3 and the internal diameter of
D is 2 inches.
When the machine was performing no work, or was
unloaded, and emitted water by one hole only, it made
115 turns in a minute. This gives a velocity of 46 feet
per fecond for the hole. This is a curious fa£t : For
the water would iflue from this hole at reft with the ve¬
locity of 37^. This great velocity (which was much
lefs than the velocity with which the water aftually
quitted the pipe) was undoubtedly produced by the pro¬
digious centrifugal force, which was nearly 17 times the
weight of the water in the orifice.
The empty machine weighed 80 pounds, and its
weight was half-fupported by the upper preflure of the
water, fo that the friftion of the pivots was much di-
miniftied. It is a pity that the author has given no ac¬
count of any work done by the machine. Indeed it was
only working ventilators for a large hall. His theory
by no means embraces all its principles, nor is it well-
founded.
We think that the free motion round the neck of the
,feeding-pipe, without any lofs of •water or any confider-
W A T
able fri&ion, may be obtained in the following manner:
AB (fig. 14.) reprefents a portion of the revolving hori¬
zontal pipe, and CEec part of the feeding pipe. The
neck of the firft is turned truly cylindrical, fo as to turn
eafily, but without (hake, in the collar C c of the feed¬
ing-pipe, and each has a ftioulder which may fupport the
other. That the fri&ion of this joint may not be great,
and the pipes deftroy each other by wearing, the hori¬
zontal pipe has an iron fpindle EF, fixed exactly in the
axis of the joint, and retting with its pivot F in a ftep
of hard fteel, fixed to the iron bar GH, which goei
acrofs the feeding-pipe, and is firmly fupported in it.
This pipe is made bell-thaped, widening below. A col¬
lar or hofe of thin leather is fitted to the infide of this
pipe, and is reprefented (in fcdtion) by LKMw^/.
This is kept in its place by means of a metal or wooden
ring N n, thin at the upper edge, and taper-fliaped.
This is drawn in above the leather, and ftretches it, and
caufes it to apply to the fide of the pipe all around.
There can be no leakage at this joint, becaufe the wa¬
ter will prefs the leather to the fmooth metal pipe 3 nor
can there be any fenfible friftion, becaufe the water gets
at the edge of the leather, and the whole unbalanced
preflure is at the fmall crevice, between the two metal
(boulders. Thefe (boulders need not touch, fo that the
friction muft be infenfible. We imagine that this me¬
thod of tightening a turning joint may be ufed with
great advantage in many cafes.
We have only further to obferve on this engine, that
any imperfeftion by which the paflage of the water is
diminifhed or obftru&ed produces a faving of water
which is in exa£l proportion to the diminution of effedl.
The only inaccux-acy that is not thus compenfated is
when the jets are not at right angles to the arms.
We repeat our wiflies, that engineers would endea¬
vour to bring this machine into ufe, feeing many fitua-
tions where it may be employed to great advantage.
Suppofe, for inftance, a fmall fupply of water from a
great height applied in this manner to a centrifugal
pump, or to a hair belt parting over a pulley, and dip¬
ping in the water of a deep well. This would be a
hydraulic machine exceeding all others in fimplicity
and durability, though inferior in effeft to feme other
conftrudtions.
2. OfUnderJhot Wheels.
All wheels go by this name where the motion of the
water is quicker than that of the partitions or boards of
the wheel, and it therefore impels them. Thefe are
called the jloat-boards, or floats, of an underfhot wheel.
The water, running in a mill-row, with a velocity de¬
rived from a head of water, or from a declivity of chan¬
nel, ftrikes on thefe floats, and occafions, by its deflec¬
tions fidewife and upwards, a preflure on the floats fuffi-
cient for impelling the wheel.
There are few points of praftical mechanics that
have been more confidered than the adftion of water on
the floats of a wheel; hardly a book of mechanics being
filent on the fubjefl. But the generality of them, at
leaft fuch as are intelligible to perfens who are not very
much converfant in dynamical and mathematical difeuf-
fion, have hardly done any thing more than copied the
earlieft deduflions from the fimple theory of the refift-
ance of fluids. The confequence has been, that our
pradlical knowledge is very imperfefl 3 and it is ftill
4 0. 2 chiefly
t 675 1
Water¬
works.
—-y—
WAT
Water¬
works,
chiefly from experience that we imift learn the perform¬
ance of underihot wheels. .Unfortunately this flops
their improvement ; becaufe thofe who have the only
opportunities of making the experiments are not fuffr-
ciently acquainted with the principles of hydraulics, and
are apt to afcribe differences in their performance to
trifling noflrums in their conffru<5tion, or in the manner
of applying the impulfe of the water.
We have laid fo much on the imperftftion of our
theories of the impulfe of fluids in the article RESIST¬
ANCE of Fluids, that W'e need not repeat here the de-
fe6ts of the common explanations of the motions of un-
derfhot wheels. The part of this theory of the impulfe
of fluids which agrees bed with obfervation is, t/iat the
impulfe is in the duplicate proportion of the velocity with
which the water Jlrikes the float. That k, if v be the
Velocity of the ifream, and u the velocity of the float,
ive fhall have F, the impulfe on the float when held fad
to its impulfe>/'on the Hoat moving with the velocity u.
C 676 ]
WAT
v—id
as v* to v—u1, and f~F X
V'
This is the preflure a6fing on the float, and urging
the wheel round its axis. The wheel mud yield to this
motion, if the refidance of the work does not exert a
fuperior predure on the float in the oppofite direction.
By yielding, the float withdraws from the impulfe, and
this is therefore diminiftied. The wheel accelerates, the
refiftances increafe, and the impulfes diminilh, till they
become an exa61 balance for the refidances. The mo¬
tion now remains uniform, and the momentum of im-
pulfe is equal to that of refidance. The performance of
the mill therefore is determined by this j and, whatever
be the condruftion of the mill, its performance is belt
wlien the momentum of impulfe is greated. This is
had by multiplying the preffure on the float by its ve¬
locity^ Therefore the momentum will be exprefled by
v—id
i X But nnce F and v* are condant quan¬
tities, the momentum will be proportional to a X v—a2.
Let .v reprefent the relative velocity. Then v—x will
be =a, and the momentum will be proportional to v—x
X x%y and will be a maximum when v—x x x* is a
maximum, or when v x’—x* is a maximum. This will
be difcovered by making its fluxion =0. That is,
2 V X X—3 x—o,
and 2 v x—3 x*=:o
or 2 v—3 x—o
and 221=3 x, and x~y v ; and therefore v—x, or
a, =\ v. That is, the velocity of the float mud be
one-third of the velocity of the dream. It only remains
to fay what is the abfolute preflure on the float thus cir-
cumflanced. Let the velocity v be fuppofed to arife
from the preflure of a head of water h. The common
theory teaches that the impulfe on a given furface S at
red is equal to the weight of a column h S ; put this in
place of F, and 4 in place of v—a* and y v for a.
This gives us S hx-s\v for the momentum. Now the
power expended is S h v, or the column S h moving with
the velocity v. Therefore the greated performance of
an underfoot ^ wheel is equivalent to raifing T4T of the
water that drives it to the fame height.
But this is too fmall an edimation ; for the preflure
exerted on a plane furface, fituated as the float of a mill-
4
wheel, is confiderably greater than the weight of the co- Water,
lumn S h. I his is nearly the preffure on a furface wQiks.
wholly immerfed in the fluid. But when a fmall vein  ^
dr ikes a larger plane, fo as to be deflt &ed on all fides in
a thin flieet, the impulfe is a!mod double of this. This
is in fome meafure the cafe in a mill wheel. When the
dream flrikes it, it is heaped up along its face, and falls
back again—and during this motion it is acting with a
hydroflatic preffure on it. When the wheel dips into an
open river, this accumulation is lefs remarkable, becaulo
muc h efcapes laterally. But in a mill courfe it may be
confiderable.
We have confidered only the atfion on one float, but
feveral generally aft at once. The impulfe on mod of
them mud be oblique, and is therefore lefs than when
the fame dream impinges perpendicularly ; and this di¬
minution of impulfe is, by the common theory, in the
proportion of the fine of the obliquity. For this reafon
it is maintained, that the iropulfe of the whole dream
on the lowed floatboard, which is perpendicular to the
dream, is equal to the lum of the impulfes made on all
the floats which then dip into the water j or that the
impulfe on any oblique float is precifely equal to the im¬
pulfe which that part of the dream would have made
on the lowed' floatboard had it not been interrupted.
Therefore it has been recommended to make fuch a
number of floatboards, that when one of them is at the
bottom of the wheel, and perpendicular to the dream,
the next in fucceflion foould be juft entering into the
water. But fince the impulfe on a float by no means
annihilates all the motion of the water, and it bends
round it and hits the one behind with its remaining
force, there mud be fome advantage gained by employ¬
ing a greater number of floats than this rule will per¬
mit. This is abundantly confirmed by the experiments
of Smeaton and Boffut. Mr Boffut formed three or
four fuppofitions of the number of floats, and calculated
the impulfe on each ; according to the obfervations made
in a courfe of experiments made by the Academy of
Sciences, and inferted by us in the article RESISTANCE
of Fluids ; and when he fummed them up, and compared
the refillts with his experiments, he found the agreement
very fatisfaftory. He deduces a general rule, that if
the velocity of the wheel is one-third of that of the
ftream, and if 72 degrees of the circumference are im¬
merfed in the ftream, the wheel foould have 36 floats.
Each will dip one-fifth of the radius. The velocity be¬
ing dill fuppofed the fame, there foould be more or fewer
floats according as the arch is lefs or greater than 72 de-
grees.
Such is the theory, and fuch are the circumftances
which it leaves undetermined. The accumulation of the
water on a floatboard, and the force with which it may
dill ftrike another, are too intricate to be afogned with
any tolerable precifion : For fuch reafons we mud; ac¬
knowledge that the theory of underdiot wheels is dill,
very imperfeft, and that recourfe mud be had to expe¬
rience for their improvement. We therefore ftrongly:
recommend the perufal of Mr Smeatonrs experiments on
underfoot wheels, contained in the fame differtation with
thofe we have quoted on overdiot wheels. We have
only to obferve, that to an ordinary reader the experi¬
ments will appear too much in favour of underfliot wheels.
His aim is partly to eftablifo a theory, which will date
the relation between their performance and the velocity
q£
WAT [ 67; ] w A T
Water- of the ftream, and partly to date the relation between motion therefore which the wheel will acquire by this Watcr-
.the Power expended and the work done. The velocity conftruaion mull be fo different from what is expe&ed works.
' m his experiments is always confiderably below that that we can hardly fay what it will be. ’ “—v—
which a body would acquire by falling from the furface We are therefore perfuaded that the* bed way of de-
ot the head of water j or it is the velocity acquired by livering the water on an underfoot wheel in a clofe miil-
a foorter fall 1 herefore if we eilimate the power ex- courfe is, to let it Hide down a very fmooth channel,,
pended by the quantity of water multiplied by this di- without touching the wheel till near the bottom, where
mimfoed fall, we foall make it too fmall •, and the dif* the wheel foould be exactly fitted to the courfe ; or, to
fere nee in fome cafes is very great: yet, even with thefe make the floats exceedingly broader than the depth of
concemons, it appears that the utmoft performance of the vein of water which glides down the courfe, and
an underfoot wheel does not furpafs the railing one-third allow it to be partly intercepted by the firft floats, and
of the expended water to the place from which it came, heap up along them, acting by its weight, after it’s jra-
It is therefore far inferior to an overfoot wheel expend- pulfe has been expended. If the bottom of the courfe bo
ing the fame power j and Mr Belidor has led engineers an arch of a circle deferibed with a radius much greater
into very miftaken maxims of conflruaion, by faying than that of the wheel, the water which Hides down will
that overfoot wheels foould be given up, even in the be thus gradually intercepted by the floats,
cafe of great falls, and that we foould always bring on Attempts have been made to conftrufl water-wheels
the water from a fluice in the very bottom of the dam, which receive the impulfe obliquely, like the fails of a
and bring it to the wheel with as great a velocity as common wind-mill. This would, in many fituation?,.
poflible. Mr Smeaton alfo fays, that the maximum be a very great acquifition. A very flow but deep ri-
takes place when the velocity of the wheel is two-fifths ver could in this manner be made to drive our mills *
of that of the ftream, inftead of two-fixths according to and although much power is loft by the obliquity of the
the theory 5 and this agrees with the experiments of impulfe, the remainder may be very great. It is to be
Boflut. But he meafured the velocity by means of the regretted, that thefe attempts have not been more zea--
quantity of water which run paft. This muft give a loufly profecuted ; for we have no doubt of their fuc-
yelocity fomewhat too fmall ; as will appear by attend- cefs in a very ferviceable degree. Engineers have been
rng to Boat’s obfervations on the fuperficial, the mean, deterred, becaufe when fuch wheels are plunged in an
and the bottom velocities. . open ftream, their lateral motion is too much impeded
The reft of his obfervations are moft judicious, and by the motion of the ftream. We have feen one, how-
well adapted, to the inftru&ion of pra&itioners. We ever, which was very powerful : It was a long ’cylin-
have only to add to them the obfervations of Des Par- drieal frame, having a plate Handing out from it about
cieux and Boffut, who have evinced, by very good ex- a foot broad, and furrounding, it with a very oblique-
periments, that there is a very fenfible advantage gained fpiral like a cork-fcrew. This was plunged about one- -
by inclining the floatboards to the radius of the wheel fourth of its diameter (which was about 12 feet), hav-
about 20 degrees, fo that the loweft floatboard fliall not ing its axis in the direftion of the ftream.. By the-work
be perpendicular, but have its point turned up the ftream which it was performing, it feemed more powerful thaj»
about 20 degrees. This inclination eaufes the water to a common wheel which occupied the fame breadth of
heap up along the floatboard, and act by its weight. the river. Its length was not lefs than 20 feet: it
The floats fliould therefore be made much broader than might have been twice as much, which would have
the vein of water interrupted by them is deep. doubled its power, without occupying more of the wa.
Some engineers, obferving the great fuperiorky of ter-way. Perhaps fueh a fpiral, continued to the very
overfhot wheels above underfoot wheels driven by the axis, and moving in a hollow canal wholly filled by the'
fame expence of power, have propofed to bring tlae wa- ftream, might be a very advantageous way of employ-
ter home to the bottom of the wheel on an even but- ing a deep and flow ftream;
tom, and to make the floatboard no deeper than the a- But mills with oblique floats are moft ufeful for em-
perture of the fluice, which would permit the water to ploying fmall dreams, which can be delivered from a
run out. rhe^vheel is to be fitted with a clofe foie and fpout with a great velocity. Mr Boflut has confidered.
lides, exaftly fitted to the end of this trough, fo that if thefe with due attention, and afeertained the belt modes
the wheel is at reft, the water may be dammed up by of conftruction. There are two which have nearly e-
the foie and floatboard. It will therefore prefs forward qual performances: 1. The vanes being placed like thole
the floatboard with the whole fofee of the head of water- of a wind-mill, round the rim of a horizontal or vertical
But this cannot anfwer; for if wefuppofe no floatboards* wheel, and being made much broader than the vein of
the water will flow out at the bottom, propelled in the water which is to ftrike them* let the fpout be fo di¬
manner thofe perfons fuppofe ; and it will be fupplied retted that the vein may rtrike them perpendicularly,
from behind, the water coming/cWy from all parts of By this meafure it will be fpread about on the vane m
the trough to the hole below the wheel;. But now add a thin flieet, and exert a preffure nearly equal to twice
the floats, and fuppofe the wheel in motion with the ve- the weight of a column whofe bafe is the orifice of the
- locity that is expetted. The other floats muft drag in- fpout, and whofe height is-the fall producing the velocity,
to motion all the water which lies between them, giv- Mills of this kind are much in ufe in the fouth of
ing to the greateft part of it a motion vaftly greater Europe. The wheel isfoorizontal, and the vertical axis-
than it would have taken in confequenee of the preffure carries the millftone ; fo that the mill is of the utmoft
the water behind ky and the water out of the reach fimplicity : and this is its chief recommendation - for
cf the floats will remain ftilli, which it would not have its power is greatly inferior to that of a wheel conftrutt-
done independent of tile floatboards above it, becaufe it ed in the ufual manner.
^Qttld, have contributed to the expence of.the hole. The 2. The vanes may be arranged round the rim of the-
wh.eck.
WAT
[ 678 ]
WAT
%• IS*
wheel, not like the fails of a wind-mill, but in planes
inclined to the radii, but parallel to the axis, or to the
planes palling through the axis. They may either Hand
on a foie, like the oblique floats recommended by De
Parcieux, as above mentioned : or they may Hand on
the lide of the rim, not pointing to the axis, but afide
from it.
This difpolition will admit the fpout to be more con¬
veniently difpofed either for a horizontal or a vertical
wheel. ' '
We ftiali conclude this article by defcribing a con¬
trivance of Mr Burns, the inventor of the double buc¬
keted wheel, for fixing the arms of a water-wheel. It
is well known to mill-wrights that the method of fixing
them by making them to pafs through the axle, weak¬
ens it exceedingly, and by lodging water in the joint,
foon caufes it to rot and fail. They have, therefore, of
late years put call-iron flanches on the axis, to which
each arm is bolted : or the flanches are fo falhioned as
to form boxes, ferving as mortifes to receive the ends of
the arms. Thefe anfwer the purpofe completely, but
are very expenfive 5 and it is found that arms of fir
bolted into flanches of iron, are apt to work loofe. Mr
Burns has made wooden flanches of a very curious con-
ftruflion, which are equally firm, and coll much lefs
than the iron ones.
This flanch confilts of eight pieces, four of which
compofe the ring reprefented in fig. 15. meeting in the
joints ab,ab^ nb^aby dire&ed to the centre O. The
other four are covered by thefe, and their joints are re¬
prefented by the dotted lines u,/Z, a (Z, a a (S. Thefe
two rings break joint in fuch a manner that an arm MN
is contained between the two nearelt joints a' b' of the
one, and cc! (Z' of the other. The tenon formed on the
one end of the arm A, &c. is of a particular lhape:
one fide, GF, is dire£ted to the centre O *, the other
fide, BCDE, has a fmall Ihoulder BC $ then a long
fide CD directed to the centre Oj and then a third part
DE parallel to GF, or rather diverging a little from it,
fo as to make up at E the thicknefsof the Ihoulder BC5
that is, a line from B to E would be parallel to CD. This
fide of the tenon fits exaftly to the correfponding fide of
the mortife j but the mortife is wider on the other fide,
leaving a fpace GFK h a little narrower at FK than at
G h. Thefe tenons and mortifes are made extremely
true to the fquare ; the pieces are put round the axle,
with a few blocks or wedges of foft wood put between
them and the axle, leaving the fpace empty oppofite to
the place of each arm, and firmly bolted together by
bolts between the arm-mortifes. The arms are then put
in, and each is prelfed home to the fide CDE, and a
wedge HF of hard wood is then put into the empty part
of the mortife and driven home. When it comes through
the flanch and touches the axle, the part which has come
through is cut off with a thin chifel, and the wedge is
driven better home. The fpaces under the ends of the
arms are now filled with wedges, which are driven home
from oppofite fides, till the circle of the arms ftands
-quite perpendicular on the axle, and all is faft. It needs
no hoops to keep it together, for the wedging it up
round the axle makes the two half rings draw clofe on
the arms, and it cannot ftart at its own joints till it
-eruflies the arms. Hoops, however, can do no harm,
when all is once wedged up, but it would be improper
•fro put them on before this be done.
Water-
works.
A very curious hydraulic machine was erefted at Zu¬
rich by H. Andreas Wirtz, a tinplate worker of that
place. The invention fliows him to be a perfon of very '""'V
uncommon mechanical knowledge and fagacity. As it
is a machine which operates on a principle widely dif¬
ferent from all other hydraulic machines, and is really
excellent in its kind, we prefume that our readers will
not be difpleafed with fome account of it.
Fig. 16. is a Iketch of the feftion of the machine, asFig. if.
it was firrt ereded by Wirtz at a dyehoufe in Limmat,
in the fuburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It confifts of a
hollow cylinder, like a very large grindftone, turning
on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged in a ciftern of
water. The axis is hollow at one end, and communi¬
cates with a perpendicular pipe CBZ', part of which is
hid by the cylinder. This cylinder or drum is formed
into a fpiral canal by a plate coiled up within it like
the main^fpring of a watch in its box 5 only the fpires
are at a diftance from each other, fo as to form a con¬
duit for the water of uniform width. This fpiral parti¬
tion is well joined to the two ends of the cylinder, and
no water efcapes between them. The outermoft turn
of the fpiral begins to widen about three-fourths of a
circumference from the end, and this gradual enlarge¬
ment continues from £) to S nearly a femicircle : this
part may be called the Horn. It then widens fuddenly,
forming a Scoop or (hovel SS'. The cylinder is fup-
ported fo as to dip feveral inches into the water, whofe
furface is reprefented by VV7.
When this cylinder is turned round its axis in the di-
re£lion ABEO, as exprefled by the two darts, the
fcoop SS' dips at V', and takes up a certain quantity of
water before it emerges again at V. This quantity is
fufficient to fill the taper part S£), which we have call¬
ed the Horn 5 and this is nearly equal in capacity to
the outermoft uniform fpiral round.
After the fcoop has emerged, the water paffes along
the fpiral by the motion of it round the axis, and drives
the air before it into the rifing-pipe, where it efcapes.—-
In the mean time, air comes in at the mouth of the
fcoop j and when the fcoop again dips into the water,
it again takes in fome. Thus there is now a part filled
with water and a part filled with air. Continuing this
motion, we (hall receive a fecond round of water and
another of air. The V'ater in any turn of the fpiral
will have its two ends on a level j and the air between
the fucceflive columns of water will be in its natural
ftate $ for fince the pafiage into the rifing-pipe or Main
is open, there is nothing to force the water and air into
any other pofition. But fince the fpires gradually dimi-
rfith in their length, it is plain that the column of water
will gradually occupy more and more of the circumfe¬
rence of each. At laft it will occupy a complete turn
of fome fpiral that is near the centre j and when fent
farther in, by the continuance of the motion, fome of it
will run back over the top of the fucceeding fpiral.
Thus it will run over at K 4 into the right-hand fide
of the third fpiral. Therefore it will pufti the water of
this fpire backwards, and raife its other end, fo that it
alfo will run over backwards before the next turn be
completed. And this change of difpofition will at laft
reach the firft or outermoft fpiral, and fome water will
run over into the horn and fcoop, and finally into the
ciftern.
But as foon as water gets into the rifing-pipe, and
rifas
WAT [ M 1 WAT
Water- riles a little in it, it flops the efcape of the air when the
works, next fcoop of water is taken in. Here are now two co-
lumns of water afting againft each other by hydroftatic
preffiire and the intervening column of air. They muft
comprefs the air between them, and the water and air
columns will now be unequal. This will have a gene¬
ral tendency to keep the whole water back, and caufe
it to be higher on the left or rifing fide of each fpire
than on the right defcending fide. The excefs of height
will be juft fuch as produces the compreflion of the air
between that and the preceding column of water. This
will go on increafing as the water mounts in the rifing-
pipe } for the air next to the rifing-pipe is compreflfed at
its inner end with the weight of the whole column in
the main. It muft be as much comprefled at its outer
end. This muft be done by the water column without
it •, and this column exerts this preflure partly by reafon
that its outer end is higher than its inner end, and part¬
ly by the tranfmiflion of the preffure on its outer end
by air, which is fimilarly comprefled from without.
And thus it will happen that each column of water, be-
ing higher at its outer than at its inner end, comprefles
the air on the water column beyond or within it, which
tranfmits this preflure to the air beyond it, adding to it
the preflure arifing from its own want of level at the
ends. Therefore the greateft compreflion, viz. that of
the air next the main, is produced by the fum of all the
tranfmitted prejfures; and thefe are the fum of all the
differences between the elevation of the inner ends of
the water columns above their outer ends : and the
height to which the water will rife in the main will be
juft equal to this fum.
Draw the horizontal lines K'K 1, K'K 2, K'K 3, &c.
and mn, m «, m n, &c. Suppofe the left-hand fpaces
to be filled with water, and the right-hand fpaces to be
filled with air. There is a certain gradation of com¬
preflion which will keep things in this pofition. The
fpaces evidently decreafe in arithmetical progreflion $ fo
do the hydroftatic heights and preffures of the water co¬
lumns. If therefore the air be denfe in the fame pro-
, greflion, all will be in hydroftatical equilibrium. Now
this is evidently producible by the mere motion of the
machine j for fince the denfity and compreflion in each
air column is fuppofed inverfely as the bulk of the co¬
lumn, the abfolute quantity of air is the fame in all j
therefore the column firft taken in will pafs gradually
inwards, and the increafing compreflion will caufe it to
occupy precifely the whole right-hand fide of every
fpire. The gradual diminution of the w'ater columns
will be produced during the motion by the water run¬
ning over backwards at the top, from fpire to fpire, and
at laft coming out by the fcoop.
It is evident that this difpofition of the air and water
will raife the water to the greateft height, becaufe the
hydroftatic height of each water column is the greateft
poflible, viz. the diameter of the fpire. This difpofi¬
tion may be obtained in the following manner : Take
CL to CB as the denfity of the external air to its den¬
fity in the laft column next the rifing-pipe or main ;
that is, make CL to CB as 33 feet (tbe height of the
column of water which balances the atmofphere), to
the fum of 33 feet and the height of the rifing-pipe.
Then divide BL into fuch a number of turns, that the
fum of their diameters {hall be equal to the height of
the main ; then bring a pipe ftraight from L to the cen- Water-
tre C. The reafon of all this is very evident. , works.
But when the main is very high, this conftru£Hon
ivill require a very great diameter of the drum, or many
turns of a very narrow pipe. In fuch cafes it will be
much better to make the fpiral in the form of a cork-
fcrew, as in fig. 17. inftead of this flat form like a Fig. 17.
watch-fpring. The pipe which forms the fpiral may be
lapped round the fruftum of a cone, whofe greateft; dia¬
meter is to the leaft (which is next to the rifing-pipe)
in the fame proportion that we affigned to CB and CL.
By this conftruftion the water will (land in every round
fo as to have its upper and lower furfaces tangents to the
top and bottom of the fpiral, and the water columns will
occupy the whole afcending fide of the machine, while
the air occupies the defcending fide.
This form is vaftly preferable to the flat : it will al¬
low us to employ many turns of a large pipe, and there¬
fore produce a great elevation of a large quantity of water.
The fame thing will be ftill better done by lapping
the pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to the end,
in fuch a proportion that the contents of each round
may be the fame as when it is lapped round the cone.
It will raife the water to a greater height (but with an
increafe of the impelling power) by the fame number of
turns, becaufe the vertical or prefling height of each co¬
lumn is greater.
Nay, the fame thing may be done in a more fimple
manner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore round a cy¬
linder. But this will require more turns, becaufe tbe
water columns will have lefs differences between the
heights of their two ends. It requires a very minute
inveftigation to (how the progrefs of the columns of air
and water in this conftrudlion, and the various changes
of their arrangement, before one is attained which will
continue during the working of the machine.
We have chofen for the defcription of the machine
that conftruftion which made its principle and manner
of working moft evident, namely, which contained the
fame material quantity of air in each turn of the fpiral,
more and more compreffed as it approaches to the rifing-
pipe. We ftiould otherwife have been obliged to in-
veftigate in great detail the gradual progrefs of the wa¬
ter, and the frequent changes of its arrangement, be¬
fore we could fee that one arrangement would be pro¬
duced which would remain conftant during the working
of the machine. But this is not the beft conftru&ion.
We fee that, in order to raife water to the height of a
column of 34 feet, which balances the atmofphere, the
air in the laft fpire is compreffed into half its bulk j and
the quantity of water delivered into the main at each
turn is but half of what was received into the firft fpire,
the reft flowing back from fpire to fpire, and being dif-
charged at the fpout.
But it may be conftru&ed fo as that the quantity of
water in each fpire may be the fame that was received
into the firft •, by which means a greater quantity (dou¬
ble in the inftance now given) will be delivered into the
main, and raifed to the fame height by very nearly the
fame force.—-This may be done by another proportion
of the capacity of the fpires, whether by a change of
their caliber or of their diameters. Suppofe the bore to -
be the fame, the diameter muft be made fuch that the
conftant column of water, and the column of air, com*
prefled..
WAT [ 680 ] WAT"
Water- prefled to the proper degree, may occupy the whole
, v>or^5‘ circumference. Let A be the column of water which
^ ' balances the atmofphere, and h the height to which the
water is to be raifed. Let A be to A-j-^ as 1 to m.
It is plain that m will reprefent the denfity of the air
in the laft fpire, if its natural denllty be 1, becaufe it is
prefled by the column A-j-^, while the common air is
prefled by A. Let 1 reprefent the conftant water co¬
lumn, and therefore nearly equal to the air column in
the firft fpire. The whole circumference of the laft
fpire muft be 14--^-, in order to hold the w'ater 1, and
L m 1
y .A.
the air com prefled into the fpace — or — 
1 r m A + /i
lire circumference of the firft fpire is 1 -j-1 or 2. Let
D and d be the diameters of the firft and laft fpires j
-we have 2 : I -} ir.D : d, or 2 m : 1 D : d.
' 171 1
Therefore if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped round a
cone, of which D and d are the end diameters, the fpi-
rals will be very nearly fuch as will anfwer the purpofe.
It will not be quite exadl, for the intermediate fpirals
will be fomewhat too large. The conoidal fruftum
fhould be formed by the revolution of a curve of the lo¬
garithmic kind. But the error is very trifling.
With fuch a fpiral, the full quantity of water which
was confined in the firft fpiral will find room in the laft,
and will be fent into the main at every turn. This is a
very great advantage, efpecially when the water is to
be onuch raifed. The faving of power by this change of
conftru6lion is always in proportion of the greateft com-
preflion of the air.
I he great difficulty in the conftru£lion of any of thefq
forms is in determining the form and pofition of the
horn and the fcoop ; and on this greatly depends the
performance of the machine. The following inftruc-
tions will make it pretty eafy.
Fig. 13. Let ABEO (fig. 18.) reprefent the firft or outer-
moft round of the fpiral, of which the axis is C. Sup-
pofe it immerged up to the axis in the water VV7, we
have feen that the machine is moft effe&ive when the
furfaces KB and O /; of the water columns are diftant
the whole diameter BO of the fpiral. Therefore let the
pipe be firft fuppofed of equal caliber to the very mouth
E e, which we fuppofe to be juft about to dip into the
water, ihe lurface O n is kept there, in oppofition to
the prelfure of the water column BAO, by the com-
prefled air contained in the quadrant OE, and in the
quadrant which lies behind EB. And this compreffion
is fupported by the columns behind, between this fpire
and the riling pipe. But the air in the outermoft qua¬
drant EB is in its natural ftate, communicating as yet
with the external air. When, however, the mouth
.E e has come round to A, it will not have the water
Handing in it in the fame manner, leaving the half fpace
BEO filled with comprefled air ; for it took in and
confined only what filled the quadrant BE. It is plain,
therefore, that the quadrant BE muft be fo ffiaped as
to take in and confine a much greater quantity of air ;
fo that when it has come to A, the fpace BEO may
contain air fufficiently denfe to fupport the column AO.
But this is not enough : For when the wide mouth,
now at A«, rifes up to the top, the furface of the -wa¬
ter in it rifes alfo, becaufe the part AO 0 a is more ca¬
pacious than the eylindric part OE e 0 which fucceeds Wat«.
it, and which cannot contain all the water that it does, works.
Since, then, the water in the fpire rifes above A, it "v—
will prefs the water back from O n to feme other pofi¬
tion nl n\ and the preffing height of the water column
will be diminiffied by this rifing on the other fide of O.
In ftiort, the horn muft begin to widen, not from B,
but from A, and muft occupy the whole femicircle
ABE j and its capacity muft be to the capacity of the
oppofite cylindrical fide as the fum of BO, and the
height of a column of wTater which balances the atmo¬
fphere to the height of that column. For then the air
which filled it, when of the common denfity, will fill
the uniform fide BEO, when comprefled fo as to ba¬
lance the vertical column BO. But even this is not
enough ; for it has not taken in enough of water.
When it dipped into the ciftern at E, it carried air
down with it, and the preflure of the water in the ci¬
ftern caufed the water to rife into it a little w*ay ; and
feme water muft have come over at B from the other
fide, which was drawing narrower. Therefore when
the horn is in the pofition EOA, it is not full of wa¬
ter. Therefore when it comes into the fituation OAB,
it cannot be full nor balance the air on the oppofite
fide. Some will therefore come out at O, and rife up
through the water. The horn muft therefore, ift, Ex¬
tend at leaft from O to B, or occupy half the circumfe¬
rence ; and, 2dly, It muft contain at leaft twice as
much water as would fill the fide BEO. It will do
little harm though it be much larger \ beeaufe the fur-
plus of air which it takes in at E will be difeharged, as
the end E e of the horn rifes from O to B, and it will
leave the precife quantity that is wanted. The overplus
water will be difeharged as the horn comes round to
dip again into the ciftern. It is poffible, but requires
a difeuffion too intricate for this place, to make it of
fuch a fize and ffiape, that while the mouth moves from
E to B, palling through O and A, the furface of the
water in it ffiall advance from E t to O », and be ex-
attly at O when the beginning or narrow end of the
horn arrives there.
We muft alfo fecure the proper quantity of wrater»
When the machine is fo much immerfed as to be up to>
the axis in water, the capacity which thus fecures the
proper quantity of air will alfo take in the proper quan¬
tity of w'ater. But it may be erefled fo as that the
fpirals ffiall not even reach the water. In this cafe it
will anfwer our purpofe if we join to the end of the horn
a fcoop or ffiovel QRSB (fig. 19.), which is fo formed pj,, ^
as to take in at leaft as much w'ater as will fill the horn. ^
This is all that is wanted in the beginning of the mo¬
tion along the fpiral, and more than is neceflary when
the water has advanced to the fucceeding fpire j but the
overplus is difeharged in the way we have mentioned.
At the fame time, it is needlefs to load the machine
with more w'ater than is neceffary, merely to throw it
out again. We think that if the horn occupies fully
more than one half of the circumference, and contains
as much as will fill the w hole round, and if the fcoop
lifts as much as will certainly fill the horn, it will do
very well.
N. B. The fcoop muft be very open on the fide next
the axis, that it may not confine the air as foun as it
enters the water. This would hinder it from receiving
water enough.
Tire
11' 7'/ tcf/i ^Pcu/f* {
ir: r/'wr//f j%<zc7f?T
WAT [ 681 ] W A T
ter- The following dimenfions of a machine erefted at
rks. Florence, and whofe performance correfponded extreme-
' Ty well with the theory, may ferve as an example.
The fpiral is formed on a cylinder of 10 feet diame¬
ter, and the diameter of the pipe is 6 inches. The
fmaller end of the horn is of the fame diameter j and it
occupies three-fourths of the circumference, and it is
17 i8g-ths inches wide at the outer end. Here it joins the
fcoop, which lifts as much water as tills the horn, which
contains 4340 Swedilh cubic inches,each = I*J77 Eng“
lifti. The machine makes fix turns in a minute, and
raifes 1354 pounds of water, or 22 cubic feet, 10 feet
high in a minute.
The above account will, we hope, fufBciently explain
the manner in which this Angular hydraulic machine
produces its effeft. When every thing is executed by
the maxims which we have deduced from its principles,
we are confident that its performance will correfpond to
the theory ; and we have the Florentine machine as a
proof of this. It raifes more than Trths of what the
theory promifes, and it is not perfeft. The fpiral is of
equal caliber, and is formed on a cylinder. The fric¬
tion is fo inconfiderable in this machine, that it need
not be mended: but the great excellency is that what¬
ever imperfe&ion there may be in the arrangement of
the air and water columns, this only affedhs the elegance
of the execution, caufing the water to make a few more
turns in the fpiral before it can mount to the height re¬
quired 5 but waftes no power, becaufe the power employ¬
ed is always in proportion to the fum of the vertical co¬
lumns of water in the rifing fide of the machine j and the
height to which the water is raifed by it is in the very
fame proportion. It Ihould be made to move very How,
that the water be not always dragged up by the pipes,
which would caufe more to run over from each column,
and diminifh the preffure of the remainder.
If the rifing-pipe be made wide, and thus room be
made for the air to efcape freely up through the water,
it will rife to the height afligned; but if it be narrow,
fo that the air cannot get up, it rifes almoft as flow as
the water, and by this circumftance the water is raifed
to a much greater height mixed with air, and this with
hardly any more power. It is in this way that we can
account for the great performance of the Florentine ma¬
chine, which is almoft triple of what a man can do with
the fineft pump that ever was made : indeed the per¬
formance is fo great, that one is apt to fufpedt fome in¬
accuracy in the accounts. The entry into the rifing-
pipe fhould be no wider than the laft part of the fpiral j
and it would be advifable to divide it into four channels
by a thin partition, and then to make the rifing-pipe
very wide, and to put into it a number of {lender rods,
which would divide it into {lender channels that would
completely entangle the air among the water. This
will greatly increafe the height of the heterogeneous co¬
lumn. It is furprifing that a machine that is fo very
promifing (hould have attracted fb little notice. We do
not know of any being eredled out of Switzerland ex¬
cept at Florence in 1778. The account of its perform¬
ance was in confequence of a very public trial in 1779,
and honourable declaration of its merit, by Sig. Loren¬
zo Ginori, who ere&ed another, which fully equalled
it. It is ftiortly mentioned by Profeflbr Sulzer of Ber¬
lin, in the Samm/ungen Vermifchlen Schriften for 1754.
A defcription of it is publiftied by the Philofophical So-
Vol. XX. Part II.
ciety of Zurich in 1766, and in the defcriptions pub- Wate--
lilhed by the Society in London for the encouragement work
of arts in 1766. The celebrated Daniel Bernoulli has vVaterland.
publiftied a very accurate theory of it in the PeterIhurgh —y—^
Commentaries tor i772> an<^ the machines at Florence
were eredled according to his inftru&ions. Baron Al-
ftromer in Sweden cauled a glafs model of it to be made,
to exhibit the internal motions for the inftrutlion of ar-
tifts, and alfo ordered an operative engine to be ereft-
ed j but we have not feen any account of its perform¬
ance. It is a very intricate machine in its principles *,
and an ignorant engineer, nay the moft intelligent, may
ere£t one which ftiall hardly do any thingj and yet, by
a very trifling change, may become very powerful. We
prefume that failures of this kind have turned the atten¬
tion of engineers from it; but we are perfuadcd that it
may be made very effe&ive, and we are certain that it
muft be very durable. Fig. 20. is a feftion of the man-Fig. 2«,
ner in which the author has formed the communication
between the fpiral and the rifing pipe. P is the end of
the hollow axis which is united with the folid iron axis.
Adjoining to P, on the under fide, is the entry from
the laft turn of the fpiral. At Q is the collar which
refts on the fupports, and turns round in a hole of bell-
metal. ./yis a broad flanch caft in one piece with the
hollow part. Beyond this the pipe is turned fomewhat
fmaller, very round and fmooth, fo as to fit into the
mouth of the rifing-pipe, like the key of a cock. This
mouth has a plate e e attached to it. There is another
plate dd, which is broader than ee, and is not fixed to
the cylindrical part, but moves eafily round it. In this
plate are four fcrews, fuch as g,g, which go into holes
in the plateand thus draw the two plates ff and
dd together, with the plate e e between them. Pieces
of thin leather are put on each fide of ee; and thus all
efcape of water is effeflually prevented, with a very mo¬
derate compreflion and fridfion.
WATERFORD, a city and fea-port of Ireland, in
a county of the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee. It is the
fecond place in the kingdom, and is a wealthy, populous
city, enjoying many ample privileges. The ftreets are
narrow, and the air is not very healthy ; but it has an
excellent harbour, feated as well for trade as any in the
world, and ftiips of the greateft burden may ride at the
quay. It ftands on the river Sure, 8 miles north of St
George’s Channel, 26 fouth of Kilkenny, and 75 fouth
by weft of Dublin. W. Long. 7. 8. N. Lat. 52.14.
Waterford, a county of Ireland, 46 miles in length,
and 25 in breadth j bounded on the fouth by St George’s
channel $ on the weft by Cork j on the north by the
river Sure, which feparates it from Tipperary and Kil¬
kenny j and on the eaft by Waterford haven, which
parts it from Wexford. It contains 71 parilhes, and
fends 10 members to parliament. It is a fine country,
very pleafant and rich, and the principal place is of the
fame name.
WATERING, in the manufactures, is to give a
luftreto fluffs, &c. by wetting them lightly with gum-
water, and then palling them through the prefs or calen¬
der whether hot or cold. The gum-water ought to be
pure, thin, and clear, otherwife the folds of the fluff' will
all flick together: the operation muft alfo be performed
when the water is very hot, that it may penetrate.
Watering Meadows. See Meadows,
WATERLAND, Dr Daniel, a learned EngJifl*
4 R divine:
WAT [ 682 ] WAX
Waterland divine who diftinguifhed himfelf greatly in theological
Watfon contr°verfies, was born in 1683 at Wafely in Lincoln-
t . fhire, of which place his father was reftor. He had his
academical learning at Magdalen college, Cambridge,
where he drew up a ufeful tra£f, which went through
feveral editions, intitled, Advice to a Young Student,
with a Method of Study for the firft four years. In 1713
he became matter of the college, was foon after ap¬
pointed chaplain to George I. and in 1720 preached the
firft courfe of lectures founded by Lady Moyer in de¬
fence of our Lord’s divinity. He went through feveral
promotions ; and at the time of his death in 1740, was
canon of Windfor, archdeacon of Middlefex, and vicar
of Twickenham. Betides his controverfial writings, he
publithed two volumes of fermons.
WATLING-street. See Way.
WATSON, Dr Robert, an elegant hiftorian, was
born at St Andrew ’s in Scotland, about the year 1730.
He was the fon of an apothecary of that place, who was
alfo a brewrer. Having gone through the ufual courfe
of languages and philofophy at the fchool and univerfity
of his native place, and alfo entered on the ftudy of di¬
vinity, a defire of being acquainted with a larger circle
of literati, and of improving himfelf in every branch of
knowledge, carried him, firft to the univerfity of Glaf-
gow, and afterwards to that of Edinburgh. The period
of theological ftudies at the univerfities of Scotland is
four years : but during that period, young men of inge¬
nious minds find fufticient leifure to carry on and ad¬
vance the purfuits of general knowledge. Mr Watfon
purfued his ftudies with ardour. Few men ever ftudied
more conftantly. It was a rule with him to ftudy eight
hours every day ; and this law he obferved during the
whole courfe of his life. An acquaintance with the po¬
lite Avriters of England, after the union of the two king¬
doms, became general in Scotland •, and in Watfon’s
younger years, an emulation began to prevail of writing
pure and elegant Englifti. Mr Watfon applied himfelf
with great induftry to the principles of philofophical or
univerfal grammar $ and by a combination of thefe,
with the authority of the beft Englifh writers, formed a
courfe of ledtures on ftyle or language. He proceeded
to the ftudy of rhetoric or eloquence ; the principles of
which he endeavoured to trace to the nature of the hu¬
man mind. He delivered a courfe of ledlures in Edin¬
burgh on thefe fubjedls ; and met with the countenance,
approbation, and friendftiip of Lord Karnes, Mr Hume,
with other men of genius and learning.
At this time he had become a preacher ; and a va¬
cancy having happened in one of the churches of St
Andrew’s, he offered himfelf a candidate for that living,
but was difappointed. Soon after he was appointed pro-
feffor of logic j and he obtained alfo a patent from the
crown, conftituting him profeffor of rhetoric and belles
lettres. The ftudy of logic in St Andrew’s, as in moft
other places, was at this time confined to fyllogifms,
modes, and figures. Mr Watfon, whofe mind had been
opened by converfation, and by reading the writings of
the Avits that had begun to flourifti in the Scotch capi¬
tal, prepared and read to his ftudents a courfe of meta-
phylics and logics on the moft enlightened plan j in
wlrch he analyzed the poAvers of the mind, and entered
deeply into the nature of the different fpecies of evidence
of truth or knoAvledge. By his hiftory of Philip II. Dr
Watfon attained in his lifetime a confiderable degree of
celebrity ; and his hiftory of Philip III. publifhed after Watfol
his death, has added to his fame. Of this laft perform- II
ance, however, he has only completed the firft four
books ; the two laft Avere written by the editor of his ma- *"*1
nufcript, at the defire of the guardians of his children.
On the death of Principal Tulideph, Dr Watfon,
through the earl of Kinnoull, Avas appointed his fuccef-
for ; in Avhich Ration he lived only a ferv years. He
married a lady of fingular beauty and virtue, daughter
to Mr ShaAv, profeffor of divinity in St Mary’s college,
St AndreAv’s. By this lady he had five daughters, Avho
furvived him.
WATTS, Dr Isaac, a learned and eminent diffent-
ing minifter, was born at Southampton in 1674, Pa"
rents eminent for piety, and confiderable fufferers for
confcience-fake. In 1690 he Avas fent up to London for
academical education under the tuition of the Rev. Mr
Thomas Roavc •, and in 1696 was himfelf engaged as
tutor to the fon of Sir John Hartopp, Bart, at Stoke
Newington. He began to preach in 1698, and met
Avith general acceptance ; and after officiating as an af-
fiftant to the Rev. Dr Ifaac Chauncy, he fucceeded in
his paftoral charge in 1702, and continued to prefide
o\'er that church as long as he lived. Though his Avhole
income did not amount to an hundred a-year, he allot¬
ted one third of it to the poor. He died in 1748. His
numerous Ayorks have rendered his name famous among
people of every denomination, both in this and other
countries, and have been tranflated into a variety of lan¬
guages. His Lyric Poems, his Pfalms and Hymns, and
his Divine Songs for Children, are a fufficient proof of
his poetical talents, and have had an amazing number
of editions. His logic and philofophy have been much
admired. He alfo Avrote Avorks upon a variety of other
fubje&s, and printed feAreral volumes of his fermons..
He Avas admired for the mildnefs and benevolence of his
difpofition and the fAveetnefs of his manners. After his
death, his Avorks Avere colle&ed, and publiffied in fix
volumes quarto.
WAVE, in Philofophy, a cavity in the furface of
Avater, or other fluids, Avith an elevation afide thereof.
The Avaves of the fea are of Iavo kinds, natural and
accidental. The natural waves are thofe Avhich are ex-
a£!ly proportioned in fize to the ftrength of the Avind,
Avhofe blowing gives origin to them. The accidental
A\Taves are thofe occafioned by the wind’s reading upon
itfelf by repercuffion from hills and mountains, or high
fliores, and by the Avaftiing of the waves themfelves,
otherwife of the natural kind, againft rocks and ffioals:
all thefe caufes give the Avaves an elevation, which they
can never have in their natural ftate. For the height of
the Avaves, fee Sea.
Stilling WAVES by means of Oil. See Sea.
WAVED, in Heraldry, is faid of a bordure, or any
ordinary or charge, in a coat of arms, having its out¬
lines indented in manner of the rifing and falling of
Avaves : it is ufed to denote, that the firft of the family
in whofe arms it ftands, acquired its honours by fea-
fervice.
WAVING, in the fea-language, is the making figns
to a veflel to come near or keep off.
WAX, or Bees WAX, in Natural Hi/lory, a firm
and folid fubftance, moderately heavy, and of a fine yel-
Ioav colour, formed by the bees from the pollen of
flowers. See Apis.
The
WAX
tfax. The befl fort is that of a lively yellow colour, and an
“V-agreeable fmell, fomewhat like that of honey: when
new, it is toughiih, yet eafy to break ; but by age it
becomes harder and more brittle, lofes its fine colour,
and in a great meafurejts fmell.
It appears that wax and the pollen have for their bafis
a fat oil, which paffes to the Hate of refin by its combi¬
nation with oxygen. If the nitric or muriatic acid be
digefted upon fixed oil for feveral months, it pafles to a
ftate refembling wax. Wax, by repeated diftillations,
affords an oil which poffeifes all the properties of vola¬
tile oils. It is reduced into water and carbonic acid by
combuftion. The colouring matter of wax is infoluble
in water and in alcohol.
Fixed alkalies dilfolve wax, and render it foluble in
water. It is this faponaceous folution which forms the
punic wax. It may be ufed as the bafis of feveral co¬
lours ; and may be made into an excellent pafte for wafh-
ing the hands. Ammoniac likewife diffolves it ; and as
this folvent is evaporable, it ought to be preferred when
it is propofed to ufe the wax as a varnifh.
From the common yellow wax, by bleaching, is form¬
ed white-wax, fometimes called, very improperly, ft/r-
gin-wax. The greater the furface is in proportion to
the quantity, the fooner and more perfeffly this opera¬
tion is performed. The ufual way is to melt the wax in
hot water *, when melted, they prefs it through a ftrainer
®f tolerable fine linen, and pour it into round and very
(hallow moulds. When hardened by cooling, it is taken
out and expofed to the fun and air, fprinkling it now
and then with water, and often turning it: by this
means it foon becomes white. The befl fort is of a
clear and almoft tranfparent whitenefs, dry, hard, brit¬
tle, and of an agreeable fmell, like that of the yellow
wax, but much weaker.
The common yellow wax is of very great ufe both in
medicine and in many of the arts and manufaftures. It
has been fometimes given internally in dyfenteries and
erofions of the inteflines ; but its great ufe is in the
making ointments and plaflers, and the greater part of
thofe of the (hops owe their confiflence to it. The white
wax is alfo an ingredient in fome of the cerates and oint¬
ments of the {hops •, and is ufed in making candles, and
in many of the nicer arts and manufadlures where wax
is required.
Sealing-WaX, or SpaniJh-WAX, is a compofition of
gum lac, melted and prepared with refins, and coloured
with fome fuitable pigment.
There are two kinds of fealing-wax in ufe ; the one
hard, intended for fealing letters, and other fuch pur-
pofes ; the other fof% defigned for receiving the impref-
fions of feals of office to charters, patents, and fuch writ¬
ten inftruments. The bell hard red fealing-wax is made
by mixing two parts of {hell lac, well powdered, and
refin and vermilion, powdered, of each one part, and
melting this combined powder over a gentle fire •, and
when the ingredients feem thoroughly incorporated,
Working the wax into {licks. Seed-lac may be fubllitut-
ed for the {hell-lac •, and inflead of refin, boiled Venice
turpentine may be ufed. A coarfer hard red fealing-
wax may be made, by mixing two parts of refin, and
of {hell-lac, or vermilion and red lead, mixed in the
proportion of one part of the vermilion to two of the red
lead, o£each one part •, and proceeding as in the former
preparation. For a cheaper kind, the vermilion may be
WAY
omitted, and the {hell-lac aifo, for very coarfe ufes. Wax
of other colours is made by fubftituting other colouring
matters for vermilion, as verditer for blue, ivory black
for black wax. For uncoloured foft fealing-wax, take
of bees wax, one pound } of turpentine, three ounces ;
and of olive oil, one ounce j place them in a proper
vefiel over the fire, and let them boil for fome time j
and the wax will be then fit to be formed into rolls or
cakes for ufe. For red, black, green, blue, yellow, and
purple foft fealing-wax, add to the preceding compofi¬
tion an ounce or more of any ingredients directed above
for colouring the hard fealing-wax, and ftir the ma{s
till the colouring ingredients be incorporated with the
wax. v
IVAX-Work, the reprefdntation of the faces, &c. of
perfons living or dead $ made by applying plafter of
Paris in a kind of pafte, and thus forming a mould con¬
taining the exadl reprefentation of the features. Into
this mould melted wax is poured, and thus a kind of
malks are formed ; which being painted and fet with
glafs eyes, and the figures dreffed in their proper habits,
they bear fuch a refemblance that it is difficult to di-
ftinguiffi between the copy and the original.
WAY, a paflage or road.
The Roman ways are divided into confular, praeto¬
rian, military, and public ; and of thefe we have four
remarkable ones in England : the firft, Watling-ftreet,
or Watheling-ftreet, leading from Dover to London,
Dunftable,Toucefter, Atterfton, and the Severn, extend¬
ing as far as Anglefea in Wales. The fecond, called
Hikeni/d or Ikenild'Jlreet, ftretches from Southampton
over the river Ifis at Newbridge ; thence by Camden
and Litchfield •, then pafies the Derwent near Derby,
and ends at Tinmouth. The third, called FoJJe-Way%
becaufe in fome places it was never perfe£led, but lies as
a large ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonftiire,
by Tethbury, near Stow in the Wolds j and befide Co¬
ventry to Leicefter, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The
fourth, called Erming or Erminage Jlreet, extends from
St David’s, in Wales, to Southampton.
WAT Covert^ Gang) Hatch. See COVERT Wayy
Gang, &c.
WAT of a Ship, is fometimes the fame as her rake, or
run forward or backward : but this term is moll com¬
monly underftood of her failing.
WAT-LeaveS) in the coal bufmefs. See Coalery,
N° 3.
Right ofWATS) in Law. This may be grounded on
a fpecial permiffion ; as when the owner of the land
grants to another a liberty of paffing over his grounds,
to go to church, to market, or the like : in which cafe
the gift or grant is particular, and confined to the gran¬
tee alone} it dies with the perfon •, and if the grantee
leaves the country, he cannot affign over his right to
any other *, nor can he juftify taking another perion in
his company. A way may be alfo by prefcription ; as
if all the owners and occupiers of filch a farm have im-
memorially ufed to crofs another’s ground \ for this im¬
memorial ufage fuppofes an original grant, whereby a
right of way thus appurtenant to land may clearly be
created. A right of way may alfo arife by afl and ope¬
ration of law ; for if a man grants me a piece of ground
in the middle of his field, he at the fame time tacitly
and impliedly gives me a way to come at it; and I may
crofs his land for that purpofe without trefpafs. For
4 R 3 when
f 683 1
Wax,
Way.
W E A
[ 684 ] W E A
Ways when the law doth give any thing to one, it giveth im-
11. pliedly whatfoever is neceffary for enjoying the fame.
c By the law of the twelve tables at Rome, where a man
had a right of way over another’s land, and the road
was out of repair, he who had the right of way might
go over any part of the land he pleafed ; which was the
eftablifhed rule in public as well as private ways. And
the law of England, in both cafes, feems to correfpond
with the Roman.
WAYFARING tree. See Viburnum, Botany
Index.
WAYGHTES, or Waits, a word which is ufed
only in the plural number, and fignifies hautboys. It is
now applied to the performers on thefe and other mufi-
cal inftruments, by a tranfition from the inftruments
themfelves, and particularly to thofe performers who
parade the ftreets by night, about the Chriftmas feafon
of the year.
WAYWODE, is properly a title given the gover¬
nors of the chief places in the dominions of the czar of
Mufecvy. The palatines, or governors of provinces in
Poland, alfo bear the quality of waywodes or wai-
wodes. The Poles likewife call the princes of Wallachia
and Moldavia waywodes ; as efteeming them no other
than on the foot of governors j pretending that Walla¬
chia and Moldavia are provinces of Poland. Everywhere
elie thefe are called hofpodars. Du Cange fays, that the
name waywode is ufed in Dalmatia, Croatia, and Hun¬
gary, for a general of an army : and Leunclavius, in his
Pandedls of Turkey, tells us, it ufually fignifies captain
or commander.
WEANING, putting a child away from the breaft,
and bringing it to ufe common food.
WEAR, or Week, a great ftank or dam in a river,
fitted for the taking of fith, or for conveying the ftream
to a mill. New wears are not to be made, or others al¬
tered, to the nuifance of the public, under a certain pe¬
nalty. See River.
WEARING, or Veering, in Seamanjhip. See
Seamanship.
WEASEL. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
WEATHER denotes the ftate of the atmofphere
with regard to heat and cold, wind, rain, and other me¬
teors. See Meteorology.
Weather, in fea-language, is ufed as an adje&ive,
and applied by mariners to every thing lying to wind¬
ward of a particular fituation : thus, a {hip is faid to have
the weather-gage of another, when file is farther to
■windward.. Thus alfo, when a fhip under fail prefents
either of her fides to the wind, it is then called the wea~
ther-Jide or weather-board; and all the rigging and fur¬
niture fituated thereon are diftinguifhed by the fame epi¬
thet, as the weather JJjrouds, the weather-lifts, the wea¬
ther-braces, &e.
To Weather, in fea-language, is to fail to windward
of fome {hip, bank, or head-land.
WEATHER-Cock, a moveable vane, in form of a cock,
or other fhape, placed on high, to be turned round ac¬
cording to the direftion of the wind, and point out the
quarter from whence it blows.
IVEATHER-G/afs. See BAROMETER.
WEATHERING, among failors, fignifies the doub¬
ling or failing by a head-land or other place.
WEAVING, the art of working a web of cloth,
£}k, or other fluff, in a loom with a Ihuttle, For an
*
idea of the manner in which this is performed, fee W
Cloth. v
WEAVING-Lootn, a machine for weaving cloth, filk,
&c. by raifing the threads of the warp in order to throw
in the fhoot, and ftrike it clofe. Of thefe there are va¬
rious kinds, dillinguilhed by the different forts of cloths,
fluffs, filks, &c. in which they are employed, and
which are chiefly dillinguilhed by the number and va¬
riety of the threads they raife in order to work the warp,
either plain or in figures, by making more or lefs of the
woof or {hoot appear through the warp. In order to
give a general idea of weaving, we fhall here defcribe
the parts of the common weaver’s loom. Fig. 1. in
which ef, ef are the front polls, and g,g the back polls
of the loom j 111, m m, m m axe the lams in their place
at Q, or, as they are called in fome parts of Scotland,
the headles, and in others the Jlaves. They are compof-
ed of flrong threads, flretched between two horizontal
bars, an upper and a lower. The threads of one lam
are fo difpofed as to pafs between the upper threads of
the warp, while they admit the lower threads to pafs
through loops or fmall holes in them, and the difpofi-
tion of the threads of the other lam is fuch, that while
they pafs between the lower threads of the warp, they
admit the upper threads to pafs through the fmall holes
juft mentioned. The lams are fufpended from the crofs
bar or lam-bearer HH, by means of ropes n, n pafling
from the upper bars of the lams over the pulleys at EE,
and balanced by weights at the other ends. From the
lower bar of each lam or headle a rope palfes to the
treadles or moveable bars at 00 •, fo that when a foot
prelfes a treadle, the lam faftened to it finks, while the
other rifes by means of the balancing weight fufpended
from the pulley at E. The workman then throws in
the woof by means of the Ihuttle, and clofes it by one
or two ftrokes of the lay or batten, of which WB, WB
are called the fwords, CC the cap, or in Scotland the
upper Jhell, DD the block or under Jbeil, and PP the
reed or comb contained between thefe Ihells. LL is the
bench on which the workmen fit ; for the loom which
our figure reprefents is conftrudled for weaving cloth of
fuch a breadth as to require two workmen, who have
their quills in a box d on the middle of the bench on
which they fit. Between the workmen’s bench and the
batten or lay is the breajl-bar I, I, a fmooth fquare beam;
in wdiich there is an opening to let the web through as
it is wove. From this opening the web SS palfes to the
knee roll or web beam GG, round which it is rolled by
means of the fpokes, vifible in the figure, and kept from
being unrolled by a wheel with teeth and clench, vifi¬
ble likewife in the figure. In fome looms the iveb paf-
fes from the knee roll to the wooden frame X, to be
dried as it is wove. Oppofite to the breaft-bar, and on
the other fide of the batten or lay, is the cane-roll or
yarn-beam, on which the warp is rolled when put into
the loom, and from which it is gradually unrolled as the
work proceeds. TT are bobbins filled with yarn of the
warp to mend fuch threads of it as may be broke in the
weaving ; and B £, B £ are clues of the fame kind of
yarn with the borders of the warp, to mend fuch threads
as may there be broken.
Fig. 2. reprefents the common ftiuttle with the va-pjg
cuity in the middle, in which the quill with the woof is
placed on a fpindle or axis. As this Ihuttle is thrown
with one hand in at one fide of the warp, and received
with
W E A [ 685 ] W E A
leaving, with the other hand at the other fide, it is obvious, that
— y •" “ when the web is of a breadth too great for a man to
reach from one fide of it to the other, two workmen
muft be employed and much time loll. To remedy this
inconveniency, a new (buttle has, in this country, been
lately brought into very general ufe, and called the Jly-
ing jhuttle, becaufe it flies through the warp with won-
derful rapidity on two fteel rollers RR (fig. 3.). This
(buttle is not thrown with the hand, but moved back¬
wards and forwards by a very Ample piece of machinery,
, ^ of which fig. 4. will give the reader a fufficiently accu¬
rate conception. To each end of the batten or lay L is
fattened a kind of open box B, b, with the bottom or
horizontal fide exactly on a level with the threads of
the warp of the intended web. In each of thefe boxes
is a vertical piece of wood D, d, of confiderable thick-
nefs, called a driver. This driver is moved eafily on an
iron fpindle or axis from one end of the box to the other
by means of a (lender rope CCCD, and a handle H is
feen in the figure. When the weaver is to begin his
work, he lays the (buttle on its rollers in the box B
with the iron tip T (fig. 3.) touching, or almoft touch¬
ing, the driver D (fig. 4.). Then moving the handle
H, with a hidden jerk, towards the box b, the driver
D forces the (buttle with a rapid motion through the
Warp till it (trikes d, which is impelled by the ftroke to
the further end of the box b. The two drivers X) and
d have now changed their pofitions in their refpe£tive
boxes j fo that the driver which was at the front of its
box before, is now at the further end of it, and vice
verfa. Then by a hidden jerk of the hand towards B
the (buttle is driven back till it (trike D j and thus is
the work continued without the weaver having occafion
ever to ftretch his arms from one margin of the web to
the other. That the (buttle may not, by the unfteadi-
nefs of the workman’s hand, be driven Kig-Kag through
the warp or out of the place in which it ought to move,
the guiding or driving rope CCCD is made topafs through
fmooth holes or loops C, C, at the ends of the ropes EC,
EC, fufpended either from the crofs bar on the top of
the loom or from the fwords of the batten.
This (buttle, we (bould think, a great improvement in
every kind of weaving-loom, though fome of the older
tradefmen, with whom we have converfed on the fubjedl,
contend, that it is valuable only in what they call light
work, fuch as cotton or linen cloth, or w'hen the web, if
woollen, is very broad.
But as the labour of weaving is pretty fevere, Mr
Robert Millar, an ingenious callico-printer in the coun¬
ty of Dumbarton, Scotland, wifliing to leflen it, invent¬
ed, fome years ago, a weaving-loom, which may be
wrought by water, fleam, horfes, or any other power,
for which invention he received a patent in 1796. The
following is his own defcription of his patent weaving-
loom :
;• 5. Fig. 5. reprefents a fide view of the loom, A A, BB,
CC, DD, being the frame, a is an axis (which we
(hall call the fpindle) acrofs the frame. On this axis is
a (heeve b, two inches thick, having a groove round it,
two inches deep, and half an inch wide. The bottom
of this groove is circular, except in one part c, where
it is filled up to the top •, a lever d refts on the bottom
of this groove, and is lifted up by it when the elevation
c comes round to the fituation reprefen ted in the figure.
By this motion, the lever d afts on the ratchet-wheel e
by the catch /, and draws it forward one tooth, each re- Weaving,
volution of the (heeve. This ratchet wheel is in an iron ‘ " v ' '
frame gg, which alfo properly carries the two catches t
and u, which are conne&ed with it at v. The catch u
holds the ratchet-wheel in its pofition, while the lever
d and the catch /, are moved by the groove c in the
(heeve. On the arbor of the ratchet is a (mail pinion
h, working in the wheel f; this wheel is fixed on the
end of the roller e of fig. 7. On the fide of the (heeve
b is fixed a wiper k, which lifts the treadle /. This
treadle turns on its joints in the (heeve E, which is fix¬
ed to the fide of the frame A and D ; it is kept pref-
fing on the bottom of the groove in the (heeve by a
fpring m, fixed to the frame fide A, and having a (len¬
der rod n from its extremity, joining it with the treadle
at /. From the point of the treadle there goes a belt 0,
which paffes over the pulley p, which is feen edgewife
in this figure, and is joined to the top of the fly pin q%
of fig. 6. At the end of the frame A is the (hort pod
F j on this refts the yarn-beam j, having a (heeve r,
over which palfes a cord, having a weight r fufpended
to it. The other end of this cord is fattened to the
fpring v; the weight caufes the yarn-beam to ftretch
the web from the ratchet-wheel e, with its catch u; and
the fpring v allows the rope to Aide on the (heeve as
the ratchet is drawn round during the working.
Fig 6. is a front view of the loom, a a is the fpin- Fig. 5.
die which carries the (heeve b, and the wipers d and d,
which move the treadles w, w, of fig. 5. Thefe ufe
the treadles of the hfcadles, with which they are con-
ne£ted by cords from the (hafts of the headles s, s.
From the upper (haft there go two leathern belts
to the roller yf furnifhed each with a buckle, for tight¬
ening them at pleafure. The two wipers c, c, on the
(haft a, w'hich ferve for taking back the lay, have the
twro treadles, x, x, in fig. 7. with a belt from each paf-
fing over the roller b 2 of fig. 6. and fixed to the fword
of, the lay. From the fwords of the lay forward is fix¬
ed a belt to each end of the roller i; from this roller
there goes a cord to the fpring^’, which ferves for tak¬
ing forward the lay which is hinged on the rocking-
tree t. The ftar-wheel b of fig. 3. and the (heeve b of
fig. 1. are fixed to the oppofite ends of the fpindle a
without the frame ; and both the wheel and (heeve have
a wiper k fixed to them for moving the treadles. In
order to drive the (buttle, the belts 0, 0, go from the
points of the treadles, over the pulleys p, p, to the top
of the fly-pin q : This turns on a pin joint in^i rail r,
which goes acrofs the loom. From its lower end there
go two fmall cords to the (buttle drivers £•,£•, which
Aide on the iron rods «, n. A long iron rod v goes
acrofs the lay, and is hung on two centres at the ends.
In this rod v are fixed two fmall crooked wires
w, w, which are more diftinflly marked in the little
figure w above, which reprefents a feftion of the lay.
The dot at the lower end of the wire w, in this figure,
is the fedlion of the rod v. The Aiuttle pafles between
thefe wires and the lay every (hot, and lifts them up,
caufing the rod v to turn round a little. But if the
(buttle Aiould not pafs thefe wires, nor lift them, it
would be drawn home by the lay, and deftroy the web.
To prevent this, there is fixed on one end of the rod v
a flout crooked wire 2;, having a broad or flat head,
which naturally refts on a plate of iron, marked and
fixed to the back of the lay. This plate has a Ait in
its
W E A [ 686 ] WE B
Weaving, its middle about an inch deep. In this flit refts the
ro(i a 2 of fig. 7. on which is a ihort ftud, which is
caught by the wire z when the wire w is not lifted
back by the paffing fhuttle. This Avill flop the lay
from coming home, and will fet off the loom.
F!g" 7* Fig. 7* is another fide view of the loom oppofite to
fig. 5. On the fpindle a is the liar wheel on the eut-
fide of the loom frame, on the arms of which wheel is
fixed the wiper £, as the fimilar wiper is fixed to the
Iheeves on the other end of the fpindle. The wipers
which drive the (buttles are fixed on oppofite fquares of
the fpindle, and work alternately. Below the ftar-
wheel is a pinion c, which is on a round fpindle, turned
by the water-wheel, by means of a wheel on this fpin¬
dle. In a wheel on this fpindle aretwofluds, on which
the pinion c Aides off and on, as the loom is fet off and
on by the lever cl. At the farther end of this lever is
the Aveight r, hanging by a cord Avhich paffes over a
pulley (, fixed at the outer end of the fpring-catch on
which the lever refts j and thus the loom is drawn in
at the upper end of the lever d. But Avhen the fhuttle
does not lift the wire s, it catches on the ftud on the
rod a 2, Avhich is connedled with the fpring catch, and
the lever d flies off Avith the weight r, and the loom
flops Avorking. On the head of the poll F is the yarn-
beam. The rollers e and^are cylinders, preffed toge¬
ther by a fcrew-lever, and take away the cloth betAveen
them at a proper rate. In the rollery is a groove for
a band for driving the roller g, on which the cloth winds
itfelf as it is wrought. Wherever fprings are mention¬
ed to be ufed in the above defcription, weights may be
ufed in their dead, and to the fame effect, and more
efpecially upon the treadle of fig. 5. for driving the
fhuttle.
Fig. 3. Fig. 8. is a reprefentation of a ribband loom. 1. Is
the frame of the loom. 2. The caftle, containing 48
pulleys. 3. The branches, on Avhich the pulleys turn.
4. The tires, or the riding-cords, which run on the pul¬
leys, and pull up the high-liffes. ?. The lift-fticks, to
which the high-liffes are tied. 6. The high-liffes, or
lifts, are a number of long threads, Avith platines, or
plate-leads at the bottom} and ringlets, or loops, about
their middle, through Avhich the cords or crofs-threads
of the ground-harnefs ride. 7. The plate-leads, or pla¬
tines, are flat pieces of lead, of about fix inches long,
and three or four inches broad at the top, but round at
the bottom *, fome ufe black flates inftead of them: their
ufe is to pull doAvn thofe liffes which the workman had
railed by the treadle, after his foot is taken off. 8. The
branches or cords of the ground harnefs, Avhich go
through the loops in the middle of the high-liffes: on
the Avell ordering of thefe cords chiefly depends the art
of ribbon-weaving, becaufe it is by means of this con¬
trivance that the weaver draws in the thread or filk
that makes the flower, and rejetts or excludes the reft.
9. The batton: this is the wooden frame that holds the
reed or (buttle, and beats or clofes the work: Avhere
obferve, that the ribbon-weaver does not beat his Avorkj
but as foon as the (huttle is paffed, and his hand is taken
away, the batton is forced, by a fpring from the top,
to beat the work clofe. 10. The (huttle, or reed. 11,
The fpring of the batton, by Avhich it is made to clofe
the Avork. 12. The long-harnefs are the front-reeds,
by which the figure is raifed.
The linguas are the
long pieces of round or fquare lead, tied to the end of
2
each thread of the long-harnefs to keep them tight. Weavltfj
14. The broad piece of Avood, about a foot fquare, II
leaning fomewhat forward, intended to eafe the weaver Webfter-
as he (loops to his (buttle; it is fixed in the middle of
the bread-beam. Some weavers, inftead of this, have
a contrivance of a cord or rope that is faftened to the
front-frame, and comes acrofs his bread; this is called
aJlopfall. 15. The feat-bench; this leans forward very
much. 16. The foot-ftep to the treadles. 17. The
bread-beam, being a crofs-bar that paffes from one of
the ftandards to the other, fo as to front the Avorkman’s
bread: to this bread-bar is fixed a roll, upon which the
ribbon paffes in its Avay, to be rolled upon the roller,
that turns a little beloAV. 18. The clamps, or pieces of
wood, in which the broaches that confine the treadles
reft. 19. '1 he treadles are long narrow pieces of wood,
to the ends of which the cords that move the liffes are
faftened. 20. The treadle-cords are only diftinguilhed
from the riding-cords by a board full of holes, Avhich
divide them, in order to prevent the plate-leads, Avhieh
are tied to the high-liffes, from pulling them too high
Avhen the Avorkman’s foot is off the treadle: Avhich (lop
is made by a knot in the treadle-cord, too big to be
forced through that hole in the board. 21. The lams
are two pieces of thin narroAV boards only ufed in plain
works, and then to fupply the place of the long-harnefs.
22. The knee-roll, by which the Aveaver rolls up his
ribbon as he fees proper, or by bit and bit as it is finifti-
ed. 23. The back-rolls, on Avhich the warp is rolled.
It is to be obferved, that there is always as many rolls
as colours in the work to be avovc. 24. The clamps,
which fupport the rollers. 25. The returning-fticks,
or, as others call them, the returns, or the tumblers, or
pulleys, to which the tiers are tied, to clear the courfe
of cords through the high-liffes. 26. The catch-board
for the tumblers. 27. The tire-board. 28. The but¬
tons for the knee-rolls and treadle-board, deferibed in
N° 20.
It is dated in the proceedings of the National Infti-
tute of France, that a report was prefented to that? body
concerning a new machine for weaving ribbed (lock¬
ings. The advantages Avhich this machine poffeffes
are faid to be, that it may be erefted at one half of the
expence of the Englilh (locking frame, and that its
movements are much lighter. The experience of its
operations for two years has confirmed thefe advantages.
Of the nature and conftru&ion of this machine Ave have
had no opportunity of obtaining any information ; but
Ave thought it Avorth while to infert this (liort notice,
Avith the vieAv of diredling the attention of fuch of our
readers as may be interefted in the improvement of fuch
manufadlures.
WEB, a fort of tiffue or texture formed of threads
interwoven with each other; fome Avhereof are extended
in length, and called the warp; others are drawn acrofs,
and called the woof.
WEBERA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
and order pentandria monogynia. See Botany Index.
WEBSTER, Alexander, D. D. Avas the fon of
James Webfter, minifter of theTolboothchurch in Edin¬
burgh, and born in that city about the year 1707. He
was only 13 years of age at the death of his father, and
of courfe could derive little from parental inftru&ion or
example. He ftudied at the univerfity of Edinburgh
the feveral branches of learning with great approbation,
particularly
WEAVING
WEAVING .
PIATE/JLXXVZ.
Fig. F
Fig. 8.
WEB [
Webfter. particularly thofe connefled with the mathematics, for
— v-™' -which he difcovered an early predilection. He after¬
wards attended the leCtures of the profeflor of divinity,
and in the year 1733 he was ordained miniiter of the
parilh of Culrofs, and in June 1737, he was admitted to
be one of the minifters of the Tolbooth church of Edin¬
burgh. His eloquence was noble and manly, his piety
confpicuous, and the difcharge of his paltoral duties
faithful and laborious. To thefe qualities he added an
enlightened zeal for the external interefts of the church,
a jealoufy of corruption, a hatred of falfe politics and
tyrannical meafures, which fometimes expofed him to ca¬
lumny from the guilty, but fecured him the efteem of
all who could value independence of foul and integrity
of heart.
The profperity of fortune which placed Mr Webfter
in the church of his father, and reftored him to the po-
lilhed fociety of his native city, was not confined to thefe
favours. Eleven days after his fettlement in Edinburgh,
he obtained the hand of Mary Erlkine, a young lady of
confiderable fortune, and nearly related to the noble fa¬
mily of Dundonald. The genius of Mr Webfter now
began to unfold itfelf. Family connexions extended
his acquaintance with the nobility. Edinburgh then
pofleffed a number of men, both in civil and ecclefiafti-
cal ftations, who have faved or adorned their coun¬
try. With thefe he W'as foon to co-operate in defending
the Proteftant interefts from the arms and artifices of re¬
bellion.
In the year 1733, five or fix minifters feceded from
the church, and being anxious to draw away as many
as poflible from the communion which they had renoun¬
ced, they invited down to Scotland in I74I> Mr George
Whitefield, a young preacher of great piety and extra¬
ordinary pulpit talents. On his way to Dunfermline,
he was met and entertained at Edinburgh by Mr Web¬
fter and fome of his brethren. From them he learned
the ftate of church parties in Scotland 4 and though he
kept his promife of preaching firft in Fife, he declined
conneXing himfelf with any particular feX. Difap-
pointed of his influence and affiftauce, the Seceders
alcribed the effeXs of his preaching to forcery and the
devil, while Mr Webfter, in a pamphlet which be pu-
blilhed on the occafion, attributed them to the influence
of the Holy Spirit, an opinion regarded by the Seceders
as unfpeakable wickednefs.
In the year 1745, Mr Webfter remained in the city
when it was taken by the rebels, and employed his uui-
verfal popularity and vigorous eloquence in retaining
the minds of the people in the interefts of the houfe of
Hanover. His exertions in this were not overlooked by
moft of the fpirited gentlemen who aXed in quelling
the rebellion. He became an intimate friend of Duncan
Forbes of Culloden, Lord Milton, and others.
He preferved to the lateft period of his career, that
aXivity both of mind and body, which diftinguilhed
him in the prime of life, obtaining at laft his frequent
with and prayer, an eafy and peaceful death, after a
very (hort indifpofition, on the 25th of January 1784*
His remains were depofited in the Grayfriars church¬
yard •, and it is not a little remarkable that neither pri¬
vate friendftiip nor public generofity has yet come for¬
ward to teftify its regard for two of the moft eminent
charaXers of the church of Scotland. fhe afhes of
Webfter and Blair repofe in the fame cemetry, undiftin-
Weeks.
687 ] WE E
guilhed from the lefs illuftrious dead. No monumental Webfter-
ftone marks the place of their dull.
Nature endowed Dr Webfter with ftrong faculties,
which were afterwards improved by a confiderable ftiare
of erudition. He was a mafter in the knowledge of the
world and of human nature 5 his addrefs was engaging j
his wit ftrong as his mind •, his convivial powers, as they
are called, enchanting. He had a conftitutional ftrength
againft intoxication, which made it dangerous in mofl:
men to attempt bringing him into fuch a ftate. His
charaXer as a minifter was popular in the extreme.
His voice was harmonious, and his figure noble. To
the poor he was a father and a friend, a liberal patron to
poor ftudents. In his perfon he was tall, and of a thin
and meagre habit. His features were ftrongly marked,
and the conformity of the whole indicated genius and .
independence.
To him the widows of the clergy are indebted for
the eftablifhment of the celebrated Scheme, the plan of
which he matured in his mind foon after he was appoint¬
ed a minifter of the Tolbooth church. By it the wi¬
dows of minifters are entitled to the annual fum of 10,
I5> 20j or 25 pounds, according as the clergy pay into
the fund yearly, 2l. 12s. 6d—3I. 18s. pd.—5I. 5s.
or 61. ns. 3d, or to their children in fums of 100 
150—200—or 250]. in favour of which an aX of par¬
liament was obtained in terms of a petition (17 Geo. II.)
with liberty to employ the furplus of the annual payments
and expences in loans of 30I. each among the contribu¬
tors, and to put out the remainder at intereft, on proper
fecurity. A fecond aX was procured in the 22d year
of the fame reign (1748) granting liberty to raife the
capital to 80,000!. including the fums lent to contribu¬
tors. The fund is conceived to commence from the
25th March 1744. This was followed by another aX
in the year 1770, difeontinuing the loan granted to
contributors, and granting liberty to raife the capital
to lOOjOOol. ”, and the whole economy of the inftitution
was then fixed and determined, a report of the ftate of
the fund being ordered to be made annually to the Ge¬
neral Aflembly by the truftees, which was to be after¬
wards printed. The fuccefs of the fcheme has been com¬
plete.
WEDGE, one of the mechanical powers. See Me¬
chanics.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, fo
called from a Saxon idol named Woden, fuppofed to be
Mars, worfhipped on this day.
Ajh-WEDNESDAT, the firft day of Lent, fo called
from the cuftom obferved in the ancient Chriftian church
of penitents ex prefling their humiliation at this time, by
appearing in faekcloth and afhes.
WEED, a common name for all rank and wild herbs,,
that grow of themfelvee, to the detriment of other ufe-
ful herbs they grow among.
Weed, in the miners language, denotes the degene¬
racy of a load or vein of fine metal into an ufelefs mar-
cafite.
Weeds, alfo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the- •
reliXs of perfons deceafed, by way of mourning.
WEEK, in chronology, a divifion of time comprifing
feven days. See PLANETART Days and Sabbath.
PaJJion-WEEK, or the Ho/y WEEK, is the laft week
in Lent, wherein the church celebrates the myftery of ■'
our Saviour’s death and paffion.
Weeks
[ 688 ]
W E I
W E I
Weight.
V/eeKS, E?nber. See Ember.
Feajl of Weeks. See Pentecost.
WEEVER. SeeTRACHiNus, Ichthyology Index.
WEEVIL, in Zoology, a fpecies of curculio. See
Curculio, Entomology Index ; and for the method
of dettroying this troublefome and deftruftive infed,
fee Granary and Vermin.
WEIGELIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs and order pentandria monogynia. See Botany
Index.
WEIGH, a weight of cheefe, wool, &c. containing
256 pounds avoirdupois. Of corn, the weigh contains
40 bulhels *, of barley or malt, fix quarters. In fome
places, as Effex, the weigh of cheefe is 500 pounds.
WEIGHING, the a& of examining a body in the
balance to find its weight.
Weighing Anchor, is the drawing it out of the
ground it had been call into, in order to fet fail, or quit
a port, road, or the like.
WEIGHT, in Pkyficf, a quality in natural bodies,
whereby they tend downwards towards the centre of the
earth. Or, weight may be defined in a lefs limited man¬
ner, to be a power inherent in all bodies, whereby they
tend to fome common point, called the centre of gravi¬
ty, or, to fpeak more accurately, to one another: and
that with a greater or lefs velocity, as they are more or
lefs denfe, or as the medium they pafs through is more
.or lefs rare. See Mechanics.
Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known
weight appointed to be put in the balance againft other
bodies whofe weight is required.
The fecurity of commerce depending, in a good mea-
fure, on the juftnefs of weights, which are ufually of
lead, iron, or brafs, moft nations have taken care to pre¬
vent the falfification thereof, by Ramping or marking
them by proper officers, after being adjufted by fome
original ftandard. Thus, in England, the ftandard of
weights is kept in the exchequer by a particular officer,
called the clerk of the market.
Weights may be diftinguiffied into ancient and mo-
r-dern.
I. Ancient Weights.
Shekel
60
300050
Maneh
Talent
Lentes
Siliquse
oz. dwt. gr.
12
24
72
96
Obolus
Scriptulum
18
24
144
192
576
6912
36
48
144
1728
1 2
16
48
576
Drachma
Sextula
Sicilicus
8
24
288
2t
i-yDuella
Uncia
4li
4836
1 2
0 0 3*V
° o 94
o o 18^
O 2 6£f
030^
O 4 *34
0614
o 18 54
Libra 10 18 134
The Roman ounce is the Engliffi avoirdupois ounce,
which they divided into feven denarii, as well as eight
drachmas.
3. Attic Weights.
Drachma
Mina
Englifli Troy Weight
ib. oz. dwt. gr.
0 0 2 16.9
100
6000
60
Talent
* I 10 10
67 7 5 o
II. Modern Weights.
x. Thofe of the ancient Jews, reduced to the Engliffi
troy weight, will Rand as in the following table:
lib. 02. dwt. gr.
o o 9 24
2 36 104
113 10 i 104
TABLE of Troy Weight, as ufed by the
Apothecaries.
Goldfmiths, is’c,
Grains.
2. Roman weights, reduced to Engliffi troy weight,
will Rand as is in the following table ;
24
480
Penny-weights.
Grains.
Scruple. ^
20 Ounce.
5760 240 12 Pound.
20
60
480
5760
Dram. 5
24
288
8
96
Ounce. ^
12 Pound.
Weisda
o o ox8t\
1. Englifh Weights.—Mr Renardfon, in a paper pub-
liffied in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, has proved, that
at firR there wras but one weight in England, and that
this was the avoirdupois. Troy weight was introduced
in the time of Henry VII. : At prefent, both the troy
and avoirdupois weights are ufed in England. Troy
weight feems to have derived its name from Troyes, a
town in France, where a celebrated fair was kept. It
is ufed for weighing gold, filver, jewels, filk, and all
liquors. The avoirdupois is ufed for weighing other
things.
The troy pound in Scotland, which by Ratute is to
be the fame as the French pound, is commonly fuppofed
equal
W E I
WEI
height, equal to 15 ounces and three quarters troy Engliflr
weight, or 7560 grains. But by a mean of the ftand-
ards kept by the dean of guild of Edinburgh, it weighs
7599tV or 7600 grains.
[ 689 ]
Drams.
16
256
7168
28672
573440
TABLE of Avoirdupois Weight.
An ounce.
A pound.
16
448
1792
35840
28
112
2240
A quarter.
A hundred.
A ton.
80
20
The avoirdupois pound is equal to 7004 troy grains,
the avoirdupois ounce to 437.75 grains ; and it follows
of confequence, that the troy pound is to the avoirdu¬
pois pound as 88 to 107 nearly ; for as 88 to 107, fo is
5760 to 7003.636: that the troy ounce is to the avoir¬
dupois ounce as 80 to 73 nearly 5 for as 80 to 73, fo is
480 to 438. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 1 lb.
2 oz. 11 dwts. 20 gr. troy ; a troy ounce is equal to 1 oz.
1.55 dr. avoirdupois; an avoirdupois dram contains
27-34375 grains; 175 troy pounds are equal to 144
avoirdupois pounds.
The moneyers have a peculiar fubdivifion of the grain
troy : thus,
f’Grain "1
f
LPeriot J
V
into | ;
L2
20 Mites.
24 Droits.
20 Periots.
24 Blanks.
The Englilh weights are ufed in the United Provinces
of America.
2. French Weights.—Different weights were former¬
ly ufed in mod: of the different provinces of France :
Thefe, however, have undergone very material altera¬
tions fince the revolution in that kingdom. See Mea¬
sure. But as a knowledge of the ancient weights of
that country is of importance, on account of the books
in which they are ufed, we infert the following tables.
The Paris pound contains 16 ounces, and is divided
two ways.
Grains.
Penny-weight.
Gros*
24
72
576
4608
9216
24
192
384
8
64
128
Ounce.
Marc.
8
16
Pound.
Vol. XX. Part II.
Half-c
16
32
3 200
Ounce.
16
1600
Half-quarter pound.
(Quarter-pound.
Half-pound.
8
800
400
200
Pound.
(Quintal.
100
The weights of the firfl divifion are ufed to weigh
gold, filver, and the richer commodities ; and the
weights of the fecond divifion for commodities of lefs
value.
The Paris 2 marc, or pound weight, is equal to 7560
grains troy, and the Paris ounce equal to 472.5 grains
troy.
lb. oz. dwt. gr.
The Paris pound = 1 315 o troy.
The Paris ounce =0 019 16.5 troy.
A grain troy = 1.2186507 of a Paris grain.
But the pound was not the fame throughout France.
At Lyons, e. gr. the city pound was only 14 ounces:
fo that 100 Lyons pounds, made only 86 Paris pounds.
But befide the city pound, they had another at Lyons
for fdk, containing 15 ounces. At Thouloufe, and
throughout the Upper Languedoc, the pound was 13
ounces and a half of Paris weight. At Marfeilles, and
throughout Provence, the pound was 134. ounces of
Paris weight. At Rouen, befide the common Paris
pound and mark, they had the weight of the vicomte ;
which was 16 ounces, a half, and five-fixths of the Paris
weigh; The weights enumerated under the two ar¬
ticles of Englilh and French weights are the fame that
are ufed throughout the greateft part of Europe ; only-
under fomewhat different nam , divifions, and propor¬
tions.
French weights were formerly ufed in all the French
American fettlements.
3. Dutch Weights.—The weight ufed in Amfterdam
and all over Holland is called Troij weight, and is ex-
a£Uy the fame with that ufed at Brulfels. The Dutch
weights are as follows :
Deufkens.
16
512
10240
81920
Troyk en.
Vierlinor.
8
256
5120
40960
128
2560
20480
As.
32
640
5120
\ngle.
20
160
Ounce.
Marc.
8
The marc is equal, according to M. Tillet, to 4620
French grains.
4S
The
W E I
Weight.
[ 69
The Amfterdam pound ufed in commerce is divided
into 16 ounces, 32 loots, or 128 drams. This pound
contains 2 marcs troy, and ought therefore to weigh
only 10240 as; but it weighs 10280 j fo that it is a
little heavier than the troy pound of Amfterdam : 2561b.
of commerce are equal to 2571b. troy of Holland. Two
different pounds are ufed by apothecaries j the one con¬
taining 2 marcs, the other only i|. The firft is called
arfenic pound weight ; it contains 16 ounces, the ounce
8 drams, the dram 8 feruples, the fcruple 20 grains.
The fecond is called the apothecary’’s pound ; it is divid¬
ed into 12 ounces, or 24 loots. Three arfenic pounds
are equal to 4 apothecary’s pounds.
The Dutch ffone
The Idfpundt, or LI.
The hundred weight
The Schippondt, or Sch. lb.
=r 8 commercial lb.
= 15
— 100
= 300
4. Spanijh Weights.—The marc of Caftile, ufed for
weighing gold and filver, is divided as follows:
IA
Grains (gold weight).
Grain (filver weight).
Tomine (gold weight).
Tomine (filver weight).
12
121
37v
75
96
600
4800
I I ——
X <
12
36
72
92^
576
4608
1-/-
3i
50
400
3 Adarme.
48
384
16
128
Ochava.
Caftellano.
Ounce.
1 “e T
8
64
5°:
8 Marc.
The marc, according to Tillet, is equal to 7 oz.
4 gros> 8 grains French, which is equal to 4785 as of
Holland. One hundred marcs of Caftile about 93-*-
marcs of Holland ; foo marcs of Holland =107 marcs
of Caftile. Medicines are fold by the, fame marc •,
but it is divided differently, containing 8 ounces, 64
drachms, j92 feruples, 384 obolos, II52 cara&eras,
4608 grains.
The Spanifh commercial pound is divided into two
marcs, called marcs of Tejo, each of which is equal to
the marc of Caftile. This pound is divided into 16
ounces, 256 adarmes, 9,216 grains.
5. Weights^ of Portugal.— The Lifbon marc for effay-
ing filver coin of 12 deniers, and the denier of 24
grains. The marc of Portugal for weighing gold and
filver is equal, according to Tillet, to 7 ounces 3^ gros,
and 34 grains French, which makes 4776 as of Holland •
fo that it is exactly the fame with the Lifbon pound. It
is divided into 8 ounces, 64 outavas, 192 fcruples, 4608
grains.
The pound confifts of 2 marcs, j6 ounces, or 96
outavas j the arroba of 32 lb.} the quintal of 4 arrobas,
or 1281b. 100 Oporto pounds make 87$th pounds of
commerce of Amfterdam.
6, Weights of Italy—Genoa. Two kinds of weights
o J WEI
are ufed at Genoa, the pefo groffo (heavy weight), and Weight
the pefo fo mle (light weight) : the latter is ufed for■
weighing gold and filver, the former for other things.
The pound of the pefo fottile is equal, according to Til¬
let, to 1 marc, 2 ounces, 2|- gros, 30 grains French. It
is divided into 8 ounces, the ounce into 24 deniers, and
the denier into 24 grains. The pound of the pefo groffo
is equal to i marc, 2 ounces, 3 gros, 5 grains, French.
It is divided into 12 ounces:
The cantaro =r 100 lbs. pefo groffo.
The rubbo = 25 lbs.
The rotolo =: l£lb.
100lbs. pefo groffo = 64flb.ofcommerceof Amfterdam.
100lbs. pefo fottile =129 marcs troy of Holland.
Rome. The Roman pound confifts of 12 ounces the
ounce of 24 deniers, the denier of 24 grains. The Roman
pound, according to Tillet, is equal t» 1 marc, 3 ounces
4 gros, 14 grains, French.
Venice. The marc for weighing gold and filver con¬
tains 8 ounces, 32 quarti, 1152 carati, or 4608 grani.
An hundred marcs of Venice = 97^ marcs troy of Holi
land, 100 marcs of Holland == 103 of Venice. In Ve¬
nice they alfo ufe a pefo grojfo and pefo fottile. 100 lbs.
pefo groffo = 944 commercial lbs. of Amfterdam.
100 lbs. pefo fottile =614 ditto.
7. Swedifh Weights.—The marc for weighing gold
and filver is equal to 16 lods, 64 quentins, or 4384 as.
The pound of 32 lods, ufed for weighing food, is equal,
according to Tillet, to 1 marc, 5 ounces, 7 gros,
8 grains French, which makes 88484 as troy of Holland!
This anfwers exaftly to the weight of the different
pounds, as fixed in Sweden, viz. 8848 as — the pound
for weighing articles of food j 7821^ as =r marc ufed
in the mines; 745°tt3' as = marc ufed in towns and
in the country j 70784 as = marc ufed for weighing
iron 5 7416 as = pound ufed in medicine.
The Ikippund = 400 lbs. for weighing food.
The centner = 120 lbs.
The waag =165 lbs.
The ften =: 32 lbs.
The Swedilh as = 1 as of Holland troy.
8. German Weights.—Vienna. The marc of Vienna
for weighing gold and filver is divided into 16 loths,
64 quintals, or 256 deniers or pfenings j the loth into
4 quintals, or 16 pfenings. This marc, according to
.I diet, is equal to 1 marc, 1 ounce, 1 gros, 16 grains,
French, = 5831 as troy Holland. The pound of
Vienna is divided into 2 marcs, or 4 viertings ; the
mark into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quintals, or 266 pfe¬
nings.
Hamburgh. The marc for effaying gold is divided
into 24 carats ; the carat into 12 grains. The marc
for filver is divided into 16 loths, and the loth into 18
grains. Thefe marcs confift each of 288 grains, and
are therefore equal. This marc, ufed in Hamburgh for
gold and filver, is the marc of Cologne, which is equal,
according to Tillet, to 7 ounces, 5 gros, 7J- grains,
French, = 4866 as troy of Holland. It is divided into
8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quentins,. 256 pfenings, 4352
efehes, or 65536 richt pfenings theile. The apothecary
pound ufed in Hamburgh, and almoft all Germany, is
divided into 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 fcruples, or
5760 grains j an ounce is equal to 621 as of Holland.
The-
'eight.
WET
The pound of commerce is equal, according to Tillet,
" to 10085 as of Holland; for half a pound is equal to
7 ounces, 7 gros, 23 grains, French. This pound is di¬
vided into 16 ounces, 32 loths, 128 quentins, or 512
pfenings.
9. Ruffian Weights.—The berckowitz = 400 lbs.
. The pond - - . =43 lbs.
The pound is divided into 32 loths, or-96 folotnuks.
One hundred Ruffian lbs, = 166* marcs, or 82^ lbs. of
Amderdam. One hundred lbs. of commerce of Am-
fterdam rr r20g:th lbs. of Ruffia.
10. Weights ufed in the feveralparts of AJia, the F.nfl
Indies, China, Perfia, &c.— In Turkey, at Smyrna, &c.
they ufe the batman, or battemant, containing occos j
the occo contains 4 chekys or pounds, each of which,
according to Tillet, is equal to 1 marc 2 oz. 3 gros.
28 gr. French. The Turkiffi weights are divided as
follows :
Cantatas. Batmans. Occos. Rotolos. Chekis. Mofcals. Drachms.
I 71 = 44=100 =176 — 1x733-*-—17600
i —■ 6— 13-rV— 24 — 1600 — 2400
1= 2tt= 4 ~ 2664= 400
1 = t-rf™ 1174=0 176
~ 664=:
I ~
At Aleppo there are three forts of rottos; the fird
720 drachms, making about 7 pounds Engliffi, and fer-
ving to weigh cottons, galls, and other large commodi¬
ties j the fecond is 680 drachms, ufed for all filks but
white ones, which are weighed by the third rotto of 700
drachms. At Seyda the rotto is 600 drachms.
The other ports of the Levant, not named here, ufe
fome of thefe weights j particularly the occa, or ocqua,
the rottoli, and rotto.
The Chinefe weights are, the piece for large commo¬
dities : it is divided into 100 catis or cattis, though
fome fay into 125; the cati into 16 taels or tales,
each tael equivalent to 1 * of an ounce Engliffi, or the
weight of one rial and and containing 12 mas or
xnaffes, and each mas 10 condrins. So that the Chinefe
piece amounts to 137 pounds Engliffi avoirdupois, and
the cati to 1 pound 8 ounces. The picol for filk ccm-
taining 66 catis and the bahar, bakaire, or barr, con¬
taining 300 catis.
Tonquin has alfo the fame weights, meafures, &c. as
China. Japan has only one weight, viz. thecati; which,
however, is different from that of China, as containing
20 taels. At Surat, Agra, and throughout the dates
of the Great Mogul, they ufe the man, or maund, where¬
of they have two kinds; the king’s maund, or king’s
■weight; and the maund (imply ; the fird ufed f>« the
weighing of common provifions, containing 40 feers, or
ferres j and each feer a juft Paris pound. The common
tnaund, ufed in the weighing of merchandife, confifts
likewife of 40 feers, but each feer is only eftimated at
12 Paris ounces, or of the other feer.
-The maund may be looked upon as the common weight
of the Eaft Indies, though under fome difference of
name, or rather of pronunciation ; it being called mao
at Cambaya, and in other places mein and maun. The
feer is p”operly the Indian pound, and of univerfal ufe j
the like may be faid of the bahar, tael, and oatti, above
’ffientioned.
I <391 ] W E i
The weights of Siam are the piece, containing two VtV'pht
ffians or cattis; but the Siamefe catti is only half the
Japanefe, the latter containing 20 taels and the former
only 10 5 though fome make the Chinefe catti only 16
taels, and the Siamefe 8. The tael contains 4 baats, or
ticals, each about a Paris ounce 5 the baat 4 felings or
rnayons j the mayon 2 fouangs ; the fouang 4 payesj
the paye 2 clams ; the fompaye half a fouang.
It is to be obferved, that thefe are the names of their
coins as well as weights j filver and gold being commo
dixies there fold, as other things, by their weights.
In the ifle of Java, and particularly at Bantam, thev
uie the gantan, which amounts to near 3 Dute.h pounds.
In Golconda, at \ ifapour, and Goa, they have the fu-
ratelle, containing 1 pound 14 ounces Engliffi5 the man-
galis, or mangelin, for weighing diamonds and precious
ftones, weighing at Goa 5 grains, at Golconda, &c.
51 grains. They have alfo the rotolo, containing 14*
ounces Englifti; the metricol, containing the fixth part
of an ounce; the wall for piaftres and ducats, contain¬
ing the 73d part of a rial.
In Perlia they ufe two kinds of batmans or mans $ the
one called cahi or cheray, which is the king’s Weight,
and the otner batman of Tcturis. T he hrft weighs 13
pounds 10 ounces Engliffi 5 the fecond 64 pounds. Its
divifions are the ratel, or a 16th j the derhem, or drachm,
which is the 50th; the mefchal, which is half the derhem;
the dung, which is the fixth part of the mefchal, being
equivalent to 6 carat grains • and, laftly, the grain which
is the fourth part of the dung. They have alfo the vakie,
which exceeds a little our ounce; the fah-cheray, equal
to the 1170th part of the derhem ; and the toman, ufed
to weigh out large payments of money without telling j
its weight is that of 50 abaffes.
11. Weights at Cairo in Egypt.—A\xx\o{\. every kind
of goods has its own weight; thefe are regulated by the
cantaren or principal weight.
. Rotels.
The ordinary cantaren,or hundred weight, weighs 100
100
102
I°5
100
IT5
120
125
130
d he cantaren of quickfilver and tin
coffee, wine, and iron
ivory - . _
almonds and other fruits
woods for dyeing
arfenic and other drugs
minium and cinnabar
gum-arabic, aloes, and other aro¬
matics -
The ratel or rotoli is nearly equal to the pound of
Marfeilles j 108 lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to 110 ro¬
tels. 1 he Marfeilles pound confifts of 13 ounces of
Paris 5 fo that the too lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to
81 lbs. Paris, and 100 lbs. Paris =r 123 lbs. of Marfeilles.
We ffiall fubjoin here Mr Fergufon’s table for com¬
paring the Engliffi avoirdupois pound with foreign
pounds:
London pound
Antwerp
Amfterdam
Abeville
Ancona
Avignon
Bourdeaux
Bologna
I.6000
1.04
l.iui
1.0989
0.78
0.8928
1.0989
b.8
4 S 2
Bruges
Calabria
Calais
Dieppe
Dantzic
Ferrara
Flanders
Geneva
1.0204 F<"rrti/bj},y
q hi rablet and
''J Trails.
°-9i45
1.0989
0.862
°-7>
0.^433
1.07
Genoa
W E I
Weight.
Genoa, grofs
Hamburgh
Lifbon
Leghorn
Norimberg
Naples
Paris
Prague
Placentia
0.7
ijo86 ;
^135
o-75
i-i363
0.71
1.1235
1.2048
0.72
Rochelle
Rome
Rouen
Seville
Thoiiloufe
Turin
Venice
Vienna
[ 692 ] WEI
0.8928 pleafure, in order to point out the relative -weight with Weight.
0.7874
1.1089
0.9259
0.8928
0.82
1.06
1.23
In order to (how the proportion of the feveral weights
ufed throughout Europe, we (hall add a reduftion of
them to one ftandard, viz. the London pound.
The 100 lb. of England, Scotland, and Ireland are
equal to
lb.
91
96
88
106
90
107
113
Sx
93
89
96
J37
132
153
152
*54
97
104
96
112
107
89
oz.
8
o
o
9
11
o
7
5
7
1
Plate
of Amfterdam, Paris, &c.
of Antwerp or Brabant,
of Rouen, the vifeounty weight,
of Lyons, the city weight,
of Rochelle.
of Thouloufe and Upper Languedoc,
of Marfeilles or Provence,
of Geneva,
of Hamburgh,
of Francfort, &c.
of Leipfic, &c.
of Genoa,
of Leghorn,
of Milan,
of Venice,
of Napl es.
of Seville, Cadiz, See.
of Portugal,
of Liege,
of Ruffia.
of Sweden,
of Denmark.
A curious weighing machine was fome time ago in¬
vented by M. Hanin of Paris, whereby the weights of
the principal countries in Europe, and the relative pro¬
portions they bear to each other, are (hown at one view.
For this he received a bounty of 20 guineas from the
Society inftituted at London for the Encouragement of
Arts, Manufadlures, and Commerce. The following is
4
11
11
o
10
o
x3
5
2
T
i
DLXXVII.a defeription of this ingenious machine.
fig. i
Fig.
Figure 1. reprefents the back of the machine, which
being fufpended by \he ring A, and a weight hung to
the hook B, the fpring C, C, C, made faft by ftrong
ferews at g, is drawn downwards ; and the bar D hav¬
ing a rack thereon at e, turns the pinion f, in proportion
to the weight of the body hanging thereto. Figure 2.
(hows the face of the machine, on which is a number
of concentric circles, and the weights of feveral coun¬
tries of Europe engraved thereon, as expreffed by the
words on a line with them. In the centre of this face
is a ring fixed to the fmall plate, turned by the pinion
thown at figure 1. From this ring a hand pro-
jetls, which, by the turning of the pinion, points to
fuch part of the circle as is marked with the weight
hung to the hook B *, and therebv (hows what weight of
any of the countries mentioned, is equal to the pounds
troy of London, which are engraved on the outer circle,
or to the pounds avoirdupois, which are engraved on the
fecond circle, and fo of the reft. A ftider moves on the
hand, which may be brought to any of the circles at
greater precifion.
Many attempts have been made to introduce an uni¬
formity of weights and meafures into the commercial
world } but hitherto they have all failed. The accom-
pliftiment of fuch an undertaking wnuld be of infinite
advantage to mankind, and certainly claims the moft
ferious attention of thofe who by their fituation can
alone bring it about. The undertaking is indeed dif¬
ficult, but furely not impoflible. Something of this
kind has been attempted and adopted in France j and,
as the method is fimple, and exceedingly well adapted
for calculation, it furely deferves to be imitated. See
Measure.
Weight of Air. See Pneumatics, N° 14—19.
Regulation of WEIGHTS and Meafures, is a branch
of the king’s prerogative. See Prerogative and
Measure.
As weight and meafure are things in their nature ar¬
bitrary and uncertain, it is therefore expedient that they
be reduced to fome fixed rule or ftandard : which ftand-
ard it is impoflible to fix by any written law or oral pro¬
clamation 5 for no man can, by words only, give another
•an adequate idea of a foot rule, or a pound weight. It
is therefore neceflary to have recourfe to fome vifible,
palpable, material ftandard ; by forming a comparifon
with which all weights and meafures may be reduced to
one uniform fize *, and the prerogative of fixing this
ftandard, our ancient law veiled in the crown, as in
Normandy it belonged to the duke. This ftandard was
originally kept at Winchefter: and we find in the laws
of King Edgar, near a century before the conqueft, an
injundlion that the one meaifure, which was kept at Win¬
chefter, ftiould be obferved throughout the realm. Moft
nations have regulated the ftandard of meafures of length
by comparifon with the parts of the human body •, as
the palm, the hand, the fpan,the foot, the cubit, the el}.
(w/«« or arm), the pace, and the fathom. But as thefe,
are of different dimenfions in men of different propor¬
tions, our ancient hiftorians inform us, that a new ftand¬
ard of longitudinal meafure was afeertained by King
Henry the Firft •, who commanded that the ulna, or an¬
cient ell, which anfwers to the modern yard, fliould be
made of the exa& length of his own arm. And one
ftandard of meafure of length being gained, all others
are eafily derived from thence ; thofe of greater length
by multiplying, thofe of lefs by dividing, that original
ftandard. Thus, by the ftatute called compofuio ulna-
rum et perticarwn, five yards and a half make a perch 5
and the vard is fubdivided into three feet, and each foot
into 12 inches ; which inches will be each of the length
of three grains of barley. Superficial meafures are de¬
rived by fquaring thofe of length ; and meafures of ca¬
pacity by cubing them. The ftandard of weights was
originally taken from corns of wheat, whence the loweft
denomination of weights we have is ftill called a grain ;
32 of which are direfted, by the ftatute called compoftio
menfurarum, to compofe a pennyweight,whereof 20 make
an ounce, 12 ounces a pound, and fo upwards. And upon
thefe principles the firft ftandards were made ; which,
being originally fo fixed by the crown, their fubfequent
regulations have been generally made by the king m
parliament. Thus, under King Richard I. in his par¬
liament holden at Weftminfter, A. D. H97> ^ 'was
ordained that there ftiould be only one weight and one
meafure
height
iVell.
W E L [69
meafure throughout the kingdom, and that the cudody
of the aflize, or ftandard of weights and meafures, iliould
be committed to certain perfons in every city and bo¬
rough *, from whence the ancient office of the king’s
aulnager feems to have been derived, whofe duty it was,
for a certain fee, to meafure all cloths made for fale, till
the office was aboliffied by the ffatute nth and 12th
William III. c. 20. In King John’s time this ordi¬
nance of King Richard was frequently difpenfed with for
money ; which occafioned a provifion to be made for
enforcing it, in the great charters of King John and his
fon. Thefe original ffandards were called pandas regis,
and rnenfura domini regis, and are dire6fed by a variety
of fubfequent ffatutes to be kept in the exchequer
chamber, by an officer called the clerk of the market, ex¬
cept the wine gallon, which is committed to the city of
of London, and kept in Guildhall.
The Scottijb ffandards are diftributed among the old-
eft boroughs' The el wand is kept at Edinburgh, the
pint at Stirling, the pound at Lanark, and the firlot at
Linlithgow.
Various ftatutes have been enafted for regulating
and enforcing an uniformity of weights and rneafures 5
and by the articles of union, the Englifh ftandards are
eftablifhed by law over all Great Britain. But the
force of cuftom is fo ftrong, that thefe ftatutes have been
ill obfervcd. The Scottifh ftandards are ftill Cmiverfally
retained for many purpofes } and likewife a vaiiety of
local weights and mcafures are ufed in particular places
of both countries, which differ from the general ftand¬
ards of either. r
. WEINMANNI A, a genus of plants of the dais
oclandria, order monogynia, and arranged in the natu¬
ral claffification with thofe plants the order of which
is doubtful. The calyx is four-leaved, the corolla has
four petals, and the capfule is bilocular and biroftra-
ted. There are fix fpecies, none of which are natives
of Britain.
WELD, or Wold. See Reseda, Botany Index,
and Dyeing.
WE LDING HEAT, in fmithery, a degree of heat given
to iron, &c. fufficient to make the furfaces of two pieces
incorporate upon being beaten together with a hammer.
WELL, a hole under ground, ufually of a cylindri¬
cal figure, and walled with ftone and mortar : its ufe is
to collect the water of the ftrata around it.
Well, an apartment formed in the middle of a fin p’s
hold to inclofe the pumps, from the bottom to the lower
decks. It is ufed as a barrier to preferve thofe machines
from being damaged by the fridlion or compreflion of
the materials contained in the hold, and particularly to
prevent the entrance of ballaft, &c. by which the tubes
would prefently be choked, and the pumps rendered
incapable of fervice. By means of this inclofure, the ar¬
tificers may likewife more readily defcend into the hold,
in order to examine the ftate of the pumps, and repair
them as occafion requires.
WELL-Room of a Boat, the place in the bottom where
the water lies between the ceiling and the platform ot
the ftern-ftieets, whence it is thrown out into the lea
with a fcoop. .
Burning-WELL. See BURNING-Spring. ^
WELL of a Fifhing-veffel, an apartment in the middle
of the hold, which is entirely detached from the reft,
being lined with lead on every fide, and having the bot-
5
Well
li
3 ] W E R
tom thereof penetrated with a competent number of fmall
holes pafting alfo through the (hip’s floor ; fo that the Werturiaai
falt-water running into the well is always kept as frefti ,.v—.
as that in the fea, and yet prevented from communicat¬
ing itfelf to the other parts of the hold.
WELL-hole, in building, is the hole left in a floor for
the ftairs to come up through.
WELLS, a city of Somertfetftiire, and fee of a bi-
fliop ; the bilhop of Bath being alfo that of Wells.—It
is fuppofed to take its name from the many fprings and
wells that are near it. It is not very large j but is
adorned with handfome buildings, both public and pri¬
vate. Its cathedral is a very beautiful ftrufture, adorn¬
ed with images and carved ftone w’ork. The bifhop’s
palace joins to the cathedral ; and on the other fide are
the houfes for the prebendaries. In the market-place is,
a fine market houfe, fupported by pillars. It is govern¬
ed by a mayor, and fends two members to parliament.
The chief manufa&ure is knit hofe. W. Long. 2. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 12.
WEN, a tumor or excrefcence arifing on different
parts of the body, and containing a cyftus or bag filled
with fome peculiar kind of matter. See NiEVUS, Sur¬
gery Index.
WEREGILD, the price of homicide; paid partly to
the king for the lofs of a fubjeft, partly to the lord
whofe vaffal he was, and partly to the next of kin of the
perfon (lain.
WERST, Wurst, or Verjl, a Ruflian meafure equal
to 3500 Englifti feet. A degree of a great circle of the
earth contains about 104 werfts and a half.
WERTURI AN or IJRALIAN Mountains, a famous
chain of mountains forming part of the boundary of A-
fia. It begins diftiinRly (for it may be traced interrupt¬
edly farther fouth) near the town of Kungur, in the go¬
vernment of Kafan, in latitude 570 20^ runs north, and
ends oppofite to the Whygatz ftrait, and rifes again in
the ifle of Nova Zetnlja. I he Ruffians alfo call this
range Setnennoi Poias, or, the girdle of the world ; from
a fuppofition that it encircled theuniverfe. Thefe were
the Riphcei monies: Bars tuundi damnata a natura re¬
rum, et denfa merfa ca/igine*; of which only the iouth- * PUnii
ern part was known to the ancients, and that fo little as #//?• Nat.
to give rife to numberlefs fables. Beyond thefe were1^1^
placed the happy Hyperhorei, a fiaion moft beautifully ‘ p-
related by Pomponius Mela. Moderns have not been
behind-hand in exaggerating feveral circumftances rela¬
tive to thefe noted hills. Ylbrand Ides, who croffed
them in his embaffy to China, afferts that they are 5000
toifes or fathoms high ; others, that they are covered
with eternal fnow. The laft may be true in their more
northern parts ; but in the ttfual paffages over them,
they are free from it three or four months.
The heights of part of this chain have been taken by
M. 1’Abbe d’Auteroche : who, with many affurances
of his accuracy, fays, that the height of the mountain
Kyria near Solikamfkaia, in latitude 6o°, does not ex¬
ceed 471 toifes from the level of the fea, or 286 from
the ground on which it (lands. But, according to M.
Gmelin, the mountain Pauda is much higher, being
752 toifes above the fea. From Peter (burgh to this
chain is a vaft plain, mixed with certain elevations or
platforms, like iflands in the midft of an ocean. The
eaftern fide defcends gradually to a great diftance into
the wooded and moraffy Siberia, which forms an im-
menfe
W E S
^Weflrian> inclined plane to the Icy Tea.     
s.^>V ^rom ad the great rivers taking their rife on that tide,
fome at the amazing dittance of latitude 46° ; and, af¬
ter a courfe of about 27 degrees, falling into the Fro¬
zen ocean, in latitude if 30'. The Yaik alone, which
rifes near the fouthern part of the eatlern tide, takes a
fouthern direction, and drops into the Cafpian fea. The
Dwina, tne 1 eczora, and a few other rivers in European
Ruffia, tliew the inclined plane of that part. All of them
run to thenorthern fea j but their courfeis comparatively
Ihort. Another inclination dire6IstheDnieper and theDon
into the Eu.xine, and the vaft WolgaintotheCafpianfea.
WESLEY, John, a very extraordinary character,
and founder of the fed of Methodifts, was the fon of
the Reverend Samuel Wefley, reaor of Epworth in the
ille of Axholme in Lincolnfliire, and was born in that
village in the year 1703. His very infancy was di-
itinguifhed by an extraordinary incident j for when he
avas only fix years old, the parfonage-houfe at Epworth
was burnt to the ground, and the flames had fpread with
fuch rapidity, that few things of value could be faved.
His mother, in a letter to her fon Samuel Wefley, then
on the foundation at Weftminfter fchool, thanks God
that ho lives were loft, although for fome time they
gave up Poor Jachj, as flic exprefles herfelf; for hi* fa¬
ther had twice attempted to refcue the child, but was
beaten back by the flames. Finding all his efforts in-
effectual, he refigned him to Divine Providence. But
parental tendernefs prevailed over human fears, and Mr
Wefley once more attempted to fave his child. By fome
means equally unexpe&ed and unaccountable, the boy
got round to a window in the front of the houfe,' and
was taken out, by one man’s leaping on the (boulders of
another, and thus getting within his reach. Imme¬
diately on his refcue from this very perilous fituation, the
roof fell in. This extraordinary efcape explains a cer¬
tain device, in a print of Mr John Wefley, engraved by
Vertue, in the year 1743, from a painting by Williams.
It reprefents a houfe in flames, with this motto from the
prophet, “ Is he not a brand plucked out of the burn¬
ing ?” Many have fuppofed this device to be merely
emblematical of his fpiritual deliverance ; but from this
eircumftance it is apparent that it has a primary as well
as a fecondary meaning j it is real as well as allufive
in the year 1713 he was entered a fcholar at the
Gbarter-houfe in London, where he continued feven
years under the tuition of the celebrated Dr Walker
and of the Rev. Andrew Tooke author of The Pan¬
theon. Being elefted to Lincoln college, Oxford he
became a fellow of that college about the year 172;
took the degree of Mafter of Arts in 1726, and was
JO'nt tutor with the Rev. Dr Hutchins the reftor He
difcovered very early an elegant turn for poetry. Some
of his gayer poetical effufions are proofs of a lively fancy
and_a fine claffical tafte ; and fome tranflations from the
Latin poets, while at college, are allowed to have ?reaf
merit. Hh find I — FT «*i
[ 694 1 WES
Tills Is evident letter Inferted in llie Bibliotheca Topogranluca Britan,
mca, N° XX. fays, “ There were fome ftrange pheno¬
mena perceived at the parfonage at Epworth, and fome
uncommon noifes heard there from time to time, which
he was very curious in examining into, and very parti¬
cular in relating. I have little doubt that he confidered
himfelt the chief objedf of this wonderful vifitation. In¬
deed his father’s credulity was in fume degree affedled
by it; fince he colledled all the evidences that tended
to confirm the ftory, arranged them with fcrupulous ex-
acfnefs, in a manufcript conliftihg of feveral fheets, and
which is ft ill in being. I know not what became of the
ghcft of Epworth ; unlefs, confidered as the prelude to-
the nolle Mr John Wefley made on a more ample
ftage, it ceaied to fpeak when he began to a6L”
“ The dawn (>f Mr Wefley’s public million ( conti¬
nues^ Mr Badcock) was clouded with myfticifm j that
fpecies of it which affects filence and folitude ; a certain
inexplicable introverfion of the mind, which abltrafts
the paftions. from all fenfible objects ; and, as the French
Quiet ills exprefs it, perfe&s itfelf by an abforption of
the. will and intellect, and all the faculties, into the
Deity.” In thispa/pab/eo/feure the excellent Fenelon
led himfelf, when he forfook the ftiades of Pindus, to
wander in quell of pure love with Madam Guyon ! Mr
W efley purfued for a while the fame ignis fatuus with
Mr William Law and the Ghoft of De Renty. Aftate,
however, fo torpid and ignoble, ill-fuited the aaive ge¬
nius of this lingular man. His elaftic mind gained
ftrength by compreflion ; thence burfting glorious, he
paffed (as he himfelf fomewhere fays) “ the immenfe
chafm, upborne on an eagle’s wings.”
The reading of the writings of this Mr William Law,
the celebrated author of Chriftian Perfeaion, and of A
Serious Addrefs to the Chriftian World, contributed
moreover, to lead Mr John Wefley and his brother
Charles, with a few of their young fellow-ftudents, into
a more than common ftrianefs of religious life. They
leceived the facramentof the Lord’s Supper every week'
obferved all the falls of the church j vifited the prifons •
rofe at four in the morning ; and refrained from all a-
mufements. From the exaa method in which they dif-
pofed of every hour, they acquired the appellation of
Methodifts; by which their followers have been ever
lince diftinguifhed.
But a more particular account of the origin of this
fea, we lhall give from a celebrated publication. “ The
Methodifts (fays the editor of this work) form a very
confiderableclafs, principally of the lower people in this
country. They fprung up about fifty years ago at Ox¬
ford, and were foon divided into two parties; the one
under the diredion of Mr George Whitefield, and the
other under that of two brothers, John and Charles
Wrefley. Thefe leaders, and, if we except Mr William
Law, founders of the Methodifts, were educated at Ox¬
ford, received epifcopal ordination, and always profeffed
merit. He had early a ftrong impreffion 1 ke Co - °rdulnatl0.n; and al"’ays Pr^^d
u.’ ac 5 L- ’ 1IKe L°unt themlelves advocates for the articles and liturov of the
fome domeftic iSen," r"0^ Hs aftlTw ^ 'he d,ffentine mi,de ’,f   -11" "
fnrnpfl f-n flic nt*rr» HT* — i r I ~ . y
turned to his own account. His wonderful prefervation
already noticed, naturally tended to cherilh the idea of
bis being defigned by Providence to accomplifti fome
purpofe or other, that was out of the ordinary courfe of
^human events. The late Rev. Samuel Badcock, in a
4
tiled the diflenting mode of worfliip. But conceiving a
defign of forming feparate communities, fuperior in
famftity and perfeaion to all other Chriftian churches,
and impreffed to a very confiderable degree by a zeal
of an extravagant and enthufiaftic kind, they became
itinerant preachers ; and, being excluded from moft of
our churches, exercifed their miniftry in private houfes,
fields^
WES [ 695 ] WES
tVefley. fields, &c. not only in Great Britain and Ireland, but
alfo in America 5 thus collefting a very conliderable
number of hearers and profelytes, both among the mem¬
bers of the eftablithed church and the diffenters. The
theological fyftem of Mr Wbitefield and his followers is
Calviniflic j that of Mr Wefley and his difciples Armi-
nian j and the latter maintains the poffibility of attain¬
ing finlefs perfeftion in the prefent ftate. The fubordi-
nate teachers of both thefe clafies of Methodifts are ge¬
nerally men of no liberal education ; and they pretend
to derive their minifterial abilities from fpecial commu¬
nications of the Spirit. The Methodiils of both parties,
like other enthufialls, make true religion toconfitl prin¬
cipally in certain affe&ions and inward feelings which
it is impoffible to explain j but which, when analyfed,
feem to be mechanical in their fpring and operation j
and they generally maintain, that Chriftians will be
moft likely to fucceed in the purfuitof truth, not by the
dictates of reafon, or the aids of learning, but by laying
their minds open to the direction and influence of divine
illumination \ and their condudt has been dire&ed by
impulfes.”
Our readers will judge for themfe.lves, according to
their various modes of education, and to the different
lights in which they may refpe&ively view the dodlrines
of our common Chriftianity, whether this reprefentation
of the origin of the Methodifts, and of their diftinguifti-
ing tenets, be accurate and juft.—Not prefuming to fit
in judgment on the religious opinions of any man, we
fhall only obferve, that an appellation originally given
in reproach, has been gloried in ever fince by thofe who
have diftinguifhed themfelves as the followers either of
Mr Whitefield or of Mr Wefley. “ After the way call¬
ed Methodifm, fo worfhip they the God of their fathers.”
But the ridicule and contempt which the Angularity of
their conduit produced, both John and Charles Wefley
were well qualified to bear. They w'ere not to be inti¬
midated by danger, ailuated by intereft, or deterred by
difgrace.
The boundaries of this ifland were foon deemed by
Mr Wefley too confined for a zeal w'hich difplayed the
piety of an apoftle, and of an intrepidity to which few
miflionaries had been fuperior. In 1735 he embarked
for Georgia, one of our colonies, which was at that time
in a ftate of political infancy ) and the great objeit of
this voyage was to preach the gofpel to the Indian na¬
tions in the vicinity of that province. He returned to
England in 1737. Of his fpiritual labourSj both in this
country and in America, he himfelf has given a very
-copious account, in a feries of Journals printed at differ¬
ent periods. Thefe journals drew upon our laborious
preacher and his coadjutors fome fevere animadverfions
from two right reverend prelates 5 Dr George Laving-
ton bifhop of Exeter, and Dr William Warburton bi-
fhop of Gloucefter. The former publilhed, in three
parts, The Enthufiafm of the Methodifts and Papifts
compared ; the third part of this performance contain¬
ing a perfonal"charge of immoral conduft. Mr Wefley,
in his vindication, publiftied a letter to his lordlhip*.
which produced a reply from the latter.
Biftiop Warburton’s attack is contained in his cele¬
brated treatife, entitled The Do&rine of Grace : or,
The Office and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicat¬
ed from the Infults of Infidelity, and the Abufes of Fa-
itaticifm : concluding with fome thoughts, humbly of¬
fered to the confideration of the Eftabliflicd Clergy, Wefley.
with regard to the Right Method of defending lieli-1 -,™
gion againft the Attacks of either party 5 2 vols. fraall
8vo, 1762. There is much acute reafoning, and much
poignant and fprightly wit, in his Doftrine of Grace ;
but there is too much levity in it for a grave bifliop,
and too much abufe for a candid Chriftian. On this
occafion, Mr Wefley publilhed a letter to the bifliop,
in which, with great temper and moderation, as well as
with great ingenuity and addrefs, he endeavoured to
flicker himfeli from his lordlhip’s attacks j not only un¬
der the authority of the Holy Scriptures, but of the
church itfelf, as by law eftablithed.
On his return Irom Georgia, Mr Wefley paid a vifit
to Count Zinzendorf, the celebrated founder of the feci
of Moravians, or Hernhutters, at Hernhut in Upper
Lufatia. In the following year he appeared again in
England, and with his brother Charles, at the head of
the Methodifts. He preached his firft field-fermon at
Briftol, on the 2d of April 1738, from which time his
difciples have continued to increafe. In 1741, a ferious
altercation took place between him and Mr Whitefield.
In 1744, attempting to preach at an inn at Taunton,
he was regularly filenced by the magiftrates. Although
he chiefly refided for the remainder of his life in the me¬
tropolis, he occafionally travelled through every part of
Great Britain and Ireland, eftablifliing congregations in
each kingdom. In 1750 he married a lady, from whom
he was afterwards feparated. By this lady, who died in
1781, he had no children.
We have already mentioned Mr Wefley as a very va¬
rious and voluminous writer. Divinity, both devotional
and controverfial, biography, hiftory, philofophy, poli¬
tics, and poetry, were all, at different times, the fub-
je6ts of his pen : and, whatever opinion may be enter¬
tained of his theological fentiments, it is impoflible to
deny him the merit of.having done very extenfive good
among the lower, claffes of people. He certainly poffefs-
ed great abilities, and a fluency which was well accom¬
modated to his hearers, and highly acceptable to them.
He had been gradually declining for three years before
his death j yet he ftill rofe at four in the morning, and
preached, and travelled, and wrote as ufual. He preach¬
ed at Leatherhead in Surrey, on the Wednefday before
that event. On the Friday following, appeared the firft
fymptoms of his approaching diffolution. The four fuo-
ceeding days he fpent in praifing God ; and he left this
feene, in which his labours had been fo extenfive and fo
ufeful, at a quarter before ten in the morning of the 2d
of March 179G in the 88th year of his age. His re¬
mains, after lying in a kind of ftate at his chapel in the
city-road, dreffed in the facerdotal robes which he ufu-
ally wore, and on his head the old clerical cap, a bible
in one hand, and a white handkerchief in the other,
were, agreeably to his own direflions, and after the
manner of the interment of the late Mr Whitefield, de-
pofited in the cemetry behind his chapel, on the morn¬
ing of the 9th March, amid an innumerable concourfe
of his friends and admirers j many of whom appeared in
deep mourning on the occaffon. One Angularity was
obfervable in the funeral fervice. Inftead of, “We give
thee hearty thanks, for that it hath pleafed thee to de¬
liver this our brother it was read “ our father.” A
fermon, previoufly to the funeral, had been preached by
Dr Thomas Whitehead^ one of the phyficians to the
London
WES
Wefley, London hofpital; and on the 13th the different chapels
of his perfuafion in London were hung with black.
V~”“J It has been juftly obferved of Mr VVefley, that his
labours w7ere principally devoted to thofe who had no
inftruflor j to the highways and hedges; to the miners
in Cornwall, and the coalliers in Kingfwood. Thefe
unhappy creatures married and buried among themfelves,
and often committed murders with impunity, before the
Methoditts fprung up. By the humane and a6Hve en¬
deavours of Mr Wefley and his brother Charles, a fenfe
of decency, morals, and religion, was introduced into
the loweft claffes of mankind ; the ignorant were in-
flru&ed, the wretched relieved, and the abandoned re¬
claimed. His perfonal influence was greater, perhaps,
than that of any other private gentleman in any coun¬
try.—But the limits of this article will not permit us to
expatiate further on the character of this extraordinary
man.
WEST, Gilbert, was the fon of Dr Weft, preben¬
dary of Winchefter, and chaplain to King George I. but
at 1 2 years of age loft his father. He ftudied at Win¬
chefter and Eton fchools, and from thence was placed
in Chrift-church college, Oxford. His ftudious and fe-
rious turn inclined him to take orders ; but Lord Cob-
ham, his uncle, diverted him from that purfuit, and
gave him a cornetcy in his own regiment. This pro-
feflion he foon quitted, on account of an opening of an¬
other nature, which prefented him with a flattering pro-
fpeft of advancement in life. A number of young gentle¬
men were to be ele£ted from the univerfities, and, at the
expence of government, were to be taught foreign lan¬
guages; and then fent to the fecretaries office, to be ini¬
tiated into bufinefs, and trained there for public fervices,
as envoys, ambafladors &c. Mr Gilbert Weft was one
of the few pitched upon ; and on his. firft introduction
into that office, Lord Townfend, fecretary of ftate,
treated him with lingular marks of regard, and the
ftrongeft inclinations to ferve him were teftified from all
quarters. But his uncle Lord Cobham’s ftrong oppofi-
tion to the meafures of the government, rendered thefe
advantages entirely fruitlefs ; and the minifters honeftly
told Mr Weft, that he muft not expeCl them to diftin-
guiffi his merit, as any favours conferred upon him would
be imputed as done to his uncle Lord Cobham. Mr
Weft now left that'office, and all his views of making
his fortune; and entering into marriage, retired to Wick¬
ham in Kent, where he lived in great domeftic comfort
and tranquil happinefs. He was there vifited by his va¬
luable friends, who held the moft delightful converfe of
wit, humour, and learning, fupported upon the prin¬
ciples of virtue, found reafoning, and folid friendlhip,
which rendered the whole cheerful, animating, and in-^
ftruftive. Mr William Pitt, who was one of thofe that
compofed this happy fociety, becoming paymafter, ap¬
pointed Mr Weft treafurer to Chelfea-hofpital; and he
obtained a feat at the council board, in confequence of
a friendlhip contraCled at the fchool with one of the
duke of Devonftiire’s fons, who procured of his grace
his being nominated one of the clerks extraordinary of
that office. Towards the latter part of Mr Weft’s life,
he wholly applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Scriptures;
being extremely anxious to try his utmoft endeavours to
reconcile the feeming inconfiftencies which gave the
enemies to revealed religion a handle to doubt and dif-
credit their authenticity. His obfervations on the re-
W E S
furreftion, which, it has been faid, were written to con¬
firm the wavering faith of his great friends Pitt and
Lyttleton, bear ample teftimony to his reafoning powers
and the fincerity of his religion ; while his tranflations
of Pindar ftiow him to have been an eminent Greek
fcholar, and very confiderable poet. He had a mind
replete with virtue, and was an honour to his country;
but died at 50 years of age.
West, one of the cardinal points of the horizon, dia¬
metrically oppofite to the call ; and ftrictly defined the
interfeiftion of the prime vertical with the horizoh on
that fide the fun fets in.
WESTMINSTER, a city which forms the weft
part of the capital of Britain, but has a government di-
ftinfl from the reft. This city had its name from the
fituation of its abbey, anciently called a minjler, in re-
fpefl of that of St Paul. That part properly called the
city of Weftminfter, comprehending the pariflies of St
John and St Margaret, was once an ifland formed by
the Thames, called Thorney ijland, from the thorns with
which it was overrun ; and the abbey that flood in it,
Thorney-abbey. The liberties of Weftminfter contain
the feveral pariffies of St Martin in the Fields, St
James’s, St Anne, St Paul, Covent-Garden, St Maryle
Strand, St Clement Danes, St George, Hanover Square,
and the precincft of the Savoy. The government, both
of the city and liberties, is under the jurifdi&ion of the
dean and chapter of Weftminfter, in civil as well as eccle-
fiaftical affairs; and their authority extends to the pre-
cin£t of St Martin le Grand, by Newgate-ftreet, and
in fume towns of Effex, which are exempted from the ju-
rifdiflion of the biffiop of London and the archbifhop of
Canterbury ; but the management of the civil part has,
ever fince the Reformation, been in the hands of lay¬
men, ele£ted from time to time, and confirmed by the
dean and chapter. The chief of thefe laymen are the
high-fteward, the deputy-fteward, and the high-bailiff,
who hold their offices for life. There are alfo 16 bur-
geffes and their affiftants, out of which are elefted two
head-burgeffes, one for the city, and the other for the
liberties. Another officer is the high-conftable, who has
all the other conftables under his diredlion.
WESTMORELAND,a county of England, bound¬
ed on the north and north-weft by Cumberland ; on the
fouth and fouth-eaft by Yorkftrire; and on the fouth
and fouth-weft by Lancafture. Its extent from north-
eaft to fouth, is 40 miles, and its breadth from the eaft
prnje&ion to that in the weft, 42. It is generally di¬
vided into the baronies of Kendal and Weftmoreland :
the former is very mountainous, but the latter is a large
champaign country. Thefe are the only principal divi-
fions of this county, which contains eight market towns,
26 pariffies, and 41,617 inhabitants. It lies partly in
the diocefe of Chefter, and partly in that of Carlifle.
The earl of Thanet is hereditary ffieriff of the county,
which fends only four members to parliament. The air
is clear, (harp, and falubrious, the natives being feldom
troubled with difeafes, and generally living to old age.
The foil is various ; that on the mountains is very bar¬
ren, while that in the valleys is fertile, producing good
corn and grafs, efpecially in the meadows near the ri¬
vers. In the hilly parts on the weftern borders it is ge¬
nerally believed there are vaft quantities of copper ore,
and veins of gold ; fome mines of copper are worked,
but moft of the ore lies fo deep that it will not anfwer
[ 696 ]
Weft
II
Weftmore.
land.
W E T
\V I'iOi'C.
nd
II .
V Item.
U r—
the expence. This county yields the fineft flate, and
abundance of excellent hams are cured here. The prin¬
cipal rivers are, the Eden, the Lone, and the Ken. It
has alfo feveral fine lakes, the principal of which is
Winander Mere, or Windermere water. In the foreft
of Martindale, to the fouth of Ulls-water, the breed of
red deer ftill exifts in a wild date.—Appleby is the
county town.
WESTPHALIA, formerly a duchy of Germany,
bounded to the eaft by the bilhopric of Paderborn, and
the territories of Waldeck and Plefle ; to the fouth by
the counties of Witgenftein and Nafifau, and the duchy
of Berg ; to the north by the bilhopric of Muniler and
the county of Lippe. It is about 40 miles in length
and 30 in breadth. The lower part of it is very fruit
ful, yielding plenty of corn and cattle, and fome fait
fprings. The higher affords iron ore, calamine, lead,
copper, fome filver and gold, fine woods, cattle, game,
filh, with a little corn. The rivers, that either pafs
through the duchy or along its borders, are the Rahr,
the Lenne, the Bigge, theDimel, and the Lippe. There
are 28 towns in it, befides boroughs and cloilters. The
provincial diets are held at Aren (berg. In the year
1180, the emperor Frederic I. made a donation of this
duchy to the archbifhopric of Cologne, which was con¬
firmed by fucceeding emperors; and in 1638, the laft
duke of Arenlberg ceded to it alfo the county of Arenf-
berg.
Westphalia, one of the circles of Germany, an¬
ciently the people inhabiting between the Wefer and
the Rhine, were called Wejlphalians $ and hence that
traft got the name of Wejlphalia: but the circle of that
name is of a larger extent, being furrounded by the cir¬
cle of Burgundy, or the Auftrian Netherlands, the Unit¬
ed Provinces, and the North fea, with the circles of the
Upper and Lower Rhine, and comprifing a great many
different Rates.
The fummoning princes and directors of the circle of
Weftphalia, were the bilhops of Munfter, alternately
with the eledtors of Brandenburg and Palatine, as dukes
cf Cleve and Juliers. The archives belonging to it were
before the war (1797) kept at Duffeldorp. Its quota
of men and money is fomewhat more than the ninth part
of the whole fum granted by the empire. With refpedl
to religion, it is partly Proteftant and partly Catholic ;
but the Proteftants predominate, and are, at leafl: the
greater part of them, Calvinifts. The air of this coun¬
try is not reckoned very wholefome, and towards the
north is extremely cold in winter. The foil in general
is marlhy and barren; yet there is fome good corn and
pafture land ; but the fruit is chiefly ufed to feed hogs ;
and hence it is that their bacon and hams are fo much
valued and admired.
Weftphalia now forms one of the kingdoms eftablilh-
ed bv Bonaparte.
WESTRINGI A, a genus of plants, formed from
cuni/a fruticofa, which was difcovered by Dr Solander
in New Holiand. Dr Smith defcribes it as approaching
nearer to rofemary, and places it after teucrium in the
clafs didynamia.
WET-couch, Coming-heap, a term ufed by the malt-
fters for one of the principal articles of malt-making.
See Brewing, N° 4.
# WETSTEIN, John James, a learned G erman di¬
vine, was born at Bafil in 1693. On his admiflion to
Vol. XX. Part II.
[ 697 ]
W H A
Wharton.
the miniftry, he maintained a thefis De variis Novi Te- Wetftein
Jiament 1 Leclwnibus; in which he ftiowed that the great
variety of readings of the New Teftament afford no ar¬
gument againtt the authenticity of the text. He had
made theie various readings the object of his attention ;
and travelled into foreign countries to examine all the
MSS. he could come at. In 1730, he publilhed Pro¬
legomena ad J\ovi Tejlamenti Greeci editwnem accuratif-
Jimam, is’c. Some divines, dreading his unfettling the
prefent text, procured a decree of the fenate of Bafil a-
gainlt his. undertaking, and even got him prohibited
from officiating in the miniftry ; on which he went to
Amfterdam, where the Remonftrants named him to
fucceed the famous Le Clerc, then fuperannuated, as
profeffor of philofophy and hiftory. At laft he publifh-
ed his edition of the New Teftament, in 2 vols. folio,
T732 5 in which he left the text as he found it, placing
the various readings, with a critical commentary, under¬
neath ; fubjoining two epidles of Clemens Romanus, till
then unknown to the learned, but difcovered by him in
a Syriac MS. of the New Teftament. He alfo publifti-
ed fome fmall works; and is faid to have been not only
an univerfal Icholar, but to have abounded in good and
amiable qualities. He died at Amfterdam in 1754.
WEI 1 ERAVIA, the fouthern divifion of theland-
gravate of Heffe in Germany, lying along the northern
bank of the river Maine, and comprehending the coun¬
ties of Hanau and Naffau.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munfter, 38 miles in length, and 24 in breadth >
bounded on the north by Wicklow, on the eaft by St
George’s channel, on the fouth by the Atlantic ocean,
on the weft by Waterford and Kilkenny, and on the
north by Catherlougb. It contains 109 pariffies, and
formerly fent 18 members to the Iriffi parliament. It
is a fruitful country in corn and grafs; and the princi¬
pal town is of the fame name.
Wexford, a fea-portof Ireland, capital of a county
of the fame name. It was once reckoned the chief city
in Ireland, being the firft colony of the Engliffi, and is
ftill a large handfome town, with a very commodious
harbour at the mouth of the river Slana, on a bay of St
George’s channel, 63 miles fouth of Dublin. W. Long.
6. 3. N. Lat. 52. 18.
WHALE. See Baljena and Physeter, Ceto-
LOGY Index.
Whale, one of the conftellations. See Astronomy.
, JVhALE-Bone. For its natural hiftory, fee Ceto-
LOGY Index.
A patent was granted in Oftober 1806 to Robert
Bowman of Leith, in Scotland, for making hats, caps,
and bonnets for men and women, of whalebone ; harps
for harping or cleanfing corn or grain ; and alfo the
bottoms of fieves and riddles, and girths for horfes ;
and alfo a cloth or webbing for making into hats, caps,
&c.; and for the backs and feats of chairs and fofas,
gigs, coaches, and other fimilar carriages; and the bot¬
toms of beds ; as alfo reeds for weavers.
Whale Fiji)ery. See Cetology.
WHARF, a fpace on the banks of a haven, creek,
or hithe, provided for the convenient loading and un¬
loading of veffels.
WHARI ON, Philip duke of, a nobleman of the
moft brilliant parts, but of the moft whimfical, extrava¬
gant, and inconfiftent turn of mind, was educated by his
4 ^ father’s
W H A [ 698 ] W H A
Wharton, father’s exprefs order at home. He very early married
'“-■’'v  a young lady, the daughter of Major-General Holmes,
which difappointed his father’s views of difpofmg of him
in fuch a marriage as would have been a confiderable
addition to the fortune and grandeur of his illuftrious
family ; yet that amiable lady deferved infinitely more
felicity than (he met with by this alliance. This pre¬
cipitate marriage is thought to have haltened the death
of his father j after which the duke, being free from pa¬
ternal reftraints, plunged into thofe exceffes which ren-
* dered him, as Pope exprefies it,
“ A tyrant to the wife his heart approv’d 5
“ A rebel to the very king he lov’d.”
In the beginning of the year I7I6, he began his tra¬
vels } and as he was defigned to be inftrufted in the
ftriSeft Whig principles, Geneva was thought a proper
place for hisrefidence. He firft pafled through Holland,
and vifited feveral courts of Germany *, and being arriv¬
ed at Geneva, conceived fuch a difguft againft his go¬
vernor, that he left him, and fet out poft for Lyons,
where he ■wrote a letter to the chevalier de St George,
who then refided at Avignon, and prefented him a very
fine flout horfe; which the chevalier no fooner received
than he fent a man of quality to him, who took him pri¬
vately to his court, where he was entertained with the
greateft marks of efleem, and had the title of duke of
Northumberland conferred upon him. He, however,
remained there but one day, and then returned poft to
Lyons, whence he fet out for Paris. He likewife paid
a vifit to The confort of James II. who then refided at
St Germains, to whom he alfo paid his court. During
his ftay at Paris, his winning addrefs and abilities gain¬
ed him the efteem and admiration of all the Britifti tub-
je<fts of rank of both parties.
About the latter end of December 1716, he arrived
in England, whence he foon after fet out for Ireland,
where, though under age, he was allowed the honour
to take his feat in the houfe of peers, and immediately
diftinguifhed himfelf, notwithftanding his former con-
du<ft, as a violent partizan for the miniftry j in confe-
quence of which zeal the king created him a duke. He
no fooner came of age than he was introduced to the
houfe of lords in England with the fame blaze of repu¬
tation. In a little time he oppofed the court, and ap¬
peared one of the molt vigorous in defence of the bilhop
of Rochefter j and foon after printed his thoughts twice
a-week, in a paper called the True Briton, feveral thou-
fands of which were circulated.
The duke’s boundlefs profufion had by this time fo
burdened his eftate, that by a decree of Chancery it was
vefted in the hands of truftees for the payment of his
debts, allowing him a provifion of 1200I. per annum for
his fubfiftenee. This being infufficient to fupport his
title with fuitable dignity, he went abroad, and (hone to
great advantage, with refpeft to his perfonal charatter,
at the imperial court. From thence he made a tour to
Spain : the Englilh minifter was alarmed at his arrival,
fearing that his grace was received in the chara&er of
an ambaflador : upon which the duke received a fum-
mons under the privy feal to return home; but inftead
of obeying it, he endeavoured to inflame the Spanilh
court againft that of Great Britain, for exercifing an a£l
of power, as he calls it, within the jurifdiftion of his
Catholic majefty. He then a&ed openly in the fervice
of the Pretender, and was received at his court with the Wharton
greateft marks of favour. ‘—■“Y"*
While his grace was thus employed, his negle&ed
duchefs died in England on the 14th of April 1726,
without ifiue. Soon after the duke fell violently in love
with M. Oberne, one of the maids of honour to the
queen of Spain, the daughter of an Irilh colonel, whofe
fortune chiefly confided in her perfonal accomplilhments.
All his friends, and particularly the queen of Spain, op¬
pofed the match ; but he falling into a lingering fever,
occafioned by his difappointment,. the queen gave her
confent, and they were foon after married. He then
fpent fome time at Rome, where he accepted of a blue
garter, afiumed the title of duke of Northumberland,
and for a while enjoyed the confidence of the exiled
prince. But not always keeping within the bounds of
Italian gravity, it became neceffary for him to remove
from hence *, when, going by fea to Barcelona, he wrote
a letter to the king of Spain, acquainting him that he
would aflift at the liege of Gibraltar as a volunteer.
Soon after he wrote to the chevalier de St George, ex-
prefling a defire to vifit his court; but the chevalier ad-
vifed him to draw near to England.
The duke feemed refolved to follow his advice; and
fetting out with his duchefs, arrived in Paris in May
1728, whence he foon after proceeded to Rouen, where
he took up his refidence 5 and was fo far from making
any conceflion to the government of England, that he
did not give himfelf the leaft trouble about his eftate, or
any other concern there, though, on his arrival at
Rouen, he had only about 600I. in his pofleflion, and a
bill of indidlment was preferred againft him in England
for high-treafon. Soon after the chevalier fent him
2000I. which he fquandered away in a courfe of extra¬
vagance 5 when, to fave the charges of travelling by
land, he went from Orleans to Nantz by water, and
ft aid there till he got a remittance from Paris, which
was fquandered almoft as foon as received. At Nantz
he was joined by his ragged fervants, and from hence
took (hipping with them for Bilboa, when the queen of
Spain took the duchefs to attend her perfon. About
the beginning of the year 1731, the duke, who com¬
manded a regiment, was at Lerida, but declined fo fall
that he could not move without affiftance j yet when
free from pain did not lofe his gaiety. He, however,
received benefit from fome mineral waters in Catalonia j
but foon after relapfed at a fmall village, where he was
utterly deftitute of all the necelfaries of life, till fome
charitable fathers of a Bernardine convent removed him
to their houfe, and gave him all the relief in their power.
Under their hofpitable roof he languilhed a week, and
then died, without one friend or acquaintance to clofe
his eyes; and his funeral w'as performed in the fame
manner in which the fathers inter thofe of their own
fraternity.
Thus died Philip duke of Wharton, “ who, like
Buckingham and Rochefter (fays Mr Walpole), com¬
forted all the grave and dull, by throwing away the
brighteft profufion of parts on witty fooleries, debauch¬
eries, and ferapes, which mix graces with a great cha-
rafter, but never can compofe one.
“ With attachment to no party, though with talents
to govern any party, this lively man changed the free
air of Weftminfter for the gloom of the Efcurial, the
profpeft of King George’s garter for the Pretender’s;
and
w H E t 699 ] W H E
lahon, and with indifference to all religion, the frolic lord who
had written the ballad on the archbilhop of Canterbury,
^ 11 died in the habit of a capuchin. It is difficult to give
an account of the works of a man whofe library was a
tavern, and women of pleafure his mufes. A thoufand
fallies of his imagination may have been loft. There
are only two volumes in 8vo, called his Life and Wri¬
tings. Thefe contain nothing of the latter, but 74
numbers of the True Briton, and his fpeech in defence
of the biftiop of Rochefter. His other works are the
ballads above mentioned j the Drinking Match at
Eden-hall, in imitation of the Chevy Chace, printed in
a mifcellany called Whartoniana ; and a parody of a
fong fung at the opera houfe by Mrs Tofts. His lord-
ftiip alfo began a play on the ftory of the queen of
Scots.”
WHEAT. See Triticum, Botany/We*; and
for the culture of wheat, fee Agriculture Index.
The three principal kinds of bad wheat are, the
blighted, the fmutty, and the worm-eaten. Blighted
wheat is that of which the ftalk is a little twifted and
rickety, the blade being of a bluifti green and curled up,
the grain alfo is green and tubercled : fmutty wheat
appears as if great part of the ear had been burnt, fome
fmall parts only being free, and, in particular, the ftem
that rifes in the centre of the ear, round which the grain
is ranged : worm-eaten or rotten wheat is corrupted
without lofing much of its natural form, or external ap¬
pearance ; the hulk is filled with a greafy black pow-
1 ;f Lif- der, that is infufferably fetid. It appeared, from the
^ ^experiments of M. Tillet, that there was a kind of in-
v fggj* feftious quality in all thofe kinds of wheat : fo that if
i x, found wheat was fprinkled with the flour of fmutty or
rotten wheat, the crop produced would be rotten or
fmutty. It appeared alfo, that among the grain which
was produced from ground manured with the ftraw of
diftempered wheat, there was a much greater proportion
of diftempered wheat than in that produced from ground
manured with the ftraw of good wheat: the great fecret
then was to deftroy the principle ef this contagion in
the wheat that was put into the ground j and M. Tillet
found, as the refult of a great number of experiments,
that if the grain, before it is fowed, be well moiftened
with a folution of fea-falt, or nitre, in common water,
none of the enfuing crop will be fmutty, or otherwife
,defe6Iive, either in kind or quality ; not only fuppofing
the grain that is fowed to be found, and the foil to be
good, bnt even fuppofing the grain to be ftrewed with
the flour of fmutty wheat, and the ground manured with
bad ftraw.
The following receipt for preventing fmutty wheat
was publifhed in 1769 by order of the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts : they received it from Mr
John Reynolds of Adifham in Kent.
A tub is to be procured that has a hole at bottom, in
which a ftaff and tap-hofe is to be fixed over a whifp of
ftraw, to prevent any fmall pieces of lime paffing (as in
the brewing way) ; this done, we put 70 gallons of wa¬
ter, then a corn bufliel heap-full of ftone-lime, unflaked,
ftirring it well till the whole is diffolved or mixed, let¬
ting it ftand about 30 hours, and then run it off into
another tub as clear as we can (as praftifed in beer) :
this generally produces a hogfhead of good ftrong lime-
water-, then add three pecks of fait, 42 pounds, which,
with a little ftirring, will foon diffolve 5 thus we have
i
a proper pickle for the purpofe of brining and liming our Wheat
feed-wheat without any manner of obftacle, which is ^
more than can be faid in doing it the common way, and carriat^
greatly facilitates the drilling. ■ “ „
Herein we fteep the wheat in a broad-bottomed bafket
of about 24 inches diameter, and 20 inches deep (for
large fowing, made on purpofe), running in the grain
gradually in fmall quantities from 10 to 12 gallons up
to 16 gallons, ftirring the fame. What floats, we fkirn
oft with a ftrainer, and is not to be fown : then draw up
the bafket to drain over the pickle, for a few minutes ;
all which may be performed within half an hour, fuffi-
ciently pickledlj and fo proceed as before. This done-,
the wheat will be fit for fowing in 24 hours, if required ;
but if defigned for drilling, two hours pickled will be
found beft j and if prepared four or five days before¬
hand, in either cafe it makes no difference at all -, but
fhould the feed be clammy, and flick to the notches in
the drill-box, more lime muft be added to the lime-wa¬
ter : here the mailer muft ufe his diferetion, as the cafe
requires; for fome lime has much more drying or
aftringent qualities in it than others. If fea-water cah
be obtained conveniently, much lefs fait will fuffice, but
fome will be found neceffary even then, othervvife the
light grains will not float, a thing of more confequence
than is generally imagined, and it ought to be fkimmed
off and thrown afide for poultry, &c.
WHEEL, in Mechanics, a Ample machine, confift-
ing of a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter,
which revolves on its axis. See Mechanics.
WHEEL-Carrtages. See Mechanics for an account
of the general principles.
No kind of wheel-carriages are of more importance
to a commercial and manufafluring country than ftage
coaches j and perhaps in no kingdom of Euiope has the
fyllem of travelling in public vehicles been carried to
greater perfeflion, as to comfort and fpeed, than in Bri¬
tain. The danger, however, of travelling by thefe
coaches makes confiderable deduction from their accom¬
modation otherwife : it is but too well known that this
mode of travelling is liable to frequent and ferious acci¬
dents. Every attempt therefore that promifes to be ufe-
ful in diminifhing fuch danger fhould have all poffible
publicity. With this view we are much gratified in
having an opportunity of laying before our readers the
following account of an invention to render ftage
coaches more fecure from danger, obligingly tranfmit-
ted to us by the inventor, the reverend William Milton
of Heckfield, Hants. For this invention that gentleman
has obtained a patent.
The danger of ftage coaches arifes fometimes from
overturning, and fometimes from breaking down. The
overturn is, in general, occafioned either by taking two
fide-wheels into too deep a hole or ditch, or over too
high a bank j or, fecondly, by running down more
quickly than the carriage is calculated to do, from the
top to the fides of a rounded road j or, laftly, by turn¬
ing a fharp corner with too great velocity. In the two
firft cafes the danger arifes from the centre of gravity of
the total coach and load being placed too high and in
the laft inftance, of turning the fharp corner, from the
fame centre (but which we muft now eonfider as the
centre of the vis inertice') being alfo placed too high.
The danger in the two firft cafes grows often out of the
very circumftances of the road, and meets every one’s
4T2 comprehenfion •:
W H E [ 700 ] W H E
WheeU comprehenfion : the laft, which is lefs obvious, is gene-
^ai i 'ages. ^ ra]|y oWing to the mere will of the driver ; and the bet*
ter the road, the more is he tempted, without any inten¬
tion, to go on to produce it: it requires therefore to be
more generally underlfood than it is. It may be thus
explained :—A carriage is going along a llraight level
road at the rate of nine miles an hour : then, though
you imagine the horfes or pulling power to be in an in-
ilant withdrawn, yet will the carriage continue its mo¬
tion for ten, fifteen, or more yards, and at firft with the
fame velocity, and in the fame Jlraight line, in confe-
quence of the acquired motion. Suppofing, now, the
coach with its four horfes going the nine miles an hour
along a fine level road, but which has a Jharp and fud-
ilen corner to turn ;•—the coachman knows it, and wilhes
to keep his velocity ; the horfes are aware of both—
and by the animal dexterity with which they are gifted,
contrive to make the turn without remitting any thing of
their fpeed. Notfo the coach which follows them; that has
a tendency to perfevere in its Jlraight line ; and the cen¬
tre of its effort to do fo is the centre of its vis inertice,
the very centre of its gravity. If this centre be low, the
turn of the corner may be made with no other incon¬
venience than a fhort awkward Hide of the hind wheels,
o?iward in the original direBion; whereas, if it be high,
there will be no Aide, but the coach will be overturned,
and overturned nearly at that point where its broadfide
Is at re&angles to the ftraight line of road it has been
thus forced to quit : for at that point the bafe againft
fuch an overturn will be the moft difadvantageous, and
the check to the onward motion the greatefl. The
remedy offered againft all thefe caufes of the overturn,
(whether by a ditch, bank, rounded road, or Jharp cor¬
ner'), is to bring down this centre, by placing as much of
the luggage as poflible in a luggage-box, below the body
cf the carriage; the body not being higher than ufual.
From the overturn, we pafs to the confideration of
the breaking-down; this we muft reckon on happen¬
ing as often in thefe patent ftage coaches as in others.
Wheels will come off or faih, or axles will break, in fu¬
ture, as they have done heretofore ; but againft the dif-
aftrous and fatal confequences of fuch accidents the re¬
medy offered may be thus deferibed.—On each fide of
the luggage-box, with their periphery below its floor,
and each as near as may be requifite to its refpeftive
aBive wheel, there is placed a fmall frong idle wheel,
ready in cafe of breaking down, on either Jide, to catch
the falling' carriage, andinfantlyto continue its previous
velocity, till the coachman can pull up his horfes, thereby
preventing that fudden fop to rapid motion, which at
prefent conftantly attends the breaking-down ; and
•which has fo frequently proved fatal to the coachman
and outfide paffengers. In cafe a fore-wheel comes
off, each end of the fore-carriage has its idle wheel.
By this provifion we fliall be, to all effeB of fafety, con¬
tinually travelling with two carriages under us. The
bottom of this luggage-box is meant to be about four¬
teen inches from the ground ; and the idle wheels feven,
Ik, or five •, but if at a ftill lefs diftance, little inconve¬
nience \vould refult •, for when either of them takes
over an obftacle in the road, it inftantly, and during
the need, difcharges its refpeffive aBive wheel Ixom the
ground, and works in its ftead. If thefe two principles
of fafety were applied to the defeription of the feveral
ftage-coach accidents we meet with, there is no doubt
but a general conviction would arife, that the fafety by WKeel.
thefe modes is (in vehicles of all kinds), perhaps us can'iage
great as can conff with rapid loco-motion; and that, w, ^,
fooner or later, legif alive authority, in feme ftiape or 1 66 e
other, may judge it neceffary to interpofe, for the pur-
pofe of controlling a prejudice againft the form efen-
tial to this mode of fafety. The trial and proof which
thefe principles have been brought to, have not only
been by public exhibition, and with preparation \ but
in all the fuddennefs, alfo, of aBual heavy work : and the
refult in both cafes has been fo exactly the fame, as to
give continual ajfurance of the full efife61 of the remedy,
as often as the cafualties of the road fhall bring it into
a6tion.
The aim in the arrangement of this coach of fafetij,
has been to bring down the load, and confequently the
centre of gravity, as low as poflible : this is thought to
make the coach look heavy; and this word, by the
ready operation of a prejudice, has been transferred to
its going •, and one fpecific reafon added withal, that,
becaufe the load is low, the draught muf be heavy.
This point, however, has, in the prefence of 10 or 12
competent perfons, been brought to the moft decifive
proof; and it comes out, that it is as indifferent to
draught, as it is material to danger or fafety, whether
a ton be placed on the roof of a coach, or a ton on the
floor of the patent luggage-box, about 15 or 16 inches
from the ground.
It h as been afked, “ What would this coach do in
fnow The queftion has been thus anfwered by the
refulfe of a6tual work •, for the patent coach, after being
detained on the road with feveral other coaches, by a
fudden fall of fnow, when at laft they ftarted together,
came in fx or feven hours before any of them. They
were bound in prudence, to go cautioufly along the
ground, whofe unevennefs was invifible $ while the pa¬
tent coach dallied along it with all the confidence and
fafety of a poft-chaife. See Plate DLXXVII.
Wheel-Animal. See Animalcule, N° 16—23.
Wheel, Perfan. See Agriculture.
Wheel, Potter's. See Porcelain.
Wheel is alfo the name of a kind of punifliment to
which great criminals are put in divers countries. In
fome, affaflins, parricides, and robbers on the highway,
are faid'to be condemned to the wheel, when they are
to have their bones firft broken -with an iron bar on a
fcaffold, and then to be expofed, and left to expire on
the circumference of a wheel. In Germany they break
their bones on the wheel itfelf.—Of this cruel punifli¬
ment, it is not certain who was the inventor : it was
firft ufed in Germany, and was, indeed, but rarely prac-
tifed anywhere elfe, till the time of Francis I. of France 5
who, by anedi61 of the year 1534, appointed it to be
inflidled on robbers on the highway.
WHEELER, Sir George, a learned traveller and
divine, was the fen of Colonel Wheeler of Charing ia
Kent, and was borrt in 1650 at Breda, where his pa¬
rents as royalifts were then in exile. Pie travelled
through various parts of Greece and the Eaft, in com¬
pany with Dr James Spon of Lyons ; and taking orders
on his return, was inftalleda prebend of Durham, made
vicar of Bafingftoke, and afterward re6lor of Houghton
le Spring. Pie publiftied an account of his Travels ia
1682 in folio ; and in 1689, his Obfervations on An¬
cient Edifices of Churches yet remaining in the Eaft,
W H I [ 701 ] W H I
Wheeler compared with Eufebius : alfo the Proleftant Monaftery,
II or Chriflian Oeconomics. He died in 1724.
Arhiclah. ^ WHEELINGS, in the military art, are different
T motions made both by horfe and foot, either to the right
and left, or to the right and left about.
General Rules for WHEELING.—The circle is divid¬
ed into four equal points : thence, wheeling to the right
or left, is only a quarter of the circle 5 wheeling to the
right or left about, is one half of the circle.
When you wheel to the right, you are to clofe to the
right, fo near as to touch your right-hand man, but with¬
out preffing him ; and to look to the left, in order to
bring the rank about even.
When you wheel to the left, you are to clofe to the
left, and look to the right as above directed. This rule
will ferve for all the wheeling by ranks j as when a bat¬
talion is marching by fubdivifions with their ranks open,
then each rank w'heels diftindtly by itfelf, when it comes
to the ground on which the ranks before it wheeled,
but not before.
In wheeling, the men are to take particular care
neither to open nor clofe their ranks, and to carry their
arms well.
In wheeling, the motion of each man is quicker or
flower, according to the diftance he is from the right or
the left: thus, when you wheel to the right, each man
moves quicker than his right-hand man •, and wheeling
to the left, each man moves quicker than his left-hand
man ; the circle that every man wheels being larger,
according to the diftance he is from the hand he wheels
to } as may be feen by defcribing feveral circles within
one another, at two feet diftance from each, which is
nearly the fpace every man is fuppofed to take up.
WHELK, a fpecies of fliell-filh. See BucciNUM,
Conchology Index.
WHELP, the young of a dog, fox, lion, or any wild
beaft.
WHELPS, in a (hip, the Teaman’s term for thofa
brackets which are fet up on the. capftan clofe under the
bars *, they give the fweep to it, and are fo contrived
that the cable winding about them may not furge fo
much as it might otherwife do if the body of the cap-
flan were quite round and fmooth.
WHETSTONE, a ftone fo called, becaufe it ferves
for the whetting of edge tools upon. See Mineralogy
Index.
WHEY, the ferum or watery part of milk.
WHIDAH, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of
Guinea, and to the weft of the Gold Coaft ; extending
about 10 miles along the fea. It is a populous country,
well furnilhed with large villages j and there are )o
many fmall ones, that they are not above a mufket-ftiot
from each other.—The houfes are fmall, round at the
top, and encompaffed with mud ■walls or hedges, to¬
gether with a great number of all lorts of beautiful and
lofty trees, which afford the moft beautiful profpeft in
the world, infomuch that thofe that have been here re-
prefent it as a perfetft paradife. The fields are always
green, and they cultivate beans, potatoes^ and fruits ;
nor will the negroes here let a foot of ground remain
uncultivated. They fow again the very next day after
they have reaped. The inhabitants are greatly civili¬
zed, very refpe£lful to each other, efpecially to their
fuperiors, and very induftrious. J he w'orrfen brew the
beer, drefs the victuals, and fell all forts of commodities
at the market. Thofe that are rich employ their wives
and flaves in tilling the land, and they carry on a con-
fiderable trade with the produdt, as well as in flaves j
for fome of them are able to deliver 1000 of the latter
every month. The chief men have generally 40 or 50
wives, the principal captains 300 or 400, and the king
4000 or 5000. They are extremely jealous, and, on
the leaft fufpicion, will fell them to the Europeans for
flaves. If any one happen to touch one of the king’s
wives accidentally, he is doomed to perpetual flavery. It
is no wonder then that the women are not fond of being
the king’s wives ; and fome of them will prefer a fpeedy
death to fuch a miferable life. They have no diftinc-
tion of hours, days, weeks, months, or years. The rite
of circumcifion is ufed here ; but they are not able to
tell why they ufe it, nor whence it is derived. Thev
are fuch great gamefters, that they will ftake all they
have at play, not excepting their wives and children.
They have a vaft number of idols ; and they deify the
moft contemptible animal that they fee firft in a morn¬
ing, and even ftocks and ftones. Their principal re¬
gard is for fnakes, very high trees, and the fea. An
Engliftr fa<ftor, juft arrived, found a fnake in the houfe
belonging to the faftory, and killed it without the leaft
fcruple ; which fo incenfed the negroes, that they were
for revenging the death of the fnake, not only upon him
that killed it, but upon the whole factory j but by
means of prefents, and the interpofition of the people of
the other fatftories, the affair was made up, and the fnake
honourably interred. However, to prevent fuch acci¬
dents, they gave them warning not to do the like for
the future. They have oxen, cows, goats, fheep, hogs,
turkeys, ducks, and hens; which laft are extremely
plentiful. There are many elephants, buffaloes, tigers,,
feveral kinds of deer, and a fort of hares. The fruits
are citrons, lemons, oranges, bananas, tamarinds, &c.
and they have vaft numbers of palm-trees, from which
they obtain wine. Whidah was conquered by the king
of Dahomy. Their trade confifts of flaves, elephants
teeth, wax, and honey. The Englifh factory is 200
miles eaft of Gape Coaft Caftle, within land. Bows,
arrows, beautiful affaguays, and clubs, are the principal
weapons of the nation.
WHIDAW-Bird. See Emberiza, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
WHIG, a perfon- belonging to a political party in
Britain, oppofite to the Tories. See Tories, and Bri-
Whidaii
II
Whirlpool
TAINi
WHIMBREL. See Scolopax, Ornithology
Index.
WHIN. See Ulex, Botany Index.
WH1NCHAT. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
WHIP, or WHIP-Staff, in a fliip, a piece of timber,
in form of a ftrong ftaff, faftened into the helm, for the
fteerfman, in fmall (hips, to hold in his hand, in order to
move the rudder, and diredl the fliip.
WHIRLPOOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulf, where
the water is continually turning round.
Thofe in rivers are very common, from various acci¬
dents, and are ufually very trivial, and of little confe*
quence. In the fea they are more rare, but more dan¬
gerous. Sibbald has related the effedls of a very re¬
markable marine whirlpool among the Orcades, which
would prove very dangerous to ftrangers, though it is
of
W H I t 702 ] w H I
Whirlpool, of no confequence to the people who are ufed to it.
Whirlwind. This is not fixed to any particular place, but appears in
various parts of the limits of the fea among thefe iflands.
Wherever it appears, it is very furious; and boats, &c.
would inevitably be drawn in and perifh with it; but
the people who navigate them are prepared for it, and
always carry an empty veflel, a log of wood, or large
bundle of draw, or fome fuch thing in the boat with
them; as foon as they perceive the whirlpool, they tofs
this within its vortex, keeping themfelves out : this
iubitance, whatever it be, is immediately received into
the centre, and carried under water; and as foon as
this is done, the furface of the place where the whirl¬
pool was becomes fmootb, and they row over it with
fafety ; and in about an hour they fee the vortex be¬
gin again in fome other place, ufually at about a mile’s
diftance from the firft.
WHIRLWIND, a wind which moves in a fpiral
dire&ion, as well as horizontally, which is exceedingly
rapid and impetuous, but only of Ihort duration.
Dr Franklin’s opinion of the origin of whirlwinds
has been already given in the article WATER-Spout. If
his theory be true, it will follow, that no hurricane e-
ver can be fo violent as to remove an obftacle of the fize
of only one cubic inch, provided that was fupported by
a power equivalent to 15 pounds; for this is the utmoft
force of the atmofphere when rulhing into a perfeft va¬
cuum, which never could take place in the centre of a
whirlwind or water-fpout. Indeed, notwithftanding the
dreadful effefts fometimes obferved from hurricanes and
•whirlwinds, we Ihall eafily perceive, that the utmoft of
their power always falls very far fhort of this. The di¬
minution of the fpecific gravity of the air by only one-
fourth in the middle of the column, would produce fuch
an afflux of air from all quarters, that an obftacle pre-
fenting a furface of one foot fquare, would require a force
of 504 pounds to prevent it from being carried away ;
which the ftrongeft walls that can be built by human
art could fcarce refift. Nay, even the tenth part of
this, or the diminution of the gravity of the atmofphere
by one-fortieth part, would produce a prelfure of up¬
wards of 50 pounds on every fquare foot of furface,
which, it is to be doubted, whether any of our common
houfes could refift.
Some philofophers afcribe the vacuum in the atmo¬
fphere, to which, according to Dr Franklin’s theory,
whirlwinds are owing, to a ftream of eledlric matter
ruffling with violence into the atrriofphere out of the
earth. But they do not inform us how this matter comes
to be accumulated in that part of the earth ; what in¬
duces it to pafs out of the earth ; how it paffes invifibly
through pure air ; or what ferves it for a • conductor.
It feems to be the fafhion among certain philofophers to
afcribe every phenomenon, with the caufe of which we
are unacquainted, to elediricity. But this is merely
fubftituting a new name, and ferves rather to retard
than advance our knowledge of nature.
Some kinds of whirlwinds move with a flow motion,
and are injurious only by their vortex ; while others
feem to do mifchief as well by their progreflive as their
whirling motion. Of this kind are thofe called typhons ;
which, by their frequently following the courie of ri¬
vers, feem thus alfo to difcover their eledlrical origin.
Of the deftrudlive effedls of thefe, we have an inftance
in what happened in Charleftown in South Carolina, on
3
the ift of June 1761. It was firft obferved about noon, Whirlwind
on land, upwards of 50 miles weft by fouth of Charlef- I!
town, and deftroyed feveral houfes, See. as it pafled ,
along, in many places making wide avenues through 'r'w
the woods ; from whence every tree and fflrub was torn
up, and great branches of trees were driven about in
the column as it pafled along. It diredted its courfe
to Afliley river, dowm which it came with furprifing
velocity ; in its appearance refembling a column of
fmoke or vapour, whole motion was very irregular and
tumultuous. Its momentum was fo great, that Afflley
river was ploughed to the bottom, and the channel laid
bare. As it came down this river, it made a conftant
noife like thunder; its diameter being computed about
300 fathoms. It was met at White Point by another of
the fame kind which came down Cooper’s river, but with
inferior ftrength ; however, on their meeting together,
the agitation of the air was4much greater, while the
clouds, which were driving in all diredlions to the place,
feemed to be precipitated, and whirled round with in¬
credible velocity. It then fell upon the fflipping in the
road ; entirely deftroying fome, and damaging others;
being fcarce three minutes in its paflage, though the di-
ftance was near two leagues. In that fflort time it did
damage to the amount of 20,000!. 5 and had not its di¬
rection been altered by that guft which came down
Cooper’s river, it muft have totally deftroyed Charlef¬
town, as no obftacle whatever feemed capable of refill¬
ing its fury. ,
WHISKY, a term fignifying water, and applied in
Scotland and in Ireland to a diftilled liquor drawn from
barley.
WHISPERING-places. See Acoustics, N° 24.
WHIST, a well known game at cards, which re¬
quires great attention and filence; hence the name.
This game is played by four perfons, who cut for
partners; the two higheft and the two lowelt are toge¬
ther, and the partners fit oppofite to each other : the
perfon who cuts the loweft card is to deal firft, giving
one at a time to each perfon, till he comes to the lait
card, which is turned up for the trump, and remains
on the table till each perfon has played a card. The
perfon on the left hand fide of the dealer plays firft, and
whoever wins the trick is to play again, thus going on
till the cards are played out. The ace, king, queen, and
knave of trumps, are called honours ; in cafe any three
of thefe honours have been played between, or by either
of the two partners, they reckon for two points towards
the game ; and if the four honours have been played be¬
tween, or by either of the two partners, they reckon for
four points towards the game, the game confifting of
ten points. The honours are reckoned after the tricks;
all above fix tricks reckoning alfo towards the game.
General Rules for playing the Game of WHIST.—
I. He who is to play firft ftiould lead from the ftrongeft
fuit. If he has a fequence of king, qheen, and knave,
or queen, knave and ten, he may fafely lead the higheft
of the fequence ; but if he has five or fix in number, he
muft begin with the loweft. He muft always begin
with the higheft trump, by which he forces out the fu-
perior trumps, and can come in again, to make his ftrong
fuit.
2. He fflould never be afraid to play trumps when he
has five in his hand, even of the fmalleft, although he
may not have any good cards of any other fuit.
3. With
w h r
Whift. 3. With ace and king of any two fuits, and only two
or three fmall trumps, the aces and kings fliould be
played out, in order to make as many tricks as poflible j
and having but two or three fmall trumps, he (tumid
never force his partner to trump, if he finds he cannot
follow fuit; but endeavour to throw the lead into his
partner’s hand.
4. He (hould in general return his partner’s lead, un-
lefs he has fome capital cards of his own.
5. As this game is played with the lurch, that is, to
fave half the (take, five points mud be made before the
game is out: he (hould not venture to play trumps
when he is four of the game, unlefs he is very drong,
having at lead an honour and three trumps, or ace,
king, and two fmall ones.
6. When the game is fcored nine, at whieh dage the
honours reckon for nothing, he diould be dill more cau¬
tious how he plays trumps, even if he is itrong in hand,
and give his partner an opportunity of trumping the ad-
verfaries fuits, in cafe he is deficient in them.
7. If his adverfaries are fix or feven love of the game,
he (hould play a forward or bold game, that he may
have a chance, at the ri(k of a trick or two, to come
up with them. If he has but three trumps and other
good cards, he may play trumps, efpecially if he has a
fequence, or queen, knave, and a fmall one.
8. He (hould always ri(k a trick or two when the
game is much in his favour ; becaufe a new deal is of
greater confequence to the adverfary than one or two
points are to him.
9. When the player finds there is a likelihood of ei¬
ther faving the game or his lurch, he (hould ri(k the odd
trick $ but if the game is five all, and he can make two
tricks in his own hand, he (hould make them, in order
to fecure the difference of two points, which make the
game near two to one in his favour.
to. A good player (hould begin with a fmall trump,
when he has ace, king, and four fmall ones j for this
reafon, if his partner has a better trump than the laft
player, which is an equal wager but he has, he has a
chance ®f fetching out all the trumps, by having three
rounds of them.
11. The odds are always in his favour that his part¬
ner holds an honour ; confequently if he has king,
queen, and four fmall ones, he (liould begin with a fnaall
one.
12. When queen, knave, and four fmall trumps are
dealt him, he (hould play a fmall one firft, the odds be¬
ing in his favour that his partner holds an honour; if
he has knave, ten, and four fmall trumps, he (hould alfo
begin with a fmall one, for the fame reafon.
13. If he has knave, ten, eight, and three fmall
trumps, the knave (hould be played firft, by which
means the nine may be prevented from winning a trick,
2he odds being in his favour that three honours are play¬
ed in two rounds.
14. If an honour is turned up againft him on his left
hand, and he has ten, nine, and eight, with two or three
fmall trumps 5 when he is to play, he (hould play through
the honours with the ten, which will force the dealer to
[ 7°3 ]
W H I
play his honour to a difadvantage, if the dealer does not
choofe to leave it to the option of his adverfary whether
he will pafs it or not; but if he has fix trumps of a lower
denomination, and not ten, nine, and eight, and no ho¬
nour turned up againft him, he (hould begin with a fmall
one.
I5‘ general, when he has two capital cards in
trumps, and two or three fmall ones, he fhould begin
with a fmall one, for the reafon affigned in N° 12.
16. When he has ace, king, knave, and two fmall
trumps, or even one fmall trump, by firft playing the
king, and putting the lead into his partner’s hand, who
will play a trump ; judging him to have ace and knave,
from his beginning with the king : in this cafe the
knave (hould be fineffed (a), nothing being againft him
but the queen.
17. If he has knave, ten, eight, and two fmall trumps,
by playing the knave firft, it is odds but in two rounds
of trumps the nine falls, or he may fineffe the eight
when his partner returns trumps.
18. With five trumps of a lower denomination, he
(hould begin with the fmalleft, unlefs he has a fequence
of ten, nine, and eight; then he (hould begin with the
ten.
19. When he has king, queen, ten, and one fmall
trump, he muft begin with the king, and wait for his
partner’s return of the trumps, in order to fineffe the
ten, by which means he may win the knave.
20. In order to prevent the ten from winning, when
he has queen, knave, nine, and one fmall trump, he
muft begin with the queen. And in cafe he has knave,
ten, eight, and one fmall trump, he (hould begin with
the knave, that the nine may not win.
21. If he has ten, nine, eight, and one fmall trump,
he (hould begin with the ten $ thereby he ftrengthens
his partner’s hand, leaving it at his option to take it or
not.
22. He (hould begin with a fmall one, when he has
the ten and three fmall trumps.
23. If he has a good fuit, and ace, king, and four
fmall trumps, he muft play three rounds of trumps, in
order to fecure his ftrong fuit from being trumped.
24. When he has king, queen, ten, and three fmall
trumps, he (hould begin with the king, becaufe he has a
chance of the knave’s coming down in the fecond round j
and to fecure his ftrong fuit, he (hould not wait to fineffe
the ten. If he (hould have queen, knave, and three fmall
trumps, and fome good fuit to make, he muft begin with
a fmall one.
25. If he has knave, ten, eight, and two fmall trumps,
with a ftrong fuit, he (hould begin with the knave, in
order to make the nine fall in the fecond round *, but if
he has knave, ten, and three fmall trumps, with a good
fuit, he (hould play a fmall one firft.
26. With ten, nine, eight, and one fmall trump, pro¬
vided he has a good fuit, he (hould begin with the ten j
by which means he may get the trumps out, and have a
chance of making his ftrong fuit.
The following obfervations will enable a player to
know that his partner has no more of a fuit W'hich either
of
Whitt.
(a) Finejfey is to play a fmall card which may win, keeping the fuperior card or cards to lay over the right,
hand adverfary.
W H I
whift.
of them has played. Suppofe he leads from queen, ten,
nine, and two imall cards of any fuit, the fecond hand
puts on the knave, his partner plays the eight; in this
cafe, he having queen, ten, and nine, it is a demonftra-
tton, if his partner plays well, that he can have no more
of that fuit. By that difcovery, he may play his game
accordingly, either by forcing his partner to trump
that fuit, if he is ftrong in trumps or by playing an¬
other fuit. If he has king, queen, and ten of a fuit*
and he leads his king, his partner plays the knave ; this
alfo demonftrates he has no more of that fuit. If he has
king, queen, and many more of a fuit, and begins with
the king, in fome cafes it is good play in a partner,
when he has the ace and one fmall card in that liiit on¬
ly, to win the king with the ace $ for fuppofe the part¬
ner to be very llrong in trumps, by taking the king
with the ace, he gets the lead and trumps out, and hav¬
ing cleared the board of trumps, his partner returns his
lead j and the ace being out, there is room for him to
make that whole fuit, which could not have been dune
if the partner had kept the ace. Suppofe he has no
other good card in his hand befides that fuit, he loles
nothing by the ace’s taking his king ; and if it ihould
lb happen that he has a good card to bring in that fuit,
he gains all the tricks which he makes to that fuit by
this method of play : as his partner has taken his king
with the ace, and trumps out upon it, he has reafon to
imagine that his partner has one of that fuit to return
him; for which reafon he fhould not throw away any of
that fuit, even to keep a king or queen guarded.
Method of playing, when an honour is turned up on the
right hand.—Suppofe the knave is turned up on his right
hand, and that he hashing, queen, and ten 5 in order t6
win the knave, he mud begin with the king; by which
means, his. partner may fuppofe him to have queen and
ten remaining, efpecially if he has a fecond lead, and he
does not proceed to play the queen.
Sunpofe the knave turned up as before, and he has
ace, queen, and ten, by playing his queen, it anfwers
the purpofe of the former rule.
When the.queen is turned up on his right hand, and
he has ace, king, and knave, by playing his king, it an¬
fwers the fame purpofe of the former rule.
In cafe an honour is turned up on his left hand, fup-
pofing he Ihould hold no honour, he fhould play trumps
through the honour as foon as he gets the lead ; but if
he fhould hold an honour (except the ace), he muft be
cautious how he plays trumps, becaufe, in cafe his part¬
ner holds no honour, his adversary will play his own
game upon him.
Method of playing the fequences—The higheft in fe-
quences of trumps fhould be played, unlefs he has ace,
king, and queen 5 and then he (hould play the loweftj
which informs his partner of the flate of his game. ’
When he has king, queen, and knave, and t wo fmall
ones, which are not trumps, he fhould begin with the
knave, whether he is ftrong in trumps or not, as he
makes way for the whole fuit by getting the ace out.
If he is ftrong in trumps, and has a fequence of queen,
knave, ten, and t wo fmall cards of a fuit, he fhould play
the higheft of his feqUence ; for if either of the adverfa-
ries Ihould trump that fuit in the fecond round, being
axfo ftrong in trumps, he will make the remainder of
that fuit, by fetching out the trumps. When he has
[ 704 ]
W H I
knave, ten, and nine, and two fmall cards of a fuit, he
may play in the like manner. s
If king, queen, and knave, and one fmall card of any
fuit, is the cafe, whether ftrong in trumps or not, he
fliould play the king \ and when there are only four in
number, the fame method of play fhould be obferved by
inferior fequences.
When weak in trumps, he fhould begin by the loweft
of the fequence, provided he has five in number, becaufe
if his partner has the ace of that fuit he will make it.
It he has the ace and four fmall cards of a fuit, and
weak in trumps, leading from that fuit, he fhould play
the ace. When ftrong in trumps, the game may be
played otherwife.
Row to make a flam, or win every Jr/db—-Suppofe A
and B partners againft C and D, and C to deal, A to
har e, the king, knave, and nine, and ftven ot hearts,
whh h are trumps, a quart-major in fpades, a tierce-major
in diamonds, and the ace and king of dubs. Then fup-
pofe B to have nine fpades, two clubs, and two diamonds.
Alio fuppofe D to have ace, queen, ten, and eight of
trumps, with nine clubs, and C to have five trumps and
eight diamonds. A leads a trump, which D wins, and
£> is to play a club, which his partner C is to trump ; C
leads a trump, which his partner D wins j D then will
lead a club, which C will trump ; and C will play a
trump, which D will win ; and D having the beft trump
will play it 5 after which D having feven clubs in his
hand, makes them, fo that he Hams A and B.
How to play any hand of cards according to the nearefl
calculations of his partner's holding certain winning
cards :
!• I hat he has not one certain winning
card, is - - .
2. That he has not two certain winning
cards, is - _ .
But it is about 5 to 4 that he has one
or both, or -
3. That he has one card out of any three
certain winning cards, is about
4. That he has not three certain winning
cards is about 31 to 1-, or
5. That he has not two of them, is about
7 to 2, or
6. That he has not one of them, is about
7 to 6, or *
7. That he holds one or two of them, is
in his favour about 13 to 6, or
8. And about 5 to 2, that he holds i, 2,
or all three of them.
The ufe of thefe calculations is for a whift-player to
play his cards to the moft advantage. For inftanee,
As the firft calculation is two to one that his partner
does not hold one certain winning card.—Suppofe then
a fuit is led, of which the fecond player has the king
and a fmall one only, he fliould put on the king, be¬
caufe the odds are in his favour, that the third player
cannot win it. For the fame reafon, when he is fe¬
cond player, and to lead, he fhould play a king in pre¬
ference to a queen, becaufe it is two to one the ace does
not take it 5 but it is five to four the queen will be
taken by either ace or king, which may be in the third
hand.
Wind
2 to I
17 to i
32 to 25
5 to 2
68l to 22
S47 to I 56
378 to 325
481 to 222
According
W H I
Thift, According to the fecond calculation, of its being five
i ^ton- to four that his partner holds one certain winning card
^ out of any two : If he has two honours in any fuit, he
can play to an advantage, knowing it is five to four in
favour of his partner’s having one of the two honours j
and by the fame rule, if he is fecond player, having a
queen and one fmall card, by playing the queen he plays
five to four againlt himfelf.
It is obvious, from the third calculation, which proves
it to be five to two that his partner has one card out of
any three certain winning cards, that he who plays the
knave fecond hand, having but the knave and one fmall
card of the fame fuit, mutt play five to two againft him¬
felf, and difcovers his game to a great difadvantage ; for
which reafon, he tbould play the loweft of any fequence
which he may hold in his hand, as the knave, if he has
king, queen, and knave *, the ten, if he has queen, knave,
and ten, &c. By fo doing, his partner has an opportu¬
nity of judging what card to play in that fuit, according
to the odds for or againft him.
Hoyle's From the above calculation, if he has ace, king, and
nes m- two fmall trumps, he is entitled to win four tricks out
vedby 0£ prov}ded he has four winning cards of any fuit \
^ r ’ or five tricks out of feven, if he has five winning cards
of any fuit : by playing two rounds of trumps, and ta¬
king out eight of them, it is five to two but his partner
has a third trump ; and if it fhould be fo, he makes the
tricks intended.
WHISTON, William, an Englilh divine of great
parts, uncommon learning, and of Angular character,
was born in 1667 Norton near Twycrofle in the
county of Leicefter, where his father was redlor. He
was admitted of Clarehall, Cambridge, where he pur-
fued his ftudies, particularly in the mathematics, and
commenced tutor j which his ill health at length forced
him to decline. Having entered into orders, he became
chaplain to Dr More bifhop of Norwich in 1694 ; and
in this ftation he publifhed his firftwork, entitled A New
Theory of the Earth, &c. in which he undertook to
prove the Mofaic doftrine of the earth perfe&ly agree¬
able to reafon and philofophy. This work brought no
fmall reputation to the author. In the beginning of
the 18th century he was made Sir Ifaac Newton’s de¬
puty, and afterwards his fucceffor, in the Lucafian pro-
fefforftiip of mathematics j when he refigned a living he
had in Suffolk, and went to refide at Cambridge. About
this time he publiftied feveral fcientifical works, expla¬
natory of the Newtonian philofophy j and he had the
honour to be one of the firft, if not the very firft, who
rendered thefe principles popular and intelligible to the
generality of readers. About the year i7l0» ^ie was
known to have adopted Arian principles, and was form¬
ing proje&s to fupport and propagate them : among
other things, he had tranflated the Apoftolical Confti-
tutions into Englifh, which favoured the Arian doctrine,
and which he afferted to be genuine. The con fequence
was, that he was deprived of his profefforlhip, and ba-
nilhed the univerfity} he neverthelefs purfued hisfcheme,
by publilhing the next year his Primitive Chriftianity
Revived, 4 vols. 8vo, for which the convocation fell
upon him very vehemently. On his expulfion from
Vol. XX. Part II.
W H I
Cambridge, Mr Whifton fettled in London j where, Whiflv:,
without luffering his zeal to be intimidated, he conti- ^
nued to write, and propagate his Primitive Chriitianity, v"""
with as much ardour as if he had been in the moft tlou-
rilhing circumftances. In 1721, a lubfcription was
made for the fupport of his family, which amounted to
470I. For though he drew profits from reading aftro-
nomical and philofophical le&ures, and allb from his pub¬
lications, which were Very numerous, yet thefe of them-
felves would have been very infufticient : nor, when
joined with the benevolence and charity of thofe who
loved and efteemed him for his learning, integrity, and
piety, did they prevent his being frequently in great
diftrefs. He continued long a member of the church of
England, and regularly frequented its fervice, though he
difapproved of many things in it : but at latt he went
over to the Baptiils, and attended Dr Forfter’s meeting
at Pinner’s hall, Broadftreet. Among other performan¬
ces not fpecified above, he v'rote Memoirs of his own life
and Writings, which contain fome curious particulars.
He was remarkable for fpeakingthe plaineft truths on
every occafion, and to perfons of every degree. During
the year 1725, that he, with Dr Clarke, Dr Btikeley,
and others, had the honour to attend £>ueen Caroline
on a certain day of every week, to talk of the progrefs
of fcience, her majefty one evening took occafion to pay
him a juft compliment on his truth and integrity, re¬
queuing that he would, with his ufual plainnefs, point
out to her any fault that he might have obferved in her
conduct. At firft he begged to be excufed, adding, that
few perfons could bear to have their faults plainly told
to them, and leaft of all royal perfonages, who, from
their elevation, are neceflarily lurrounded by flatterers,
to whofe lips truth is a ftranger. Her majefty replied,
that he was to confider her not as a queen, but as a phi-
lofopher ; and that philofophy is of very little ufe, if it
cannot enable its profeffors to bear without offence
truths neceffary to their own improvement. Upon this
he told her, that the greateft fault which he had obfer¬
ved in her conduft, was her indecent behaviour in the
houfe of God, which, he affured her, had made very
unfavourable impreflions on the minds of many perfons,
who coming to town from diftant parts of the country,
had gone to the chapel to obtain a fight of her majefty,
the king, and the royal family. The queen made no
reply j but in about fix weeks afterwards renewed her
requeft, that Mr Whifton would point out the moft
glaring improprieties in her conduct. To this he an¬
swered, that he had laid down a maxim, from which he
could not deviate, never to point out to any perfon more
than one fault at a time, and never to give a fecond re¬
proof till he had obferved fome good confequence to have
arifen from the firft (a). Much to the queen’s honour,
(he was pleafed with this plain-dealing, and continued
to think favourably of Mr Whifton. This honeft, but
whimfical and credulous man, died in 1762, at the ad¬
vanced age of 95.
WHITBY, Dr Daniel, a very learned Englilh
divine, was born in 1638, and bred at Oxford j where,
in 1664, he was elefted perpetual fellow of his college.
He afterwards became chaplain to Dr Seth Ward, bi-
4 U (hop
t 7°5 1
(a) Biffiop Berkeley was prefent at thefe converfations, and from hisfon we received the account we have given
of them. They are likewife mentioned, but not ftated fo accurately, by Bilhop Newton in his own Life.
4
Wiiitby
.11 ^
Whitefield.
W H I [ 705
fhop of Salifbary ; who collated him in 1668 to the pre¬
bend of Yatefhury in thatchurch, and foon after to that
of Hufborn and Burbach. ' In 1672 he was admitted
chanter of the faid church, on the death of Mr John
South, and then, or foon after, reftor of St Edmund’s
church in Salifbury. He was made a prebendary of
Taunton Regis in 1696, and died in 1726. He was
ever flrangely ignorant of worldly affairs, even to a de¬
gree that is fcarcely to be conceived. His writings are
numerous, and well known •, particularly his Commen¬
tary on the New Teftament.
Whitby, a fea-port town in the north riding of
Yorkftiire, feated on the river Elk, near the place where
it falls into the fea. The houfes are neat, ftrong, and
convenient ; the number of inhabitants about 9000.
Ship-building is their principal employment. W. Long,
o. 24. N. Lat. 54. 30.
WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies.
WHITE of the Eye, denotes the firft tunic or coat of
the eye, called albuginea. See Anatomy, N° 142.
White of~Egg See Albumen and Egg.
WHITE Friars, a name common to feveral orders of
monks, from being clothed in a white habit.
WHITE Sea, is a bay of the Frozen ocean, fo called in
the north part of Mufcovy, lying between Ruffian Lap-
land and Samoieda •, at the bottom of which Hands the
city of Archangel. This was the chief port the Ruffi¬
ans had before their conqueft of Livonia.
White Colour, white lead for painting. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1856.
White Iron, or Tin-plate, iron-plates covered over
with tin; for the method of making which,fee LaTTEN,
Chemistry, N° 1956.
In 1681 tin-plates were manufa&ured in England
by one Andrew Yarranton, who had been fent to Bo¬
hemia to learn the method of making them. But
the manufacture was foon afterwards difeontinued. It
was revived in 1740, and has now arrived at as great,
if not greater, perfection in this country than in any
other.
White Lead. See Chemistry, N° 1856.
White-Throat. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
WHITEFIELD, George, the celebrated preacher
among the people called Methodifs, wras born in the
year 1714, at the Bell in the city of Gloucefter, which
was then kept by his mother. At about 12 years of
age he was put to a grammar-fehool ; but his mother
entering into a fecond marriage, which proved a difad-
vantageous one, he, when about 15, put on a blue apron,
and ferved her in the capacity of a drawer or waiter.
After continuing about a year in this fervile employ¬
ment, (he turned over the bufinefs to his brother ; who
marrying, and George not agreeing with his fffier-in¬
law, he left the inn. Some time after, meeting with an
old fchool-fellow, then a fervitor in Pembroke college,
Oxford, he was induced to attempt getting into the
fame college in a like capacity, and fucceeded. Here
Mr Whitefield, who from his own account appears to
have always had a ftrong tinClure of enthufiafm in his
conftitution from his very childhood, diftinguiftied him-
felf by the aufterity of his devotion, and acquired con-
iiderable eminence in fome religious affemblies in that
city. At the a^e of 21, the fame of his piety recom¬
mended him fo effectually to Dr Benfon, then bifliop of
] W H I
Gloucefter, that he made him a voluntary offer of ordi- Whitefel
nation. Immediately after this regular admiffion into
the miniftry, Mr Whitefield applied himfelf to the moil
extraordinary, the moft indefatigable, duties of his cha¬
racter, preaching daily in prifons, fields, and open ftreets,
wherever he thought there would be a likelihood of
making profelytes. Having at length made himfelf
univerfally known in England, he embarked for Ame¬
rica, where the tenets of Methodifm began to fpread
very fait under his friends the Wefleys; and firft deter¬
mined upon the inftitution of the orphan-houfe at Geor¬
gia, which be afterwards effeCted. After along courfe
of peregrination, his fortune increafed as his fame ex¬
tended among his followers, and he ereCted two very
extenfive buildings for public worftiip, under the name
of Tabernacles; one in Tottenham-Court Road, and the
other in Moorfields. Here, with the help of fome
affiftants, he continued for feveral years, attended by
very crowded congregations, and quitting the kingdom
only occafionally. Befides the tu’o tabernacles already
mentioned, Mr Whitefield, by being chaplain to the
countefs dowager of Huntingdon, was connected with
two other religious meetings, one at Bath, and the other
at Tunbridge, chiefly ereCted under that lady’s patron¬
age. By a lively, fertile, and penetrating genius, by the
moft unwearied zeal, and by a forcible and perfuafive de¬
livery, he never failed of the defired effeCt upon his ever
crowded and admiring audiences. In America, however,
which always engaged much of his attention, he was
deftined to finifli his courfe ; and he died at Newberry,
about 40 miles from Bofton in New England, in 1770.
WHITEHAVEN, a fea-port town of Cumberland,
with a market on Tuefday, and one fair on Auguft ift
for merchandife and toys. It is feated on a creek of the
Iriffi fea, on the north end of a great hill, walked by
the tide of flood on the wreft fide, w'here there is a large
rock or quarry of hard white ftone, which gives name to
the place, and which, with the help of a ftrong ftone-
wall, fecures the harbour, into which fmall barks may
enter. It is lately much improved in its buildings, and
noted for its trade in pit-coal and fait, there being near
it a valuable coal-mine, which runs a confiderable
way under the fea. They have a cuftom-houfe here;
and they carry on a good trade to Ireland, Scotland,
Chefter, Briftol, and other parts. It is 10 miles fouth-
weft of Cockermouth, and 305 north-weft of London.
W. Long. 2. gy. N. Lat. 55. 30.
WHITENESS, the quality which denominates or
conftitutes a body white.
WHITES, or Fluor Albus. See Medicine, N®
250.
WHITING. See Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
WHITLOW, or Whitloe. See Surgery Index.
WHITSUN-FaRTHINGS, otherwife called Smoke-
far things or ^uadrantes Pentecofales, a compofition for
offerings which were anciently made in Whitfun-week
by every man in England, who occupied a houfe with a
chimney, to the cathedral church of the diocefe in which
he lived.
WHITSUNDAY, afolemn feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the fiftieth day after Eafter, in me¬
mory of the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the apoftles
in the vifible appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of
thofe miraculous powers which were then conferred upon
them.
It
WHY [ 707 ] WHY
f itful)- It is called Whitfunday, or White Sunday ; becaufe
lay this being one of the dated times for baptifm in the an-
j ” cient church, thofe who were baptifed put on white gar-
t / ments, as types of that fpiritual purity they received in
baptifm. As the defcent of the Holy Ghoit upon the
apoftles happened upon the day which the Jews called
Penlecoji, this feftival retained the name of Pentecq/l
among the Chriilians.
WH1TSUNDAT IJle, one of the New Hebrides, which
lies about four miles to the fouth, runs in the fame direc¬
tion, and is of the fame length, having more Hoping ex-
pofures than Aurora : it appears to be better inhabited,
and to contain more plantations.
WHORTLEBERRY. See Vaccinium, Botany
Index.
WHYTT, Dr Robert, an eminent phyfieian, born
at Edinbifrgh on the 6th September 1714, was the fon
of Robert Whytt, Efq. of Bennochy, advocate. This
gentleman died fix months before the birth of our au¬
thor, who had alfo the misfortune to be deprived of his
mother before he had attained the feventh year of his
age. After receiving the firft rudiments of fchool-edu-
cation, he was fent to the univerfity of St Andrew’s ^
and after the ufual courfe of inftrudtion there, in claffi-
cal, philofophical, and mathematical learning, he came
to Edinburgh, where he entered upon the lludy of me¬
dicine, under thofe eminent medical teachers, Monro,
Rutherford, Sinclair, Plummer, Alllon, and Innes. Af¬
ter learning what w7as to be acquired at this univerfity,
in the profecution of his ftudies he vifited foreign coun¬
tries ; and after attending the mod eminent teachers
at London, Paris, and Leyden, he had the degree of
Do&or of Phyfic conferred upon him by the univerfity
of Rheims in 1736, being then in the 22d year of his
age.
Upon his return to his native country, he had the fame
honour alfo conferred upon him by the univerfity of St
Andrew’s j where he had before obtained, with applaufe,
the degree of Mader of Arts.
Not long afterwards, in the year 1737, he was ad¬
mitted a Licentiate of Medicine by the Royal College
of Phyficians of Edinburgh ; and the year following he
was raifed to the rank of a Fellow of the College. From
the time of his admidion as a licentiate, he entered upon
the pradlice of phyfic at Edinburgh ; and the reputation
which he acquired for medical learning, pointed him
out as a fit fuccelfor for the fird vacant chair in the
univerfity. Accordingly, when Dr Sinclair, whofe
eminent medical abilities, and perfuafive powers of ora¬
tory, had contributed not a little to the rapid advance¬
ment of the medical fchool of Edinburgh, found that
thofe confpicuous talents which he polfefied could no
longer be exerted in the manner which they once had
been, when he enjoyed bodily vigour unimpaired by
age and powers of mind unclouded by difeafe, he re-
figned his academical appointments in favour of Dr
Whytt.
This admidion into the college took place on the
20th of June 1746 and he began his fird courfe of the
inditutions of medicine at the commencement of the
next winter-fedion. The abilities which he difplayed
from his academical chair, in no particular difappointed
the expectations which had been formed of his leCtures.
The Latin tongue was the language of the univerfity of
Edinburgh j and he both fpoke and wrote in Latin
with lingular propriety, elegance, and perfpicuity. At
that time the fydem and fentiments of Dr Boerhaave,
which, notwithdanding their errors, mud challenge the
admiration of lated ages, were very generally received
by the mod intelligent phyficians in Britain. Dr Whytt
bad no fuch idle ardour for novelties as to throw them
entirely afide becaufe he could not follow them in every
particular. The inditutions of Dr Boerhaave, there¬
fore, furnidred him with a text for his leCtures; and he
was no lets fuccefsful in explaining, illudrating, and
edablifliing the fentimenls of the author, when he could
freely adopt them, than in refuting them by clear, con¬
nected, and decifive arguments, when he had oeeafion
to differ from him. The opinions which he himfelf pro-
pofed, were delivered and enforced with fuch acutenefs
of invention, fuch difplay of fadls and force of argument^
as could rarely fail to gain univerfal affent from his nu¬
merous auditors •, but free from that felf-fufficiency
which is ever the offspring of ignorance and conceit, he
delivered his conclufions with becoming modedy and
diffidence.
From the time that he fird entered upon an academi¬
cal appointment, till the year 1756, his prelections were
confined to the inditutions of medicine alone. But at
that period bis learned colleague Dr Rutherford, who
then filled the pradtical chair, who had already taught
medicine at Edinburgh with univerfal applaufe for more
than thirty years, and who had been the fird to begin
the inditution of clinical ledtures at the Royal Infirmary,
found it neceffary to retire from the fatiguing duties of
an office to which the progrefs of age rendered him un ¬
equal. On this crifis Dr Whytt, Dr Monro, fen. and
Dr Cullen, each agreed to take a diare in an appoint¬
ment in which their united exertions promifed the highed
advantages to the univerfity. By this arrangement du-
dents, who had an opportunity of daily witneffing the
pradtice of three fuch teachers, and of hearing the
grounds of that pradtice explained, could not fail to de¬
rive the mod folid advantages.
In tbefe two departments, the inditutions of medicine
in the univerfity, and the clinical ledtures in the Royal
Infirmary, Dr Whytt’s academical labours were attend¬
ed with the mod beneficial confequences both to the du-
dents and to the univerfity. Bitt not long after the
period we have lad mentioned^ his ledtures on the for¬
mer of thefe fubjedts underwent a confiderable change.
About this time the illudrious Gaubius, who had fuc-
ceeded to the chair of Boerhaave, favoured the world
with his Injlitutiones Pathologies. This branch of medi¬
cine had indeed a place in the text which Dr Whytt
formerly followed ; but, without detradting from the
charadter of Dr Boerhaave, it may juftly be faid, that
the attention he bad bedowed upon it was not equal to
its importance. Dr Whytt was lenfible of the improved
date in which pathology now appeared in the writings
of Boerhaave’s fucceffor j and he made no delay in
availing himfelf of the advantages which were then af¬
forded.
In the year 1762, his pathological ledtures were en¬
tirely new-modelled. Following the publication of
Gaubius as a text, he delivered a comment, which was
read by every intelligent dudent with the mod unfeign¬
ed fatisfadtion. In thefe ledtures he colledted and con-
denfed the fruits of accurate obfervation and long experi¬
ence. Enriched by all the opportunities of information
4 U 2 which
WbytR.
WHY [ 708 ] W I C
Whytt. which he had enjoyed, and by all the difcernment which
v he was capable of exerting, they were juftly confidered
as his moll finilhed produftion.
For a period of more than twenty years, during which
he was juftly held in the higheft efteem as a ledfurer at
Edinburgh, it may readily be fuppofed that the extent
of his pradftice correfponded to his reputation. In fa6f,
he received both the firft emoluments, and the higheft
honours, which could here be obtained. With exten-
ftve praftice in Edinburgh, he had numerous confulta-
tions from other places. His opinion on medical fub-
jefts was daily requefted by his moft eminent contem¬
poraries in every part of Britain. Foreigners of fhe firft
diftin&ion, and celebrated phyficians in the moft remote
parts of the Britilh empire, courted an intercourfe with
him by letter. Befides private ^eftimonies of efteem,
many public marks of honour were conferred upon him
both at home and abroad. In 17^2, he was elefled a
fellow of the Royal Society of London j in 1761, he
was appointed firft phyfician to the king of Scotland 5
and in 1764, he was chofen prefident of the Royal Col¬
lege of Phyficians at Edinburgh.
But the fame which Dr Whytt acquired as a practi¬
tioner and teacher of medicine, were not a little increafed
by the information which he communicated to the medi¬
cal world in different publications. His celebrity as an
author was ftill more extenfive than his reputation as a
profeffor. ,
Flis firft publication, An Effay on the Vital and
other Involuntary Motions of Animals, although it had
» been begun foon after he had finiftied his academical
courfe of medical education, did not come from the
prefs till 1751 j a period of fifteen years from the
time that he had finilhed his academical courfe, and
obtained a degree in medicine : but the delay of this
publication was fully compenfated by the matter which
it contained, and the improved form under which it
appeared.
The next fubjeCt which employed the pen of Dr
Whytt was one of a nature more immediately praCH-
cal. His Effay on the Virtues of Lime-water and
Soap in the Cure of the Stone, firft made its appear¬
ance in a feparate volume in 1752. Part of this fecond
work had appeared feveral years before in the Edinburgh
Medical Effays: but it was now prefented to the world
as a diftinCl publication with many improvements and
additions.
His third work, intitled Phyfiological Effays, was
firft publilhed in the year 1755. This treatife confifted
of two parts; ill, An Inquiry into the Caufes which
promote the Circulation of the Fluids in the very fmall
Veffels of Animals; and 2dly, Obfervations on the Sen-
fibility and Irritability of the Parts of Men and other
Animals, occafioned by Dr Haller’s treatife on that fub-
je£L The former of thefe may be confidered as an ex-
tenfion and farther illuftration of the fentiments which
he had already delivered in his Effay on the Vital Mo¬
tions, while the latter was on a fubjeft of a controverfial
nature. In both he difplayed that acutenefs of genius
and ftrength of judgment which appeared in his former
writings.
From the time at which his Phyfiological Effays were
publiftied, feveral years were probably employed by our
author in preparing for the prefs a larger and perhaps a
more important work than any yet mentioned, his Ob-
JL
fervations on the Nature, Caufes, and Cure of thofe Dif- Whytt
orders which are commonly called nervous, hypochon- ||
driac, and hysteric. This elaborate and ufeful work was Wicke,
publiftied in the year 1764.
The laft of Dr Whytt’s writings is intitled, Obferva¬
tions on the Dropfy in the Brain. This treatife did not
appear till two years after his death ; when all his other
works were colle&ed and publiftied in one quarto vo¬
lume, under the direftion of his fon and of his intimate
friend the late Sir John Pringle.
Befides thefe five works, he wrote many other papers,
which appeared in different periodical publications ; par¬
ticularly in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, the Medical
Effays, the Medical Obfervations, and the Phyfical and
Literary Effays.
At an early period of life, foon after he had fettled as
a medical praftitioner in Edinburgh, he entered into the
married ftate. His firft wife was Mifs Robertfon, fitter
to General Robertfon, governor of New York. By her *
he had two children ; both of whom died in early infan¬
cy, and their mother did not long furvive them. A few
years after the death of his firft wife, he married as a
fecond wife Mifs Balfour, fifter to James Balfour, Efq.
of Pilrig. By her he had fourteen children; but in
thefe alfo he was in fome refpefts unfortunate; for fix
of them only furvived him, three fons and three daugh¬
ters, and of the former two are fince dead. Although
the feeling heart of Dr Whytt, amidft the diftreffes of
his family, muft have often fuffered that uneafinefs and
anxiety which in fuch circumftances is the unavoidable
confequence of parental affe&ion and conjugal love ; yet
he enjoyed a large lhare of matrimonial felicity. But
his courfe of happinefs was terminated by the death of
his wife, which happened in the year 1764 : and it is
not improbable that this event had fome lhare inhaften-
ing his own death ; for in the beginning of the year
1765 his health was fo far impaired, that he became
incapable of his former exertions. A tedious complica¬
tion of chronical ailments, which chiefly appeared under
the form of diabetes, was not to be refilled by all the
medical flcill which Edinburgh could afford ; and at
length terminated in death, on the 15th of April 1766,
in the 52ft year of his age.
WIBURGH, a confiderable town of Denmark, in
North Jutland, with a biftiop’s fee, remarkable for being
the feat of the chief court of juftice in the province.
The hall where the council affembles has the archives of
the country, and efcaped the terrible fire that happened
in the year 1726, and which burned the cathedral-
church, that of the Black Friars, the town-houfe, and
the bilhop’s palace ; but they have all been rebuilt more
magnificent than before. It is feated on the lake Weter,
in a peninfula, 25 miles north-weft of Slefwick, and 110
north-by-weft of Copenhagen. E. Long. 9, 50. N. Lat.
56. 20.
WICK, a royal borough on the eaft coaft of the
county of Caithnefs. It is fmall, and the ftreets narrow,
but a few of its buildings are an ornament to the place.
The prefent harbour is very inconvenient, but it is pro-
pofed to ereft a new one, which will be of great im¬
portance to the fafety of navigation along that coaft.
The population of the whole parifh in 1793 amounted
to 5000.
WICKER, fignifies made of fmall twigs.
WICKET, a fmall door in the gate of a fortified
place.
Wicket,
Vickliff-
w r c
place, &c. or a hole in a door through which to view
what pafies without.
WICKLIFF, John, the firfl divine in Europe who
had refolution to attempt a reformation of religion, was
born about the year 1324, in theparilhof WyclifF, near
Richmond, in Yorklhire. He was educated at Oxford,
firft in Queen’s and afterwards in Merton college, of
which he was a probationer-fellow. Having acquired
the reputation of a man of great learning and abilities,
in 1361 he was cbofen mailer of Baliol-hall, and in
1365 conftituted warden of Canterbury college, by the
founder Archbilhop Simon de Iflip ; but in 1367, he was
eje£ted by the regulars, together with three fecular fel¬
lows. He thought their proceedings arbitrary, and
therefore appealed to the pope j but inftead of obtain¬
ing redrefs, the ejedlment was confirmed in 1370. This
disappointment probably contributed fomewhat towards
his enmity to the fee of Rome, or rather to confirm that
enmity j for he had long before written againft the
pope’s exa6lions and corruptions of religion. However,
his credit in the univerfity continued y for having taken
the degree of do£lor in divinity, he read public lettures
with great applaufe y in which he frequently expofed
the impofitions of the Mendicant friars. About this
time he publilhed a defence of his fovereign Edward III.
againft the pope, who had infifted on the homage to
which his predeceflbr King John had agreed. This de¬
fence was the caufe of Wickliff’s introduction at court,
and of his being fent one of the ambafladors in 1374 to
Bruges, where they met the pope’s nuncios, in order to
fettle feveral ecclefiaftical matters relative to the pope’s
authority. In the mean time Wickliff Avas prefented by
the king to the reftory of Lutterworth in Leicefterlhire,
and in 1375 he obtained a prebend in the church of
Weftbury in Gloucefterlhire. Wickliff continued hither,
to, Avithout moleftation, to oppofe the papal authority •,
but in 1377 a bull was fent over to the archbilhop of
Canterbury, and to Courtney bilhop of London, order¬
ing them to fecure this arch-heretic, and lay him in
irons •, at the fame time the pope Avrote to the king, re¬
queuing him to favour the bilhops in the profecution y
he alfo fent a bull to Oxford, commanding the univer¬
fity to give him up. Before thefe bulls reached Eng¬
land Edward III. was dead; and Wickliff, protefted by
John duke of Lancafter, uncle to Richard II. favoured
by the queen-mother, and fupported by the citizens of
London, eluded the perfecution of Pope Gregory IX.
who died in 1378* lo following year this intrepid
reformer prefented to parliament a fevere paper againft
the tyranny of Rome, AA'rote againft the papal fupremacy
and infallibility, and publilhed a book On the Truth of
the Scriptures, intended to prepare the Avray for an Eng-
liih tranllation of them, in which he had made confider-
able progrefs. In 1381 he publilhed Sixteen Conc/ufons ;
in the firft of which he ventured toexpofe the grand ar¬
ticle of tranfubftantiation. Thefe conclufions being con¬
demned by the chancellor of Oxford, Wicklift appealed
to the king and parliament ; but being deferted by his
untleady patrfcn the duke of Lancafter, he was obliged
to make a confeflkm at Oxford ; and by an order from
the king was expelled the univerfity. He now retired
to his living of Lutterworth, Avhere he finilhed his tranf-
lation of the bible. This verfion, of Avhich there are
feveral manufcript copies in the libraries of the univer-
fities;, Britilh Mufeum, &.c. is a very literal tranilation
W I G
from the Latin vulgate. In 1383 he was fuddenly Wickliff
ftruck Avith a palfy ; a repetition of Avhich put an end J|
to his life in December 1384. He Avas buried in his 1 * .
own church, where his bones were fuffered to reft in
peace till the year 1428, when, by an order from the
pope, they Avere taken up and burnt.—Befides a num¬
ber of Avorks that have been printed, he left a prodigi¬
ous number of manufcripts; an accurate lift of which
may be feen in Bilhop Tanner’s Bib. Brit. Hib. Some
of them are in the Bodleian Library, others in the Bri¬
tilh Mufeum, &c.
Wickliff was doubtlefs a very extraordinary man, con-
fidering the times in Avhich he lived. His natural faga-
city difcovered the abfurdities and impofitions of the
church of Rome, and he had the honefty and refolution
to promulgate his opinions, which a little more fup-
port Avould probably have enabled him to eftablilh :
they Avere evidently the foundation of the fubfequent
reformation.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter ; bounded on the north by the county of
Dublin ; on the eaft by the Irilh fea ; on the fouth by
Wexford ; and on the weft by Kildare and Cather-
lough. It is 33 miles in length, 20 in breadth, and in¬
differently fruitful. It contains 54 parilhes, and former¬
ly fent 10 members to the Iriih parliament.
Wickloav, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Ireland ; feated on the fea-fide, Avith a narrow har¬
bour, at the mouth of the river Leitrim, over which
ftands a rock, inftead of a caftle, furrounded by a ftrong
wall, 24 miles fouth of Dublin. W. Long. 6. 7. N. Lat.
52- 55-
WIDGEON. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
WIDOW, a woman Avho has loft her hufband.
WIFE, a married Avoman, or one joined Avith, and
under the protection of, an hulband. See Husband.
* Isle OF WIGHT', an ifland lying on the fouth coaft
of Hamplhire, from which it is feparated by a narrow
channel. It is about 21 miles in length and 13 in
breadth. It is nearly divided into equal parts by the
river Mede or CoAves, Avhich rifing in the fouthern
angle, enters at the northern, into the channel, oppofite
the mouth of Southampton bay. The fouth-coaft is
edged with very fteep cliffs of chalk and freeftone, hol-
loAved into caverns in various parts. I he Aveft fide is
fenced Avith ridges of rocks, of which the, moft remark¬
able are thofe called, from their (harp extremities, the
Need/es. BetAveen the ifland and the main are various
fand-banks, efpecially off the eaftern part, where is the
fafe road of St Helen’s. Acrofs the ifland, from eaft to
weft, runs a ridge of hills, forming a traCl of fine doAvns,
Avith a chalky or marly foil, Avhich feed a great number
of fine-fleeced ftieep. Rabbits are alfo very plentiful
here. To the north of this ridge the land is chiefly
pafture : to the fouth of it is a rich arable country, pro¬
ducing great crops of corn. The variety of profpeCls
Avhich this ifland affords, its mild air, and the neat man¬
ner in which the fields are laid out, render it a very de¬
lightful fpot. It is devoted almoft folely to hufban-
dry, and has no manufactory. It is one of the princi¬
pal refources of the London market for unmalted barley.
Among its produCts are to be reckoned a pure Avhite
pipe-clay, and a fine white cryftalline fand ; of the lat¬
ter of Avhich great quantities are exported for the ufe of
the glafs Avorks in various parts. Its principal town i&
t 7°9 1
W I L
Wight
r 7
* Statiji.
MJl. vol.
the borough of Newport j it likewife contains the two
finall boroughs of Newton and Yarmouth.
WIGTON, a royal borough, and capital of that
diftrift of Galloway to which it gives name. It is of
confiderable antiquity, and few of its houfes have been
lately erected. It is fuppofed to have been a place of
fome confequence in the ninth century, and that it
was made a royal borough in the reign of Robert
Bruce. It is governed by a provoft, two bailies, and
12 counfellors \ is extremely healthy, and furniflies
many inftances of longevity. In 1755, the population
amounted to 1032, and the whole parilh in 1793 was
I35°-
VVIGTONSHIRE, fometimes denominated Upper or
Wejl Galloway, is about 30 miles long, and 12 broad.
It is bounded on the fouth-eaft by the bay of Wigton,
by which it is feparated from Kirkcudbright j on the
fouth and weft by the ocean ; on the north by Ayr-
fhire j and on the eaft by Kirkcudbright. The coaft
is tolerably fertile, but improvements in agriculture are
ftill in their infancy. The interior and northern parts
are hilly and barren, fit only for ftieep and black cattle.
It contains three royal boroughs, viz. Wigton, Stran¬
raer, and Whithorn, with a number of feats belonging
to noblemen and gentlemen. It is divided into 17
parifties ; and, according to a cenfus taken fince the
paflxng of the population a£t in i8di, the population
amounted to 22,918, being an increafe of 6452 fince
the return to Dr Webfter in 1755. The valued rent
is 67,6461. Scots, while the real rent is computed at
53,890!. Sterling.
The following is the population according to the pa¬
rifties at two different periods * :
Partjhes.
G1 after ton
Inch
Kirkcolm
Kirkinner
5 Kirkmaiden
- Kirkowan
Lefwalt
Luce, New
Luce, Old
10 Mochrum
Penninghame
Port Patrick
Sorbie
Stranraer
Stoneykirk
Whithorn
17 Wigton
*5
Population
in !755-
809
*513
765
792
loci
795
652
459
*509
828
*509
611
968
610
“5i
1412
1032
Population in
1750—1798.
900
I45°
945
II C2
138°
690
H94
400
1200
I40O
2000
996
1069
1602
1365
1890
I35°
Total, 16,466
20,983
16,466
Increafe, 4,517
WILD-fire. See Wild-FlRE.
WILDERNESS, in Gardening, a kind of grove of
large trees, in a fpacious garden, in which the walks are
commonly made either to interfeft each other in angles
or have the appearance of meanders and labyrinths.
10 1 .W I L
Wilderneffes (fays Mr Miller) ftiould always be pro- WiMefs
portioned to the extent of the gardens in which they are Ilels-
made ; for it is very ridiculous to fee a large wildenjefs
planted with tall trees in a fmall fpot of ground j and,
on the other hand, nothing can be more abfurd than to
fee little paltry fquares, or quarters of wildernefs-work,
in a magnificent large garden. As to the fituation of
wilderneffes, they ftiould never be placed too near the
habitation, nor fo as to obftruft any diftant profpeft of
the country, there being nothing fo agreeable as an un¬
confined profpeft .' but where, from the fituation of the
place, the light is confined within the limits of the gar¬
den, nothing can fo agreeably terminate the profpett as
a beautiful fcene of the various kinds of trees judicioufly
planted j and if it is fo contrived that the termination is
planted circularly, with the concave towards the fight,
it will have a much better effeft than if it end in
ftraight lines or angles. The plants fliould always be
adapted to the fize of the plantation ; for it is very ab¬
furd for tall trees to be planted in the fmall fquares of a
little garden ; and in large defigns fmall Ihrubs will have
a mean appearance. It fhould alfo be obfervtd never to
plant evergreens amongft deciduous trees ; but always to
place the evergreens in a wildernefs in afeparate part by
themfelves, and that chiefly in fight.
As to the walks, thofe that have the appearance of
meanders, where the eye cannot difcover more than
twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally prefer¬
able to all others, and thefe fhould now and then lead
into an open circular piece of grafs; in the centre of
which may be placed either an obelilk, ftatue, or foun¬
tain ^ and if in the middle of the wildernefs there be
contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may
be ereded a dome or banqueting houfe, furrounded with
r. green plot of grafs, it will be a confiderable addition
to the beauty of the whole. From the fides of the
walks and openings, the trees Ihould rife gradually one
above another to the middle of the quarters; where
ftiould always be planted the largeft growing trees, fo
that the heads of all the trees may appear to view, while
their Items will be hid from the fight. Thus, in thofe
parts which are planted with deciduous trees, rofes,
honeyfuckles, fpirtea frutex, and other kinds of low
flowering flirubs, may be planted next the walks and
openings; and at their feet, near the fides of the walks,
may be planted primrofes, violets, daffodils, &c. not in a
ftraight line, but fo as to appear accidental, as in a na¬
tural wood. Behind the firft row of ftirubs ftiould be
planted fyringas, althaea frutex, mezereons, and other
flowering ftirubs of a middle growth ; and thefe may be
backed with many other fort* of trees rifing gradually
to the middle of the quarters.
The part planted with evergreens may be difpofed
in the following manner, viz. in the firft line next the
great walks may be placed the lauruftinus, boxes,
fpurge laurel, juniper, favin, and other dwarf ever¬
greens. Behind thefe may be placed laurels, hollies,
arbutufes, and other evergreens of a larger growth.
Next to thefe may be planted alaternufes, phyllireas,
yews, cypreffes, Virginian cedars, and other trees of
the fame growth ; behind thefe may be planted Nor-
way and filver firs, the true pine, and other forts of the
fir growth ; and in the middle ftiould be planted Scotch
pines, pinafter, and other forts of the- larger growing
evergreens j
W I L - [ 7
WiUer- evergreens j which will afford a moft delightful profpeft
, iiefs, if the different (hades of the greens are curioufly inter-
But befide the grand walks and openings (which
(hould always be laid with turf, and kept well mowed),
there (hould be fome fmaller Terpentine walks through
the middle of the quarters, where perfons may re¬
tire for privacy 5 and by the Tides of thefe private
walks may alfo be fcattered fome wood-flowers and
plants', which, if artfully planted, will have a very
good effeft.
In the general defign of thefe wilderneffes, there {hould
not be a (tudied and (tiff correfpondency between the
feveral parts 5 for the greater diverfity there is in the
diftribution of them, the more pleafure they will af¬
ford.
WILKIE, William, D. D. author of a heroic
poem called the Epigoniad, was born in the parifli of
Dalmeny in Weft Lothian in Scotland, in October
1721. His father was a fmall farmer, and was not
very fortunate in his Avorldly affairs. He gave his fon,
however, a liberal education, the early part of w'hich
he received at the parifti fchool of Dalmeny, and at the
age of 13 he was fent to the univerfity of Edinburgh,
where he was foon diftinguifhed as a young man of ge¬
nius. Among his fellow-ftudents were Dr Robertfon
the hiftorian, Mr Home the poet, and fome other emi¬
nent literary characters. He became acquainted alfo,
in the courfe of his education, with David Hume and
Dr Adam Fergufon.
Before he completed his ftudies at the univerfity, his
father died, leaving him only the (lock and unexpired
leafe of his farm, with the care *>f three lifters, one of
whom being afterwards married to an experienced farm¬
er, Wilkie availed himfelf of his practical knowledge.
He formed a fyftem of farming which fully anfwered his
own expectations, and fecured to him the approbation of
all his neighbours. After becoming a preacher in the
church of Scotland, he (till continued his former mode
of living, cultivating his farm, reading the daffies, and
occafionally preaching for the minifters in the neigh¬
bourhood. In 1753, he was prefented to the church of
Ratho by the earl of Lauderdale, who was fenfible of
his worth, and admired his genius. The duties of his
new office he difeharged with fidelity, and was celebra¬
ted for his impreflive mode of preaching, while he did
not negleCt the amufements of hufbandry, and the ftudy
of the belles lettres. He publilhed his Epigoniad in
the year 1757, the refult of fourteen years ftudy, and a
fecond edition of it was called for in 1759’ *n which
year he was chofen profeffor of natural philolophy in the
univerfity of St Andrews. His whole fortune, when
he removed to this place, did not exceed 200I. which
he laid out in the purchafe of a few acres of land in the
vicinity of the city. He lived in the univerfity in the
fame ftudious and retired manner as he had done at
Ratho. In the year 1768, he publilhed a volume of
fables of no great celebrity, prior to which the univerfity
conferred on him the degree of D. D. He died, after
"a lingering illnefs, on the 10th of OCtober I772-
The manners of Dr Wilkie were in many refpe&s
very Angular, and in fome quite difgufting. for the
purpofe of promoting perfpiration, and thus removing
an aguilh complaint, with which he had been feized du¬
ring his refidence at Ratho, he generally dept in winter
5
II ] W I L
under no fewer than 24 blankets. His averfion to clean Wilkie
linen is altogether unaccountable. It is faid that when j!
' he dept from home, he not only ftipulated for the pro- , 1
per quantity of blankets, but requefted to be indulged
with (heets which had been previoufly ufed by fome
other perfon. It is fcarcely neceffary to add, that his
drefs was flovenly in the extreme. It is fomewhat re¬
markable, that Dr Wilkie never could read aloud the
fmootheft verfe in fuel* a manner as to prelerve either
the meafure or the fenfe, although his own compofitions
in verfe are greatly diftinguiflied by their fmoothnefs
and elegance.
It is (aid that Dr Wilkie, from having ftudied Ho¬
mer with great attention, was led to project an epic
poem on the model of that ancient poet. The fubjeft
of it is drawn from the fourth book of the Iliad, where
Sthenelus gives Agamemnon a (hort account of the
facking of Thebes j and as that city was taken by the
fons of thofe who had fallen before it, our author gave
to his poem the title of Epigoniad, from the Greek
word ixiycvDi, fignifying defeendants. This title, it is
fuppofed, is not very appropriate, and is not altogether
free from quaintnefs. The fubjett of the poem has not
been fele&ed with much judgment j for the learned
reader will prefer ftudying the manners and aftions of
ancient heroes in the fublime deferiptions of Homer and
Virgil, and others will be little interefted in feenes and
charafters fo different from thofe with which they are
familiar, and fo far removed from their own times.
Accordingly, the Epigoniad, with all its merit as an
epic poem (and it is not deftitute of many of the effen-
tial requifites of that fpecies of poetical compofition), is
now little known.
WILKINS, Dr John, a moft ingenious and learned
Englilh biftiop, was the fon of a goldfmith of Oxford,
and was born in 1614. He adhered to the parliament
during the civil wars, by whom he was made warden of
Wadham college in 1648 : he married afterwards the
fifter of Oliver Cromwell, and procured a difpenfation to
retain his wardenftiip notwithftanding. Richard Crom¬
well made him mafter of Trinity college, Cambridge,
from which he was ejedied on the Reftoration. He
then became preacher to Gray VInn, reftor of St Lau¬
rence Jewry, London, dean of Rippon, and in 1688
was promoted to the biihopric of Chefter. He died in
1672. Biftiop Wilkins thought it prudent to fubmit to
the powers in being ; he therefore fubferibed to the fo-
lemn league and covenant while it was enforced, and
was equally ready to fwear allegiance to King Charles
when he was reftored : this, with his moderate fpirk
toward diffenters, rendered him not very agreeable to
churchmen. His mathematical and philofophical works,
which contain many ingenious and curious pieces, con-
fidering the time when they were written, have been
colledfted in one vol. 8vo. He publiftied alfo fome theo¬
logical trails. He was the firft prefident of the Royal
Society.
WILL, that faculty of the mind by which it em¬
braces or rejedls any thing offered to it. See Meta¬
physics.
Will, or Lajl Will, in Law, fignifies the decla¬
ration of a man’s mind and intent relating to the difpo-
fition of his lands, goods, or other eftate, or of what he
would have done after his death. In the common law
there is a diftinttion made between a will and a tefta-
ment;
W I L ["712 ] * W I L
Will, tneht: tliat is called a will where lands or tenements
Vi Hi am. ^ are g{ven . anc] when the difpofition concerns goods
and chattels alone, it is termed a tejiament. See TES¬
TAMENT.
WlLL-with-a-wifp, or Jack with-a-lanthorti, two po¬
pular names for the meteor called ignis fatuus. See
Light, N° 46.
WILLIAM o/'Malmsbury, an hiftorian of confi-
derable merit in the reign of King Stephen j but of
whole life few particulars are knowm According to
Bale and Pits, he was furnamed Somerfetus, from the
county in which he was born. From his own preface
to his fecond book De Regibus Anglorum, it appears
that he was addi&ed to learning from his youth j
that he applied himfelf to the ftudy of logic, phyfic,
ethics, and particularly to htftory. He retired to the
Benedi&ine convent at Malmfbury, became a monk,
and was made precentor and librarian", afituation which
much favoured his intention of writing the hiftory of
this kingdom. In this monaftery he fpent the remain¬
der of his life, and died in the year 1142. He is one
of our moft ancient and moft faithful hiftorians. His
capital work is that intitled De Regibus Anglorum, in
five books; with an Appendix, which he ftyles Hijlo-
ricc Novellce, in two more. It is a judicious collection
of whatever he found on record relative to England,
from the invafion of the Saxons to his own times.
WILLIAM of Newbury, fo called from a monaftery
in Yorklhire, of which he was a member, wrote a hi¬
ftory which begins at the Conqueft and ends at the year
1197* His Latin ftyle is preferred to that of Matthew
Paris; and he is entitled to particular praife, for his ho-
neft regard to truth, in treating the fables of Jeffrey of
Monmouth with the contempt they deferve; as well as
for expreffmg his approbation of Henry II.’s defign of
reforming the clergy, by bringing them under the regu¬
lation of the fecular power.
WiLLIAM of Wykekam, bilhop of Winchefter, was
born in the village of Wykeham, in the county of
Southampton, in 1324. 'He was educated at Winchef¬
ter and Oxford ; and having continued near fix years
in the univerfity, his patron Nicholas Wedal, governor
of the province of Southampton, took him into his fa-
and appointed him his counfellor and fecretary.
He could not have made choice of a fitter perfon for
that employment, no man in that age writing or fpeak-
ing more politely than Wykeham. For this reafon
Edington, bilhop of Wmchefter, lord-high treafurer of
the kingdom, appointed him his fecretary three years
after, and alfo recommended him to King Edward III.
who took him into his fervice. Being {killed in geo¬
metry and architecture, he was appointed furveyor of
the royal buildings, and alfo chief juftice in eyre: he
fuperintended the building of Windfor-caftle. He was
afterward chief fecretary of ftate, a keeper of the
privy leal; and in 1367 fucceeded Edington in the
fee of Winchefler. A little after he was appointed lord-
high chancellor and prefident of the privy-council. That
he might well difcharge the feveral funCIions of his em¬
ployments, both ecclefiaftical and civil, he endeavoured
on one hand, to regulate his own life according to the
ftrictell maxims, and to promote fuch parilh-priefts only
as were able to give due inftru&ions to their parifhion-
ers, and at the fame time led exemplary lives: on the
,.-©tner hand, he did all in his power to caufe juilice to
be impartially adminiftered. In 1371 he refigned his
chancellorlhip, and fome time after the great feal. Ed¬
ward returning to England, after having carried on a
very fuccefsful war in France, found his exchequer in
great diforder. The duke of Lancafter, one of his fons,
at the head of feveral lords, having brought complaints
againft the clergy, whothen enjoyed the chief places in the
kingdom, the king removed them from their employ ments.
But the laymen, who w7ere raifed to them, behaved fo
ill, that the king was forced to reftore the ecclefiailics.
The duke of Lancafter ftiowed ftrong animofity to the
clergy, and fet every engine at work to ruin Wykeham.
He impeached him of extortion, and of difguifing things,
and obliged him to appear at the KingVbench. He
got fuch judges appointed as condemned him ; and not
latisfied with depriving him of all the temporalities of
his bilhopric, he advifed Edward to banifti him : but
this prince rejeCted the propofal, and afterward reftored
to Wykeham all that he had been divefted of. Rich¬
ard II. was but eleven years old when Edward died:
fo that the duke of Lancafter had an eafy opportunity
of reviving the accufations againft; the bifhop of Win¬
chefter; neverthelefs Wykeham cleared himfelf. Then
he founded two noble colleges, the one in Oxford, the
other in Winchefter. Whilft he was exerting his ut-
moft endeavours to improve thefe two fine foundations,
he was recalled to court, and in a manner forced to ac¬
cept of the office of lord-high chancellor in 1389.—
Having excellently difcharged the duties of that em¬
ployment for three years, he obtained leave to refign it,
forefeeing the difturbances that were going to break
out. Being returned to his church, he finifhed his col¬
lege, and built there fo magnificent a cathedral, that it
almoft equals that of St Paul’s in London. He laid
out feveral fums in things advantageous to the public
and to the poor; notwithftanding which, in 1397 he
was in great danger ; for he and fome others were im¬
peached of high-treafon in open parliament: however,
he was again fully cleared. From that time till his
death he kept quiet in his diocefe, and there employed
himfelf in all the duties of a good prelate. He died in
1404, in the 81ft: year of his age.
William, the name of feveral kings of England.
See England, N° 87—92, and Britain, N° 302.
Fort-WILLIAM, a fortrefsin the Highlands of Scot¬
land, erefled in King William’s reign, as was alfo a
fmall town adjoining, called Maryburgh, in honour of
his queen. It is fituated in Invernefs-fhire, on a nar¬
row arm of the fea called Loch Eil, which by the com¬
pletion of the Caledonian canal, will be united to the
Weftern fea. Fort-William is of a triangular form,
having two baftions, and is capable of admitting a gar-
rifon of 800 men; but could not be defended againft
an attack, as it is commanded by feveral hills in the
neighbourhood.
WILLIAM'S Fort, is a fa£tory of Afia belonging to
the Eaft-India Company, feated on one of the branches
of the river Ganges, in the kingdom of Bengal. The
fort was firft built in the fhape of an irregular tetragon
of brick and mortar; and the town has nothing regular
in it, becaufe every one built a houfe as he liked beft,
and for his own conveniency. The governor’s boufe is
within the fort, and is the beft piece of architefture in
thefe parts. Here there are alfo convenient lodgings
for the factors and writers, ivith ftore houfes for the
company’s
William,
William’?
Fort.
Wiliam
II
iVillis.
W I L [ 7
company’s goods, and magazines for ammunition. A-
bout 50 yards from the fort is the church, which was
originally built by the merchants. The town of Cal-
culta is contiguous, containing 500,000 inhabitants.
It is governed by a mayor and aldermen, a® moft of
the company’s fa&ories in the Eaft Indies now are.
In 1757 it was furprifed by the nabob of Bengal, who
took it, and put moft of thofe that had made re-
fiftance into a place called the BIctck-Ho/ef where the
greater number was fuffocated. This nabob was after¬
wards killed, and another fet up in his room, more
friendly to the Englilh; and the factory was re-elia-
blithed. E. Long. 86. o. N. Lat. 22. 27. See Cal¬
cutta.
Sweet-William. See Dianthus, Botany Index.
WILLIAMSBURG, a town of North America, in
Virginia, and formerly capital of that ftate. It is fitu-
ated between two creeksj one falling into James and
the other into York River. The diftance of each land¬
ing place is about a mile from the town, which, with
the difadvantage of not being able to bring up large
\eflels, and the want of enterprife in the inhabitants,
has occafioned its decay. Here is a college, defigned
for the education of the Indians, but which, on account
of their averfion to learning, never anfwered the pur-
pofe. It is 60 miles eaft of Richmond. W. Long. 76.
30. N. Lat. 37. 10.
WILLIAMSTADT, a fea-port town of Holland.
It is a handfome ftrong place, and the harbour is w'ell
frequented. It was built by William prince of Orange
in.1585-, and in 1732 belonged to the ftadtholder of
Friefland. The river near which it is built is called
Butterjhet or Holland Diep; and is one of the bulwarks
of the Hutch on the fide of Brabant, where they aBvays
keep a garrifon. This place made a gallant defence
in 1793 againft the hrench, who w'ere obliged to raife
the fiege. It is 15 miles north-eaft of Bergen-op-Zoom,
-and 12 fouth-weft of Dort. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat.
5I*39‘
.WILLIS, Dr Thomas, a celebrated Englifli phy-
fician, was born at Great Bod win, in Wiklhire, in
1621, and ftudied at Chrift-church college, Oxford.
When that city was garrifoned for the king, he, among
other fcholars, bore arms for his majefty, and devoted
nis leifure hours to the ftudy of phyfic. The garrifon
of Oxford at length furrendering to the parliament, he
applied himfelf to the pradlice of his profeftion; and
loon rendered himfelf famous by his care and fkill. He
appropriated a room as an oratory for divine fervice ac¬
cording to the church of England, whither moft of the
loyalifts in Oxford daily reforted. In 1660, he became
Sedleian profeflbr of natural philofophy, and the fame
year took the degree of do<ftor of phyfic. In 1664, he
difeovered the famous medicinal fpring at Alftropp,
near Brackley. He was one of the firft members of the
Royal Society, and foon made his name illuftrious by
his excellent writings. In 1666, after the fire of Lon¬
don, he removed to Weftminfter; and his pra£Hce be¬
came greater than that of any of the phyficians his con¬
temporaries. Soon after his fettlement in London, his
only fon Thomas falling into a confumption, he fent
him to Montpelier in France for the recovery of his
health; and it proved fuccefsful. His wife alfo labour¬
ing under the fame diforder, he oftered to leave the
town; but fhe, not fuffering him to negledt the means
Vol. XX. Part II.
13 1 W I L
of providing for his family, died in 1670. He died at
his h.oufe in St Martin’s in 1675, and was buried near
her in W eftminfter-abbey. Hr Willis was extremely i
modeft and unambitious, and refufed the honour of
knighthood. He was remarkably pious : As he rofe
early in the morning, that he might be prefent at di¬
vine ferv.ice, which he conftantly frequented before he
vifited his patients, he procured prayers to be read be¬
yond the accuftomed times while he lived; and at his
death fettled a ftipend of 20I. per annum to continue
them. He was a liberal benefadtor to the poor where-
ever he came, having from his early praftice allotted
part of nis profits to charitable ufes. He was exaft and
regular in all his hours: and though his table was the
refort of moft of the great men of London, yet he was
remarkable for his pkinnefs, and his being a man of
little difeourfe, complaifance, or fociety; but he was
juftly admired for his deep infight into natural and ex¬
perimental philofophy, anatomy, andchemiftry; for his
luccefsful pradlice ; and for the elegance and purity of
his. Latin ftyle. He wrote, 1. A treatife in Englifh,
intitled A plain and eafij Method for preferving thofe
that' are well from the InfeSlion of the Plague, and for
curing fuch as are wfeSied. 2. Several Latin works,
W’hich wrere colledfed and printed at Amfterdam, in
1682, in 2 vols qto.
WILLUGHBY, Francis, a celebrated natural hi-
ftorian, was the only fon of Sir Francis Willughby,
knight. He was fond of ftudy from his childhood, and
held.idlenefs in abhorrence; he being fo great an eco-
nomift with regard to his time, as not willingly to lofe.
or. mifapply the leaft part of it, by which means he at¬
tained great Ikill in all branches of learning, and parti¬
cularly in. the mathematics. But to the hiftory of ani¬
mals, which was in a great meafure negledled by his
countrymen, he particularly applied himfelf; and for
this purpofe carefully read over what had been written
on that fubjedl by others. He then travelled feveral
times over his native country; and afterwards into
France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Low Coun¬
tries, attended by his ingenious friend Mr John Ray.
It is remarkable, that, notwithftanding the advantages
of birth, fortune, and parts, he was as humble as any
man of the meaneft fortune; was fober, temperate, and
chafte; fcrupuloufly juft ; fo true to his word and pro-
mife, that a man might venture his eftate and life upon
,f* fo. faithful and conftant to his friend, as never to de-
Willis
II
fert him when fortune frowned upon him; and remark¬
ably pious, patient, and fubmiflive to the divine will.
This is the chara&er given of him by Mr Ray, whofe
veracity none will doubt. This ingenious and learned
gentleman died in 1672, at 37 years of age; having
impaired his health by his application. He wrote,
I. Ornithologies libri tres, folio, which was afterwards
tranllated into Englilh, with an Appendix, by Mr Ray,
in folio. 2. Hijlorice Pfcium libri quatuor, folio. 3,
Lettersof Francis Willughby, Efq. added to Philofophi-
cal Letters between the learned Mr Ray and feveral of
his correfpondents, publilhed, in 8vo, by William Der-
ham. 4.. Several ingenious papers in the Philofophicai
Tran factions.
WILMOF, John, earl of Rochefter, a great wit in
the reign of Charles II. the fon of Henry earl of Ro-
chefter, was born in 1648. He w'as taught grammar
and claftical learning at the free-fehool at Burford;
4 X whers
W I L
L 7H ]
W I L
W'imet. where he obtained a quick reliih of the beauties of the
k—"-y-™ < J^atin tongue, and afterwards became well v’erfed in the
authors of the Auguftan age. In 1659, he was ad¬
mitted a nobleman of Wadham college, where he ob¬
tained the degree of mailer of arts. He afterwards tra¬
velled through France and Italy; and at his return was
made one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber to the
king, and comptroller of Woodftock Park. In 1665,
he went to fea, and was in the Revenge, commanded
by Sir Thomas Tiddiman, when an attack w’as made
on the port of Bergen in Norway : during the whole
a&ion he (bowed the greateft refolution, and gained a
high reputation for courage ; which he fupported in a
fecond expedition, but afterwards loll it in a private ad¬
venture with Lord Mulgrave.
Before the earl of Rochelter travelled, he had indul¬
ged in the moll diforderly and intemperate way of liv¬
ing j at his return, however, he feemed to have got the
better of it entirely. But falling into the company of
the courtiers, who continually pradlifed thefe excelfes,
he became fo funk in debauchery, that he was for five
years together fo given up to drinking, that during all
that time he was never cool enough to be mailer of him-
felf. His violent love of pleafure, and his difpofition
to extravagant mirth, carried him to great exceffes.
The firll involved him in fenfuality, and the other led
him into many adventures and ridiculous frolics. Once
difguifing himfelf fo that he could not be known by his
neared friends, he fet up in Tower-dreet for an Italian
mountebank, and there difperfed his nodrums for fome
weeks. He often difguifed himfelf as a porter, or as a
beggar, fometimes to follow a mean amour ; at other
times, he would go about merely for diverfion, in odd
ihapes ; and a£led his part fo naturally, that he could
not be known even by his friends. In diort, by his
condant indulgence in wine, women, and irregular fro¬
lics, he entirely wore out an excellent conditution be¬
fore he was 30 years of age. In 0£tober 1679, when
recovering from a violent difeafe, which ended in a con-
fumption, he was vifited by Dr Burnet, upon an inti¬
mation that fuch a vifit would be agreeable to him. Dr
Burnet publilhed an account of his conferences with
Lord Rocheder ; in which it appears, that though he
had lived the life of a libertine and atheid, yet he died
the death of a penitent Chridian. His death happened
in 1680 ; fince which time his poems have been various
times printed, both feparately and together : but when
once he obtained the character of a lewd and obfcene
writer, every thing in that drain was afcribed to him ;
and thus many pieces not of his writing have crept into
the later editions of his works. The author of the Ca¬
talogue of Royal and Noble Authors fays, he was “ a
man whom the Mufes were fond to infpire, and alhamed
to avow, and who pra&ifed without the lead referve
that fecret which can make verfes more read for their
defe£ls than their merits.. Lord Rocheder’s Poems have
much more obfcenity than wit, more wit than poetry,
and more poetry than politenefs.” His writings, be-
fides thole already mentioned, are, A Satire againd
Mankind ; Nothing, a poem Valentinian, a tragedy ;
Fifty-four Letters to Henry Saville, and others; Seven
more to his wife and Son : a Letter on his deathbed
to Dr Burnet. He alfo left behind him feveral other
papers, and a Hidory of the Intrigues of the Court of
Charles II.; but his mother, a very devout lady, order¬
ed all his papers to be burned.
WILSON, Florence, known in the republic of^
letters by the name of Florentius Volujlnus, was born at
Elgin in the (hire of Murray in Scotland, and educated
in the univerfity of Aberdeen. Travelling to England
with an intention to improve his fortune, he had the fe¬
licity to be introduced to Cardinal Wolfey, who ap¬
pointed him tutor to one of his nephews. In that capa¬
city he went to Paris, and continued there till the Car¬
dinal’s death. During his refidence in that city he be¬
came acquainted with the learned Cardinal Bellai, arch-
bidiop of Paris, who allowed him a pendon, and meant
to have appointed him royal profelfor of the Greek and
Latin languages in the univerfity of Paris : but Bellai
being difgraced, Wifon’s profpedls faded with the for¬
tunes of his patron, whom neverthelefs he attended on
his journey to Rome. Wilfon was taken ill at Avig¬
non, and the cardinal proceeded without him. After'
his recovery, he paid a vifit to the celebrated Cardinal
Sabolet, the Meccenas of his time, who was alfo bilhop
of Carpentras, where he then refided. The cardinal
was fo charmed with his erudition, that he appointed
him proftflbr of the learned languages, with a dipend
of 100 pidoles per annum.
During his refidence at Carpentras, he Avrote his ce¬
lebrated treatife De Animi Tran quill it ate. Mackenzie
fays that he aftenvards taught philofophy in Italy; and
that, being at length defirous of returning to Scotland,
he began his journey homcAvard, Avas taken ill at Vienne
in Dauphiny, and died there in the year 1547. He
Avas generally edeemed an accomplilhed linguid, an ad¬
mirable philofopher, and an excellent Latin poet. Pie
Avrote, befide the abo\re treatife, 1. Poemata, London
1619, 410. 2. Commentatio qua dam theologica in apho-
rifmos dijje&a, per Sebajl. Gryph. 3. Plnlofophice An-
Jlot. Synqpjis, lib. iv.
Wilson, Thomas, lord bidiop of Sodor and Man,
Avas born in 1663, at Burton, in the county of Cheder.
He received the rudiments of his education at the coun¬
ty town, and from thence Avas removed to the univerfity
of Dublin. His alloAvance at the univerfity Avas 20I. a-
year ; a fum, fmall as it may now appear, Avhich Avas in
thofe days fufficient for a fober youth in fo cheap a
country as Ireland.
His fird intention Avas to have applied to the dudy of
phylic ; but from this he Avas diverted by Archdeacon
HeAvetfon, by Avbofe advice he dedicated himfelf to the
church. He continued at college till the year 1686,
when, on the 29th of June, he Avas ordained deacon.
The exa£l time of Mr Wilfon’s leaving Dublin is not
knoAvn : but on account of the political and religious
difputes of thofe days, it was fooner than he intended.
On the lothof December, in the fame year, he wasli-
cenfed to the curacy of Nbav Church in Win wick, of
Avhich Dr Sherlock, his maternal uncle, aves reftor.
His dipend Avas no more than 30L a-year ; but being
an excellent economid, and having the advantage of liv¬
ing with his uncle, this fmall income Avas not only fuffi-
eient to fupply his oavu Avants, but it enabled him to
dip ply the wants of others ; and for this purpofe he fet
apart one-tenth of his income. In 1692 he was ap¬
pointed domedic chaplain to William earl .of Derby,
and tutor to his fon James Lord Strange, Avith a falarv
Wilmot,
Wilfon.
W I I, [ 71
r’llfon. of 30I. a-year. He was foon after elected matter of the
'Y""1”' alms-houfe at Latham, which brought him in 20I. a-
year more. Having now an income far beyond his ex-
peftations, or his wifhes, except as it increafed his abi¬
lity to do good, he fet apart one-fifth of his income for
pious ufes, and particularly for the poor. In fnort, as
his income increafed, he increafed the portion of it
which was allotted to the purpofes of charity. At firft
he fet apart a tenth, then a fifth, afterwards a third,
and laftly, when he became a bithop, he dedicated the
full half of his revenues to pious and charitable ufes.
He had not been long in the fervice of Lord Derby,
before he w'as offered the valuable living of Buddef-
worth in Yorkfhire *, which he refufed to acoent, as be¬
ing inconfiftent with the refolves of his confidence a-
gainft non-refidence, Lord Derby choofing dill to re¬
tain him as chaplain and tutor to his fon. In 1697 he
Avas promoted, not without fome degree of compulfion
on the part of his patron, to the bifhopric of the Ifle of
Man ; a preferment which he held 58 years. In 1698
he married Mary, daughter of Thomas Patten, Efq. of
Warrington. By this lady, who furvived her marriage
above fix vears, he had four children ; none of whom
furvived him, except the late Dr Wilfon, prebendary
of Weftminfter.
“ The annual receipts of the bifhopric (fays the au¬
thor of his memoirs) did not exceed 300I. in money.
Some neceffaries in his houfe, as fpices, fugar, wine,
books, &c. mutt be paid for with money; di lire {fed or
fhipwrecked mariners, and fome other poor objedls, re¬
quired to be relieved with money ; but the poor of the
ifland were fed and clothed, and the houfe in general
fupplied from his demefnes, by exchange, without mo¬
ney. The poor, who could weave or fpin, found the
bett: market at Bifhop’s-court, where they bartered the
produce of their labour for corn. Taylors and fhoe-1
makers were kept in the houfe conftantly employed, to
make into garments or (hoes that cloth or leather which
his corn had purchafed ; and the aged and infirm were
fupplied according to their feveral Avants. Mr Moore
of Douglas informed the editor, that he was once Avit-
nefs to a pleafing and fingular inftance of the Bifhop’s
attention to fome aged poor of the ifiand. As he Avas
diftributing fpe£facles to fome whofe eyefight failed
them, Mr Moore expreffed his furprife, as he well
knew not one of them could read a letter. ‘ No matter
(faid the Bifhop with a fmile), they will find ufe enough
for them ; thefe fpefhcles will help them to thread a
needle, to mend their clothes, or, if need be, to keep
themfelves free from vermin.’ '
So great was the bittiop’s attachment to his flctck,
that no temptation could feduce him from their fervice.
He more than once refufed the oflFer of an Englilh bi-
ihopric. There is an anecdote of his lordfliip and Car¬
dinal Fleury, which does great credit to them both.
The cardinal v/anted much to fee him, and fent over on
pur pole to inquire after his health, his age, and the
date of his confecration, as they Avere the tA\'o oldtft bi-
Ihops, and he believed the pooreft, in Europe ; at the
fame time inviting him to France* T he biOiop fent the
cardinal an anfwer, which gave him fo big*1 an opinion
of him, that the cardinal obtained an order that no
French privateer fhould ravage the ifie of Man.
This good prelate lived till the year I755>
5 ] W I N
the advanced age of 93. His works ha\re lately been
publillied in 2 vols 410. Win'hel-
WILTON, a market toAvn in Wiltfhire, three miles iea.
AA’eft of Saliibury. It Avas once fo conliderable as to —y-*-—
give title to the county. It had formerly I 2 churches;
and Odo, brother-in-laAV to William I. Avas bilhop of
Wilton. Only one hoav remains. It fends members to
parliament, and is the place Avhere the knights of the
{hire are chofen. It has a great manufrottory of carpets,
which are brought to high perfection. Wilton is fa- »
mous for Lord Pembroke’s feat, fo Avell knoAvn through
Europe for its containing a grand afiemblage of the pro¬
ductions of the greatelt and molt ancient matters in
painting and fculpture.—Tavo fairs are held here an¬
nually.
WILTSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on
the Aveft by Somerfetlhire, on the ealt by Berkfliire and
Hamplhire, on the north by Glouceiterihire, and on the
fouth by Dorfetlhire and part of Hampfliire. The
length amounts to 39 miles; its breadth to 30 ; and its
circumference to 140. It contains 29 hundreds, 23
market-towns, 304 parifhes, and about 185,107 fouls.
Befides two members for the {hire, and two for the city
of Salilbury, each of the following Ujaatis fends Iavo
members to parliament, viz. Wilton, DoAA'nton, Hin-
don, Heytefbury, Weftbury, Caine, Devizes, Chippan-
ham, Malrafbury, Cricklade, Great BedAvin, Ludger-
Iball, Old Sarum, Wooton-Baffet, Marlborough.
The air of this county is very healthy, not only in
the more Ioav and level parts, but alfo on the hills.
The foil of the vales is very rich, and produces corn
and grafs in great plenty. The beautiful doAiens in the
fouth yield the fineft palture for flieep, Avith Avhich they
are overfpread. The greatett difadvantage the county
labours under is Avant of fuel, as there are no coal-pits,
and but little Avood. This county is noted for great
quantities of very fine cheefe, and for its manufacture of
broad cloth, to Avhich it Avas invited by the great plenty
and finenefs of its avooI. Befides a number of letter
ttreams, it is watered by the rivers Ifis, Kennet, Upper
and Lower Avon, Willy, Burne, and Nadder, Avhich
are Avell ftored with fifh.
WINCHELSEA, a town in Suflex, Avhich has no
market, but has one fair on May 14th for cattle and
pedlars AVare. It Avas an ancient place, at leaf! the old
town, Avhich Avas fwalloAved up by the ocean in 1250.
It is noAv dAviildled to a mean place, though it retains
its privileges, and fi-nds Iavo members to parliament.
It is feated on a rocky cliff', on an inlet of the fea; and
had a haven, noAv choked up. It had 18 parilh-eharch¬
es, noAv reduced to one. The market-houfe is in the
midtt of the town, from Avhence run four paved fir* ets,
at the end of Avhich are four ways, Avhich had formerly
buildings on each fide for a confiderable dillance. It
is tAVo miles fouth-weft of Rye, and 71 fouth-eaft of Lon¬
don. It is governed by a mayor and jurats, though it has
but about 70 houfes. Three of the gates are ftill Handing,
but much decayed. E. Long. o. 44. N; Lat. 50-. 58.
W^ INCH ELSE A, Annie Countefs of, a lady of excellent
genius, efpecially in poetry, Avas maid of honour to the
duchefs of York, fecond Avife to King James II. and
was afterwards married to Heneage, fecond fon of the
earl of Winchelfea. One of the moff confiderable of
the countefs of Winchellea’s poems Avas that oh the
4 2 Spleen.
WIN [71
Winchelfea Spleen. A colleftion of her poems was printed at Lon-
Wimkk- C*on 17I3> conta>ning a tragedy never afted, xntitled
man. Arijlomenes. The countefs died in 1720 without iflue,
e«—as her hutband did in 1726.
WINCHES 1 ER, the capital of the county of
Hampfhire in England. It is a very ancient city, fup-
pofed to have been built feveral centuries before Chrift.
The Romans called it Venta Belgarum, the Britons Caer
Givent, and the Saxons Wittanceajier; whence came the
prefent name. It Hands upon the river Itchin, in a bottom
lurrounded with chalky hills j and is generally allowed
to have been a confiderable place in the time of the
Romans. Some of the firft converts to Chriftianity are
fuppofed to have lived here. In the caftle, near the weft
gate, many of the Saxon kings anciently kept their court.
The cathedral was founded by Kenegulfe, a king of the
Mercians 5 but there were many Chriftians, and places
for their vvorlhip here, long before that period. It is a
large pile, and has a venerable look, but is not very ele¬
gant. Befides the tombs, there are many curious pieces
of vvorkmanflnp in it; the chief of which are, 1. The
font, erefled in the time of the Saxons. 2. Copper fta-
tues of James I. and Charles I. 3. The biftiop’s throne.
4.’! he ftalls of the dean and prebendaries. 5. The
afcent to the choir and altar. 6. The pavement inlaid
with marble of diverfe colours, in various figures. 7. The
altar-piece, reckoned the nobleft in England. 8. The
paintings in the windows, efpecially the great eaft win¬
dow. At the hofpital of the Holy Crofs, every traveller
that knocks at the door may claim a manchet of white
bread and a cup of beer; of which a great quantity is
provided every day for that purpofe. This hofpital was
intended for the maintenance of a mailer and 30 penfion-
ers, but only 14 are now maintained in it; and the maf-
ter enjoys a revenue of 800I. a-year. This city is about
a mile and a half in compafs, and almoft furrounded
with a wall of flint; has fix gates, large fuburbs, broad
clean ftreets; but the private houfes are in general but
ordinary, many of them being very old. The city is
interfperfed wdth a great many gardens, which contribute
to its beauty and healthinefs. The corporation confifts
of a mayor, high-fteward, recorder, aldermen, two coro¬
ners, two bailiffs, 24 common-council men, a town-clerk,
Rur conftables, and four ferjeants at mace ; and the city
gives title oimarquis to the duke of Bolton. A Roman
highway leads from hence to Alton ; and went for¬
merly, as it is thought, from thence to London. The
charming downs in the neighbourhood contribute greatly
to the healtli and pleafure of the inhabitants. The
river Itchin is navigable for barges from hence to South¬
ampton. vThe population in 1801 amounted to 6coo
perftms nearly. W. Long. 1. 16. N. Lat. 51.4.
WINCKLEMAN, Abbe John, was born at Sten-
dall, in the old Marche of Brandenburg, in 1718.
His father was a Ihoemaker. This wonderful man, to
all appearance deftined by his birth to fuperintend a
tittle fchool in an obfcure torvn of Germany, raifed
himfelf to the office of prefident of antiquities in the
"Vatican. After having been feven years profeffor in
the college of Seehaufen near Salfwedel, he went into
Saxony, where he refided feven years more, and was
librarian to Count Bunau at Nothenitz. When he left
this place, I754» went to Drefden, where he formed
an acquaintance with the ableft artifts, and particularly
o’th M. Defer, an excellent painter, and one of the
6 ] WIN
beft draughtfmen of the age. In that year he abjured Winekle.
Lutheranifm, and embraced the Roman Catholic reli- man.
gmn. In September 1755, he fet out for Italy, and' 
arrived at Rome in December following. His princi¬
pal objedt was to fee the Vatican library, and to exa¬
mine the ruins of Herculaneum.
Mr Winckleman carried with him into Italy a fenfe
of beauty and art, which led him ihftantly to admire the
mafterpxeces of the "Vatican, and with which he began
to ftudy them. He foon increafed his knowledge ; and
it was not till after he had thus purified his tafte and
conceived an idea of ideal beauty, which led him into
the greateft. fecrets of art, that he began to think of
the explanation of other monuments, in which his great
learning could not fail to difiinguifli him. His erudition
enabled him to fill up his principal plan of writing the
“ Hiftory of Art.” In 1756, he planned his “ Reitera¬
tion of Ancient Statues,” and a larger work on the
Tafte of the Greek Artifts; and defigned an account of
the galleries of Rome and Italy, beginning with a vo¬
lume on the Eelvidere ftatues, in the manner of Rich-
ardfon, who, he fays, only ran over Rome. He alfo in¬
tended a hiftory of the corruption of tafte in art, the
reftoration of ftatues, and an illuftration of the obfcure
points of mythology. All thefe different effays led him
to his “ Hiftory of Art,” and his “ Monumenti Inediti.”
It muft, however, be confeffed, that the firft of thefe
wmrks has not all the clearnefs and precifion that might
be expedled in its general plan and divifion of its parts
and objefls; but it has enlarged and extended the ideas
both of antiquaries and colledtors. The deferiplion of
the gems and fulphurs of the Stofch cabinet contributed
not a little to extend Mr Winckleman’s knowledge.
Few perfons have opportunities of contemplating fuch
vaft collections. The engravings of Lippet and Count
Caylus are all that many can arrive at. Mr Winckle¬
man’s Monumenti Inediti, of which he had begun the
third volume 1767, feem to have fecured him the efteem
of antiquaries. Had he lived, we (hould have had a
work long wifhed for ; a complete collection of the bas-
reliefs difeovered from the time of Bartoli to the prefent,
the greater part of which are in the pofleffion of Cardi¬
nal Albani.
When Cardinal Albani fucceeded to the place of li¬
brarian of the Vatican, he endeavoured to get a place
for the Hebrew’ language for Winckleman, who refufed
a canonry, becaufe he would not take the tonfure. The
eleCtor of Saxony gave him, 1761, unfolicited, the place
of Counfellor Richter, the direction of the royal cabinet
of medals and antiquities at Drefden. Upon the death
of the abbe Venuti, 1762, he was appointed prefident
of the antiquities of the apoftolic-chamber, with power ^
over all difeoveries and exportations of antiquities and
pictures. This is a poft of honour, with an income of
160 feudi per annum. He had a profpeCt of the place
of prefident of antiquities in the Vatican, going to be
created at 16 feudi per month, and was named corre-
fponding member of the Academy of Infcriptions. The
king of Pruffia offered him, by Col. Quintus Icilius, the
place of librarian and direCtor of his cabinet of medals
and antiquities, void by the death of M. Gautier de la
Croze, with a handfome appointment. He made no
fcruple of accepting the offer; but when it came to the
pope’s ears, he added an appointment out of his own
purfe, and kept him at Rome.
0
ft
*
In
W I N
t 7
finckle- In April 1768, he left Rome to go with M. Cava-
ceppi over Germany and Switzerland. When he came
to Vienna, he was fo pleafed with the reception he met
with, that he made a longer Hay there than he had in¬
tended. But, being fuddenly feized with a fecret un-
eafinefs and extraordinary defire to return to Rome, he
fet out for Italy, putting off his vifits to his friends in
Germany to a future opportunity. As lie paffed through
Triefte, he was affaffmated, June 8. 1768, by a wretch
named Arcangeli, a native of Campiglio, a town in the
territory of Piftoia, with whom he had made an ac¬
quaintance on the road. This mifcreant had been con¬
demned for a robbery to work in fetters four years, and
then to be banilhed the Auftrian territories, on an oath
never to return. He had obtained a mitigation of one
of his fentences, and retired to Venice ; but, chan¬
ging his quarters backwards and forwards, he was fo re¬
duced in circumftances that he at length took up his
lodgings at the inn to which the Abbd happened to
come. Arcangeli paid fuch afliduous court to him, that
he entirely gained his confidence 5 and having been fa¬
voured with a fight of the valuable prefents which he
had received at Vienna, formed a defign to murder and
rob him. He bought a new lharp knife on purpofe j
and as the Abbe (who had in the moft friendly manner
invited him to Rome) was fitting down in his chair, ear¬
ly in the morning, he threw a rope over his head, and
before he could difengage himfelf, ftabbed him in five
different places. The Abbe had Hill ftrength to get
down to the ground floor, and call for help j and being
laid on a bed in the midft of the moft violent pain, he
had compofure fufficient to receive the lalt facraments,
and to make his will, in which he appointed Cardinal
Alexander Albani his refiduary legatee, and expired in
the afternoon. The murderer was foon after appre¬
hended ; and executed on the wheel oppofite the inn,
June 26.
Abbe Winckleman was a middle-fized man ; he had
a very low forehead, lharp nofe, and little black hollow
eyes, which gave him an afpeft rather gloomy than
otherwife. If he had any thing graceful in his phyfiog-
nomy, it was his mouth. A fiery and impetuous difpofi-
tion often threw him into extremes. Naturally enthu-
fiaftic, he often indulged an extravagant imagination ;
but as he poffeffed a ftrongand folid judgment, he knew
how to give things a juft and intrinfic value. In confe-
quence of this turn of mind, as well as a neglected educa¬
tion, a cautious referve was a quality he little knew. If
he was bold in his decifions as an author, he was ftill
more fo in his converfation, and has often made his
friends tremble for his temerity. If ever man knew
what friendlhip was, that man wTas Mr Winckleman,
who regularly praftifed all his duties ; and for this rea-
fon he could boaft of having friends among perfons of
every rank and condition.
WIND is a fenfible agitation of the atmofphere, oc-
cafioned by a quantity of air flowing from one place to
another. See METEOROLOGY.
Hot Winds. See Samiel.
WiND-F/ower. See Anemony, Botany Index.
Wind-Mi//, a kind of mill, the internal parts of
which are much the fame with thofe of a water mill :
from which, however, it differs, in being moved by
the impulfe of the wind upon its fails or vanes, which
Wimllafs.
17 ] WIN
are to be confidered as a wheel in axis. See Mecha- Wind
Nics Index.
WlND-Gage. See Wind-GAGE.
WlND-Galls. See Farriery Index.
WlND-Gun. See AlR-GuN, under SCIENCE, Amtife-
ments of.
Injlruments for meafuring the frength, velocity, &c. of
the Wind. See Wind-G age, Anemometer and Ane¬
moscope.
WlND-Hatch, in mining, a term ufed to exprefs the
place at which the ore is taken out of the mines.
WlND-Shock, a name given by our farmers to a dil-
temper to which fruit trees, and fometimes timber trees,
are fubjejcf. It is a fort of bruife and fliiver throughout
the whole fubftance of the tree j but the bark being of¬
ten not affedled by it, it is not feen on the outfide, while
the infide is twifted round, and greatly injured. It is
by fome fuppofed to be occafioned by high winds j but
others attribute it to lightning. Thofe trees are moft:
ufually affefted by it whofe boughs grow more out on
one fide than on the other. The belt way of prevent¬
ing this in valuable trees, is to take care in the planta¬
tion that they are ftieltered well, and to cut them fre¬
quently in a regular manner while young.
WIND-Taught, in fea language, denotes the fame as
ftiff in the wind. Too much rigging, high mafts, or
any thing catching or holding wind aloft, is laid to hold
a fhip wind-taught; by which they mean, that ftie
ftoops too much in her failing in a ftiff gale of wind.
Again, when a (hip rides in a main ftrefs of wind and
weather, they ftrike down her top-mafts, and bring her
yards down, which elfe would hold too much wind, or
be too much diftended and wind-taught.
WlND-Sails, a fort of wide tube or funnel of canvas,
employed to convey a ftream of frefti air downward into
the lower apartments of a fhip.
This machine is ufually extended by large hoops fitu-
ated in different parts of its height. It is let down per¬
pendicularly through the hatches, being expanded at the
lower end like the bafe of a cone 5 and having its upper
fide open on the fide which is placed to windward, fo as
to receive the full current of wind ; which entering the
cavity, fills the tube, and rufhes downwards into the
lower regions of the ftiip. There are generally three ox-
four of thefe in our capital flops of war, which, together
with the ventilators, contribute greatly to preferve the
health of the crew.
WINDAGE of a Gun, is the difference between
the diameter of the bore and the diameter of the ball.
WINDLASS, a machine ufed for railing huge
weights, as guns, ftones, anchors, &c.
It is very fimple, confifting only of an axis or roller,
fupported horizontally at the twro ends by twro pieces of
wood and a pulley ; the twro pieces of wood meet at
top, being placed diagonally fo as to prop each other ;
the axis or roller goes through the two pieces, and turns
in them. The pulley is faftened at top where the pieces
join. Laftly, there are two ftaves or handfpikes which
go through the roller, whereby it is turned, and the
rope which comes over the pulley is wound off and ..on
the fame.
Windlass, in a fhip, is an inftrument in fmall fhips,
placed upon the deck, juft abaft the fore-malt. It is
made of a piece of timber fix or eight feet fquare, in
form
WIN [ 71
WimUafs form of an axletree, whofe length is placed horizontal-
II ly upon two pieces of wrood at the ends thereof, and
. ' . upon which it is turned about by the help of hand-
fpikes put into holes made for that purpofe. This inltru -
mem ferves for weighing anchors, or hoifting of any
-weight in or out of the fhip, and will purchafe much
more than any capftan, and that without any danger to
thole that heave •, for if in heaving the windlafs about,
any of the handfpikes fhould happen to break, the wind¬
lafs would pall of itfelf.
WINDOW, an aperture or open place in the wall of
a houfe to let in the liglit. See ARCHITECTURE, N° 78.
The wmrd is Welch, uynt dor, fignifying the paffage
for the wind. Window is yet provincially denomina¬
ted windor in Lancaihire ; i. e. wind-door, or the paf-
fage for air, as that for people was peculiarly called
the door.
Before the ufe of glafs became general, which was not
till towards the end of the 12th century, the windows
irrBritain feem generally to have been compofed of pa¬
per. Properly prepared with oil, this forms no contemp
tible defence againft the intrufions of the weather, and
makes no incompetent opening for the admiflion of the
light. It is dill ufed by our architects for the tempora¬
ry windows of unfinilhed houfes, and not unfrequently
for the regular ones of our work (hops. But fome of
the principal buildings we may reafonably fuppofe to
have been windowed in a fuperior manner. They could,
however, be furnidied merely with lattices of wood or
dieets of linen, as thefev two remained the only furniture
of our cathedrals nearly to the eighth century ; and the
lattices continued in fome of the meaner towns of Lan-
cadiire to the 18'lv, and in many didrifts of Wales, and
many of the adjoining parts of England, are in ufe even
to the prefent moment. Thefe feem all to have been
fixed in frames that were called capfnmenta, and now
therefore cnfements in Wales and Lancalhire.
WINDSOR, a borough town of Berkfhire, 2 2 miles
wed of London, mod remarkable for the magnificent
roval palace or cadle dtuaied there on an eminence,
which commands the adjacent country for many miles,
the river Thames running at the foot of the hill. The
knights of the Garter are indalled in the royal chapel
here. It fends two members to parliament. The num¬
ber of inhabitants in 1801 was 3361. W. Long. 0.
36. N. Lat. 51. 30.
WINDWARD, in the fea language, denotes any
thing towards that point from whence the wind blows,
in refpedl of a (hip: thus windward-tide, is the tide which
runs againd the wind.
WINE, an agreeable fpirituous liquor, produced by
fermentation from thofe vegetable fubdances that con¬
tain faccharine matter. A very great number of vege¬
table fubdances may be made to afford wine, as grapes,
currants, mulberries, elders, cherries, apples, pulfe, beans,
peas, turnips, radidies, and even grafs itfelf. Hence, un¬
der the clafs of wines or vinous liquors, come not only
wines, abfolutely fo called, but alio ale, cyder, &c.
thaptaVs Wine, however, is in a more particular manner appro-
Chemi/lry, priated to the liquor drawn from the fruit of the vine,
left v* ^ Proce^. making wine is as follows : When the
chip. 6. graPes afe ripe, and the faccharine principle is develo-
1 Ped, they are then prefled, and the juice which flows out
Method of is received in veflels of a proper capacity, in which the
wine,n^ ferincntabQn appears, and proceeds in the following
8 ] WIN
manner : At the end of feveral days, and frequently af- Win?,
ter a few hours, according to the heat of the atmofphere, u—v-
the nature of the grapes, the quantity of the liquid, and
temperature of the place in which the operation is per¬
formed, a movement is produced in the liquor, which
continually increafes; the volume of the fluid increafes;
it becomes turbid and oily ; carbonic acid is difengaged,
which fills all the unoccupied part of the veflel, and the
temperature rifes to the 72.5th degree. At the end of
feveral days thefe tumultuous motions fubfide, the mafs
falls, the liquid becomes clearer, and is found to be lefs
faccharine, more odorant, and of a red colour, from the
reaftion of the ardent fpirit upon the colouring matter of
the pellicle of the grape.
The wine is ufually taken out of the fermenting vef-
fels at the period when all the phenomena of fermenta¬
tion have fubfided. When the mafs is fettled, the co¬
lour of the liquor is well developed, when it has become
clear, and its heat has difappeared \ it is put into calks,
where, by a fecond infenfible fermentation, the wine is
clarified, its principles combine more perfectly together,
and its tafte and Imell become more and more developed. 7
If this fermentation be Hopped or fuffocated, thegafeous
principles are retained, and the wine is brilker, and more
of the nature of muff.
It appears, from the interefting experiments of the
Marquis de Bullion, that the vinous fermentation does
not take place unlefs tartar be prefent. 3
The caufes of an imperfect fermentation are the fol-Caufesof
lowing : 1. If the heat be too little, the fermentationimpeifeift
languifhes, the faccharine and oily matters are not fuffi-^rmenta*
ciently elaborated, and the wine is undluous and fweet.tl0n'
2. If the faccharine body be not fufficiently abundant,
as happens in rainy feafons, the wine is weak, and the
mucilage, which predominates, caufes it to become four
by its decompofition. 3. If the juice be too watery,
concentrated and boiling muff is added. 4. If the fac¬
charine principle be not fufficiently abundant, the de-
fe£t may be remedied by the addition of fugar. Mac-
quer has proved that excellent wine may be made of
verjuice and fugar j and M. de Bullion has made
wine at Bellejames, with the verjuice of bis vine rows
and moift fugar.
There have been many difputes to determine whether
grapes fhould be prefled with the ftalks or without.
This depends on the nature of the fruit. When they
are highly charged with faceharine and mucilaginous
matter, the ftalk correfts the infipidity of the wine by
its bitter principle : but when, on the contrary, the
juice is n.ot too fweet, the ffalk renders it drier, and very
rough. ... . . 3
The colouring principle of wine is of a refinous na-c0iourirr
ture, and is contained in the pellicle of the grape 5 and matter ot
the fluid is not coloured until the wine is formed *, for wine,
until then there is nothing which can diffolve it : and
hence it is that white wine may be made of red grapes,
when the juice of the grape is exprefled, and the hulk
thrown away. If wine be evaporated, the colouring
principle remains in the refidue, and may be extra£led
by fpirit of wine. Old wines lofe their colour ; a pel¬
licle being precipitated, which is either depofited on the
fides of the bottles, or falls to the bottom. If wine be
expofed to the heat of the fun during the fummer, the
colouring matter is detached in a pellicle, which falls to
the bottom ; when the veflel is opened, the difcolouring
is
*
W I N
r 7
Wine.
. 4
’inous ter-
entation
cplainetl.
5.
gredients
different
is more fpeedy, and it is efftfted in two or three days
during the fumtner. The wine thus deprived of its co¬
lour is not perceptibly weakened.
The vinous fermentation has been examined with great
accuracy by M. Lavoifier. According to him, the ve¬
getable juice of which wine is to be made confifts of
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone, combined with one an¬
other in different proportions, fo as to form chiefly wa¬
ter and fugar. The fermentation produces a feparation
of the elements, and a new combination of them 5 a
quantity of the oxygen and carbone combine and fly off
in the ttate of carbonic acid ; part of the carbone, oxy¬
gen, and hydrogen, combine firft witji each other, and
then all together, to form alcohol •, another part forms
acetous acid ; the w'ater ftill remains, and a refiduum
falls to the bottom compofed of the three elements com¬
bined in other proportions.
The different kinds of w’ines produced in Europe and
other parts of the world are many •, the principal of them
and their qualities are well known : a catalogue of them
would ferve no purpofe here. We {hall, however, fub-
joirTa table of the quantities of the ingredients of the
principal kinds from Neumann’s Chemiftry. ,
19 ] WIN
the red woods, elder berries, bilberries, Stc. In France Whip,
no fecret is made of thefe pra£Hce«, the colouring mat-
ters being publicly thrown out after they have been
ufed. 6
A quart of
I
Aland
Alicant
Burgundy
Carcaffone
Champagne
French
Frontignac
Vin Grave
Hermitage
Madeira
Malmfey
Vino de
Monte
Pulciano
Mofelle
Mufcadine
Neufschatel
Palm Sec
Pontac
Old Rhenifh
Rhenilh
Salamanca
Sherry
Spanilh
Vino Tinto
Tokay
Tyrol red
wine
Red wine
White
}
Highly
rectified
Spirit.
iz. dr gr
t 6 OO
6
2 6 oc
oc
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
Thick,
oily, unc¬
tuous, re-
finous
matter.
dr. gr
2 0.0
O 20
4 OO
4 10
6 40
6 40
4 00
6 00
2 00
2 00
3 c
00
4 20
4 00
o 00
4 0,0
5 20
o 00
3 2C
4 oc
o 00
4 oc
4 oc
3 00
I 4 OOT 2 CO
i 6 00.0
2 o oo c
4 4°
7 00
Gummy
and tar-
taro us
matter.
dr. gr.
0 2. 40
3°
OO
OC
00
oc
20
34
00
00
00
00
00
4 00
2 00
3 00
Water.
oz. dr. gr
5 3 00
2 6 oc
9 o 20
8 4 30
8 3 00
o
6
o
5
3
2
2 8 o 20
ic
00
00
00
4c
40
06
oc
oc
oc
00
00
00
The colour of wine is frequently artificial; a deep red
almoft always the effect of artificial additions, as of.
It is well known to be a common praftice among Adultera-
wine-coopers, innkeepers, and other dealers in wines, totion of
adulterate bad wine in order to conceal its defeats : jf)''vine-
for inftance, the wine be four, they throw into it a
quantity of fugar of lead, which entirely lakes away the
four talle. For fimilar purpofes alum is often mixed
with wine. Such fubftances, however, are well known
to be extremely pernicious to the human conftitution •,
it becomes of importance therefore to be able to detect
them whenever they happen to be contained in wine.
Several chemifts who have turned their attention to this
fubjebt, have furnifhed us with lefts for this purpofe. ^
To difcover lead diffolved in wine, boil together inaTodetedl
pint of water an ounce of quicklime and half an ounce ^ad in
of flour of brimftone •, and when the liquor, which willwine'
be of a yellow colour, is cold, pour it into a bottle, and Watforis
cork it up for ufe. A few drops of this liquor being
dropt into a glafs of wine or cyder containing lead, will
change the whole into a colour more or lefs brown, ac-p. ~-ji.
cording to the quantity of lead which it contains. If
the wine be wholly free from lead, it will be rendered
turbid by the liquor, but the colour will be rather a
dirty white than a black brown.
By this left, however, iron is alfij precipitated when
diffolved in wine, and is apt to be taken for lead ; a
miftake which has ruined feveral honeft merchants.
The following teft is therefore preferable, as not liable
to the fame inconvenience. s
Take equal parts of calcined oyfter-ftiells and crude Another
fulphur in fine powder, and put them in a crucible, method,
which put into a fire, and raife the heat fuddenly till it
has been expofed to a white heat for 15 minutes. Then
take it out, let it cool, beat the ingredients to powder,
and put them into a well corked bottle. To prepare
the teft liquor, put 20 grains of this powder together
with 120 grains of cream of tartar, and put them into
a ftrong bottle, fill it up with water, boil it for an hour,
and let it cool. Cork the bottle immediately, and fhake
it from time to time. After fome hours repofe, decant
off the clear liquor into an ounce vial, having firft put
22 drops of muriatic acid into each vial. Cork.thefe
vials accurately with a little wax mixed up with a little
turpentine. One part of this liquor, mixed with three
parts of fufpefted wine, will difcover the prefence of the
fmalleft quantity of lead or copper, by a very fenfible
black precipitate, and of arfenic by an orange precipi¬
tate : but will have no effeft on iron, if there be any ; * Journal
the prefence of which, however, may be afcertained by^<° r'hy-
adding a little potafh, which will turn the liquor blackq^^
if there be any iron. Pure wine- remains limpid after 1^;?I
the addition of this liquor *. p
As this fubjedt is of importance, we fhall add M. State of
Fourcroy’s obfervations on the ftate in which lead exifts leatl m
in wine, and on the methods of difcoveringits prefence :
“ Of the different principles which compofe wine, there
tvas no doubt (fays he) but that acids were the only
ones which were capable of diffolving oxide {calx) of
lead. But was it the tartareous acid always contained
in larger or fmaller quantity in wine, or the acetous •
acid developed in thofe which have become ftiarp, and
which there is a greater temptation to fweeten ? Expe¬
rience
Wine.
10
It forms
an aceto-
tartrite of
lead.
ii
Other me¬
thods of
detedling
this fait.
WIN [ 720 ] ■
nenee had proved to me that the acidulous tartrate of
potafli, or the cream of tartar, takes oxide of lead from
the acetous acid, and a precipitate of tartrate of lead is
formed ; the pure tartareous acid prepared in Scheele’s
method produces the fame effe6t. In order to under-
lland how the {harp wine which contains thefe two acids
can hold the oxide of lead in folution, I made the expe¬
riments which gave me the following refults : 1. The
acidulous tartrite {jcrem. tart.} has no fenlible a6Hon up¬
on the oxides of lead. 2. The pure tartareous acid has
a flight a£tion upon the oxides, and forms on their fur-
face a little tartrite of lead (tartarifed lead), in a white
powder. 3. Wine which only contains the tartareous
acidule, would not have any action upon the femi-vi-
trous oxide of lead or litharge. 4. Sharp wine which we
attempt to fweeten by this oxide of lead, afts firft upon
it by the acetous acid it contains. 5. When this acetite
of lead is formed, the tartareous acid precipitates it in
the form of tartrite of lead : this is proved by the preci¬
pitate which the folution of the acetite of lead or fugar
of lead forms in the wine. 6. But the acetous acid, if
it be in large enough quantity, rediflblves the tartrite of
lead in the wine juft as diftilled water would. Bergman
has pointed out this folution of tartrite of lead in acetous
acid for diftinguifhing the tartareous fait from the ful-
phate of lead (vitriol of lead}. 7. As this folution of tar¬
trite of lead in the acetous acid is much quicker, and
more eafy in fharp wines than in diftilled water and vi¬
negar, it is probable that the caufe of this difference de¬
pends upon the citric and malic acids which I have
tound in wine, and which I (hall take notice of again
on another occafion. 8. Litharged wine then, or wine
fweetened with lead, contains tartrite diflblved in the a-
cetous acid, and perhaps at the fame time in the malic
and citric acids.
“ It was neceffary afterwards to know the properties
of this combination. What experience has taught me is
as follows: I particularly examined the tartrite of lead
and its folution in acetous acid. The tartrite of lead is
fcarcely at all foluble in water 5 it is in the form of
powder, or of fmall white grains which have nofenfible
tafte } when it is diflolved in vinegar, the vinegar is
ioftened, its (harpnefs is diminifhed remarkably, and the
folution takes a flight fweetifti tafte, much lefs ftrong
than that of the pure acetite of lead. This tafte proves
that the union of the tartrite of lead with vinegar is not
only a folution like that of fait in water, by which the
properties of the fait are not changed, but a combina¬
tion which gives occafion to new properties. It is a
kind of a triple fait, different from thofe we have hither¬
to known, formed of tivo acids and of one bafe j where¬
as the other triple falts defcribed hitherto are compofed
of one acid and two bafes. I name this new triple fait
aceto-tartrite of lead. The acetous acid adheres to it
more than water in a common folution : what is remark¬
able in this combination is, that the two acids appear
to adhere to the bafe with an equal force, although they
have a different attraflion for it: nothing isneceflary to
produce this equilibrium, but to unite firft the oxide
of lead with the acid to which it adheres the moft
ftrongly, and afterwards to put this firft compound in
contaft with the weaker acid.
It was neceflary, in order to difcover ealy and cer¬
tain methods of afcertaining the prefence of lead in wine,
to examine with care the properties and phenomena of
WIN
the decompofitions of the aceto-tartrite of lead. Fixed Wine,
alkalies and ammoniac (volatile alkali} precipitate from -v—
this fait an oxide of lead, which is of a grayilh white
colour 3 but as they occafion a precipitate in pure wine
they cannot be of any ufe. The fulphuric (vitriolic}
acid decompofes the aceto-tartrite of lead, and forms
with it inftantly fulphate of lead; which being very
little foluble, and very heavy, is precipitated. The
oxalic, or pure faccharine acid, and the acidulous oxa¬
late, or the fait of forrel of the {hops, likewife decom-
pofe this fait, and take from it the lead. The oxalate
of lead is precipitated in great abundance : thefe two
acids, the fulphuric and oxalic acids, not producing any
precipitate in pure wine, are very proper to {how the
prefence of lead in wine. The fulphate and oxalate of
lead, when they are precipitated from wine, are colour¬
ed, whereas they are very white when they are formed
in diftilled water ; but their red or brown colour does
not prevent us from difeovering them by a very fimple
method. If the precipitates be colle&ed\vith care, and
are cautioufly heated upon a coal with a blow-pipe,
they fmoke, become white, exhale vapours, pafs fuccef-
fively through the ftates of the red and yellow oxides of
lead, and at length are reduced into metallic globules
at the inftant they are perceived to be agitated by a
very evident effervefcence : if we ceafe to blow at this
inftant, we obtain globules upon the charcoal. In order
to this, it is neceffary, however, that the charcoal be
lolidj and be not cracked, and that we ftiould not have
blowed too ftrongly ; otherwife the globules would be
abforbed, and would difappear. The fulphate of lead
requires a longer time to be reduced than the oxalate of
the feme metal, and there is a greater hazard of lofing
the metallic particles, which, befide, are in fmall quan-
. two firft procefles, already fufficiently cer¬
tain of themfelves, I wirtied to be able to add one which
might be capable of pointing out inftantly the prefence
of lead, by an appearance belonging exclufively to this
metal, and which might unite to this advantage that of
manifefting very fmall quantities of it. Diftilled water
impregnated with fulphurated hydrogenous gas, or he¬
patic gas, extricated from folid alkaline fulphurets (//-
vers offulphur} by acids, prefented me with thefe pro¬
perties. rIhis folution blackens very deeply that of the
aceto-tartrite of lead, and renders ^0 of this fait in
water or in wine very fenfible. The fenfibility of this
rtaflive is fuch, that we may dilute litharged wine with
a fufficient quantity of water to take away almoft en¬
tirely the colour of the wine, and this rea<ftive will ftill
produce a very manifeft alteration. The fulphurated
■water has, befides, the advantage not to occafion any
change in the wines which do not contain a metallic
fubftance, and it is not precipitated by the acids of wine,
like the folutions of alkaline fulphurets. In order to
procure this rea6Hve pure, it is neceflary to prepare it
at the inftant of the experiment, by receiving in a vial
full of diftilled water, and inverted upon a ftielf of a
fmall hydro-pneumatic apparatus, filled with diftilled
water, the fulphurated hydrogenous gas, feparated from
the folid fulphuret of potafti by the fulphuric or muriatic
acid, and firft filtrated through water in another vial;
when the fecond vial contains the third of its volume of
the fulphurated hydrogenous gas, the gas is fliaken
ftrongly with the water, which fills the two-thirds of
the
WIN [ 721 ] WIN
Wine, tlie vial j and when the abforption is over, the teft li-
-V~^ quor is prepared. This re-aftive changes very quickly
in the air : it is neceflary to make it the moment it is to
be employed, and to keep it in a veffel quite full and
•well corked. If there were any fear that the black co¬
lour and the precipitation by the gafeous fulphurated
water (hould not be fufficient to prove the prefence of
lead in fpirituous liquors, I would obferve, that this fear
would be diminifhed by employing the three re-aftives
mentioned in this memi-ir, and by depending only on
the correfpondent effe&s of thefe three re-a£lives: but
all fufpicion would be removed, by reducing the three
' precipitates by the blow-pipe, and obtaining globules of
lead from each of them.”
•bod of Some years ago, the Academy of Lyons propofed the
following prize-queftion : What is the beft method of
m dif- afcertaining the prefence and the quantity of alum dif-
e<*in folved in wine, efpecially in very deep coloured red
wine ? The prize was gained by M. J. S. Beraud. From
his experiments, it appears that a mixture of lime-water
and wine in any proportion whatever, will at the end of
12 or hours furnifli a quantity of cryflals, which
may be feparated by filtration, and that thefe cryltals
will be eafieft difcovered when the quantities of wine
and lime-water are equal ; but that wine containing
alum difiblved in it, will not form cryftals when mixed
with lime-water, but merely depofits a muddy fediment.
To know therefore whether any wine contains alum or
not, we have only to mix a fmall quantity of it with
lime-water : if crytlals are formed, it contains no alum;
if not, it does. Again, if wine contains alum, the re-
fiduum that remains after filtration will, as it dries,
fplit into quadrilateral fegments, which will detach
themfelves from the paper which contains them ; but if
the wine contains no alum, the refiduum, after it is dry,
will remain united and attached to the paper. If one
meafure of wine and two-thirds of a meafure of lime-wa¬
ter depofit cryftals, wre are certain that if the wine con¬
tains alum, the proportion of that alum to the wine will
be lefs than 1 to 1152 ; if, when equal parts of wine and
lime-water are mixed, no cryftals be depofited, we may
be fure that more than part of the mafs of wine
confifts of alum.
A great proportion of the wine confumed in this
country is brought from Spain and Portugal ; govern¬
ment has always difcouraged the importation of French
wines by heavy taxes. \Ve are not fure how far fuch
conduft is founded on good policy, as the French
wines are confeftedly the beft, and might be the cheap-
eft ; but fuch is the jealoufy and enmity that has al¬
ways fubfifted between Britain and France, that both
nations have been contented to injure themfelves, pro¬
vided they could do a greater injury to their neigh¬
bours. Befides, the advantages which Britain derives
from the Portugal trade are very great, and it would
13 not be eafy perhaps to fecure them on any other
eftions terms. ^
the It may be worth while to infert here a few directions
' ltment about the treatment of wines after they have been im*
wines1" Porled tnto this country.—On landing, the lefs they are
expofed the better ; for they are affected by the feafons,
and more or lefs by climate. IVtarch and April are the
proper times for (hipping wines from France, and they
will be landed in England and Ireland in the fame de¬
gree of temperature. The great art in keeping wines is
VOL. XX. Part II.
to prevent their fretting, which is done by keeping Win*,
them in the fame degree of heat. In fpring and fail, '(~m“
the wines in Bourdeaux are fubjedl to changes that
may be dangerous, if not prevented by neceflary rack-
ings : theft- changes are folely the eft’etts oi the fealons.
If wines are chilled, and of courfe turn foul, from be¬
ing (hipped and landed in cold weather, they will loon
recover by putting them in a warm vault, well co¬
vered with (aw-duft. As foon as they are in the vault*
they ought to be covered up. But if (hipped and land¬
ed in Cummer, if the (mallei! dc-gree of fermentation be
found on them, it will be requifite to dip the bung
cloths in brandy, and leave the bungs loofe for fome
days, to give it time to cool; and if in a fortnight or
three weeks the fermentation do not ceafe, and the wine-
become bright, it will be proper to rack it (matching
the hogftieads well with brimltone), and force it with
the whites of eight eggs. If it then becomes fine, bung
it tight, and let it remain fo until it is bottled If
wines new landed are wanted foon for the bottle, it will
be neceflary to force them immediately, and let them
remain bunged clofe for at lead a month, to recover
from the forcing, or if two months the better ; for
wines bottled in high order .come much fooner into
drinking than if bottled when flat, which all wines are
after forcing. Wine muit never be bottled the lead
foul, which produces a tendency to fret; and if bottled
in this (late, will never come in order, but may poflibly
be loft ; for this there is qo remedy but repeated rank¬
ings ; and care muft be taken (after rinfing the hogs¬
heads well and drawing them) to burn a good piece ot
match in them. This cools the wine, and there is no
danger of hurting the colour, for it recovers it in a
little time : but if it did, it is abfolutely neceflary ; for
if wine is fuffered to continue on the fret, it will wear
itfelf to nothing. Wines bottled in good order may be
fit to drink in fix months ; but they are not in perfec¬
tion before twelve : from that to two years they may
continue fo ; but it would be improper to keep them
longer, for wines in general have not the body they had
formerly, from the vines being too much forced.
It fometimes happens that wines fcuddy and ftubbom
will not fall with one Or even two forcings. It will
then be proper to give them five or fix gallons of good
ftrong wine, and force them with the whites of a dozen
eggs, with a tea-fpoonful of fand produced from fawing-
marble, or a fmall fpoonful of fine fait. Bottled wine
in winter (hould be well covered with faw-duft, and if
the vaults are cold and damp, ftrew it deep on the floor ;
if faw-duft is thrown upon the hogftieads, and their fides
are bedded fome inches thick, it will keep them from
the fret.
The fame treatment is to be regarded with white
wines, except that they require to be higher matched,
particularly Mufcat wines ; fuch as Frontignac, Beziers,
&c. which being often fweetened with honey, are very
fubjeft to fret ; and thefe only frequent rackings, with
a great deal of brimftone, can cool. Hermitage, from
not being fufficiently dried, and poflefling more riehnefs
than claret, is alfo very liable to come on the fret, and
will require much the fame treatment as the Mufcat
wines. Attention fliould be had to bottle in fine wea¬
ther, when the wind is north ; but to avoid cold or
frofty weather. The months of April and October are
favourable. The beft time to bottle port wine is four
4 Y years
W I N
Wine.
t 7
years after the vintage, and to keep them two years in
bottle before you begin to ufe them. When wines are
racked, and the lees immediately palfed through flannel
bags into clofe-necked jars, and diredlly bottled, there
will be very little loft by rackings, as the wine when
fine may lerve for filling up.
When wines are deftined for warm climates, it may
be proper to rinfe the hogflieads with brandy ; and in
bottling many rinfe the bottles and corks with it. Wines
that have remained a certain time (three or four months)
in a vault, and made lefs or more lee, ought never to be
fent into the country without firft racking them, other-
wife they may be liable to fret j and if bottled in that
fiate, may rifk being loft.
Wines which may be ordered for immediate drinking
will be. forced on the fhipping, and in a few weeks after
they are landed will be fit for the bottle. The forcings
proper for claret are the whites of a dozen eggs, beat up
with a tea-Xpoonful of fine fait, and well worked with a
forcing rod. Take care to ufe no bad egg. This is for
one hogfhead.
The forcing for white wine is ifinglafs diffolved in
One ounce is futficient for two hogfheads. No
wine.
*4
Receipt for
making
raifir. wine.
fait is to be ufed in forcing the white wines. See Croft
on Wines, 8vo, lySS.
We (hall infert here the following receipt for making
raijin wine—To a 20 gallon veffel take 100 pounds of
raifins j pick off the (talks, chop them grofsly, and put
them into an open tub more vide than deep. Add two
parts in three to the water of them, and let them (land
15 days, ftirring them well every day. Then (train
and prefs them, putting afide the liquor that runs from
them. Add the remainder of the water to the raifins
that have thus been prefled, and let it (land upon them
one week, frequently (tirring them as before. Then
prefs o(F the liquor, and add it to what you firft colle£l-
ed *, putting both runnings together into your veflel, to¬
gether with one quart of brandy. To colour it, burn
three-fourths of a pound of fugar into a fmall quantity
of the liquor, and add this to the wine. When the li¬
quor in the barrel has done Tinging, flop the veflel clofe,
and let it (land till fit to be bottled. The greater the
quantity which the veflel holds, and the longer it is kept
in the wood, the better will it be.
As fome of the hints for making wines in Champagne
may be ufeful in the manufa&ure of the wines of this
country, we infert the following abridged account of the
different proceffes that are followed in making white
and red champagne.
Great care is neceffary for making white ivine. The
ripefi: bunches muft be carefully gathered, freed from
rotten, dry, and bruifed grapes, put into large balkets
covered with a cloth to keep them from the* fun, car¬
ried to the (hade, and kept there till the evening, when
they are to be fpeedily prefled. The grape;, being laid
on the bed of the prefs, they are covered with three or
four layers of flat ftones, and the prefs turned. The juice
having run for four or five minutes, the prefs is turned
backward, the ftones removed, the grapes which have
protruded thruft into the heap, the ftones replaced, and
the prefs turned again. The juice from three of fuch
preflures, which will not require an hour, is put by it-
felf for the bed wine into a vat, where it is left all night
to fettle. 6
The next naorning the juice is poured off from the
22 ] WIN
fediment, and put into new well rinfed caiks. In thefe it
ferments violently at firft, but afterwards imperceptibly,
till about the end of December it becomes fine, having-
gone through all the ftages of depuration. It is then
racked off in dry weather, on a clear frofty day, and
fined with ifinglafs. About a pound is fufticient for 40
puncheons. The ifinglafs being diffolved is well beaten
diluted with wine taken from the ca(k, then poured into
it, and the whole well ftirred by an inftrument introdu¬
ced at the bung-hole. The wine thus left to fettle fer¬
ments (lightly again, till it be (topped by the cold wea¬
ther, or by time. In a month or fix iveeks it is racked
off again, and has another fining with half the quantity
of ifinglafs.
For making red wine, the grapes are gathered with
the fame precautions as for making white, taking only
the black grapes. Thefe are bruifed in particular vef-
fels, by men treading on them with ftrong wooden
(hoes : part of the (talks are thrown away, and the muf
is left in covered veffels to ferment fufficiently to extraft
the colouring matter from the pellicles. In fome years,
three or four days are fufficient; in others it requires
10, 15, or even 20. When the fermentation begins,
the hulks and (talks are forced down fo as to be covered
with the muft, either by means of ftrong poles furniftied
with crofs pegs, or, which is better, by a couple of
ftrong men going into the vat, and well treading and
mixing its contents. When the air above the vat ex-
tinguilhes a candle, the (talks and hulks rife forcibly,
whatever pains be taken frequently to fink them, that
the muft may not acquire a difagreeable tafte ; the con¬
tents of the vat experience a degree of ebullition, and the
colouring matter is decompofed. The fermentation muft
be made to (top here, that the wine may not acquire a
hard tafte, which even time cannot deftroy.
About the end of December, when the fermentation
has ceafed, the wine is racked off from the lees; about
the middle of May it is racked off again ; the barrels
are frefti hooped, and the wine is put into the cellar.
When it is to be fent to the confumer, it is racked a
third time ; the whites of five or fix frelh eggs are well
beaten up in a pint of water, for every puncheon hold¬
ing 240 bottles. Good red champagne will keep in
bottles from fix to twelve years.
Wine-Prefs, a machine contrived to fqueeze tha
juice out of grapes, and confiding of feveral pieces of
timber, varioufly difpofed, which compofe three bodies
of timber-work, clofely united to the axis, which ferves
as a fwing whereby it may be moved by the vice. Of
thefe there are different fizes as well as different con-
ftruftions ; for an account of which, illuftrated by (k
gures, fee Miller’s Gardener’s Di&ionary, article WlNE-
Prefs.
Spirit of WlNE, or Alcohol, a name given by chemifts
to every ardent fpirit produced by diftillation. See
Chemistry Index.
WING, that part of a bird, infeft, &c. whereby it
is enabled to fly. See Bird and Ornithology.
Wings, in military affairs, are the two flanks or ex¬
tremes of an army, ranged in form of a battle ; being
the right and left fides thereof.
V/INTER, one of the four feafons or quarters of the
year. See Season, &c.
Winter commences on the day when the fun’s diftance
from the zenith of the place is greateft, and ends on tha
dayy
Wine
Wintei ■
/inter
t'ire.
W I R [ 723 ] W I
day rvlien its diftatice is at a mean between the greateft might be employed to preferve
and leaft.   - -
, Under the equator, the winter as well as other feafons
returns twice every year 5 but all other places have only
one winter in the year : which in the northern hemi-
fphere begins when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn,
and in the fouthern hemifphere when in the tropic of
ftups from fire, and
buildings on there ftill more eafily j or at lead that
they might render the ravages of fire lefs frequent, and .
lefs terrible. Thefe gauzes might be very ufeful too
for theatrical decorations, which would not be liable to
take fire. Their only inconvenience is their being fo
flexible; but Mr Rochon does not defpair of
Wire
Wit.
little
r ‘ | , uut iYir nocnon aoes not aeipair o
Cancer ; to that all places in the lame hemifphere have means being found by chemiftry to remedy this imper
their winter at the fame time. fetfion, and it was with a view of calling attention ‘
their winter at the fame time.
IVlNTE R-Berry. See Ph vs alts, Botany Index.
WINTERA, a genus of plants of the clafs of poly-
andria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
12th order, Holoracece. See Botany and Materia
Medica Index.
WINTON, Andrew, a Scottifh poet and hiflorian
of the 14th century ; but very little is known of his
life. He was a canon regular of St Andrews, and ivas
prior of the monaftery of St Serf in the ifland of Loch
Leven in Kinrofs-fhire ; for in the chartulary of the
priory of St Andrews there are feveral public inflru-
ments of Andrew V inton, as prior of Loch Leven.
They are dated between the years 1395 and 1413, fo
that Winton mutt have been cotemporary with Bar¬
bour, whofe merits are on feveral occafions celebrated
by him. Winton is beft known as the author of the
Orygynale Cronyhill of Scotland. This work was under¬
taken at the requefi: of Sir John Wemyfs, the anceftor
of the noble family of that name. It remained neglect¬
ed for feveral centuries, but in 1795 a fplendid edition
of that part of it relative to Scottilh affairs, was publifh-
ed by Mr Macpherfon. The time of Winton’s death
is unknown ; but, as he mentions the death of Robert
duke of Albany, which happened in 1420, the hiitorian
mult have been alive at that time.
WIRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of
an iron into a thread of a finenefs anfwerable to the hole
it paffed through.
Wires are frequently drawn fo fine as to be wrought
along with other threads of filk, wool, flax, &c.
The metals molt commonly drawn into wire are gold,
filver, copper, and iron. Gold-wire is made of cylindri¬
cal ingots of filver, covered over with a fkin of gold,
and thus drawn fucceflively through a vafl: number of
holes, each fmaller and fmaller, till at laft it is brought
to a finenefs exceeding that of a hair. That admirable
duCtility which makes one of the diftinguifhing charac¬
ters of gold, is nowhere more confpicuous than in this
gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of filver, covered
with a coat of gold, only weighing one ounce, as Dr
Halley informs us, is ufually drawn into a wire, twTo
yards of which weigh no more than one grain ; whence
98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and
one Angle grain of gold covers the 98 yards ; fo that the
ten-thoufandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an
inch long.
In 1784, Mr Rofwag of Strafbourg prefented to the
board of trade fome gauze made of iron wire, for which
he received a reward *, and the loom he invented for
making it was lodged in the collection of machines at
Vaucanfon. In 1799 Mr Rochon made others, and
ceated them with a tranfparent glue, to be fubftituted
infiead of horn for (hip lanterns, to be ufed between
decks, and in engagements by night. He has fince
•conceived, that with a thin coating of plafter they
0   to
this fubjeCt, that he read a paper on it to the clafs.
IVlRE of Lapland. 1 he inhabitants of Lapland
have a fort of fhining flender fubftance in ufe among
them on feveral occafions, which is much of the thick-
nefs and appearance of our filver wire, and is therefore
called, by thofe who do not examine its ftruChire or
fubftance, Lapland wire. It is made of the finews of
the rein deer, which being carefully feparated in the
eating, are, by the women, after foaking in water and
beating, fpun into a fort of thread, of admirable fine¬
nefs and ftrength, when wrought to the fmalleft fila¬
ments ; but when larger, is very ftrong, and fit for the
purpofes of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it is
called, is made of the fineft of thefe threads covered
with tin. The women do this bufinefs j and the. way
they take is to melt a piece of tin, and placing at the
edge of it a horn, with a hole through it, they draw
thefe finewy threads, covered with the tin, through the
hole, which'prevents their coming out too thick cover¬
ed. This drawing is performed with their teeth ; and
there is a fmall piece of bone placed at the top of the
hole, where the wire is made flat; fo that we always
find it rounded on all fides but one, where it is flat.
This wire they ufe in embroidering their clothes, as
ive do gold and filver; they often fell it to ftrangers,
under the notion of its having certain magical virtues.
WISDOM, ufually denotes a higher and more re¬
fined notion of things immediately prefented to the mind,
as it were, by intuition, without the aftiftance of ratio¬
cination.
Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed, in a
moral fenfe, for what we call prudence, or difcretiont
which confifts in the foundnefs of the judgment, and a
conduct anfwerable thereto.
WISDOM of Solomon, one of the books of the Apo¬
crypha. It abounds with Platonic language, and was
probably written after the Cabaliftic philofophy was in¬
troduced among the Jews.
WIT, is a quality of certain thoughts and expreflions,
much eafier perceived than defined. According to Mr
Locke, wit lies in the affemblage of ideas, and putting
thofe together with quicknefs and variety, wherein can
be found any refemblance or congruity, thereby to
make up pleafant pidures and agreeable vifions to the
fancy. Mr Addifon limited this definition confider-
ably, by obferving, that every refemblance of ideas
does Dot conllitute wit, but thofe only which produce
dehght and furprife. Mr Pope defined wit to be a
quick conception and an eafy delivery : while, accord¬
ing to a late writer, it confifts in an aflimilation of di-
ftant ideas.
The word wit originally fignified wifdom. A witte
was anciently a wife man : the wittenagernot, or Saxon
parliament, an affemblage of wife men. So late as the
reign of Elizabeth, a'man of pregnant wit, of great
4^2 WX,
WIT [ 724 ] WIT
Wit. wit, was a man of vaft judgment. We ft ill fay, in his
'uvifs^ out of his wits, for in or out of found mind. The
word, however, is now applied in a more limited fenfe.
Without attempting to expofe the inaccuracy of the
definitions above mentioned, or hazarding a definition of
our own where fo many eminent men have failed, we
lhall endeavour to (how in what true wit confifts.
It is evident that wit excites in the mind an agree¬
able furprife, and that this is owing entirely to the
ftrange affemblage of related ideas prefented to the
mind. This end is effeded, 1. By debafing things pom¬
pous or feemingly grave j 2. By aggrandizing things
little or frivolous j 3. By fetting ordinary obje&s in a
particular and uncommon point of view, by means not
Campbell's onjy remote kut. apparently contrary. Of fo much
of Rhetoric, confequence are furprife and novelty, that, nothing is
vol. i. * more taftelefs, and fometimes difgufting, than a joke
that has become ftale by frequent repetition. For the
fame reafon, even a pun or happy allufion will appear
excellent when thrown out extempore in converlation,
which would be deemed execrable in print. In like
manner, a witty repartee is infinitely more pleafing
than a witty attack : for though, in both cafes, the
thing may be equally new to the reader or hearer, the
effeft on him is greatly injured, when there is accefs to
fuppofe that it may be the flow produflion of ftudy and
premeditation. This, however, holds moft with regard
to the inferior tribes of witticifm, of which their readi-
nefs is the beft recommendation.
We fhall illuftrate thefe obfervations by fubjoining a
fpecimen or two of each of thefe forts of wit:
Of the firft fort, which confifts in the debafement of
things great and eminent, Butler, amongft a thoufand
other inftances, hath given us thofe which follow :
And now had Phoebus in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap :
And, like a lobfter boil’d, the morn
From black to red began to turn.
Hudibras, part ii. canto 2.
Here the low allegorical^ ftyle of the firft couplet, and
the fimile ufed in the fecond, afford us a juft notion of
this loweft fpecies, which is diftinguilhed by the name
of the ludicrous. Another fpecimen from the fame au¬
thor you have in thefe lines :
Great on the bench, great in the faddle,
That could as well bind o’er as fwaddle,
Mighty he was at both of thefe,
And ftyl’d of war, as well as peace:
So fome rats of amphibious nature,
Are either for the land or water.
Ibid, part i. canto I.
In this coarfe kind of drollery, thofe laughable tranfla-
tions or paraphrafes of heroic and other ferious poems,
wherein the authors are faid to be traveftied, chiefly
abound.
• The fecond kind, confifting in the aggrandifement of
little things, which is by far the moft fplendid, and dif-
plays a foaring imagination, thefe lines of Pope will
ferve to illuftrate :
As Berecynthia, while her offspring vie
In homage to the mother of the Iky,
5
Surveys around her in the bleft abode, Wit.
An hundred fons, and every fon a god : y—
Not with lefs glory mighty Dulnels crown’d,
Shall take thro’ Grubftreet her triumphant round j
And her Parnaffus glancing o’er at once,
Behold a hundred fons, and each a dunce.
This whole fimilitude is fpirited. The parent of the ce-
leftials is contrafted by the daughter of night and chaos;
heaven by Grubftreet; gods by dunces. Befides, the
parody it contains on a beautiful pafl'age in Virgil adds
a particular luftre to it. This fpecies we may term
thrafonical, or the moch-majeftic. It affedts the moft
pompous language, and fonorous phrafeology, as much
as the other affedts the reverfe, the vileft and moft gro¬
velling dialed!.
To this clafs alfo we muft refer the application of
grave refledtions to mere trifles. For that great and fe¬
rious are naturally affociated by the mind, and likewife
little and trifling, is fufficiently evinced by the common
modes of expreflion on thefe fubjedts ufed in every
tongue. An oppofite inftance of fuch an application we
have from Philips:
My galligafkins, that have long withftood
The winter’s fury and encroaching frofts.
By time fubdued, (What will not time fubduel')
An horrid chafm difclofe. Splendid Shilling.
Of the third fpecies of wit, which is by far the moft
multifarious, and which refults from what may be called
the queernefs or Angularity of the imagery, we lhall
give a few fpecimens that will ferve to mark fome of its
principal varieties. To illuftrate all would be impoflible.
The firft lhall be where there is an apparent contrariety
in the things Ihe exhibits as connedled. This kind of
contrail we have in thefe lines of Garth :
Then Hydrops next appears amongft the throng;
Bloated and big Ihe flowly fails along:
But like a mifer in excefs Ihe’s poor,
And pines for thirft amidft her watery ftore.
Difpenfary.
A fecond fort is, where the things compared are what
with dialedlicians would come under the denomination
of dijparates, being fuch as can be ranked under no
common genus. Of this we lhall fubjoin an example
from Young.
Health chiefly keeps an Atheift in the dark j
A fever argues better than a Clarke:
Let but the logic in his pulfe decay,
The Grecian he’ll renounce, and learn to pray.
Univerfal PaJ/ion.
A third variety in this fpecies fprings from confound¬
ing artfully the proper and the metaphorical fenfe of an
exprelfion. In this way, one will aflign as a motive
what is difcovered to be perfedtly abfurd, when but
ever fo little attended to; and yet from the ordinary
meaning of the words, hath a fpecious appearance on a
Angle glance. Of this kind we have an inftance in the
fubfequent lines :
While thus the lady talk’d, the knight
Turn’d th’ outfide of his eyes to white,
As
WIT [ 725 ] WIT
Wit As men of inward light are wont
I! To turn their optics in upon’t.
tchcraft. Hudibras, part iii. canto 1.
For whither can they turn their eyes more properly than
to the light ?
A fourth variety, much refembling the former, is
when the argument or comparifon (for all argument is
a kind of comparifon) is founded on the fuppofal of cor¬
poreal or perfonal attributes in what is ftriftly not fuf-
ceptible of them 5 as in this,
But Hudibras gave him a twitch
As quick as lightning in the breech,
Juft in the place where honour’s lodg’d,
As wife philofophers have judg’d :
Becaufe a kick in that place more
Hurts honour than deep wounds before.
Ibid, part ii. canto 3.
The fifth, and only other variety which we {hall
mention, is that which arifes from a relation, not in the
things fignified, but in the figns of all relations, no
doubt the flighteft. Identity here gives rife to puns
and clinches j refemblance to quibbles, cranks, and
rhimes: Of thefe it is quite unneceffary to exhibit fpeci-
mens.
Wit, John de, a celebrated penfionary of Holland,
and one of the greateft politicians of his time, was the
fon of Jacob de Wit, burgomafter of Dort, and was
born in 1625. He became well (killed in civil law, po¬
litics, mathematics, and other fciences j and wrote a
treatife on the Elements of Curved lines, publifhed by
Francis Schooten. Having taken his degree of doftor
of law, he travelled into foreign courts, where he be¬
came efteemed for his genius and prudence. At his re¬
turn to his native country in 1650, he became penfion¬
ary of Dort, then counfellor-penfionary of Holland and
Weft Friedand, intendant and regifter of the fiefs, and
keeper of the great feal. He was thus at the head
of affairs in Holland} but his oppofition to the re-
eftablifhment of the office of ftadtholder, which he
thought a violation of the freedom and independence of
the republic, coft him his life, when the prince of
Orange’s party prevailed. He and his brother Corne¬
lius were affaflinated by the populace at the Hague in
1674, aged 47. _ ^ r
WITCH, a perfon guilty of witchcraft.
WITCHCRAFT, a fupernatural power which per-
fons were formerly fuppofed to obtain the poffefiion of
by entering into a compact with the devil. I hey gave
themfelves up to him body and foul} and he engaged,
that they ftiould want for nothing, and that he would
avenge them upon all their enemies. As foon as the
bargain was concluded, the devil delivered to the witch
an imp, or familiar fpirit, to be ready at a call, and do
whatever it was direfted. By theafliftance of tnisimp
and the devil together, the witch, who was almoft al¬
ways an old woman, was enabled to tranfport herfelf in
the air on a broomftick or a fpit to diftant places to at¬
tend the meetings of the witches. At thefe meetings
the devil always prefided. They were enabled alfo to
transform themfelves into various ftiapes, particularly to
affume the forms of cats and hares, in whicli they moft
delighted j to infli6t difeafes on whomfoever they
thought proper j and to punifti their enemies in a varie- Witchcraft,
ty of ways. —v—■-
The belief that certain perfons were endowed wfith
fupernatural power, and that they were affifted by in-
vifible fpirits, is very ancient. The fogee of the Ro¬
mans feem rather to have been forcerers than witches ;
indeed the idea of a witch, as above defcribed, could
not have been prevalent till after the propagation of
Chriftianity, as the heathens had no knowledge of the
Chriftian devil.
Witchcraft was univerfally believed in Europe till the
16th century, and even maintained its ground with to¬
lerable firmnefs till the middle of the 17th. Vaft num¬
bers of reputed witches were convidted and condemned
to be burnt every year. The methods of difcovering
them were various. One was, to weigh the fuppofed Provincial
criminal againft the church bible, which, if (lie was GloJJary.
guilty, would preponderate : another, by making her
attempt to fay the Lord’s Prayer 5 this no witch was
able to repeat entirely, but would omit feme part or
fentence thereof. It is remarkable, that all witches did
not hefitate at the fame place ; fome leaving out one
part, and fome another. Teats, through which the
imps fucked, were indubitable marks of a witch : thefe
were always raw, and alfo infenfible j and, if fqueezed,
fometimes yielded a drop of blood. A witch could not
weep more than three tears, and that only out of the
left eye. This want of tears was, by the witch-finders,
and even by fome judges, confidered as a very fubftan-
tial proof of guilt. Swimming a witch was another
kind of popular ordeal generally pra&iledj for this fhe
was ftripped naked, and crofs-bound, the right thumb
to the left toe, and the left thumb to the right toe.
Thus prepared, (he was thrown into a pond or river, in
which, if guilty, (lie could not fink j for having, by
her compaft with the devil, renounced the benefit of the
water of baptifm, that element, in its turn, renounced
her, and refufed to receive her into its bofom. Sir Ro¬
bert Filmer mentions two others by fire : the firft, by
burning the thatch of the houfe of the fufpeded witch j
the other, burning any animal fuppofed to be bewitched
by her, as a hog or ox. Thefe, it was held, would
force a witch to confefs.
The trial by the ftool was another method ufed for
the difcovery of witches. It was thus managed : Hav¬
ing taken the fufpe£ted witch, (he was placed in the
middle of a room upon a ftool or table, crofs-legged, or
in fome other uneafy pofture j to which if Ihe fubmitted
not, fhe w'as then bound with cords : there (lie was
watched, and kept without meat or deep for the fpace
of 24 hours (for, they faid, within that time they ftiould
fee her imp come and fuck). A little hole was like-
wife made in the door for imps to come in at; and left
it fhould come in fome lefs difcernible (hape, they that
watched were taught to be ever and anon {'weeping the
room, and, if they faw any fpiders or flies, to kill them :
if they could not kill them, then they might be fure
they were imps. If witches, under examination or tor¬
ture, would not confefs, all their apparel was changed,
and every hair of their body (haven off with a (harp
razor, left they (hould fecrete magical charms to pre¬
vent their confefling. Witches were moft apt to con-
fefs on Fridays.
By fuch trials as thefe, and by the accufation of chil¬
dren,
WIT t 726
Witchcraft, dren, old women, and fools, were thoufands of unhappy-
women condemned for witchcraft, and burnt at the
flake. In the 18th volume of the Statiftical Account
of Scotland there is the trial of two witches, William
Coke and Alifon Dick, in Kirkaldy, in 1636. The
evidence on which they were condemned is abfolutely
ridiculous : they were, however, burnt for witchcraft.
The expences which the town and kirk-feflion were put
to on this occafion were as follows ;
]
WIT
In pritnis.—To Mr James Miller, when
he went to Preftowne for a man to
try them, 47s.
Item.—To the man of Culrofs, (the
executioner), when he went away the
firft time, 12s.
ItetJi.—For coals for the witches, 24s.
Item.—In purchafing the commiflion,
Item.—For one to go to Finmouth for
the laird to fit upon their afiize as
judge,
Item.—For harden to be jumps to them,
Item.—For making of them,
L.2
12
4
3
6
10
8
Summa for the kirk’s part L. 17 10 Scots.
6 8
14
6
The Town’s part of expences deburfed extraordinarily
upon William Coke and Alifon Dick.
In primit.—For 10 loads of ooals to
burn them, 5 merks,
Item. For a tar barrel, 14s.
Item.—For towes,
Item.—To him that brought the
executioner,
Item.—To the executioner for his
pains, -
Item.—For his expences here,
Item.—For one to go to Finmouth
for the laird,
2 18
8
14
16
o 6
Summa town part, L. 17
Both, L.34
Or L. 2
1
11
J7
o Scots,
o
7 Ster.
Vol. 111.
DrTernar, ■^'or a confiderable time after the inquifition was
Manchefler erefted, the trials of witches (as heretics) were confined
Tr^-. t0 that tribunal 5 but the goods of thofe who were con-
demned being confifcated to the holy office, its minifters
were fo a&ive in difcovering forcerers, that the differ¬
ent governments found it neceffary to deprive them of
the cognifance of this crime. On the continent, com-
miffioners were then appointed for the dilcovery and
convidion of witches, who, though lefs aaive than the
inquifitors, were but too zealous in profecuting their
funaion. In 1494, Sprenger and Inftitor, two perfons
employed in this .commiffion, publiflied a colleaion of
trials, moft of which had come before themfelves, under
the title of Malleus Malejicarum: this ferved as a kind
cf mftitute for their fucceffors.
"I he firft writers againft witchcraft were ftigmatized
as Atheifts, though they only endeavoured to prove the
imbecility of the perfons accufed, and the infatuation or
the knavery of their accufers. Such were the epithets
beftowed by Dr Henry More, and even by Cudworth
hmuelt. Wierus, the difciple of the celebrated Agrip-
pa, gave rife to tire firft great controverfy cn this fub- Witchcraft
jea. His mafter had taught him humanity j and he' ^
endeavoured, but with too feeble a hand, to flop the
bloody proceedings of the judges. Wierus appears to
have been a well-difpofed, weak man, with extenfive
reading on his fubjea, but too narrow-minded to com-
prehend it thoroughly. He involved himfelf in un-
fpeakable difficulties, by admitting the aaion of fuper-
natural powers in certain difeafes, and in poffeffions
while he denied that witches had any concurrence in
them. Thefe appearances (faid he) are illufions of the
devil, who perfuades fimple and melancholy perfons that
the mifchief he himfelf performs, is done by them, and
at their pleafure. He was weak enough to attempt the
explanation of every ftory alleged by his antagonifts
without queftioning the truth of the fads.
Bodinus, a French lawyer of eminence, who had af-
Cfted at feveral trials of witches, wrote againft Wierus
in his Demonomania. He urged the concurrent teftimo-
nies of fuifficient witneffes, and the confeffions of the
witches themfelves, to eftablilh the exiftence of forcery.-
Wierus owned that the unhappy perfons believed them¬
felves to be guilty of the crimes alleged againft them,
but that they were deceived by the devil. But what do
you make of the witches meetings, cried Bodinus ? The
witches (replied his antagonift) are atrabilious. This
explanation was fo unfatisfadory that Wierus paffed for
a magician, whom the devil had furniffied with fpecious
arguments to fave others from punilhment. Lerchemer
Godelmann, Ewichius, Ewaldus, and fome others, fol¬
lowed him, notwuthftanding this ftigroa ; but they were
oppofed by men of more acutenefs and confiftency than
themfelves j by Remigius, who had condemned feveral
hundreds of forcerers to the flames ; Delrio, whofe book
is a complete Corpus Magi*; Cujas, Eraftus, Scribo-
nius, Camerarius, and a crowd of others.
In this country, while the belief in witchcraft was
fupported by royal authority (for James I. is univerfally
known to have written on demonology) countenanced
by Bacon, and generally adopted among the people* only
one writer was hardy enough to oppofe it. This was
Reginald Scott, who publifhed a colledion ©f impof-
tures deteded, under the title of Difcoveries of Witch¬
craft. James ordered the book to be burnt by the com¬
mon executioner, and the judges continued to burn
witches as ufual. During the civil wars, upwards of
eighty v'ere hanged in Suffolk, on the accufations of
Hopkins the witch-finder. Webfter was the next writer
againft witchcraft; but he had a different fate from that
of Scott, for moft of his arguments were refuted by
Glanville. This very acute writer was induced to pub-
liffi his Philofophical Confiderations about Witchcraft,
by the apprehenfion, that the increafing difbelief of
witches and apparitions tended to affed the evidences of
religion, and even of a Deity. In refped of argument,
he was certainly fuperior to his adverfaries ; his reafon-
ing is perfpicuous, though fometimes fubtle, refted on
the moft fpecious foundations of evidence, and arranged
with great fkill.
On the continent, this controverfy feemed almoft for¬
gotten, till Bekker publiftied his Monde Rnchantee, in
which he denied the exiftence of witches, on the Carte-
fian principle, that the Deity is the fource of all adion,
coniequently adions fo oppofite to his nature and attri¬
butes cannot be fuppofed to exift. He wras anfwered by
Frederick
WIT [ 727 ]
Witchcraft Frederick Hoffman, the father of the modern theory others
Witnefs „nd Praa.ice of medicine, in his differtation De Diaboli
". rotentia in Corpora.
Ihe lateft witchcraft frenzy was in New England,
about 1692, when the execution of witches became a
calamity more dreadful than the fvvord or the peililence.
J. he .accufers became fo daring, that neither civil nor
religious authority would have proved a fecurity againft
their attacks, if all the profecutions had not been fud-
denly dropped, and the prifoners fet at liberty. So far
did thofe vvietches pioceed in abfurdity, that a dog was
accufedof throwing perfons intohts by looking at them.
As foon as the profecutions were flopped, all reports of
witchcraft ceafed.
It would be ridiculous to attempt a ferious refutation
of the exiftence of witches ; and at prefent, luckily, the
talk is unnecefiary. In this country, at leaft, the dif-
couragement long given tg all fufpicion of witchcraft,
and the repeal of the flatutes againft that crime, have
very much weakened, though perhaps they have not
entirely eradicated, the perfuafion. On the continent,
too, it is evidently on the decline ; and notwithftanding
the exertions of Dr De Haen, and of the celebrated
Lavater, we have little doubt but that in a fhort time
pofterity will wonder at the credulity of their anceflors.
That there ever were witches, is an opinion that cannot
for a moment be believed by a thinking man. The
acHons imputed to them were either abfurd or impofli-
ble } the witneffes by whofe evidence they were condem¬
ned, either weak enthufiafts or downright villians : and
the confeflions aferibed to the witches themfelves, effedls
of a difordered imagination produced by cruel treatment
and exceflive watchings. As to the nightly meetings,
demonologifls themfelves have been obliged to confefs,
that they were nothing elfe but uneafy dreams, often
produced by foporific compofitions. The fafts which
have been brought forward by the advocates for witch¬
craft bear in their front the moft evident marks of trick
and impofture ; and this has conftantly been found out
whenever thefe faffs have been properly examined. See
Sorcery.
WII ENA MOT, or Witena Gemot, among* the
Anglo-Saxons, was a term which literally lignified the
affembly of the wife men; and was applied to the
great council of the nation, of latter days called the
parliament.
WI I'HERS of a Horse, the junflure of the fhoul-
der-bones at the bottom of the neck and mane, towards
the upper part of the ftioulder.
WITNESS, in Law, a perfon who gives evidence
in any caufe, and is fworn to fpeakthe truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth.
Inal by WITNESS, a fpecies of trial without the
intervention of a jury. This is the only method of trial
known to the civil law, in which the judge is left to
form in his own breaft his fentence upon the credit of
the witneffes examined : but it is very rarely ufed in the
Englith law, which prefers the trial by jury before it in
almoft every inftance. Save only that when a widow
brings a writ of dower, and the tenant pleads that the
hufband is not dead; this being looked upon as a dila¬
tory plea, is in favour of the widow, and for greater ex¬
pedition allowed to be tried by witneffes examined be¬
fore the judges : and fo, faith Finch, (hall no other cafe
me our law. But Sir Edward Coke mentions fome
W O A
to try whether the tenant in a real a&ion Witnefc
was duly fummoned, or the validity of a challenge to a
Iuror . 1 o thst  a  1 t
juror : fo that Finch’s obfervation muft be confined to
the trial of direft and not collateral iffues. And in every
caie Sir Edward Coke lays it down, that the affirmative
mui:r ,Prove^ ^7 two witneffes at the leaft.
. . * 1 -^NflERG, a city of Germany, capital of the
circle ox Upper Saxony, 50 miles north of Drefden. It
is under immediate vaffalage, and the feat of an aulic
judicatory, a general fuperintendency, an infpe&ion and
con h ft 017, Ihe town is not large ; but is well forti-
hed and contains a famous univerfity, in which Me-
lancfthon was a profeffor. In this place Martin Luther
hrft began to preach againft the pope’s indulgences ;
and in the cathedral of All Saints he is faid to have
been buried. In the old citadel of this town the an¬
cient Saxon ele&ors ufed to refide. Befides the univer-
fp,?’ 1S a Latin fchool in the town, with fix mafters.
iv!lIi JaryT^el0_n^ng,tO i6 l“liver% L faid to be very
Woahoo.
valuable. In 1756, the Pruffians being mafters of the
town, deftroyed a part of its fortifications. E. Lomr
12. 47. N. Lat. 51. 49.
WO AD. See Isatis, Botany Index; fee alfs
Dyeing.
The preparation of woad for dyeing, as praeftifed in
rranee, is minutely deferibed by Aftruc, in his Me-
moirsGor a Natural Hiftory of Languedoc. The plant
puts forth at fffft five or fix upright leaves, about a foot
ong and fix inches broad : when theft; hang down-*
wards, and turn yellow, they are fit for gathering: five
crops are gathered in one year. The leaves are carried
directly to a mill, much refembling the oil or tan mills
and ground Into a fmooth pafte. If this procefs was de¬
ferred for fome time, they would putrefy, and fend forth
an infupportable ftench. The pafte is laid in heaps,,
preffed clofe and fmooth, and the blackiffi cruft, which
forms on the outfide, reunited if it happens to crack : if
this was negle&ed, little worms would be produced in
the cracks, and the woad would lofe a part of its
ftrength. After lying for fifteen days, the heaps are
opened, the cruft rubbed and mixed with theinfide, and
the matter formed into oval balls, which are preffed
clofe and folid in wooden moulds. Thefe are dried up¬
on hurdles : in the fun, they turn black on the outfidt j
in a clofe place, yellowiffi, efpecially if the weather be
rainy. Ihe dealers in this commodity prefer the firft
though it is faid the workmen find no confiderable dif¬
ference betwixt the two. The good balls are diftinguiffi-
ed by their being weighty, of an agreeable fmell, and
when rubbed, of a violet colour within. For the ufe of
the dyer, thefe balls require a farther preparation : they
are beat with wooden mallets, on a brick or ftone floor
into a grofs powder j which is heaped up in the middle
of the room to the height of four feet, a fpace beinw ]eft
for palling round the fides. The powder, moiftened with
water, fermentsj grows hot, and throws out a thick fetid
fume. It is (hovelled backwards and forwards, and
moiftened every day for twelve days j after which it is
ftirred lefs frequently, without watering, and at length
made into a heap for the dyer. Q
WOAHOO, one of the Sandwich ilknds, lying to
the north-weft of Morotoi, at the diftance of fever
leagues. From the appearance of the north-eaft and
north-weft parts, it is the fineft ifland of the group
Nothing can exceed the. verdure of the hills, the variety
of
W O D [ 728 ] W O D
Woahco 0£ v^nod and lawn, and rich cultivated valleys, which
ji the Avhole face of the country difplays. A bay is form-
vvodrow. ^ ^ nort|1 an(j extremities, into which a fine
river empties itfelf, through a deep valley ; but as the
water is brackifh for 200 yards from the entrance, wa¬
tering in it is not convenient. It contains about 60,OOO
inhabitants. Lieutenant Hergeft, commander of the
Daedalus ftore-fhip, who had been fent from England,
in 1791, to New South Wales, and thence to the
Southern Pacific ocean, with a fupply of provifions for
the Difcovery (loop, Captain Vancouver, then on a voy¬
age of di(coverv. was here furprifed and murdered by
the natives, together with Mr Gooch, the aftronomer.
W. Long. 157. 51. N. Lat. 2i. 43.
WODEN. See Odin, and Mythology, N° 40.
WODEVILLE, Anthony, earl of Rivers, brother
to the queen of Edward IV. was born in the end of
1442, or in the beginning of 1443* Though one of
the mod accomplifhed men of his age, very little is
known of his p"ivate hiftory. He was early and con-
flantly employed either in the tumults of thofe turbulent
times, or in difcharging the duties of fome of the
higheft offices of the ftate, with which he was invefted.
Yet he found leifure to cultivate letters, and to be the
author of works which, though of little value now,
made fome noife in that age, when learning was at a
low ebb in England. Thefe confided chiefly of tranf-
lations from the French; and his lordfliip and his
printer Caxton, were the firft Engliih writers who had
the pleafure to fee their work* publiffied from the prefs.
This accompliflied, brave, and amiable nobleman was
treacheroufly imprifoned by Richard III. in Pomfret
caftle, where, during his confinement, he compofed a
fhort poem, which has been preferved by John Rous of
Warwick, and breathes, fays Dr Henry, a noble fpirit
of pious refignation to his approaching fate. He was
beheaded on the 23d of June 1483, in the 41ft year of
his age.
WODROW, Robert, a clergyman of the weft of
Scotland who lived in the beginningof the 18th century,
well known as the author of an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of
that kingdom during the latter part of the preceding cen¬
tury. His father, Mr James Wodrow, was a man of
learning and piety. He preached occafionally to the per-
fecuted Prelbyterians, and taught a little academy of their
ftudents of philofophy and theology at Glafgow, before
the Revolution. About that time he was ordained one
of the minifters of that city, continuing his connexion
with the academy till he was ele&ed profeffor of theo¬
logy by the univerfity in the year 1692. He taught
with reputation and fuccefs till his death in 1708.
His fon Robert was born in the year 1679 > mo¬
ther being then in the 51ft year of her age. Her death
(though it did not happen till feveral years after), was
then fully expefted} and his father, obnoxious to a ty¬
rannical government, narrowly efcaped imprifonment, or
fomething worfe, by attempting to obtain a laft fhort in¬
terview with her. As he paffed the town guard-houfe, he
was marked, and foon followed by thefoldiers into his own
houfe, and even into his wife’s bedchamber, where he was
concealed. Their officer checked this violence $ fent them
out of the room, and left the houfe himfelf j placing, how¬
ever, centinels bcfth within and without, till the birth
fhould be over. In half an hour after, Mr Wodrow at
his wife’s fuggeftion, affumed the bonnet and great-coat
of the fervant of the phyfician then in attendance; and Wcdro^ jM'1"0
carrying the lantern before him, made an eafy elcape l ^
through the midft of the guards. They foon renewed
their fearch with marks of irritation, thrufting their
fwords into the very bed where the lady lay j who
pleafantly defired them to defift, “ for the bird (faid fhe)
is now flown.”
His fon Robert went through the ufual courfe of lite¬
rary education at Glafgow, entered the univerfity in
1691 ; and profecuted the ftudy of the languages and
the different branches of philofophy, till he became a
ftudent of theology under the tuition of his father. He
was chofen librarian to the univerfity in the year 1698,
and continued in that office four years. There he be¬
gan his refearches into every thing connefted with the
ecclefiaftical hiftory of his country, which he continued
to purfue to the end of his life 5 and alfo imbibed his
tafte for medals, infcriptions, and whatever feemed curi¬
ous or illuftrative of Roman, Celtic, and Britifti anti¬
quities.
He was among the firft in Scotland who attended to
the ftudy of natural hiftory. From a great number of
letters in his own hand writing, begun about this time,
it appears that he was in habits of the utmoft intimacy
with a feledl number of literary gentlemen, animated
with the fame ardour of refearch j that they correfponded
regularly with one another, made colledlions of Angular
ftones, of fulfils, petrified plants, fifties, &c. and ex¬
changed wffiat they could fpare from their refpe&ive
ftores. Among his correfpondents were Mr William
Nicolfon, archdeacon, afterxvards biftiop of Carlifle, and
at laft of Derry, author of the Hiftorical Libraries $
Mr Edward Lhwyd keeper of the Aftimolean clofet at
Oxford 5 Sir Robert Sibbald, phyfician in Edinburgh,
author of a natural hiftory of Scotland, and another of
Fife 'y Lord Pitmedan •, Meffrs James Sutherland,
I^aughlan Campbell minifter of Campbelton, and others.
In a letter to Mr Lhwyd dated Auguft 1709, Mr
Wodrow tells him his manfe was but at a little diftance
from a place where they had been lithofcoping together,
during a vifit of Mr Lhwyd to Scotland. “ My paro¬
chial charge (he continues) does not allow me the fame
time I had then for thofe fubterranean ftudies j but my
inclination is equally ftrong, perhaps ftronger. I take
it to be one of the beft diverfions from ferious ftudy, and
in itfelf a great duty, to admire my Maker’s works. I
have gotten fome ftore of foflils here from our marie,
limeftone, &c. and heartily wifti I had the knowing
Mr Lhwyd here to pick out what he wants, and help
me to clafs a great many fpecies which I know not what
to make of.” He informs him, in the end of the letter,
that he had 500 or 600 fpecies of one thing or another
relative to natural hiftory.
Mr Wodrow, when he left Glafgow, refided a fhort
time in the neighbourhood, in the houfe of a very diftant
relation. Sir   Maxwell of Nether Pollock, then
one of the Scots judges. It being within the bounds of
the prefhytery of Paifley, he offered himfelf to them
for probationary trials, and obtained their licence to
preach the gofpel in March 1703. In the fummer fol¬
lowing, the parifh of Eaftwood, where Lord Pollock
lived, becoming vacant, by the death of Mr Matthew
Crawford (another Scots hiftorian), a petition, with an
unanimous ca// or invitation from the parifti to Mr
Wodrow to be their minifter, was prefented to the
prefbytery j
W O D
odrow. prefbytery ; and they, waving part of the ufual fecund
-T—' trials, in order to expedite the bufinefs, ordained Mr
Wodrow to be minifter of Eaft wood on the 28th of Oc¬
tober 1703. In this charge he continued to the end of
his life. Notwithftanding his minifterial duty, he ftill
found forae time to gratify the early bent of his mind
towards natural hiftory, and his curiofity to learn every
•* thing in his power, not only at home, but concerning
the natural produ&ions of other countries, and the opi¬
nions, cuftoms, manners, and way of living of their in¬
habitants. In his farewell letters to his friends, about
to fail to the Scottith fettlement of Darien or to the
coaft of Africa, &c. he directed their attention and en¬
quiries to thefe fubjefls j and fomething fimilar he fug-
gefted to other friends going to reiide in remote places
of the Highlands, or even on the continent of Europe.
The colle&ion of his MS. letters bound up in five or
fix thick 8vo volumes, though reaching nearly to the
end of his life, feems to confift only of the firft draught
of his own letters to his friends, not a fingle fcrap is now
to be found of their anfwers to him.
After his ordination, however, this worthy man, con-
fidering the duties of his office as his principal and only
proper bufinefs, rofe into diftinguiffied reputation and
ufefulnefs as a preacher, and was looked upon as one of
the firft clergymen in the weft of Scotland. Humble
and Unambitious of public notice, he was well entitled
to it, by his confcientious and exemplary piety, his learn¬
ing, not only in profeffional, but in other branches of
knowledge, his natural good fenfe and folid judgment,
his benevolent obliging fpirit to all, his warm attach¬
ment to his friends, who formed a wide circle around
him, and efpecially his deep concern for the beft interefts
of his people, and a6Hve exertions for their inftrudfion
and improvement. His weekly fermons were all dif-
tinftly written out in long hand, and even his lectures in
ffiort-hand. Accuftomed to regular compofition, he had
acquired an uncommon facility in it. His countenance
and appearance in the pulpit was manly and dignified j
his voice clear and commanding, his manner ferious and
animated : thefe things, joined with the general preju¬
dice in his favour, added to the impreffion of the plain
edifying difcourfes he delivered, without papers, to his
hearers; and living in the near neighbourhood of Glaf-
gow his little church was often crowded, efpecially when
he difpenfed the Lord’s Supper, confidered in Scotland
as the principal religious folemnity.
Yet thefe talents, and this merited popularity which
followed them, made little impreffion on his own modeft
confcientious mind ; for he chofe to continue in the
obfcure country pariffi with which he was firft con¬
nected, refilling all the attempts made by his friends or
by ftrangers to get him tranllated into feveral other
more honourable and opulent pariffies, who were de-
firous of the benefit of his miniftry, however convenient
the change might have proved for the education of his
family. In the year 1712, the magiftrates of Glafgow
invited him to be one of the minifters of that city $
and in January 1717, a deputation from the town of
Stirling did the fame. On the other hand, the patron,
heritors, and elders of his own pariffi, ftrenuoully oppofed
the tranfiation. The preffiytery, who had it in their
power to have appointed it, found great difficulties in
both cafes on the plea of the majus bonutn ecclejice ; re¬
ferred the decifion in the firft cafe to the fynod, and in
Vox, XX. Part II.
[ 729 1
W O D
the laft to the commiffion of the General Afiembly, and
thefe courts thought proper to put no feftraint on the
minifter’s judgment or inclination, as he himfelf was
certainly the beft judge of his comparative ufefulnefs in
two different fituations.
Mr Wodrow was equally confcientious and affiduous
in the bufinefs of the ecclefiaftical courts, as in his paro¬
chial duty. Notwithftanding his ftudious turn, he punc¬
tually attended the meetings of Preffiytery, Synod, and
General Affembly, when eledted, as he often was, a
member of that court $ and alfo the commiffions in No¬
vember and March, which regularly met during that
period of the church. His connexion with Lord Pol¬
lock made his journeys to Edinburgh eafy : and after he
began to colleCt materials for his voluminous hiftory, his
perfonal infpeCtion of the public records and of the vari¬
ous MSS. accumulated in the Edinburgh libraries, made
his vifits to that capital frequent and neceffary.
In common with the great body of the Preffiyterians,
he had ftrongly imbibed what are called Whig princi¬
ples 5 in other words, he was warmly attached to the
conftitutional liberties of the people, as eftabliffied by
the revolution fettlement. No wonder ! The dreadful
perfeeution and oppreffion they had fuffered during the
two preceding reigns wTere ftill freffi and galling to their
minds : they confidered the elevation of King William
to the throne and the Hanover fucceffion, as the two
chief bulwarks raifed up by Providence, for the fecurity
both of their religion and liberty. They trembled at
every dark appearance threatening to this fecurity, fuch
as the death of King William. That cloud, however,
was foon diffipated by the perfeverance of the queen’s
minifters in his views and meafures, and the fplendid
victories of Marlborough and his allies over the armies
of Louis XIV. But the elevation of the Tory miniftry
in the latter part of the queen’s reign was a fevere trial
to the Scottiffi Preffiyterians, and involved the cenfcien-
tious part of the clergy in very ferious difficulties and
dangers. The oath of abjuration required at that time
from clergymen, and enforced by civil penalties, and
even the royal proclamation for a national thankfgiving,
after the peace of Utrecht, preffed hard upon the fcru-
pulous confciences of many of the clergy. The very
language of the oath feemed to them dubious and jefui-
tical, hoftile to the eleftor of Hanover’s newly acquired
right to the crown, conferred on him by the parliament
and the people j and, as to the other point, they had not
freedom to lead their people, in a folemn thankfgiving
to Heaven for a peace, termed fafe and honourable,
which they and the generality of their hearers confider¬
ed as dangerous and difgraceful. Mr Wodrow, as
might be expedted, was one of the recufants of the
oath : for nothing could move him to ffiuffle with his
confcience. At the fame time the liberality and equity
of his mind led him to judge candidly of the confciences
of others. Accordingly, lie made every effort in his
power to reconcile his clerical brethren, and his own
people, to fuch of the clergy as had the freedom to take
it, and by fo doing, had rendered themfelves obnoxious
to popular prejudice and odium. With fuch, this good
man ftill continued to live, not only in Cbriftian, but
minifterial communion ; endeavouring to foften and re¬
move the prejudices againft them, and, in as far as his
influence reached, to revive and cherifti a fpirit of mu¬
tual forbearance. Many propofals he made, and private
4 Z meetings
Wodrosr.
W O I> [ 730 ] W O D
■yVodrovv. meetings and conferences he held with his brethren, to
v prevent their differences fromrifing, as they threatened
to do, into a fehifm j to prevent them efpecially from en¬
tering at all into the church courts; juftly afraid of the
fparks of aniraofity too apt to be kindled there. His
endeavours and thofe of his friends were feconded by the
prudence of the fuperior courts, efpecially the commiffum
of the General Affembly. Whatever paffed there in
the way of admonition to the reft of the church, breathed
the fpirit of mutual forbearance and love. How he
managed the other difficult and delicate point, the
Thankfgiving, in a confiftency with his duty, does not
appear in his letters ; nor is it now worth while to in-
veftigate this as a trait of his character, which might be
done, perhaps, from his MS. fermons preached at the
time. Only it is pleafing to remark from the letters,
that the fame fpirit of wifdom and mild forbearance
which animated the majority of the clergy in the weft,
teems alfo to have pervaded the officers of the crown,
iuftices of the peace, and other civil magiftrates in Scot¬
land at the time. The oath was not preffed on the
recufants, and the execution of the legal penalties in¬
curred by the negledl of it avoided j for their general
loyalty was undoubted.
A more fevere ftroke was inflicted on their adver-
faries by the Tory miniftry in the year 1710, by an aft
of the Britiffi parliament which reftored patronage to its
former full force. An aft of the Scotch parliament
paffed after the Revolution had extrafted the chief fling
of that grievance, by placing the eleftion of the minifter
of every pariffi in the hands of the landed proprietors,
called heritors, in conjunftion with the elders, or mem¬
bers of the kirk-feffion. A majority of that joint body,
at a meeting appointed for the purpofe, drew up a call
or written invitation, which they fubfcribed, to a parti¬
cular candidate to be their minifter. This was prefented
to the prefbytery of the bounds, the proper judges of his
learning and moral charafter ; and if thefe were found
unexceptionable, he was ordained, or folemnly confe-
crated and inftalled into the office. This Scotch aft
having continued in force for twenty years, and being
conceived to have become perpetual by the articles of
the Union, was now repealed ; and the choice of a mi¬
nifter to every parifli was in effeft placed in the power
of a Angle perfon, a patron, becaufe he had in faft the
foie power of nominating the only candidate who could
enjoy the benefice.
Mr Wodrow was exceedingly averfe from the revi¬
val of the power of patronage ; and in this he was in¬
fluenced both by his political and religious principles.
In his letters, he feems to have looked upon a patron of
a parifli, as a kind of hereditary defpot; or at leaft
like a prince, who had no reftraints laid on his prero¬
gative, to prevent or check the abufe of it. The para¬
mount power or truft committed to a patron, this con-
fcientious minifter could not reconcile with the apoftoli-
cal counfels, to commit the keeping of religions truth to
faithful men, able alfo to infruB others* He thought it
very improper to leave the choice of a religious inftruc-
tor, in the firft inftance, to any Angle perfon whatever,
efpecially to one generally a ftranger to the circum-
ilances of the parifhioners; one who had little know-
ledge, and therefore little fympathy with them in their
religious fentiments and feelings. He was perfuaded
that the purpofes of edification, and* the peace of the
2
country, circumftanced as Scotland then was, were Wodrow
much belter fecured by the reftraints laid on a patron in '*■—v—
the aft 1690, that is, by admitting the two principal
bodies of the parifli to a participation with him in his
choice, than by trufting it wholly to himfelf; and he
threw out many judicious hints in his letters, and even
fchemes or proposals to his brethren, on this difficult and
important fubjeft.
On the other hand, he wiftied nothing to be attempt¬
ed but in a conftitutional way, in harmony with the ci¬
vil power. Few men were fo fenfible as he was of the
abufes incident to popular government, either in church
or ftate, and of the danger of refilling, even unjuft and
oppreffive laws, in a tumultuous or diforderly manner.
The Prelbyterian church, in the outward order or form
of it, he viewed as a well regulated republic. He did
not confider the people in their individual capacity, as
qualified to vote even on,the choice of their own mini¬
fter. The elders of the parifli he looked upon as the
reprefentatives of the people in the ecclefiaftical courts ;
and their number, in his own congregation, he reftrifted
to a very few, four or five at moft, fit to affift him in
the exercife of church difeipline within the parifli. The
reft of his feffion were deacons, whofe jurifdiftion was
confined to the care of the poor, vifiting the fiek, and
diftributing the bread and wine at the communion, but
could not, like the former, be chofen to reprefent the
parifli in the prelbytery and fuperior courts. In this
fenfe of the neceffity of order and fubordination, he per-
fevered to the end of his life. When, contrary to his
judgment or vote, an unpopular brother was to be or¬
dained in a parifli within twelve or fifteen miles diftant
from Eaftwood, in confequence of a fentence ef the Ge¬
neral Affembly, to be executed, perhaps with military
afliftance ; this aged minifter thought it his duty, re-
gardlefs of perfonal danger or odium, to countenance-
the young brother, by joining with the reft of the
clergy in laying their hands on him, inviting him after¬
wards to his pulpit, and exerting any influence he had
to conciliate the irritated minds of that parifli.
The only publication for which the world is indebted
to Mr Wodrow, is The Hiftory of the Singular Suf¬
ferings of the Church of Scotland during the twenty-
eight years immediately preceding the Revolution. It
was written at a proper diftance of time from the events
it records; and printed at Edinburgh in the year 1721, in
two large folio volumes, with two appendixes confiding
of copies of the public records, and of many private, fa¬
mily, and perfonal papers, letters, &c. inlerted as
vouchers of the hiftorieal fafts. In collefting this great
body of information, the author was affifted by his
friends, who cheerfully feconded his own almoft incre¬
dible induftry and patience of refearch. In confequence
of this, the book has more the appearance of a biogra¬
phical, than of a hiftorical work. It has, however, the
form, and all the effentials of a regular hiftary, divided
into books, chapters, and feftions, with proper margins
and indexes ; written in a plain, rather too familiar
ftile, unavoidably interfperfed with Scoticifms, yet thefe
fufficiently intelligible to an Engliffi reader. It exhi¬
bits a diftinft Iketch of the charafters both of the prin¬
cipal fufferers, and of their perfecutors; ofthefprings of
the perfecution, in the unjuftifiable plans and meafures
of an arbitrary government ; with the motives of the
advifers and executors of them. The unfortunate and
innocent
'o'-"
'T
1
W O D [ 7?I
;lrow. innocent fufferers, our author viewed in the light, not of
y—a fet of wild fanatics, as they were called by their con¬
temporaries, and frequently too by later hiftorians ;
many of them were molt refpe&able for their rank in
their country, as well as for their talents and virtues •, but
even thofe in the lower ranks of fociety, our author
thought worthy of fome public notice, as confeffors and
martyrs in the noble caufe which they had efpoufed, the
fuppurtof the rights ofconfcience, and of national liberty.
The fubjedl of the hiftory is the mod melancholy
that could be chofen ; a long and i’evere perfecution of
a people, who had been_guilty of nothing undutiful to
their civil or ecclefiaflical rulers ; a feries of open a&s of
injuftice and tyranny, perpetrated under the colour of
law, and this with fuch an increafing and mercilefs vio¬
lence, as to fink the ufual fpirit of a free people, and
eafily qualh one or two feeble ill-timed attempts to refill
their oppreflbrs. No wonder that the continued view
of fuch a wretched and melancholy feene, without any
thing joyful to interrupt it, thould give a melancholy
tinge to the mind of the writer, eafily communicated to
his readers. On the other hand, fome things have hap*
pily an oppofite tendency. The naafs of biographical
intelligence, though it mull be confeffed it is much too
voluminous, and too minute for the management of any
hiftorian whatfoever, yet furnilhes a variety of anecdotes,
which give fome needful relaxation or relief to the fym-
pathy of the reader. Thefe indeed are in part the Jim-
pie annals of the poor, without the varnilh or eafy ele¬
gance of poliftied life j but even in this fhape they are
not deftitute, both of entertainment and inftrudtion ;
and then the minutenefs in the detail of names, of per-
fons, places, and other particular circumfiances, adds to
the imprefiion of the fafls, by placing their certainty be¬
yond all reafonable doubt.
If faithfully to record paft: fa£ls, and tranfmit the
knowledge of them to pofterity, be the principal duty of
a hiftorian, this Wodrow has certainly aimed at j and
alfo to reprefs any feelings hoftile to his fidelity and im¬
partiality $ in fhort, to come as near as he was able to
the motto prefixed to his volumes, Nec Jludio, net odio.
Doubtlefs, like all other men, he had fome political,
and many theological prejudices, the laft chiefly imbib¬
ed from education, and confirmed by too high a venera¬
tion for the characters of our firft reformers ;—prejudices
which warped his perfonal opinions and feelings on
both fubjeCls. But he feems to have made a confider-
able effort to prevent his party prejudices from warping
or perverting his judgment of the truth or falfehood
of ftubborn hiftorical fads. Nothing almoft oratorial
enters into his narratives, though there is room for admi¬
ration, and much fcope for juft indignation j no exagger¬
ated encomiums on his friends, or ftrong opprobrious
language in fpeaking of his and their enemies, the un¬
provoked perfecutors of his church. He allows the
fads which he has recorded to fpeak for both, and
tranfmit to pofterity a memorial to their honour or
their infamy.
The chief fault of this hiftorical colledion already
hinted at, is its minutenefs, and exceflive copioufnefs.
The prodigious multitude of fads it embraces, though
different from one another in their circumftances, are in
other refpeds fomeivhat fimilar. T his muft neceffarily
occafion fome repetition and fatiety, efpecially to a fafti-
dious reader, who has it, however, in his power to gra-
1
W O D
tify his tafte by feledlng what is moft agreeable to it. Wodrcw
Neverthelefs a candid and patient reader can be at no v—-
lofs to form a proper judgment of the principal tranf-
adions of the period, from the authentic accounts of
them before him, to appreciate the true charaders of
the adors, or of the motives and views from which they
aded. And an inquifitive and penetrating reader will
be gratified by feeing not a little of the peculiar prin¬
ciples, opinions, fentiments, habits, and manners of that
age, as diftinguiftied from the prefent $ and may thus
eftimate tne gradual progrefs towards much noble and
ufeful improvement 5 and on the other hand, the pro¬
grefs towards a very hurtful corruption and degeneracy
of manners, which have both taken place during the laft
hundred and twenty years.
.At the time of its firft publication, the book met
with lefs general attention than might have been ex-
peded in Scotland, and fcarcely any attention in Eng¬
land, except from profeffed readers. As it came to be
more ftudied, it was the more valued, except where
there was an evident bias on the oppofite fide. Few can
be at a lofs to fee why fuch hiiloriaus as Hume, Mac-
pherfon, and Hairymple (hould negled or undervalue
iuch a book. Our later Scotch hittorians, Somerville
and Laing, have done it more juftice. In truth, there
is a very near coincidence in their eftimates of the cha¬
raders they draw, and their accounts of the fads they
relate, in common with Wodrow. But efpecially our
late illuftrious patriot Charles Fox, whofe high abilities,
uncommon candour, and fweetnefs of difpofition, almoft;
remove the fufpeded bias of his party fpirit—Mr Fox
has, in the hiftorical fragment publilhed fince his death,
given a very honourable teftimony to the fidelity and
accuracy of our hiftorian. After mentioning the exe¬
cution of three females, he adds, page 131. “To relate
all the inftances of cruelty which occurred would be
endlefs. But it may be neceffary to remark, that no
hiftorical fads are better afeertained, than the accounts
of them which are to be found in Wodrow. In every
inftance, where there has been an opportunity of com¬
paring thefe accounts with the records, and other au¬
thentic monuments, they appear to be quite corred.”
The colledion of the materials for writing the church
hiftory from the public records, and many other authen¬
tic fources, muft have coft the author a prodigious la¬
bour and time. The pecuniary expence incurred was
confiderable, and fcarcely refunded from the fale of the
book. The only neat profit, he has been heard to fay,
which accrued from it, was one or two hundred pounds
that he received from the king, to whom it was dedi¬
cated.
The laft twelve years of Mr Wodrow’s life were
chiefly occupied in drawing up a biography of the prin¬
cipal perfons concerned in introducing the reformation
of religion into Scotland, and fettling the different
forms or modes of ecclefiaftical government attempted to
be eftablithed there frofft the beginning to the end of that
period, namely from about the year 1560 to 1660, when
the printed hiftory of the fufferings commences. Had
it pleafed God to continue his ufeful life till this larger
work was finilhed, public curiofity would have been
much gratified ; for it contains the lives, not only of
John Knox, George Buchanan, and others already well
known, but the lives of a great number more, very
learned, ingenious, refpe&able, and worthy men, fcarce-
4 Z 2 ly
W O D [ 732 ] W O L
odrow. ly at all known to the literary world j befides a variety
of anecdotes naturally entering into fuch a work, illu-
ftrative of the hiftory and the living manners of that
age. Happily thefe manufcript lives are Hill preferved,
all written with his own pen, and feme of the longeft of
them copied, probably during his laft long illnefs, in a
more legible hand. Whatever important or curious in¬
formation they may contain, they are not fit for the
prefs in their prefent (late. They are now depofited in
the library of the univerfity of Glafgow.
Befides writing the hiftory and the biography, both
extended by himfelf for publication, and two days every
week regularly appropriated to his preparation for the
pulpit, much of his time muft have been occafional-
ly fpent in writing letters, fome of them like differta-
tions, on theological and other literary fubje&s •, for he
correfponded with a very wide circle of acquaintances
and friends in Scotland, England, and Ireland, and
with a few on the continent and in North America.
His conftitution in the firft part of life was robuft and
ftrong, his health in general good ; but his ftudious ha¬
bits or conftant reading, and efpecially inceffant writing,
it is fuppofed, may have brought on the bodily com¬
plaint which occafioned his death. In the latter end of
the year 1731, a fwelling about the fize of a fmall
chefnut appeared on his breaft, near the collar bone.
It was on the fame place where a fpark of fire had fallen
when he was a child, and had then left a little lump
and hardnefs like a large pea. About a month after the
fwelling began, it had increafed to the fize of a plumb,
and in April 1732 was as large as a man’s fift. It was
attempted to be removed by cauftic ; the attempt failed.
His body became greatly emaciated, and he gradually
declined till his death, which happened on the 2lft of
March 1734. Supported by the teftimony of a good
confcience, joined with the ftrong confolation and well-
founded hope of the gofpel, he bore this long-continued
fevere diftrefs with admirable fortitude, unabated piety
and refignation $ never uttering a murmur, but behaving
to his friends who came to fee him, and to all about him,
with much eafe and affedlion j thus leaving, both in the
adlive exertions of a ufeful life, and in his patient fuf-
ferings at the clofe of it, a very edifying example to his
family and his flock. The day before his death, he
gathered his children around his bed, gave each of them
his dying blefling, with counfels fuitable to their ages
and circumftances ; laft of all two boys, neither of them
four years old, too young to underftand and feel thefe
marks of his affeftion, yet, after the example of the ve¬
nerable patriarch, Gen. xlviii. 15. even them he drew
to him, laid his hands upon their heads, and devoutly'
prayed, that the God of his fathers^ the angel who had
redeemed him from all evil, would blefs the lads.
Mr Wodrow was married in the end of 1708, to
Margaret Warner, grand-daughter of the reverend Mr
William Guthrie of Fenwick, well known in Scotland
by his writings, and daughter of the reverend Patrick
Warner, then living on his eftate of Ardeer in Ayrlhire.
Mr Warner, in the early part of his life, had been chap¬
lain to the Eaft India Company at Madras. After his
return home, he was driven from his miniftry and from
the kingdotn, by the perfecution of the privy council j
but returned in confequence of King James’s indulgence,
and became minifter ef Irvine. He had a perfonal in¬
terview on his laft return with the prince of Orange at
the Hague, a ftiort time before the Revolution, an ac-
3
count of which appears in the hiftory, vol. ii. p. 604. Wodrow
Mr Wodrow had a family of 16 children, nine of whom, H
with his widow, furvived him in decent circumftances, < ^°5e‘
without any breach among them for above 25 years.
Three of his fons were clergymen of the church of Scot¬
land ; one was minifter of the parifh of Cumbray, ano¬
ther of Tarbolton j and the third, the late Dr James
Wodrow, author of the life of Dr Leechman of Glaf-
gow, was minifter of Stevenfton in Ayrfhire.
Befides his colle&ion of foflils, and a few Roman and
Britilh medals, Mr Wodrow left a valuable library of
books, many volumes of pamphlets and alfo of manu-
feripts written by others, fent to him in prefents, or co¬
pied by his orders. The moft valuable part of them is
now in the advocates library, and in the repofitories of
the church at Edinburgh. His own manufcript bio¬
graphy, as has been already faid, is in the library of the
univerfity of Glafgow.
WOLAW, a town in Germany, in Silefia, and ca¬
pital of a duchy of the fame name. It is furrounded
with ftrong walls and a morafs, and one part of the
houfes are built with ftone. The caftle is alfo encom-
palfed with deep ditches, and the greateft part of the in¬
habitants are employed in a woollen manufactory. In
1709 a Proteftant church was allowed to be built here.
It is feated on the river Oder, 20 miles north-weft of
Breflau, and 32 fouth-eaft of Glogau. E. Long. 16.
54. N. Lat. 51. 18.
WOLD, Weld, Dters Weed. See Reseda, Bo¬
tany Index, and Dyeing.
WOLF. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
WoLF-Fifh, or Sea-WoLF. See Anarrbicas, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Wolf or Woolf Poifon. See Poison.
WOLFE, Major-general James, was born at
Wefterham in the county of Kent, about the beginning
of the year 1726. His father was Lieutenant-general.
Edward Wolfe. He went into the army when very"'
young ; and applying himfelf with unwearied afliduity
to the ftudy of his profeflion, foon became remarkable
for his knowledge and his genius. He diftinguifhed
himfelf at the battle of Lafelt when little more than
20, and received the higheft encomiums from the com¬
mander in chief. After the peace he ftill continued to
cultivate the art of war. He contrived to introduce
the greateft regularity and the exaCleft difeipline into his
corps, and at the fame time to preferve the affeftion of
every foldier. In 1758 he was prefent as a brigadier-
general at the fiege of Louifbourg. He landed firft on
the ifland at the head of divifion j and in fpite of the
violence of the furf, and the force and well direCled fire
of the enemy, drove them from their poft with great
precipitation. The furrender of the town, which hap¬
pened foon after, was in a great meafure owing to his
aftivity, bravery, and Ikill. The fame which he ac¬
quired during this fiege pointed him out to Mr Pitt,
who was then minifter, as the propereft perfon to com¬
mand the army deftined to attack Quebec. This was
the moft difficult and the moft arduous undertaking of
the whole war. Quebec w as the capital of the French
dominions in North America ; it was well fortified,
fituated in the midft of a hoftile country, and defended
by an army of 20,000 men, regulars and militia, befides
a confiderable number of Indian allies. The troops
deftined for this expedition confifted^of ten battalions,
making up altogether about 7000 men. Such was the
army
w o L [ 733 ] - W O L
T^olfe. army deftined to oppofe three times their own number,
defended by fortifications, in a country altogether un¬
known, and in a late feafon in that climate for military
operations. But this little army, fays an officer who
was prefent at that expedition, and who has been fo
obliging as to communicate all the information we de-
lired, was always fanguine of fuccefs •, for they were
commanded by General Wolfe, who, by a very uncom¬
mon magnanimity and noblenefs of behaviour, had at¬
tached the troops fo much to his perfon, and infpired
them with fuch refolution and fteadinefs in the execu¬
tion of their duty, that nothing feemed too difficult for
them to accompliffi. The admirable Ikill with which
his meafures were planned, and the prudence and vigour
with which they werte executed, are well known. He
landed his army on the northern (bore of the river St
Lawrence in fpite of the enemy, and forced them to a
battle, in which they were completely defeated. The
confequence of this battle was the redu&ion of Quebec,
and the conqueft of Canada. In the beginning of the
battle General Wolfe was wounded in the wrift by a
muiket-ball : he wrapt his handkerchief round it, con¬
tinued to give his orders with his ufual calmnefs and
perfpicuity, and informed the foldiers that the advanced
parties on the front had his orders to retire, and that
they need not be furprifed when it happened. To¬
wards the end of the battle he received a new wound
in the breaft j he immediately retired behind the rear-
rank fupported by a grenadier, and laid himfelf down on
the ground. Soon after a ffiout was heard} and one of
the officers who flood by him exclaimed, “ See how
they run 1” The dying hero afked with fome emotion,
“ Who run ?” “ The enemy (replied the officer) •, they
give way every where*” The general then faid, “ Pray,
do one of you run to Colonel Burton, and tell him to
march Webb’s regiment with all fpeed down to Charles
river, to cut off the retreat of the fugitives from the
bridge. Now, God be praifed, I lhall die happy !” He
then turned on his fide, clofed his eyes, and expired.
The death of General Wolfe was a national lofs uni-
verfally lamented. He inherited from nature an ani¬
mating fervour of fentiment, an intuitive perception, an
extenfive capacity, and a paffion for glory, which fti-
mulated him to acquire every fpecies of military know¬
ledge that ftudy could comprehend, that aftual fervice
could illuftrate and confirm. This noble warmth of
difpofition feldom fails to call forth and unfold all the
liberal virtues of the foul. Brave above all eftimation
of danger ; generous, gentle, complacent, and humane j
the pattern of the officer, the darling of the foldier.
There was a fublimity in his genius which foared above
the pitch of ordinary minds •, and had his faculties been
exercifed to their full extent by opportunity and aftion,
had his judgment been fully matured by age and expe¬
rience, he would, without doubt, have rivalled in repu¬
tation the molt celebrated captains of antiquity. His
body was brought to England, and buried with military
honours in Weftminfter abbey, where a magnificent
monument is erefted to his memory.
Wolfe, Chri/lian, a celebrated German philofopher,
was born at Breflau in 1679* After having been well
‘njtdd's inftru£ted in the rudiments of learning and fcience in his
Kftory of own country, Wolfe prolecuted his ftudies fucceflively
hilofophy, the univerfities of Jena, Hamburgh, and Leipfic.
’ At the age of 26 he had acquired fo much diftin&ionj
that he was appointed profeffor of mathematics, and foon VVoffe,
afterwards of philofophy in general, in the univerfity of
Hall. After Leibnitz had publifhed his Theodiceay . u“e’
Wolfe, ftruck with the novelty of the edifice which
that philofopher had raifed, affiduoufly laboured in the
inveftigation of new metaphyfical truths. He alfo di-
gefted the Elements of Mathematics in a new method,
and attempted an improvement of the art of reafoning,
in a treatife On the Powers of the Human Underftand-
iug* Upon the foundation of Leibnitz’s doctrine of
Monads, he formed a new fyftem of Cofmology and
Pneumatology, digefted and demonftrated in a mathe¬
matical method. This work, entitled Thoughts on
God, the World, and the Human Soul, was publilhed
in the year I7I9> to which were added, in a fubfe-
quent edition, Heads of Ethics and Policy.
Wolfe was now rifing towards the fummit of philo*
fophical reputation, when the opinion which he enter¬
tained on the doftrine of neceffity being deemed by his
cblleagues inimical to religion, and an oration which he
delivered in praife of the morality of the Chinefe having
given much offence, an accufation of herefy was public¬
ly brought againrt him •, and, though he attempted to
juttify himfelf in a treatife which he wrote on the fub-
je£l of fatality, a royal mandate was iffued in November
1723, requiring him to leave the Pruffian dominions.
Having been formerly invited by the landgrave of
Heffe-Caffel to fill a profeffor’s chair in the univerfity
of Caffel, Wolfe now put himfelf under the patronage
of that prince, who had the liberality to afford him a
fecure afylum, and appointed him profeflor of mathema¬
tics and philofophy. The queftion concerning the
grounds of the cenfure which had been paffed upon
Wolfe was now every where freely canvaffed j almoft
every German univerfity was inflamed with difputes on
the fubjeft of liberty and neceffity; and the names of
Wolfians and Anti-Wolfians were every where heard.
After an interval of nine years, the king of Pruffia re-
verfed his fentence of exile, and appointed him vice-
chancellor of the univerfity of Hall ; where his return
was Welcomed with every exprtffion of triumph. From
this time he was employed in completing his Inftitutes
of Philofophy, which he lived to accomplifh in every
branch except policy. In 1745 he was created a baron
by the ele&or of Bavaria, and fucceeded Ludowig in
the office of chancellor of the univerlity. He conti¬
nued to enjoy thefe honours till the year 1 754, when he*
expired. He poffeffed a clear and methodical under-
ftanding j which, by long exercife in mathematical in-<
veftigations, was particularly fitted for the employment
of digefting the feveral branches of knowledge into re¬
gular fyftems ; and his fertile powers of invention en¬
abled him to enrich almoft every field of fcience in
which he laboured, with fome valuable additions. The
lucid order which appears in all his writings enables
his reader to follow his conceptions with eafe and cer¬
tainty, through the longeft trains of reafoning.
WOLFENBUTTLE, a confiderable town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of
Brunfwick, with a caftle where the duke of Brunfwick
Wolfenbuttle refides. It is one of the ftrongeft places
in Germany, though the fortifications want repairing in
feveral places. There is an excellent library, kept in a
building lately erefted for that purpofe, confifting of
116,000 printed books, and 2000 uncommon books,
with
W O L [ 734 3 WOO
Wolfen- with a cabinet of curiofities, relating to natural hiftory.
buttle jj. js feate(J on rlver Ocker, five miles fouth of
Wolfey. ®run^'vick> and 30 weft of Halberftadt. E. Long. 10.
- f 1 l0 N. Lat. 52. 18.
WOLFRAM, or Tungsten. See Tungsten,
Chemistry and Mineralogy /Wgv.
WOLFSPERC, a town of Germany, in Lower Ca-
rxnthia, with a caftle, on which the diftridt about it de¬
pends, which is 20 miles in length, and 10 in breadth.
It is feated on the river Lavand, at the foot of a moun¬
tain covered with wood, and full of wolves, from whence
the town took its name. It is 36 miles eaft of Clagen-
furt. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 56.
WOLGAST, a confiderable town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and in Pomerania, capital
of a territory of the fame name, with a caftle, and one
of the beft and largeft harbours on the Baltic fea. It is
a well built place, fubjeft to Sweden, and feated on the
river Pfin. E. Long. 14. 4. N. Lat. 54. I.
WOLLASTON, William, defcended of an an¬
cient family in Staffordfhire, was born in 1659. -^e was
in 1674 Emitted a penfioner in Sidney college, Cam¬
bridge, where, notwithftanding feveral difad vantages, he
acquired a great degree of reputation. In 1682, feeing
no profpedl of preferment, he became afliftant to the
head mafter of Birmingham fchool. Some time after,
he got a fmall ledture about two miles diftant, but did
the duty the whole Sunday ; which, together with the
bufinefs of a great free-fchool for about four years, be¬
gan to break his conftitution. During this fpace he
likewife underwent a great deal of trouble and uneafi-
nefs, in order to extricate two of his brothers from fome
inconveniences, to which their own imprudence had fub-
jedted them. In 1688 affairs took a new turn. He
found himfelf by a coufin’s will entitled to a very ample
eftate : and came to London that fame year, where he
fettled ; chooling a private, retired, and ftudious life.
Not long before his death, he publilhed his treatife, en¬
titled The Religion of Nature Delineated^ a work for
which fo great a demand was made, that more than
10,000 were fold in a very few years. He had fcarcely
completed the publication of it, when he unfortunately
oroke an arm ^ and this adding ftrengtb to tliftempers
that had been growing upon him for fome time, accele¬
rated his death ; which happened upon the 29th of
Odlober 1724. He was a tender, humane, and in all
refpefts worthy man ; but is reprefented to have had
something of the irafcible in his conftitution and tem¬
perament. His Religion of Nature Delineated expofed
him to fome cenfure, as if he had put a flight Upon
Chriftianity, by laying fo much ftrefs, as he does In this
■work, upon the obligations of truth, reafon, and virtue 5
and by making no mention of revealed religion. But
this cenfure muft have been the offspring of ignorance
or envy, fince.it appears from the introduftion to his
work, that he intended to treat of revealed religion in
a fecond part, which he lived not to finifh.
3 H9MAS» a famous cardinal and arch-
xilhop of York, is faid to have been the fon of a butcher
at Ipfwich. He ftudied at Magdalen college, Oxford,
where he became acquainted with the learned Erafmus :
and in the year 1500 became reftor of Lymington in
bomerfetflare : he was afterwards made chaplain to
King Henry VIII. and obtained feveral preferments.
■ Iaving gradually acquired an entire afcendency over
the mind of Henry VIII. he fucceflively obtained fe- Wolfe?
veral bifiioprics, and at length was made archbifhop of II n ffo
York, lord high-chancellor of England, and prime mi- , Wo°(*- fl '"Y
nifter 5 and was for feveral years the arbiter of Europe. * ^
Pope Leo X. created him cardinal in 1515, and made
him legate a latere; and the emperor Charles V. and
the French king brancis I. loaded him with favours, in
order to gain him over to their intereft ; but after ha¬
ving firft fided with the emperor, he deferted him to
efpoufe the intereft: of France. As his revenues were
immenfe, his pride and oftentation were carried to the
greateft height. He had 300 fervants 5 among whom
were 9 or 10 lords, 15 knights, and 40 efquires. His
ambition to be pope, his pride, his exadtions, and his
political delay of Henry’s divorce, occafioned his dif-
grace. In the earlier part of his life he feems to have
been licentious in his manners 5 it was reported, that
foon alter his preferment to the living of Lymington in
Somerfetftiirt, he was put into the flocks by Sir Amias
Paiilet, a neighbouring juftice of the peace, for getting
drunk and making a riot at a lair. This treatment
Wolfey did not forget when he arrived at the high fta-
tion of lord-chancellor of England; but fummont d his
corredtor up to London, and, after a fevere reprimand,
enjoined him fix years clofe confinement in the Temple.
Whatever may have been his faults, there can be no
doubt of their having been aggravated both by the zea¬
lous reformers and by the creatures of Henry VIII. who
was himfelf neither Papift nor Proteftant 5 for there is
every reafon to believe that the cardinal was fincere in
his religion $ and fincerity, or at leaft confiftency, was
then a crime. Wolfey was the patron ot learned men 5
a judge and munificent encourager of the polite arts j
and ought to be confidered as the founder of Chrift-
church college, Oxford 5 where, as W'ell as in other
places, many remains of his magnificent ideas in archi-
tedlure ftill exift. He died in 1530.
WOLVERENE. See Ursus, Mammalia//;^.
WOLVES-teeth, of a horfe. See Farriery.
WOMAN, the female of the human fpecies. See
Homo.
WOMB, or Uterus.. See Anatomy, N° 108.
WOMBAT, an animal lately difcovered in New
South Wales. See Dasyurus, Mammalia Index.
WOOD, Anthony, an eminent biographer and an¬
tiquarian, was the fon of Thomas Wood, bachelor of
arts and of the civil law, and Was born at Oxford in
1632. He ftudied at Merton college, and in 1655
took the degree of mafter of arts. He wrote, 1. The
Hiftory and Antiquities of the Univerfity of Oxford j
which was afterwards tranflated into Latin by Mr Wafe
and Mr Peers, under the title of Hi/loHa et Antiquitates
Umverjitatis Oxonienjis, 2 vols folio. 2. Athence Oxoni-
enfes ; or an exatt Account of all the Writers and Bi-
ftiops who have had their education in the Univerfity
of Oxford, from the Year 1500 to 1600, 2 vols folio j
which was greatly enlarged in a fecond edition publifli-
ed in 1721 by Biftiop Tanner. Upon the firft publica¬
tion of this work the author was attacked by the uni¬
verfity, in defence of Edward earl of Clarendon, lord
high chancellor of England, and chancellor of the uni¬
verfity, and was likewife animadverted upon by Biftiop
Burnet; upon which he publiftied a Vindication of the
Hiftoriographer of the Univerfity of Oxford. He died
at Oxford in 1695.
4
Woof,
woo [ 73S
Wood. Wood, a fubftance Avhereof the trunks $nd branches
of trees confifts. It is compofed of a number of con¬
centric circles or zones, one of which is formed every
year ; confequently their number correfponds to the age
of the tree. Thefe zones vary in thicknefs according
to the degree of vegetation that took place the year of
their formation. They are alfo of different degrees of
thicknefs in different parts, that part of the tree which
is moft expofed to the fun and beft Iheltered growing
fafteft ; hence in this country that part of the zone
which looked towards the fouth while the tree was grow¬
ing is generally thickeft. The innermoft circle or zone
is the one which was firft formed, the outermoft was
formed the year before the tree was cut down. Thefe
zones are at firft very foft and tender, and harden by de¬
grees as the tree becomes older : this is the reafon that
the middle of a tree is fo often much better wood than
the outfide of it.
The proper ligneous part of the wood confifts of
longitudinal fibres, difpofed in fafciculi, and poifeffed of
confiderable hardnefs. It is this longitudinal dire&ion
of the fibres that renders it fo much eafier to cleave wood
lengthwife, than acrofs the tree, or in any other diredtion.
See Plant and Vegetable Physiology.
For an account of the ingredients which enter into
the compofition of wood, fee Chemistry Index.
For the Method of Staining or Dyeing Wood, fee
Turning.
For more complete information concerning wood, fee
alfo Tree, and Strength of Materials.
FoJJU WOOD. Foffil wood, or whole trees, or parts of
them, are very frequently found buried in the earth, and
that in different ftrata j fometimes in ftone, but more
ufually in earth ; and fometimes in fmall pieces loofe
among the gravel. Thefe, according to the time they
have lain in the earth, or the matter they have lain a-
mong, are found differently altered from their original
ftate j fome of them having fuffered very little change ;
and others being fo highly impregnated with cry-
ftalline, fparry, pyritical, or other extraneous matter,
as to appear mere maffes of ftone, or lumps of the
common matter of the pyrites, &c. of the dimenfions,
and, more or lefs, of the internal figure, of the ve¬
getable bodies into the pores of which they have made
their way.
The foffil woods have been arranged by Dr Hill into
three kinds : .1. The lefs altered ; 2. The pyritical; and,
3. The petrified.
Of the trees, or parts of them, lefs altered from their
original ftate, the greateft ftore is found in digging to
imall depths in bogs, and among what is called peat or
turf earth, a fubftance ufed in many parts of the kingdom
for fuel. In digging among this, ufuaily very near the
furface, immenfe quantities of vegetable matter of various
kinds are found buried ; in fome places there are whole
trees fcarce altered, except in colour j the oaks in par¬
ticular being ufually turned to a jetty black •, the pines
and firs, which are alfo very frequent, are lefs altered,
and are as inflammable as ever, and often contain be¬
tween the bark and wood a black refin. Large parts
of trees have alfo been not '.infrequently met with unal¬
tered in beds of another kind, and at much greater
depths, as in ftrata of clay and loam, among gravel,
and fometimes even in folid ftone.
Befides thefe harder parts of trees, there are frequently
] woo
found alfo in the peat earth vaft quantities of the leaves
and fruit and catkins of the hazel and fimilar trees 5 ^
thefe are ufually mixed with fedge and roots of grafs,
and are fcarce at all altered from their ufual texture.
I he moft common of thefe are hazel nuts; but there are
frequently found alfo the twigs and leaves of the white
poplar ; and a little deeper ufually there lies a cracked
and (battered wood, the crevices of which are full of a
bituminous black matter: and among this the ftones of
plums and other ftone-fruits are fometimes found, but
more rarely.
In this ftate the fruits and larger parts of trees are
ufually found : what we find of them more altered, are
fometimes large and long, fometimes fmaller and fliorter
branches of trees j fometimes fmall fragments of branches,,
and more frequently fmall ftiapelefs pieces of wood. The
larger and longer branches are ufually found bedded in
the ftrata of ftone, and are more or lefs altered into the
nature of the ftratum they lie in. The (horter and fmaller
branches are found in vaft variety in the ftrata of blue«
clay ufed for making tiles in the neighbourhood of Lon¬
don. Thefe are prodigioufly plentiful in all the clay-
pits of this kind, and ufually carry the whole external
refemblance of what they once were, but nothing of the
inner ftru&ure j their pores being wholly filled, and un-
diftinguifliably clofed, by the matter of the common py--
rites, fo as to appear mere fimple maffes of that matter.
Thefe fall to pieces on being long expofed to moifture ;
and are fo impregnated with vitriol that they are what
is principally ufed for making the green vitriol or cop¬
peras at Deptford and other places.
The irregular maffes or fragments of petrified w ood
are principally of oak, and are moft ufually found among
gravel ; though fometimes in other ftrata. Thefe are
varioufly altered by the infinuation of cryflalline and
ftony particles; and make a very beautiful figure when
cut and poliflred, as they ufually keep the regular grain
of the wood, and (how exa&ly the feveral circles which
mark the different years growth. Thefe, according to
the different matter which has filled their pores, aflume
various colours, and the appearance of the various fulfils
that have impregnated them ; fome are perfeflly white,
and but moderately hard 5 others of a browniffi black,
or perfeftly black, and much harder 5 others of a red-
diffi black, othersytllowifl), and others grayifti, and fome
of a ferruginous colour. They are of different weights
alfo and hardnefles, according to the nature and quanti¬
ty of the ftoney particles they contain : of thefe fome
pieces have been found with every pore filled with pure
pellucid cryftal; and others in large maffes, part of
which is wholly petrified and feems mere ftone, while
the reft is crumbly and is unaltered wood. That this
alteration is made in wood, even at this time, is alfo
abundantly proved by the inftances of wood being put in¬
to the hollows of mines, as props and fupports to the roofs,
which is found after a number of years as truly petrified
as that which is dug up from the natural ftrata of the
earth. In the pieces of petrified wood found in Germa¬
ny, there are frequently veins of fpar or of pure cryftal,
foraetimes of earthy fubftances, and often of the matter of
the common pebbles: thefe fragments of wood fometimes
have the appearance of parts of the branches of trees in
their natural ftate, but more frequently they referable
pieces of broken boards j thele are ufually capable of a
high and elegant polifti.
Many
Wood.
W *0 0 T 73^ ] WOO
Many fubftances, it is certain, have been preferved in
the cabinets of colledlors, under the title ofyjf’/Vv/fW wood,
which have very little right to that name. But where
the whole outer figure of the wood, theexadt lineaments
of the bark, or the fibrous and filtular texture of the
Itrite, and the veftiges of the utriculi and tracheae or air-
vefifels, are yet remaining, and the feveral circles yet vi¬
able which denoted the feveral years growth of the tree,
none can deny thefe fubftances to be real foffil wood.
See Petrifaction.
Dr Parry of Bath has recently inveftigated the caufes
of the decay of wood, and the means ot preventing it.
For this purpofe he recommends the application of a pre¬
paration of the refinous kind, mixed with a certain por¬
tion of bees-wax. The proportion of the ingredients
and the mode of mixing them are as fbllows: Take 12
ounces of rofin and 8 ounces of roll brimftone, each
coarfely powdered, and 3 gallons of train oil; heat them
flowly, gradually adding 4 ounces of bees-wax, cut into
fmall bits. Frequently ftir the liquor, which, as
foon as the folid ingredients are diffblved, will be fit for
ufe. It is recommended to drefs every part of the wood¬
work with this compofition twice over before the parts
are put together, and once afterwards*, and a higher
Itate of prefcrvation is promifed from its ufe than has
yet been attained. It fhould be obferved, that in pre¬
paring this varnilh, it is advifable, in order to prevent
accidents, to ufe an earthen veffel, and to make the fire
In the open air.
Wood ( fylva), in Ancient Geography, a multitude of
trees extended over a large continued ira£t of land, and
propagated without culture. The generality of woods
only confift of trees of one kind.—The ancient Saxons
bad fuch a veneration for woods, that they made them
fandtuaries.—It is ordained, that none fhall deftroy any
wood, by turning it into tillage or pafture, &c. where
there are two acres or more in quantity, on pain of for¬
feiting 40s. an acre, by 35 Henry VIII. c. 17. All
woods that are felled at 14 years growth, are to be
preferved from deitrudtion for eight years j and no cat¬
tle put into the ground till five years after the felling
thereof, Sec. 13 Eliz. c. 25. The burning of woods
( or underwood i is declared to be 'felony j alfo thofe
-perfonsfthat malicioufly cut or fpoil timber-trees, or
any fruit-trees, &c. (hall be fent to the houfe of cor-
reftion, there to be kept three months, and whipt once
a month.
Wood, Engraving on, is commonly executed oft box;
and in many cafes, engravings of this kind are ufed with
advantage inftead of copperplates. The art of cutting
or engraving on wood is of very high antiquity; fot
Chinefe printing is a fpecimen of it. Even in Europe,
If credit be due to Papillon, this art was pradlifed at a
Very remote period; for he mentions eight engravings
on wood, entitled, “ A reprefentation of the warlike
adlions of the great and magnanimous Macedonian king,
the bold and valiant Alexander; dedicated, prefented,
and humbly offered, to the moft holy father, Pope Ho-
norius IV. by us Alexander Arberic Cunio Chevalier,
and Ifabella Cunio, &c.” This anecdote, if true, car¬
ries the art of cutting in wood back to 1284 or 1285;
for Honorius occupied the papal throne only during
thefe two years. But this is not the remotefl period to
which fome have carried the art in Europe: for the ufe
of feals or fignets being of very high antiquity, they
imagine that the invention of wood-cuts mull be coeval Wood
with them. The fuppofition is certainly plaufible, but
it is not fupported by proof. The earlieft impreffion of
a wooden-cut, of which there is any certain account, is
that of St Chriftopher carrying an infant Jefus through
the fea, in which a hermit is feen holding up alanthorn
to fhew him the way; and a peafant, with a fack on
his back, climbing a hill, is exhibited in the back
ground. The date of this itnprefllon is 1423. In the
year 1430 was printed at Haefkm, “ The hiftory of St
John the evangelift and his revelation, reprefented in 48
figures in wood, by Lowrent Janfon Cofter;” and, in
1438, Jorg Schappf of Augfburg cut in wood the hi¬
ftory of the Apocalypfe, and what tvas called The poor
man's bihle.
A folio chronicle, publifhed 1493 by Schedal, was
adorned with a great number of wooden-cuts by Wil¬
liam Plydenwurff and Michael Wolgemut, whofe en-
-gravings were greatly fuperior to any thing of the kind
.which had appeared before them. The latter was the
preceptor of Albert Durer, whofe admirable perform¬
ances in this department of art are juftly held in the
higheft efteem even at the prefent day.
About this period it became the practice of almoft
all the German engravers on copper to engrave likewife
On wood; arid many of their wood cuts furpafs in beauty
the impreflions of their copperplates. Such are the
Wood-cuts of Albert Aldtorfer, Hifbel Pen, Virgil
Soles, Lucas Van Cranach, and Lucas Van Leyden,
the friend and imitator of Albert Durer, with feveral
others.
The Germans carried this art to a great degree of
perfeftion. Hans or John Holbein, who flourilhed in
1500, engraved the Dance of Death, in a feries of
wooden-cuts, which, for the freedom and delicacy of
execution, have fcarcely been equalled, and never fur-
pafled. Italy, France, and Holland, have produced
capital artifts of this kind. Joan. Tofneefium printed a
bible at Leyden, in 1554, with wooden-cuts of excel¬
lent workmanfhip. Chriftopher Jegher of Antwerp,
from his eminence in the art, was employed by Rubens
to work under his infpe&ion, and he executed feveral
pieces which are held in much eftimation ; they are par¬
ticularly diftinguiftied for boldnefs and fpirit.
The next attempt at improvement in this art was by
Hugo da Carpi, to whom is attributed the invention of
the chiaro feuro. Carpia was an Italian, and of the 16th
century ; but the Germans claim the invention alfo, and
produce in evidence feveral engravings by Mair, a dif-
ciple of Martin Schoen, of date 1499. rncc^e
performing this was very fimple. He firft engraved the
fubjeft upon copper, and finifhed it as much as the ar¬
tifts of his time ufually did. He then prepared a block
of wood, upon which he cut out the extreme lights, and
then impreffed it upon the print; by which means a
faint tint was added to all the reft of the piece, except¬
ing only in thofe parts where the lights were meant to
predominate, which appear on the fpecimens extant to
be coloured with white paint. The drawings for this
fpecies of engraving were made on tinted paper with a
pen, and the lights were drawn upon the paper with
white paint.
But there is a material difference between the chiaro
feuro of the old German mafters and that of the Ita¬
lians. Mair and Cranach engraved the outlines and
deep
w o
Vood. tleep flia^ows upon copper.
nr~’' this ftate was tinted over by means of a Angle block of
wood, with thole parts hollowed out which were de-
figned to be left white upon the print. On the con ¬
trary, the mode of engraving by Hugo da Carpi was,
to cut the outline on one block of wood, the dark iha-
dows upon a fecond, and the light lhadows, or half¬
tint, upon a third. The firlt being impreffed upon the
paper, the outlines only appeared : this block being
taken away, the fecond was put in its place, and being
alfo impreffed on the paper, the dark fhadows were
added to the outlines j and the third block being put
in the fame place upon the removal of the fecond, and
alfo impreffed upon the paper, made the dim tints,
when the print was completed. In fome inftances, the
number of blocks was increafed, but the operation was
ilill the fame, the print receiving an impreflion from
every block.
In 1698, John Baptift Michel Papillon pra£tifed en¬
graving on wood with much fuccefs, particularly in or¬
namental fsliage and flowers, (hells, &c. In the opi¬
nion, however, of fome of the mod eminent artifts, his
performances are ftiff and cramped. From that period
the art of engraving on wood gradually degenerated,
and may be faid to have been wholly loft, when it was
lately re-invented by Mr Bewick of Newcaftle. This
eminent artift was apprentice to Mr Bielby, a refpec-
table engraver on metal. Mr Bielby, who was accuf-
tomed to employ his apprentices in engraving on wood,
was much gratified with the performance of Thomas
Bewick, and therefore advifed him to profecute engra-
-ving in that line. The advice was followed •, and young
Bewick inventing tools, even making them with his
own hands, and fawing the wood on which he was to
■work into the requifite thicknefs, proceeded to improve
upon his own difcoveries, without afliftance or inftruc-
tion of any kind. When his apprenticefhip expired, he
went to London, where the obfcure wood-engravers of
the time wiftied to avail themfelves of his abilities, while
they were determined to give him no infight into their
art. During his apprenticefliip, he received from the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. a premium
of confiderable value for the beft engraving on wood.
The cut which obtained the premium was one of a feries
for an edition of Gay’s Fables. Having remained fome
years in London, he returned to Newcaftle, and entered
into copartnerftiip with his old mafter j and eftablilhed
his reputation as an artift by the publication of his ad¬
mirable Hiftory of Quadrupeds. This was followed by
his Hiftory of Birds, in 2 vols. The greater part of the
volume on Quadrupeds, and the whole of the firft volume
of the work on Birds, was compofed by Mr Bielby.
John Bewick, brother to Thomas, learned the art of
him, and praftifed it for feveral years in London with
great applaufe. His abilities, however, though refpec-
table, were not, by the beft judges, deemed fo brilliant
as his brother’s ; and owing to bad health, and the na¬
ture of his connexion with the bookfellers and others,
he feems not to have advanced the art beyond the ftage
at which he received it. He died, fome years ago, at
Newcaftle.
Mr Nefbit, who executed the admirable cuts from
defigns by Thornton, for an edition of Hudibras, as
well as the cuts for editions of Shakefpeare and Thom-
ion’s Seafons, and Mr Anderfon, whofe beautiful cuts
Vol. XX. Part II.
o C 737 1 woo
The impreflion taken in adorn the poem entitled Grove HU/, have been the moft
fuccefsful of Thomas Bewick’s pupils, who have appear¬
ed before the public as artifts. It appears, that the me¬
thod praftifed by the ancient engravers on wood, whofe
works are ftill admired, muft have been different from
that of Bewick and his pupils. What that method was
feems to be altogether unknown. Papillon, who writes
the beft hiftory extant of the art, gueffes indeed in what
manner the old engravers proceeded, fo as to give to
their works the fpirit and freedom for which they are
famed ; but that his gueffes are erroneous feems evident
from the ftiffnefs of his own works. 1 he principal cha-
radleriftic in the mechanical department of the produc¬
tions of the ancient mafters is the crofting of the black
lines, which Papillon has attempted with the greatelt
awkw^ardnefs, though it feems to have been accomplifli-
ed by them with fo much eafe, that they introduced it
at random, even where it could add nothing to the
beauty of the piece. In Bew ick’s method of working,
this crofs hatching is fo difficult and unnatural, that it
may be confidered as impra&icable. Mr Nefbit has in¬
deed introduced fomething of it into tw'o or three of his
pieces j but fo great was the labour, and fo little tht
advantage of this improvement, if fuch it can be called,
that probably it will not be attempted again.
The engravers of Bewick’s fchool work on the end
of the wood, which is cut acrofs the trunk of the tree,
in pieces of the proper thicknefs. As wood cuts aie
generally employed in the printer’s prefs amidft a form
of types, this thicknefs muft be regulated by the height
of the types wfith which they are to be ufed. The tools
employed are nearly the fame with thofe ufed in copper¬
plate engraving, being only a little more deep, or lo¬
zenge, as engravers call it. They muft have points of
various degrees of finenefs for the different purpofes to
which they are applied, fome of them being fo much
rounded oft’ at the bottom as to approach to the nature
of a goodge, whilft others are in fad little duffels of
various fizes. Thefe chiffels and goodges, to which
every'artift gives the (hape which he deems moft con¬
venient, are held in the hand in a manner fomewhat
different from the tool of the engraver on copper, it be¬
ing neceffary to have the power of lifting the chips up¬
wards with eafe. To attempt a defcription of this in
writing would be in vain j but it is eafily acquired, we
are told, by practice.
The pupils of the fchool of Bewick confider it as
quite improper to fpeak of his invention as a revival of
the ancient art. Some old prints, it is true, have the
appearance of being executed in the fame wTay with his j
but others have certainly been done by a method very
different. It is therefore not fair to appreciate the pre-
fent art by w'hat has been done, but by what may be
done 5 and that remains yet to be (hewn. The art ia
in its infancy j and thofe who are difpofed to com¬
pare it with the art of engraving on copper, ought to
look back to the period when copperplate engraving
was of as recent invention as Bewick’s method of en¬
graving on wood. Marc Antonio, who engraved un¬
der the direftion of the great painter Raphael, thought
it no mean proof of his proficiency in his art, that lie
was able to imitate on copperplates the wood-cuts of
Albert Durer ; and Papillon is highly indignant that
there ftiould have been perfons fo very blind as to mif-!
take the copies for the originals. If copper has its ad-j
5 A vantages'
Wooi?.
WOO [ 738 ] woo
Wood, vantages over •wood in point of delicacy and minute-
’ 'r nefs, wood has, in its turn, advantages not inferior in
regard to flrength and richnefs. Thofe prints which
were executed under the aufpices of Titian and Ru¬
bens, will always remain a monument of the fpirit and
vigour natural to wood-engravingj and if there be not
found in them all the attention to chiaro fcuro, which
the prefent age demands, it mull; not be attributed ei¬
ther to defe6t in the art, or to want of abilities in the
artifts, but to the tafte of the times, when chiaro fcuro
was little underftood. It remains for fome enterprifing
artift to thew that the vigour of the ancient art may be
attained by the prefent one, and at the fame time to
add to that vigour thofe gradations of (hade which are
fo much admired in good copperplates. As there feems
to be a more perfefl, or at leaft a more pleafant black
produced by wood than by copperplate printing, and
certainly a more perfedl white (a), who will fay that
any intermediate (hade whatever may not be produced
by wood cuts ? To attempt this on a fmall fcale would
indeed be vain, becaufe the flighted variation, produced
by a little more or lefs ink, or a harder preflure in
printing, bears fuch a proportion to a very ftiort line, as
muft neceflarily render the attempt abortive.
Wood-engraving, therefore, mull always appear to
difadvantage while it is confined to fmall fubjefts, and
will never reach its ftation as a fine art, till thofe who
are engaged in its cultivation improve upon the difco-
veries of one another, and apply to fubjefts to which it
is properly adapted. As an economical art for illuftrat-
ing mechanics, various branches of natural hiftory, and
other fubje&s of fcience, it is too little employed even
in its prefent ftate.
The works of Bewick and his pupils, which have
hitherto been publilhed, are not numerous. Befides his
quadrupeds and birds, the Hudibras, and the cuts for
fome editions of Shakefpeare and Thomfon’s Seafons,
by Nefbit, and the Grove Hill by Anderfon, al¬
ready noticed, there are alfo fame others of lefs note.—
Goldfmith’s Traveller and Deferted Village with elegant
plates, are all executed by Thomas Bewick, except one
or two which were executed by John ; Somerville’s
Chace by the fame artifls, executed in a ftyle of ele¬
gance which perhaps has never been furpafled; a View
of St Nicholas’s Church, Newcaftle, 15 inches long, by
Mr Neflflt, who received for it a filver medal from the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts.
WOOD, Rotten, Illumination of. This is a fubjeft
which has often been difcufled by naturalifts. Spallan¬
zani maintained, that there is a perfeft analogy between
the illumination of rotten wood, and artificial phof-
phorus; and he imagines, that in the putrid fermenta¬
tion, the hydrogen and the carbone of the wood come
more eafily in contaft with the oxygen of the atmo-
fphere, by which combination a flow combuftion, and
the illumination of the wood, is produced j and he
thinks that this procefs cannot proceed in the irrefpira-
ble kinds of gafes. Rotten wood alfo, in which the ne-
ceffary quantity of hydrogen and carbone is not at the
feme time difengaged, does not obtain the property of
illuminating. Mr Corradori, however, objefts to this
theory, that the flow combuftion does not take place ac- Wood
cording to the above theory, as the wood, at the time ll
when it begins to illuminate, is moftly deprived of its Wood,
relinous particles, and confequently contains but very ■ , '
little hydrogen and carbone j and it appears to him
more probable, that the more it lofes of combuftible
matter, the more it obtains the property of illuminating.
There is, he thinks, a very great difference between
this natural and the artificial phofphorus. Mr Hum¬
boldt concludes, from his experiments, that the illumi¬
nation of rotten wood takes place only when it gets into
contact with oxygen 5 and when it has loft the property
of emitting light in irrefpirable gafes, it recovers it
again by expofing it to oxygen gas. Dr Gartner, how¬
ever, is of opinion, that, according to his experiments,
a certain degree of humidity is always requifite, and he
thinks that oxygen gas is not quite neceffary though the
illumination be increafed by it. This phenomenon,
however, being fo very different from all known pro-
ceffes of combuftion, where light is difengaged, Dr
Gartner alks, whether it be not more agreeing with the
animal procefsof refpiration, than with atrue combuftion,
or whether the illumination of the wood be produced
by phofphorus and carbone in a proportion hitherto un¬
known. Dr Gartner is, on the whole, inclined to
think, that it is at prefent impoflible to give a fatisfac-
tory explanation of all the phenomena that occur in this
procefs. Beckmann has made numerous experiments on
the illumination of rotten wood, in difterent gafes and
fluids, in order to throw fome light on the ideas of the
above naturalifts. The refults of thefe experiments dif¬
fer in fome points from what the experiments of thofe
gentlemen have ihewn, which, however, Beckmann
aferibes to the nature of rotten wood, as a fubftance
that is not always of the fame kind, and has not always
an equal degree of putrefa&ion and humidity. It feems
alfo to differ materially from the artificial phofphorus in
the following particulars. 1. It {bines in oxygen gas at
a very low temperature. 2. It emits light in all irre¬
fpirable gafes, at leaft for a ftiort time. 3. In muriatic
acid gas its light is fuddenly extinguifhed. 4. It (bines
in a lefs degree in air rarefied by the air-pump. 5. Ac¬
cording to Mr Corradori, it even fliines in the torricel-
lian vacuum. 6. Its illumination is extinguished in oxy¬
gen gas, as well as in other kinds of gafes, when they
are heated. 7. By its illumination in oxygen gas, car¬
bonic acid gas is produced. 8. One may fuffer the rotten
wood to be extinguifhed feveral times, one after an¬
other, in irrefpirable gafes, without depriving them of
the property of making new pieces of rotten wood (bine
again. 9. Humidity greatly promotes the illumination,
and even feems to be neceflary in producing it. 10. The
rotten wood continues to (bine under water, oil, and
other fluids, and in fome of them its light is even in¬
creafed. All this feems to (hew, that the extindlion of
rotten wood, in different media, does not immediately
depend on a want of oxygen, but rather on a particular
change, to which the wood itfelf has been expofed.
WOOD-Cock. See Scolopax, Ornithology Index.
WOOD-Goat. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
WooD-Loufe. See Oniscus, Entomology
WOOD-
(a) 1 he parts of the print intended to be 1711116 are not even touched by the wood block.
T
WOO [ 739 ] W O ' O
Vood-
iccker
II,
,Vool.
WoOb-'Pecher. See Picus, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
WOODMOTE. See FOREST Courts.
WOODSTOCK, a townof Oxfordfhire, in England,
pleafantly feated on a riling ground, and on a rivulet *, a
well compared borough-town, and fends two members
to parliament j but is chiefly noted for Blenheim-houfe,
a fine palace, built in memory of the victory obtained
by the duke of Marlborough over the French and Bava¬
rians in Auguft 1704. It was erefted at the public
expence, and is one of the noblefi: feats in Europe. One
of the paffages to it is over a bridge with one arch, 190
feet in diameter, refembling the Rialto at Venice. The
gardens take up 100 acres of ground j and the offices,
which are very grand, have room enough to accommo¬
date 300 people. The apartments of the palace are
magnificently furniflred; and the ftaircafes, (tatues, paint¬
ings, and tapellry, furprifingly fine. The town is about
half a mile from the palace, having feveral good inns j
and a manufacture of fteel chains for watches, and ex¬
cellent gloves. A fteel chain has been made at this
place which fold for 170I.—The population is eftimated
at 1300 perfons. It is eight miles north of Oxford,
and 60 weft-north-weft of London. W. Long. 1. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 52.
WOODWARD, Dr John, was born in 1665, and
educated at a country fchool, where he learned the La¬
tin and Greek languages, and was afterwards fent to
London, where he is faid to have been put apprentice to
a linen-draper. He was not long in that ftation, till he
.became acquainted with Dr Peter Barwick, an eminent
phyfician, who took him under his tuition and into his
family. Here he profecuted with great vigour and fuc-
cefs the ftudy of philofophy, anatomy, and phyfic. In
1692, Dr Stillingfleet quitting the place of profeflbr of
phyfic in Greffiam college, our author was chofen to
fucceed him, and the year following was eleCled F. R. S.
In 1695 he obtained the degree of M. D. by patent
from Archbiffiop Tennifon ; and the fame year he pu-
bliffied hisEffay towards a Natural Hiftoryof the Earth.
He afterwards wrote many other pieces, which have
been well received by the learned world. He founded
a le&ure in the univerfity of Cambridge, to be read
there upon his Effay, &c. and handfomely endowed it.
He died in 1728.
WOOF, among manufacturers, the threads which the
weavers (hoot acrofs with an inftrument called the /but¬
tle. See Cloth.
WOOKEY or OKETHole, a remarkable cavern two
miles from the city of Wells in Somerfetffiire $ for an
account of which, fee the article Grotto.
WOOL, the covering of ffieep. See Ovis and
Sheep.
Wool refembles hair in a great many particulars; but
befides its finenefs, which conftitutes an obvious differ¬
ence, there are other particulars which may ferve alfo to
, vol. diftinguiffi them from one another. Wool, like the hair
11P* 57' of horfes, cattle, and moft other animals, completes its
growth in a year, and then falls off as hair does, and is
fucceeded by a freffi crop. It differs from hair, however,
in the* uniformity of its growdh, and the regularity of its
fhedding. Every filament of wool feems to keep exafl
pace with another in the fame part of the body or the
animal; the whole crop fprings up at once ; the whole
advances uniformly together; the whole loofens from the
ikin nearly at the fame period, and thus falls off, if not
previoufty {horn, leaving the animal covered with a ftiort
coat of young wool, which in its turn undergoes the fame
regular mutations.
Hairs are commonly of the fame thicknefs in every
part; but wool conftantly varies in thicknefs in differ¬
ent parts, being generally thicker at the points than at
the roots. That part of the fleece of (beep which grows
during the winter is finer than what grows in fummer.
This was firft obferved by Dr Anderfon, the editor of
the Bee, and publifihed in his Okfervations on the Means
of exciting a Spirit of National Indujlry.
While the wrool remains in the ftate it was firft {horn,
off the ffieep’s back, and not forted into its different
kinds, it is called feece. Each fleece confilfs of wool
of divers qualities and degrees of finenefs, which the
dealers therein take care to feparate. The French and
Englilh ufually feparate each fleece into three forts, viz.
1. Mother-wool, which is that of the back and neck.
2. The wool of the tails and legs. 3. That of the
breaft and under the belly. The Spaniards make the
like divifion into three forts, which they cdW. prime, fe~
cond and third; and for the greater eafe, mark each
bale or pack with a capital letter, denoting the fort.
If the triage or feparation be well made, in 15 bales
there will be 12 marked R, that is, refine, or prime ;
two marked F, for fine, or fecond ; and one S, for
thirds.
The wools moft efteemed are the Engliffi, chiefly
thofe about Leominfter, Cotfwmld, and the ilie of Wight;
the Spanifti, principally thofe about Segovia ; and the
French, about Berry : which laft are faid to have this
peculiar property, that they will knot or bind with any
other fort; whereas the reft will only knot With their
own kind.
Among the ancients, the -wools of Attica, Megara,
Laodicea, Apulia, and efpecially thofe of Tarentum,
Parma, and Altino, were the moft valued. Varro affures
us, that the people there ufed to clothe their fheep with
{kins, to fecure the wool from being damaged.
Of late a great deal of attention has been paid to woo!
in this country, as well as feveral others. Several very
fpirited attempts have been made to improve it, by in¬
troducing fuperior breeds of Iheep, and better methods
of managing them. For this purpofe has been formed
the
Britifb WOOL Society, an affociation formed for the
purpofe of obtaining the beft breeds of fine-woolled
ftieep, with a view of afeertaining, by actual experi¬
ments, how far each fpecies or variety is calculated for
the climate of Great Britain; the qualities of their wool
refpedftively ; the ufes to which each kind of -wool could
be moft profitably employed in different manufaclures ;
and the comparative value of each fpecies of ftieep, fo
far as the fame can be determined.
Attention had for fome time been paid by the High¬
land Society to a famous breed of fine-woolled flieep in
Shetland ; but it occurred to Sir John Sinclair of Ulb-
fter, baronet, and to Dr James Anderfon, well known
as the author of many ufeful publications, that the im¬
provement of Britifli wool was a matter of too much
importance to beentrufted to a fociety which is obliged
to devote its attention to fuch a variety of objuSs as
the general improvement of the Highlands of Scotland.
The latter of thefe gentlemen, therefore, in an Appen¬
dix to the Report of the Committee of the Highland
5 A 2 Society
Wool.
W O O f 74
Society of Scotland, for the year 1790, propofed the
' plan of a patriotic ajfociation for the improvement of Bri-
t’jh wool; and the former, who was convener of the
committee to whom the fubjetf: of Shetland wool had
been referred, wrote circular letters, recommending the
plan. The confequence of which was, that on the 31ft
of January 179T fcveral noblemen and gentlemen of
the higheit refpeffability met in Edinburgh, and con-
ffituted themfclves into a Society for the Improvement of
Britijh Wool. Of this fociety Sir John Sinclair was
elected preiident; after which, in an excellent fpeech,
he pointed out to the members the objefts of the infti-
tution, the means by which thofe objefls could be at¬
tained, and the advantages which would refult from
their united labours. This addrefs wTas afterwards print¬
ed by order of the fociety.
I lie particular breeds of (beep to which the fociety
propofed to direct its attention, were fheep for the hilly
parts of Scotland ; (heep for the plains, or the Lowland
breed j and fheep for the iflands. 1 hey were to try
experiments alio with llieep from foreign countries, di-
ftinguifhed by any particular property.
1 he principal objecls which the members had in
view, during the frit year of their aflfociation, were, 1.
To_ colleft fpecimens of the beft breeds which Great
Britain at that period afforded, in order to afeertain the
degree of perfection to which fheep had already been
brought sn this kingdom. 2. To procure from every
country, dillinguifhcd for the quality of its fheep and
wool, fpecimens of the different breeds it poffeffed, in
order to afeertain how far the original breed, ora mixed
breed from it and the native fheep of the country,
3
w o a
could thrive in Scotland. 3* I ° difperfe as much as
poflible all thefe breeds, both foreign anddomeflic, over
* he whole kingdom, wherever proper perfons could be
found to take charge of them, in order to try experi¬
ments on a more extenfive fcale than the fociety itfelf
could do; to fpread information, and to excite a fpirit
for the improvement of fheep and wool in every part of
the country.
Sir John Sinclair had previoufly collefted a flock,
eonnfHng of fheep of the Spanifh, Herefordfhire, South¬
down, Cheviot, Lomond hills, and Shetland breeds, and
of a mixed breed from thefe different {heep. This flock
amounted to 110 rams, ewes, and lambs. M. d’xVuben-
ton, in confequence of a correfpondence with Sir John
Sinclair, font over to the fociety ten rams and five
1 weo, of real Spanifh breed, which had been originally
enhuffed to his care by the late king of France : thefe,
after encountering a number of obftacles, and after be¬
ing flopped and threatened to be flaughtered at the cu-
ifomhoufe of Bnghthelmftone for the ufe of the poor,
arrived fafe at Leith. Lord Sheffield, at the fame time,
lent to the lociety four rams and fix ewes of the South-
down and Spanifh breeds. Mr Rifhton of Kilfall, in
Shropfhire, prefented them with three Hereford rams
reckoned by many the beft breed in England; the fo-
ciety at the fame time ordered 150 ewes of the fame
breed, and two ewes of the LongMountain breed, rec-
koned the beft in Wales, to be fent along with them.
I hey purchafed 57 rams and 173 ewes of the Cheviot
Jireer , reckoned the beft in Scotland, for the hilly parts
of the country. Lord Daer fent them 20 ewes of an
excellent breed, which exifted at Mochrum in Gallo¬
way. Ibe late earl of Oxford fent them in a prefent
three rams of the Norfolk croffed by the Cape of Good
Hope breed. Mr Ifaac Grant junior of Leghorn in
conjunction with Mr Sibbald, merchant at Leith, pre¬
sented them an Apulian ram and ewe ; the ram arrived
in fafety, but the ewe unfortunately died on the paffage.
Mr Baron Seton of Prefton, in Linlithgowftdre, fent
them a ram and two ewes of a Spanifh breed, which
had been for fome time kept in Sweden unmixed with
any other. They purchafed joo ewes of a fmall breed
exifting in the parifli of Leuchars in Fife, much refem-
bling the Shetland. The Bight Honourable William
Conynghame of Ireland lent them 11 Spanifh rams,
feven Spanifh ewes, 15 three-fourth breed and 16 one-
half breed Spanifh and Irifh ewes. Lord Sheffield fent
them eight rams and 18 ewes j and his majefty made
them a prefent of two rams.
Thus, in the courfe of one year, the foeiety acquired
by donation or purchafe about 800 ftieep of different
forts and ages, and many of them from foreign coun¬
tries : about 500 of thde were diftributed over different
parts of Scotland, the greater number of which were
fold to gentlemen anxious to promote the views of the
fociety, and well qualified to make experiments on the
different breeds which they had obtained. The great-
eft part of the remainder were taken by different gentle¬
men, who kept them for the fociety, and according to
their dire&ions, without any txpence.
It is impoflible to produce an inftance of fo muck
having been accompliffied by a fociety of private indi¬
viduals in fo fliort a time. Nor was this all; the fame
year Mr Andrew Kerr, a very intelligent fheep-farxner
on the borders of England, was fent, at the expence of
the fociety, to examine the ftate of fheep-fanning alcng
the eaft coaft of Scotland and the interior parts of the
Highlands. His tour avhs printed by order of the fo¬
ciety, and contains the firft intimation of the poffibi-
lity of the Cheviot breed thriving in the north of Scot¬
land.
In the year 1792, Meffrs Redhead, Laing, and Mar-
ftnall were fent by the fociety, to make a furvey of the
ftate of fheep-farming through fome of the principal
counties of England j the refult of which Avas alfo pub-
lifhed by the fociety, and contains more information cn
the fubjedf of the different breeds of England than any
work hitherto publifhed ; and in 1794, Mr John Nai’-
fmvth Avas fent on a tour through the font hem diftricts
of Scotland, which completed the circuit of almoft the
Avhole kingdom.
Thus a few private individuals, unaided by the public
purfe, had boldnefs enough to undertake afeertaining
the comparative \'alue of the different kinds of fheep in
their oAvn country, and to introduce fome of the moft
celebrated breeds of other countries, and fucceeded in
the fpirited attempt. It is impuffible in this place to
ftate more minutely the various other tranfaftiens of
the fociety , to enter into any detail of the premiums
given by this refpe<5!able inflitution for the improve¬
ment of the celebrated Shetland breed j or to explain
hoAV, as if it were by magic, in a country Avhere the
mar.ufadfure of avooI Avas little knoAvn, articles manu-
fa<3ured of that material Avere made, rivalling, and in
fome cafes furpafling, the moft celebrated fabrics of
other countries. A Avar having unfortunately arifen,
it became impofuble to pay the fame attention, or to
carry on with the fame fuccefs, novel enterprifes; even
eld
WOO r 741 ] WOR
,Vool, old eftablifhments often fall a faerifice amidft the hor-
A?°oi- rors of war. The utmoft that the Britilh Wool Socie-
i ■ ty could expeft to do, was to preferve the inftitution in
fuch a date, that when peace (hall be happily reftored
it may revive with double energy and fpirit.
It is a curious fad! that the Romans, during their re-
fidence in Britain, eftablilhed a manufactory of woollen
cloth at Winchefter, which was fo extenfive as to fup-
ply their army } and there is reafon to believe that the
trade which they introduced into Britain, was not ne-
gleCled by the native inhabitants, for the firft 900
years of the Chridian era. The long Spanifh wool was
imported into this country fo early as the 1 2th century,
and we find that fince the days of Edward III. BritiPn
fleeces were admirably adapted to the kind of cloth
which was in greateft requeft, though now they are ge¬
nerally unequal to the produClion of that which is
fought after.
IVOOL-Combing, a well known operation, which,
when performed by the hand, is laborious, tedious, and
expenfive. The expence of it through all England has
been calculated at no lefs a fum than 8oo,oool.; and
to leiTen this expence, the Rev. Edmund Cartwright of
Doncafter in Yorkfhire bethought himfelf, fome years
ago, of carding wool by machinery. After repeated
attempts and improvements, for which he took out
three patents, he found that wool can be combed in per¬
fection by machinery, of which he gives the following
Plate defcription.
icxvin. Fig. 1. is the crank laflier. A is a tube through
'S’ i- which the material, being formed into a fliver, and
(lightly twilled, is drawn forward by the delivering
rollers; B, a wheel fait upon the crofs bar of the
crank •, C, a wheel, on the oppofite end of whofe axis
is a pinion working in a wheel upon the axis of one of
the delivering rollers.
Note. When two or more (livers are required, the
cans or balkets, in which they are contained, are placed
upon a table under the lalher (as reprefented at D),
which, by having a (low motion, twills them together
as they go up.
t 4. Fig. 2. is the circular clearing comb, for giving work
^ 3- in the head, carried in a frame by two cranks. Fig. 3.
the comb-table, having the teeth pointing towards the
centre, moved by cogs upon the rim, and carried round
upon trucks like the head of a windmill, a, b. The
drawing rollers, c, d, Callendar, or conducing rollers.
Note. Underneath the table is another pair of rollers,
for drawing out the backings.
In the above fpecifieation, we have omitted the frame
in which the machine (lands, the wheels, drafts, &c.
Had thefe been introduced, the drawing would have
been crowded and confufed ; befides, as matters of in¬
formation, they would have been unneceffary, every me¬
chanic, when he knows the principles of a machine, be- «
ing competent to apply the movements to it.
The wool, if for particularly nice work, goes through
three operations, otherwife two are fufficient: the firft
operation opens the wool, and makes it conneft to¬
gether into a rough fliver, but does not clear it. I he
clearing is performed by the fecond, and, if neceffary, a
third operation. A fet of machinery, confiding of three
machines, will require the attendance of an overlooker
and ten children, and will comb a pack, or 2401b. in
twelve hours. As neither fire nor oil is necefl'ary for
I
machine-combing, the faving of thofe articles, eveli the Wool-
fire alone, will, in general, pay the wages of the over-
looker and children ; fo that the aftual faving to the Worcefter
manufacturer is the whole of what tin? combing cods, ■ '
by the old imperfeCl mode of hand-combing. Machine-
eombed wool is better, efpecially for machine-fpinning,
by at lead 12 per cent, being all equally mixed, and the
divers uniform, and of any required length.
WOOLSION, Thomas, an Englidi divine, was
born at Northampton in 1669, and educated at Cam-
bridge. His (frit appearance in the learned world was
in 1705, in a work entitled, The Old Apology for the
1 ruth of the Chrillian Religion, againd the jews and
Gentiles, revived. He afterwards wrote many pieces :
but what made the mod node, were his fix Difcourfes
on the Miracles of Chrilt ; which occafioned a great
number of books and pamphlets upon the fubjeCl, and
raifed a profecution againd him. At his trial in Guild¬
hall, before the lord chief-judice Raymond, he fpoke
feveral times himielf; and urged, that “ he thought it
very hard that he diould be tried by a fet of men who,
though otherwife very learned and worthy perfons, were
no more judges of the fubje&s on which he wrote, than
himfelf was a judge of the moll crabbed points of the
law.” He was fentenced to a year’s imprifonment, and
to pay a fine of loci. He purchafed the liberty of the
rules of the King’s bench, where he continued after the
expiration of the year, being unable to pay the fine.
The greateft obftruClion to his deliverance from con¬
finement was, the obligation of giving fecurity not to
offend by any future writings, he being refolved to
write again as freely as before. Whilft fome fuppofed
that this author wrote with the fettled intention of fub-
verting Chriftianity under the pretence of defending it,
others believed him difordered in his mind 5 and many
circumftances concurred which gave countenance to
this opinion. He died, January 27. 1732-3, after an
illnefs of four days ; and, a few minutes before his
death, uttered thefe words : “ This is a ftruggle which
all men muft go through, and which 1 bear not only
patiently, but with willingnefs.” His body was interred
in St George’s church-yard, Southwark.
WOOLWICH, a town in Kent, with a market on
Fridays. It is feated on the river Thames, and of great
note for its fine docks and yards, where men of war are
built $ as alio for its vaft magazines of great guns, mor¬
tars, bombs, cannon-balls, powder, and other warlike
(lores. It has likewife an academy, where young offi¬
cers are iuftrufted in the military art ; the population
in 1801 exceeded 9000. It is nine miles call of Lon¬
don. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 51. 30.
WORCESTER, in Latin Wigornia, the capital of a
county of England of the fame name, (lands on the
river Severn, but fo low that it can hardly be feen till
one is clofe upon it. It is fuppofed to be the Brano-
nium of Antoninus, the Branogenium of Ptolemy, and
to have been built by the Romans to awe the Britons
en the other fide of the Severn. It was made an epif-
copal fee about the year 680 by Sexulphus biffiop of
the Mercians ; but the prefent cathedral was begun by
Wulfton in the year 1084. The town hath been feve¬
ral times burnt down; firft, in 1041, by Hardicanute,
who alfo maffacred the citizens; fecondly, not long af¬
ter William Rufus’s time ; and a third time, when King
Stephen befieged and took it. Here, in latter times,
was
'Worcefter. tvas fought that battle, in which Charles II. with his
Scots army, was defeated by Cromwell. In a garden
near the fouth gate of the city, where the aftion wras
hotteft, the bones of the flain are often dug up. It
had formerly ftrong walls and a caftle 5 but thefe have
been demolifhed long ago. It is now a large city, the
flreets broad and well paved, and fome of them
very regular and well built, particularly Foregate-
ftreet; fo that in general it is a very agreeable place.
The cathedral is a llately edifice, and among other mo¬
numents in it are thofe of King John, of Arthur, elder
brother to Henry VIII. and of the countefs of Salif-
bury, who gave occafion to the inflitution of the order
of the Garter. There are feven or eight hofpitals in
and about the city ; of which that built and endowed
by Robert Berkley of Spetchley, Efq. is a very noble
one. There is a fchool founded by Henry VIII. three
other fchools, and fix charity-fchools. The churches,
St Nicholas and All-Saints, have been lately rebuilt,
and are handfome edifices. The city carries on a great
trade ; for which it is chiefly indebted to its fituation
upon the Severn. The population in 1801 was eftimated
at 11,000, a large proportion of which is employed in the
manufadlure of broad cloth and gloves. The Welch in¬
habit a part of it, and fpeak their own language. Its
market is well fupplied with provifions and cattle, and
its quay is much frequented by (hips. By a charter from
James I. it is governed by a mayor, fix aldermen, who
are juftices of the peace, and chofen out of 24 capital
citizens 5 a Iheriff, the city being a county of itfelf; a
common council, confifting of 48 other citizens, out of
which two chamberlains are yearly chofen 5 a recorder,
town-clerk, two coroners, a fword-bearer, 13 conftables,
and four ferjeants at mace. Of the bifhops of this fee,
there have been, it is faid, one pope, four faints, feven
lord high-chancellors, 11 archbithops, two lord treafu-
rers, one chancellor to the queen, one lord prefident of
Wales, and one vice-prefident. The city at prefent
gives title of earl and marquis to the duke of Beaufort.
W. Long. 1. 55. N. Lat. 52. 10.
Worcester, Edward Somerfet, Marquis of, was a
diftinguifhed political charafler in the time of Charles I.
by whom he was created earl of Glamorgan, while heir-
apparent to the marquis of Worcefter. This nobleman
flourifhed chiefly in the reign of Charles I. and feems to
have been a moft zealous adherent to the caufe of that
unfortunate monarch, on whofe account it is faid that
he and his father wafted an immenfe fum. Of this the
king was fo fenfible, that he granted to the earl a moft
extraordinary patent, the chief powers of which were,
to make him generaliflimo of three armies, and admiral
Y/ith nomination of his officers *, to enable him to raife
money by felling his majefty’s woods, wardfhips, cuf-
toms, and prerogatives ; and to create by blank patents,
to be filled up at Glamorgan’s pleafure, from the rank
of marquis to baronet. If any thing, fays Lord Orford,
could juftify the delegation of fuch authority, befides
his majefty having loft all authority, when he conferred
it, it was the promife with which the king concluded
of beftowing the princefs Elizabeth on Glamorgan’s
fon. 1 his patent was given up by the marquis to the
houfe of peers after the reftoration. He died not long
after that era, in 1667, after he had publifhed what
Lord Orford calls the following amazing piece of folly.
“ A century of the names and fcantlings of fuch in- Worcefter.
ventions, as at prefent I can call to mind to have tried ‘■“■"v***
and perfected, which (my former notes being loft) I
have, at the inftance of a powerful friend, endeavoured
now in the year 1655, to fet thefe down in fuch a way
as may fufficiently inftruft me to put any of them in
praflice.”
Some of the inventions referred to in this work are
the following. A (hip-deftroying engine, a coach-ftop-
ping engine, a balance water-work, a bucket fountain,
an ebbing and flowing caftle clock, a tinder-box piftol,
a pocket ladder, a moft admirable way to raife weights,
a ftupendous water-work. For the laft contrivance the
marquis procured an aft of parliament in 1663, for
the foie benefit arifing from it, one-tenth of it being ap¬
propriated to Charles II. and his fucceflors.
In a manufcript addition to a copy of the Century of
Inventions, the ftupendous or water-commanding engine
is defcribed as boundlefs for height or quantity, requir¬
ing no external, or even additional help or force to be
fet or continued in motion, but what intrinfically is af¬
forded from its own operation, nor yet the twentieth
part thereof, and the engine confifteth of the following
particulars. 1. A perfeft counterpoife for what quanti¬
ty foever of water. 2. A perfeft countervail for what
height foever it is to be brought unto. 3. A primum
mobile, commanding both height and quantity, regula¬
tor-wife. 4. A vicegerent or countervail, fupplying the
place, and performing the full force of man, wind,
beaft, or mill. 5. A helm or ftern, with bit and reins,
wherewith any child may guide, order, and controul
the whole operation. 6. A particular magazine for
water, according to the intended quantity or height of
water. 7. A place for the original fountain, or even
river to run into, and naturally of its own accord incor¬
porate itfelf W'ith the rifing water, and at the very bot¬
tom of the fame aqueduft, though never fo big or high.
Various and very oppofite opinions have been held
with regard to the title of this nobleman tobeconfider-
ed as a mechanical genius. Lord Orford has pronoun¬
ced his work an amazing piece of folly } and Mr Hume,
fpeaking of his political conduft, fays, “ that the king
judged aright of this nobleman’s charafter, appears
from his Century of Arts, or Scantling of Inventions,
which is a ridiculous compound of lies, chimeras, and
impoffibilities, and (hows what might be expefted from
fuch a man.” HiJI. of England. It may be fairly
prefumed from the quotations now made, that neither
Lord Orford nor Mr Hume was qualified to judge of
the marquis’s work, otherwife a more temperate or a
more modified opinion would have been given. By
others, the author of the inventions has been regard¬
ed as one of the greateft mechanical geniufes, and is
to be confidered as the inventor of the fleam-engine,
which he denominates a ftupendous water-work. There
feems to be no reafon to fuppofe that any fteam-engine
w'as-erefted by the marquis himfelf; but it is faid that
Captain Savary, after reading the marquis’s books,
tried many experiments upon the power and force of
fleam, and at laft fell upon a method of applying it to
raife water ; and having bought up and deftroyed all
the marquis’s books that could be got, claimed the
honour of the invention to himfelf, and obtained a pa¬
tent for it.
The
/orcefter
11
Word.
W O R [ 743 3 W O R
The marquis of Worcefter is fomeiimes confounded
with John Tiptoft, earl of Worcefter, a very accomplifti-
ed literary character, who lived in the times of Henry
VI. and Edward IV. Being attached to Edward, he
abfconded during the ftiort reftoration of Henry, and
being taken concealed in a tree in Waybridge foreft in
Huntingdonftiire, he was brought to London, accufed
of cruelty in his adminiftration of Ireland, and con¬
demned and beheaded at the Tower in the year 1470.
This nobleman tranflated Cicero de Amicitia, fome
parts of Caftar’s Commentaries, and was the author of
feveral other works.
WORCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
bounded by Warwickftiire on the eaft, by Gloucefter-
fhire on the fouth, by the counties of Hereford and Sa¬
lop on the weft, and on the north by Staffordftiire. Ac¬
cording to Templeman, it is 36 miles in length, 28 in
breadth, and about 13c in circumference, within which
it contains feven hundreds, and a part of two others, II
market towns, of which three are boroughs, one city,
namely Worcejlcr, 152 parifhes, about acres,
and 139,518 inhabitants.
This being an inland county, well cultivated, and
free from lakes, marlhes, or ftagnant waters, the air is
very fweet and wholefome all over it. The foil in ge¬
neral is very rich, producing corn, fruit, efpecially pears,
of which they make a great deal of perry j hops and
pafture. The hills are covered with {beep, and the
meadows with cattle. Hence they have wool, cloth,
fluffs, butter, and cheefe in abundance. They are alfo
well fupplied with fuel, either wood or coal, and fait
from their brine pits and fait fprings. Of the laft they
have not only enough for themfelves, but export large
quantities by the Severn ; which noble river, to the
great convenience and emolument of the inhabitants,
runs from north to fouth through the very middle of the
county, enriching the foil, and yielding it plenty of fifti,
and an eafy expeditious conveyance of goods to and
from it. The other rivers by which it is watered are
the Stour, Avon, Teme, Sec. It fends nine members
to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for the city
of Worcefter, two for Droitwich, two for Eveftiam, and
one for Bewdley \ and lies in the diocefe of Worcefter,
and Oxford circuit.
WORD, in language, an articulate found defigned to
reprefent fome idea or notion. See Grammar and
Language. See alfo Logic, Part I. chap. i..
Word, or Watch-word, in military affairs, is fome
peculiar word or fentence, by which the foldiers know
and diftinguifti one another in the night, &c. and by
which fpies and defigning perfons are difeovered. It is
ufed alfo to prevent furprifes. -The word is given out
in an army every night to the lieutenant or majoi-ge¬
neral of the day, who gives it to the majors of the
brigades, and they to the adjutants , who give it fijft
to the field-officers, and afterwards to a ferjeant of
each company, who carry it to the iubalterns. In
garrifons it is given after the gate is fhut to the town-
major, who gives it to the adjutants, and they to the
ierieants.
Words of Command. See Exercise and Ma¬
nual. . -r r 7
Signals by the Drum, made ufe of in exereying oj the
Army, injiead of the WORD of Command^ vrx.
Signals by the drum,
yd Jh ort roll,
A flam.
To arms.
The march.
The quick march.
The point of war.
The retreat,
Drum ceaflng.
Two Jhort rolls,
The dragoon march.
The grenadier march,
The troop,
The long roll,
The grenadier march,
The preparative,
The general.
Two long rolls,
Operations.
Word
To caution. _ _ t wJrk_
To perform any diftin£l thing. houfe.
To form the line or battalion. Si 1 'y——
To advance, except when intend¬
ed for a falute.
To advance quick.
To march and charge.
To retreat.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battalion.
To form the column.
To double divifions.
To form the fquare.
To reduce the fquare to the co¬
lumn.
To make ready and fire.
To ceafe firing.
To bring or lodge the colours.
WORK, in the manege. To work a horfe, is to
exercife him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at
the manege. To work a horfe upon volts, or head and
haunches in or between two heels, is to paffage him, or
make him go tideways upon parallel lines.
To WORK, in fea language, is to direft the move¬
ments of a (hip, by adapting the fails to the force and
direftion of the wind. See Seamanship.
WORK, Carpenters, Clock, Crown, Field, Fire, Fret,
Grotefque, Horn, Mofaic. See the feveral articles, to¬
gether with Fortification and Pyrotechny.
WORK-Houfe, a place where indigent, vagrant, and
idle people, are fet to work, and fupplied with food and
clothing.
Work-houfes are of two kinds, or at leaft are em¬
ployed for two different purpofes. Some are ufed as pri-
fons for vagrants or fturdy beggars, who are there con¬
fined and compelled to labour for the benefit of the fo-
ciety which maintains them *, whilft others, fometimes
called poor-houfes, are charitable afylums for fuch indi¬
gent perfons as through age or infirmity are unable to
fupport themfelves by their own labour. The former
kind of work-houfe, when under proper management,
may be made to ferve the beft of purpofes; of the latter
we are acquainted with none which entirely commands
our approbation.
To make confinement in a work-houfe operate to the
corre£lion of vagrants and diforderly perfons (and if it
produce not this effeift it can hardly be confidered as a
beneficial inftitution), the prifoners fhould be fluit up in
feparate cells, and compelled to labour for their own
fubfiftence. A crew of thieves and vagabonds affociat-
ing with each other is a hell upon earth, in which every
individual is hardened in his crimes by the countenance
and converfation of his companions j and wretches who,
when at liberty, choofe to beg or fteal rather than to
earn a comfortable livelihood by honeft induftry, will
fubmit to any punilhment which a humane overfeer can
inflift rather than work for the benefit of others. No
puniftrment indeed will compel a vagrant to labour. He
may affume the appearance of it, but he will make no
progrefs ; and the pretext of ficknefs or weaknefs is ever
at hand for an excufe. Hence it is that thieves and
ftrumpets-
3
w OR [ 744 ] W O R
j °'y ftrumpets are too often difmilTed from work-houfos and
/ua ‘ . bridewells ten times more the children of the devil than
when they entered them.
To remedy thefe evils, we can think of no better me¬
thod than to confine each prifoner in a cell by himfelf,
and to furnifh him daily with fuch an allowance of
bread and water as may preferve him from immediate
death •, for the only compulfion to make fuch men work
ferioufly is the fear of want, and the only way to reform
them is to leave them to their own meditations on the
confequences of their paft conduft. There are furely
very few perfons, if any, whofe averfion from labour
would not be conquered by the pinchings of hunger and
the certain profpe£t of perifhing by famine*, and it is to
be hoped that there are not many fo totally divefted of
every latent principle of virtue, as not to be brought by
fuch folitude to a due fenfe of their former wickednefs.
Should one or two, however, be occafionally found fs
very obdurate as to fuffer themfelves to perifh rather
than work, their deaths would prove a falutary beacon
to others, and their blood would be on their own
heads*, for we have the exprefs command of St Paul him¬
felf, that “ if any will not work, neither fhould he eat.”
No doubt it would be proper that the meditations of
vagabonds confined in a Avork-houfe (hould be directed
by the private admonitions of a pious and intelligent
clergyman ; but it is not every clergyman who is quali¬
fied to difeharge fuch a duty. If he be actuated by a
zeal not according to knowledge, or if he have not with
equal care ftudied human nature and the word of God,
his admonitions will be more likely to provoke the pro¬
fane ridicule of his auditor, and harden him in his wic¬
kednefs, than to excite in his bread fuch forrow for his
fins as {hall “ bring forth fruits meet for repentance.”
To render the inftruftion of thieves and vagrants of any
ufe, it mud be accurately adapted to the cafe of each
individual *, and however excellent it may be in itfelf,
it will not be lidened to unlefs offered at feafons of un¬
common ferioufnefs, which the indrudor fhould there¬
fore carefully obferve.
That fuch wholefome feverity as'this would often re¬
form the inhabitants of work-houfes, appears extremely
probable from the effefts of a fimilar treament of com¬
mon proditutes mentioned by Lord Karnes in his
Sketches of the Hidory of Man : “ A number of thofe
wretches were in Edinburgh confined in a houfe of cor-
reftion, on a daily allowance of threepence, of which
part wras embezzled by the fervants of the houfe. Pinch¬
ing hunger did not reform their manners j for being ab-
folutely idle, they encouraged each other in vice wait¬
ing impatiently for the hour of deliverance. Mr Stir¬
ling the fuperintendant, with the confent of the magi-
drates, removed them to a clean houfe; and, indead of
money, appointed for each a pound of oatmeal daily,
with fait, water, and fire for cooking. Relieved now
from didrefs, they longed for comfort. What would
they not give for milk or ale ? Work (fays he) will pro¬
cure you plenty. To fome who offered to fpin, he gave
flax and wheels, engaging to pay them half the price
of their yarn, retaining the other half for the materials
turnifhed. The fpinners earned about ninepence week¬
ly $ a comfortable addition to what they had before.
The red undertook to fpin, one after another ; and be¬
fore the end of the firfl quarter they were all of them in¬
dent upon work. It was a branch of his plan to fet free
fuch as merited that favour ; and fome of them appeared Work-
to be fo thoroughly reformed as to be in no danger of a houle-
relapfe.” u—**y^««.
Work-houfes erected as charitable afylums appear to
us, in every view that we can take of them, as inflitu-
tions which can ferve no good purpofe. Economy is
the great motive which inclines people to this mode of
providing for the poor. There is comparatively but a
very fmall number of mankind in any country fo aged
and infirm as not to be able to contribute, in fome de¬
gree, to their fubfiflence by their own labour 5 and in
fuch houfes it is thought that proper work may be pro¬
vided for them, fo that the public {hall have nothing to
give in charity but what the poor are abfolutely unable
to procure for themfelves. It is imagined likewife, that
numbers colle&ed at a common table, can be maintain¬
ed at lefs expence than in feparate houfes 5 and foot fol-
diers are given for an example, who could not live on
their pay if they did not mefs together. But the cafes
are not parallel. “ Soldiers having the management of
their pay, can club for a bit of meat; but as the inha-
■bitants of a poor-houfe are maintained by the public,
the fame quantity of provifions mud be allotted to each.
The confequence is what might be expected : the bulk
of them referve part of their viftuals for purchafing ale
or fpirits. It is vain to expedt work from them: poor
wretches void of fliame will never work ferioufly, where
the profit accrues to the public, not to themfelves.
Hunger is the only effectual means for compelling fuch
perfons to work *.” * Karnes’s
The poor, therefore, fhonld be fupported in their Sketches.
own houfes $ and to fupport them properly, the firfl;
thing to be done is, to eftimate what each can earn by
his own labour; for as far only as that falls fhort of
maintenance, is there room for charity. In repairing
thofe evils which fociety did not or could not prevent,
it ought to be careful not to counteradl the wife pur-
pofes of nature, nor to do more than to give the poor
a fair chance to work for themfelves. The prefent di-
ftrefs muft be relieved, the lick and the aged provided
for} but the children mufl: be inftrufted 5 and labour,
not alms, offered to thofe who have fome ability to
work, however fmall that ability may be. They will
be as induftrious as poflible, becaufe they work for
themfelves *, and a weekly fum of charity under their
own management will turn to better account than in a
poor-houfe under the direction of mercenaries. Not a
penny of it will be laid out on fermented liquors, unlefs
perhaps as a medicine in ficknefs. Nor does fuch low
fare call for pity to thofe who can afford no better. Ale
makes no part of the maintenance of thofe who, in many
parts of Scotland, live by the fweatof their brows*, and
yet the perfon who fhould banilh ale from a charity
work-houfe, would be exclaimed againfl: as hard-heart¬
ed, and even void of humanity.
That fuch a mode of fupporting the poor in their
own houfes is pra&icable, will hardly admit of a dif-
pute $ for it has been a&ually put in pra&ice in the city
of Hamburgh ever fince the year 1 *788. At that pe¬
riod fuch revenues as had till then been expended in
alms by the feveral church-wardens, and thofe of which
the adminiftration had been connefted with the work-
houfe, were united under erne adminiftration with fuch
fums as were collefled from private benevolence. The
city was divided into fixty diftri&s, containing each an
WOR [ 745 ] WOH
'ork- equal number of poor j and over tbefe 180 overfeers
'^e- were appointed. A£tual relief was the firft object j but
at the very moment that this proviixon was fecured,
meafures were taken to prevent any man from receiving
a fhilling which he could have been able to earn for him-
felf. By thefe methods, which our limits will not permit
us to date, the overfeers were able to make a calcula¬
tion tolerably exa& of xvhat each pauper wanted for
bare fubliftence, in addition to the fruits of his own la¬
bour. A flax-yarn-fpinning manufafture was eftablifh-
ed, in which the yarn is paid for, not by its weight,
but by its meafure. The clean flax is fold to the poor at
a low price, and a certain meafure of yarn again bought
from them at 30 per cent, above the ufual price; fo
that the overfeers are fure that all the yarn fpun by the
poor will be brought into their office. Every pauper
brings with him a book in which the quantity delivered
is carefully noted down, which furnilhes the overfeers
with a continual average of the date of indudry among
their poor.
As foon as this inditution was edabliflied, the over¬
feers went through their didrifts, and alked, in all fuch
manfions as could be fuppofed to harbour want, if the
inhabitants dood in need of fupport ? The quedion to
all fuch poor as wiflied for relief, and were able tofpin,
was, Whether they did earn by their work is. 6d. a-
week? for experience had taught the inhabitants of
Hamburgh, that many poor live upon that fum ; and
they knew enough of their poor to fuppofe, that is. 6d.
avowed earning was equal to fomething more. If the
anfwer was affirmative, the pauper dood not in need of
weekly aflidance. If it was negative, work was given
him, which, by being paid 30 percent, above its value,
afforded him is. 6d. a-week eafily, if he was even an
indifferent hand. The far more frequent cafes were
partial inability by age, or weaknefs, or want of {kill.
Eor poor of the latter defcription a fchool was opened,
and in three months time the bufinefs was eafily learnt.
During that time, the pauper got fird 2s. a-week, and
every week afterwards 2d. lefs, till in the twelfth vreek
he got nothing at all but his earnings, and was difmif-
fed, with a wheel and a pound of flax gratis.
The quantity of work which difabled poor were ca¬
pable of doing in a week was eafily and accurately af-
certained by a week’s trial in the fpinning-fchool. The
refult was produced weekly before appointed members
of the committee, and the fum which the poor could
earn was noted down in their fmall books. The over-
feer was direfted to pay them weekly what their earn¬
ings fell fhort of is. 6d. in every fuch week, when it
appeared from their books that they had earned to the
known extent of their abilities. From that moment ap¬
plications became lefs frequent; and the committee had
an infallible dandard for didinguithing real -want: for
whenever the pauper, if in health (if not, he was pecu¬
liarly provided for), had not earned what he could,
then he had either been lazy, or had found more lucra¬
tive work ; in either cafe, he was not entitled to a re¬
lief for that week, whatever he might be for the fol-
mode of providing for the poor, which attrafted
the notice and obtained the eulogium of the minider
and the Britiflr houfe of commons, has for fix years
been in Hamburgh attended with the happied confe-
quences. In the dreets of that city a beggar is rarely
Vol. XX. Part II.
lowinsr.
This
to be feen, whilfl thofe who dand in need of the chari¬
table contributions of the rich, are much more comfort¬
ably, as well as at much lefs expence, maintained at
home, with their children about them, than they could
be in work-houfes, under the management of mercenary
overfeers. For a fuller account of this judicious inditu¬
tion, we mud refer the readers to Voght’s Account of
the Management of the Poor in Hamburgh, fince the
year 1788, in a Letter to fome Friends of the Poor in
Great Britain.
WORLD, the affemblage of parts which compofe
the globe of the earth. See Geography and Astro¬
nomy.
WORM, in Gunnery, a. fcrew of iron, to be fixed on
the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock,
carabine, or piflol, being the fame with the wad-hook,
only the one is more proper for fmall arms, and the
other for cannon.
Worm, in Chemijlry, is a long winding pipe, pla¬
ced in a tub of water, to cool and condenfe the vapours
in the didillation of fpirits.
Blind-WORM, or S/ow- WoRM. See Anguis, Er-
PETOLOGY Index.
Earth-WoiiM. See LuMBRICUS, HELMINTHOLOGY
Index.
Glow-WORM. See Lampyris, Entomology/w^.v.
Si/k Worm. See Silk, N° 5.
WORMS, Vermes. See Helminthology and
Conchology.
Worms, in the human body. See Medicine, N°
4°7-
Worms, in Wfa. 7 Se<, Farriery.
Worms, in dogs. 3
Worms for bait. See Fishing.
Worms, an ancient, large, and famous city of Ger¬
many, in the palatinate of the Rhine, with a bifliop’s
fee, whofe bifliop is a fovereign and prince of the em¬
pire. It is a free and imperial city, and the inhabitants
are Protedants. In the war of 1689 it was taken by
the French, who almod reduced it to afties. The bi¬
fliop afterwards built a new palace in it; and it is fa¬
mous for a diet held here in 1521, at which Luther af-
fifted in perfon. The Protedants have lately built a
handfome church, where Luther is reprefented as ap¬
pearing at the diet. It is noted for the excellent wine
that grows in the neighbourhood, which they call our
Lady's milk. In the campaign of 1743, King Geo. II.
took up his quarters in this city, and lodged at the bi¬
fliop’s palace after the battle of Dettingen. It is feated
on the wedern bank of the Rhine, 14 miles north-wed
of Heidelberg, 20 fouth-ead of Mentz, and 32 fouth-
wed of Franckfort. E. Long. 8. 29. N. Lat.49. 32.
WORMING of Dogs. All dogs have certain
drings under their tongues, by mod called a xvor?n;
this mud be taken out when they are about two months
old, with the help of a fliarp knife to flit it, and a flioe-
maker’s awl to raife it up; you mud be careful to take
all out, or elfe your pains is to little purpofe; for till
then he will be hardly ever fat and right, in regard the
worm er dring will grow foul and troublefome, and
hinder his red and eating. This cruel operation is ge¬
nerally recommended as a preventive of madnefs in
dogs, or at lead as dilabling them, if mad, from biting
in that condition.
In this operation, of which the vulgar account is gi-
5 B ven,
Work*
houfe
Worming
\
W O R [ 746 ] W O R
Worming ven above, which we have juftly denominated a cruel one,
w Ij, . it is not a firing that is removed, but the du£t by rvhich
j— — the faliva is conveyed from the gland in which it is fe-
creted to the mouth for the purpofe of mixing with the
food and promoting its deglutition and digeftion. Now
this operation by no means prevents the animal from
biting, nor can it, in our opinion, obflru6l the flow of
the faliva by which the dreadful difeafe hydrophobia is
communicated.
WOKMIUS, Olaus, a learned Danifh phyfician,
born in 1588 at Arhufen in Jutland. After beginning
his ftudies at home, he fludied at feveral foreign univer-
fities, and travelled to various parts* of Europe for im¬
provement. He returned to his native country in 1613,
and was made profeffur of the belles lettres in the uni-
verfity of Copenhagen. In 1615, he was tranflated to
the chair of the Greek profeflor j and in 1624 to the
profeflbrfhip of pbyfic, which he held to his death.
Thefe occupations did not hinder him from praclifing in
his profeffion, and from being the fafhionable phyfician :
the king and court of Denmark always employed him j
and Chriflian IV. as a recompenfe for his fervices, con¬
ferred on him a canonry of Lunden. He publifhed
fome pieces on fubje&s relating to his profeffion, feveral
works in defence of Ariftotle’s philofophy, and feveral
concerning the antiquities of Denmark and Norway ;
for which latter he is principally regarded, as they are
very learned, and contain many curious particulars. He
died in 1654.
WORMWOOD. See Artemisia, Botany /«-
dex.
WORSHIP of God (cultus Dei), amounts to the
fame with what we otherwife call religion. This wor-
fhip confifls in paying a due refpeft, veneration, and
homage to the Deity, under a certain expectation of re¬
ward. And this internal refpeCl, &.c. is to be fhown
and teftified by external a£ts j as prayers, facrifices,
thankfgivings, &c.
The Quietifls, and fome other myflic divines, fet
afide not only all ufe of external worfhip, but even the
confideration of rewards and punifhments. Yet even
the heathens had a notion that God did not require us
to ferve him for nought: “ Dii quamobrem colendi fint
(fays Cicero), non intelligo, nullo nec accepto ab illis
nee fperato bono.”
> The fchool-divines divide worfhip into divers kinds,
viz. latria, that rendered to God ; and idololntria, that
rendered to idols or images. To which the Romanifls
add, dulia, that rendered to faints \ and hyperdulia, that
to the Virgin. Some theological writers have obferved,
that the Greek word, Tr^omtvvio, to worjhip, is not de-
fcriptive only of the honour which is appropriated to
God, but is indifferently ufed to fignify the honour and
refpeCl which are paid to fuperiors of all kinds in heaven
ur on earth. Accordingly, they have diflinguifhed be¬
tween civil and religious worfhip.
That it is the duty of man to worfhip his Maker, has
been fufficiently proved under other articles (fee Pray¬
er *, and Theology, N° 40—45.). It is not indeed
eafily to. be conceived how any one who has tolerably
juft notions of the attributes and providence of God,
can poffibly negleft the duty of private worfhip 5 and
though we have admitted in the laft of the two articles
referred to, that public worfhip does not feem to be en¬
joined in that fyftem which is called the religion of,™-
ture, yet it is mull exprefsly commanded by the religion
of Christ, and will be regularly performed by every
one who reflects on its great utility.
As the illiterate vulgar cannot form to themfelves
corredl notions of the divine providence and attributes,
it is obvious, that without the inftitution of public wor¬
fhip, they would never think of worfhipping God at all,
unlefs perhaps occafionally, when under the preffure of
fome fevere calamity ; but occafional worfhip, the off-
fpring of compulfion, could have little of the refigned
fpirit of true devotion. Ignorant, however, as the low-
eft; of the vulgar are, and neceffarily muft be, it cannot
be denied, that in moft Chriftian countries, perhaps in
all, they are more accurately acquainted with the firft
principles of religion, and the laws of morality, than
even the leaders of barbarous nations. This fuperiority
is doubtlefs owing in fome meafure to their accefs to the
Sacred Scriptures, but much more, we are perfuaded, to
the inftrudlion which they receive in the affemblies
which they frequent for public worfhip. If this be ad¬
mitted, public worfhip may be eafily proved to be the
duty of every individual of the community: For were
thofe, who may be fuppofed to ftand in no need either
of the contagion of fociety to kindle their own devotion,
or of the preaching of a clergyman to inftrudl them in
the dodlrines and precepts of the gofpel, “ to forfake,
on thefe accounts, the aflembling themfelves together,
as the manner of fome is,” religious affemblies and pub¬
lic worfhip would very quickly fall into univerfal difufe.
Man is an animal prone to imitation j and every order
in fociety is ambitious of treading in the footfteps of the
order immediately above it. Were the wife and the
good, therefore, permitted to abfent themfelves from the
affemblies inftituted for the public worfhip of the Crea¬
tor and Redeemer of the world, others would quickly
follow their example j impelled to it not only by this
univerfal propenfity, but by the additional motive of
wifhing to appear both to the world and to themfelves
as wife and as good as their privileged neighbours. The
confequence is obvious: one man would flay from
church with the ferious intention perhaps of employing
the Lord’s day in private devotion and religious ftudy j
another, following his example, would abfent himfelf
upon the fame pretence, but would in reality wafte the
day in dozing indolence or in fecret fenfuality. For
thefe and other reafons which might be eafily affigned,
no fincere Chriftian will think himfelf at liberty to dif-
pute a practice enjoined by the infpired preachers of
his religion, coeval with the inftitution, and retained
by every fedl into which it has fince been unhappily di¬
vided.
As Chriftian worfhip confifts of prayers and praifes,
it has been a matter of fome debate whether it is moft
properly performed by preconcerted forms or liturgies,
or by extemporaneous addrefies to the Almighty. Both
thefe modes have their advantages and difadvantages $
and by the facred writers neither of them is prefcribed
in oppofition to the other.
The advantages of a liturgy are, that it prevents ab-
furd, extravagant, or impious addrelfes to God, which
the folly or enthufiafm of individuals muft always be in
danger of producing j it gives the congregation an op¬
portunity oijoining in the prayers which are put up for
them, which they cannot poffibly do in a feries of ex¬
temporaneous petitions, fince before they can affent to
any
won
irfhip, any one of tliefe and make it their own, their attention
Tort- is neceflarily called away to that which fucceds it; and
> it relieves the clergyman from the labour of compofi-
tion, which feems incompatible with that fervour which
conftitutes the fpirit of devotion.
The difadvantages of a fixed liturgy, which are the
recommendations of extemporary prayer, are principally
two. The forms compofed in one age muft, by the un¬
avoidable change of language, circumftances, and opi¬
nions, become in fome degree unfit for another ; and
the perpetual repetition of the fame form of words is
very apt to produce inattentive laflitude in the congrega¬
tion. Would the clergy of the church of England take
that liberty which is allowed them in the bidding prayer
before fermon, perhaps the fervice of that church would
unite in itfelf all the advantages both of liturgic and ex¬
temporary worfhip. We have only to add on this fub-
je£l, that public prayers, whether precompofed or not,
ought to be compendious; that they ought to exprefs
juft conceptions of the Divine attributes j recite fuch
wants as the congregation are likely to feel, and no
other ; that they ought to contain as few controverted
propofitions as poflible ; and that, if it can be done
without offence, the pompous ftyle of theJlate fhould
be laid afide in our prayers for the king, and all that
are in authority j becaufe in every aft which carries the
mind to God, human greatnefs muft be annihilated.
WORT, the infufion of malt, of which beer is made.
See Brewing. The ufes of this infufion in common
affairs are well knoxvn. By Dr M‘Bride it has lately
been found to have a ftrong antifeptic virtue, and to be
ufeful in preventing the icurvy and other difeafes to
which failors are liable j this was confirmed by Cap¬
tain Cook in his voyages. See Means of Preferving the
Health of Seamen.
It is of great importance to the manufafturer to be
able to afcertain with facility and precifion the real
ftrength of worts, or the quantity of faccharine matter
contained in the infufion. This is aceomplifhed by de¬
termining the fpecific gravity by means of inftruments,
which, from the purpofe to which they are applied, have
obtained the name offaccharometers. But as thefe in¬
ftruments, from the very nature of the material of which
they are conftrufted, are liable to confiderable change,
the refults which they afford cannot always be depended
on. With the view of obviating thefe inconveniences,
the patent areometrical beads have been invented by
Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh. We have already noticed
thefe beads on account of their accuracy, fimplicity,
and facility of application for afcertaining the fpecific
gravity, or the real ftrength and value, of fpirituous li¬
quors. See vol. xix. p. 599. 5 and we now recommend
them with greater confidence, from having had oppor¬
tunities of knowing that they are capable of a more ex¬
tended application, as in the manufafture of acids, and
falts of different kinds ; to afcertain the ftrength of
acids, or that of faline folutions in bleaching ; to deter¬
mine the ftrength of liquids employed in the different
proceffcs of calico printing and dyeing, and not only for
the purpofe of examining the ftrength of the acids em¬
ployed, but alfo particularly to afcertain the denfity or
fpecific gravity of the colouring matters which are ufed
in thefe arts, fo that the fame degree of {hade required
may be always obtained. It has been fuggefted, that thefe
beads might be conveniently employed in determining
1 747 1
W O T
the ftrength of mineral waters, which, it is well known,
vary confiderably at different feafons of the year.
As the patent beads are conftrufted on the fame prin¬
ciple from 800, the fpecific gravity of alcohol, to 2000,
which is double the fpecific gravity of water j and as
they are divided into different feries, each of which in¬
cludes a range of fpecific gravities applicable to the par¬
ticular fluids, the denfity or ftrength of which is requi¬
red, we have no hefitation in afferting that they will be
found extremely convenient and ufeful to all manufac¬
turers and dealers, who wifh to afcertain with accuracy
the real ftrength and value of liquids.
It has been objefted to the ufe of thefe beads, that
they require a longer time than other inftruments in ufing
them. The fame objeftion has been made to the intro-
dudtion of other new inftruments, the application of
which frequent ufe has afterwards rendered familiar and
eafy. We have had opportunities of knowing^that this
objeftion is completely obviated, by thofe who have
been accuftomed to ufe the beads. They find that they
can determine the fpecific gravity of a liquid by means
of the beads xvith the fame facility, and in as ftiort a
time, as with any other inftrument.
WO I'TON, Sir Henry, an eminent writer, was
the fon of Thomas Wotton, Efq. and was born in 1568.
He ftudied for fome time at New-college, Oxford,
whence he removed to Q^ueen’s college, where he made
a great progrefs in logic and philofophy ; wrote a tra¬
gedy for the ufe of that college, called Tancredo ; and
afterwards received the degree of mafter of arts. After
this, leaving the univerfity, he travelled into France,
Germany, and Italy ; and having fpent about nine years
abroad, he returned to England, and became fccretary
to Robert earl of Eflex, with whom he continued till
that earl was apprehended for high treafon. He then
retired to Florence, where he became known to the
the grand duke of Tufcany, who fent him privately with
letters to James VI. king of Scotland, under the name
of Ottavio Ba/di, to inform that kingof a defign againft
his life. Some months after he went back to Florence;
but King James coming to the pofleffion of the crown of
England, Mr Wotton returned home, was knighted by
his majefty, and fent ambaffador to the republic of Ve¬
nice ; and afterwards was employed in many other em-
baflies to that and other courts; but the only rexvard he
obtained for thefe fervices xvas his having the provoftftup
of Eton conferred upon him about the year 1623, which
he kept till his death, xvhich happened in 1639. After
his deceafe feme of his manuferipts and printed trafts
xvere publiftied together in a volume, intitled, Reliquice
Wottoniance.
Wotton, Hr William, a learned divine and xvriter,
was the fon of Mr Henry Wotton, B. D. reftor of
Wrentham in Suffolk, where he was born in 1666.
He xvas educated by his father, a gentleman xvell {killed
in the learned languages ; under whom he made fuch
amazing proficiency, that at five years of age it is faid
he could render feveral -chapters of the gofpels out of
Latin and Greek, and many pfalms in Hebrew, into his
mother tongue. When he xvas very young, he remem¬
bered the whole of almoft every difeourfe he bad heard:
and often furprifed a preacher by repeating his fermon
tp him. He was admitted into Catharine-hall in Cam¬
bridge fome months before he was ten years old; when
the progrefs he made in learning in that univerfity en-
5 2 gaged
W ortr
Wotton.
VV w u L /
Wotton, gaged Dr Duport, then mailer of Magdalen college,
WouiuR 'an(| jgan 0f Peterborough, to write an elegant copy of
“ Latin verfes in his praife. In 1679 he took the degree
of bachelor of arts when he was but twelve years and
five months old j and the winter following he was in¬
vited to London by Dr Gilbert Burnet, then preacher
at the Rolls, who introduced him to moft of the learned
men in that city, and particularly to Dr William Lloyd,
bifhop of St Afaph ; to whom he recommended himfelf
by repeating to him one of his fermons, as Dr Burnet
had engaged he Ihould. In 1691 he commenced bache¬
lor of divinity. The fame year Bifhop Lloyd gave him
the finecure of Llandrillo, in Denbighfhire. He was
aftenvards made chaplain to the earl of Nottingham,
then fecretary of ftate, who prefented him to the rettery
of Middleton Keynes, in Bucks, and to whom he dedi¬
cated his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learn¬
ing. In 1705, Bifhop Burnet gave him a prebend in
the church of Salifbury ; and in 1707, Archbifhop Te-
nifon prefented him with the degree of dottor of divi¬
nity : but in 1714, the difficulties he laboured under
with refpeit to his private fortune, obliged him to retire
into South Wales, where he was treated with great
kindnefs and humanity by the gentlemen of that coun¬
try j and wrote there the “ Memoirs of the Cathedral
Churches of St David’s and Landaff,” and his “ Mif-
cellaneous Difcourfes relating to the Traditions and
Ufages of the Scribes and Pharifees j” which were af¬
terwards printed. He died in 1726. This great man
was remarkable for his humanity and friendiinefs of tem¬
per ; the narrownefs of a party fpirit never broke in up¬
on any of his friendfhips •, and his time and abilities were
at the fervice of any perfon who was making advances
in real learning. He wrote, befides the above works,
1. A Hiflory of Rome. 2. A Defence of his Reflec¬
tions upon Ancient and Modern Learning. 3. A Dif-
courfe concerning the Languages of Babel. 4. Advice
to a young Student, with a Method of Study for the
firll four Years; and other learned pieces.
WOUNDS, in Surgen/, have been divided into
Jimple, conlufcd or lacerated, and gun-Jljot.
Of Simple Wounds.—The fir ft thing to be confidered
in the infpeftion of a wound is, whether it be likely to
prove mortal or not. This knowledge can only be had
from anatomy, by which the furgeon will be able to de¬
termine what parts are injured j and, from the offices
which thefe parts are calculated to perform, whether the
human frame can fubfift under fuch injuries. It is not,
however, eafy for the moft expert anatomift always to
prognofticate the event with certainty 5 but this rule he
ought always to lay down to himfelf, to draw the moft
favourable prognofis the cafe will bear, or even more
than the rules of his art will allow. This is particular¬
ly incumbent on him in fea-engagements, where the
fentence of death is executed as foon as pronounced, and
the miferable patient is thrown alive into the fea, upon
the furgeon’s declaring his wound to be mortal. There
are, befides, many inftances on record, where wounds
have healed, which the moft fkilful furgeons have deem¬
ed mortal. The following wounds may be reckoned
s mortal.
Wounds I* Thofe which penetrate the cavities of the heart,
which are and all thofe wounds of the vifeera where the large
neceffarily blood-veffels are opened ; becaufe their fituation will
aaartah
T
40 j yr ^
not admit of proper applications to reftrain the flux of Wounds,
blood. v"""1 v—■
2. Thofe which entirely cut off the paflage of the
nervous influence through the body. Such are wounds
of the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and fpinal
marrow. Wounds like wife of the fmall blood-vefiels
within the brain are attended with great danger, from
the effufed fluids preffing upon the brain. Nor is there
lefs danger where the nerves which tend to the heart are
wounded, or entirely divided ; for, after this, it is im-
poffible for the heart to continue its motion.
3. All wounds which entirely deprive the animal of
the faculty of breathing.
4. Thofe wounds which interrupt the courfe of the
chyle to the heart j fuch are wounds of the receptacle of
the chyle, thoracic dudl, and large* ladleals, &c.
5. There are other wounds which prove fatal if ne-
gledled and left to nature : luch are wounds of the lar¬
ger external blood-velTels, which might be remedied by
ligature. Wounds of fuch parts generally prove fatal j
and though a few inftances may have occurred where
people have recovered after them, yet they are al¬
ways to be confidered as extremely dangerous. Por¬
tions of the brain have been deftroyed, and wounds have
been made into it, and the patients have lived. It is
poflible, too, that the thoracic dudl might be wounded
and the patient live ; Mr A. Cooper having fliown, in
a very ingenious paper in the Medical Records and Re-
fearches, that it may become obftrudled, and the chyle
conveyed into the fyftem by anaftomofing lympha-
tics- . . . 2
In examining wounds, the next confideration is, whe-Symptoms
ther the parts injured are fuch as may be fuppofed to of wounds
induce dangerous fymptoms, either immediately or at in
fome period during the courfe of the cure. In order to
proceed with any degree of certainty, it is neceffary to
be well acquainted with thofe fymptoms which attend
injuries of the different parts of the body. If the Ikin
and part of the cellular fubftance are only divided, the
firft effefls are an effufion of blood j the lips of the
wound retrafl, become tumefied, red and inflamed,
leaving a gap of confiderable widenefs according to the ^
length and deepnefs of the wound. If a very confider-of wounds-
able portion of fkin and cellular fubftance is divided, aofthejktn
flight fever feizes the patient, the effufion of blood in
the mean time flops, and the wound is partly filled up ftance^
with a cake of coagulated blood. Below this cake, the
fmall veffels pour forth a clear liquor, which in a fliort
time is converted into pus (fee the articles Pus and Mu¬
cus). Below this pus granulations of new1 flelh arife,
the cake of coagulated blood loofens, a new (kin covers
the place where the wound was, and the whole is heal- .
ed up j and there only remains a mark, called a cica¬
trix or fear, (bowing where the injury had been re¬
ceived. 4
All wounds are accompanied with a confiderable de-of the nuu*'
gree of pain, efpecially when the inflammation comes cles.
on, though the, divifion reaches no farther than the (kin
and cellular fubftance. If the mufcular fibres are di¬
vided, the pain is much greater, becaufe the found part
of the mufcle is ftretched by the contra&ion of the
divided part and the aftion of the antagonift mufcle,
which it is now lefs fitted to bear. The wound alfo
gapes much more than where the cellular fubftance is
alone:
w o u
[ 749 1
w o u
5
■ the ar-
•ies.
founds, alone divided, infomuch that, if left to itfelf, the {kin
will cover the mulcular fibres, without any intervention
of cellular fubftance ; and not only a very imtightly* ci¬
catrix remains, but the ufe of the mufcle is in fome mea-
fure lod.—If the mufcle happens to be totally divided,
its fibres retrafl to a very confiderable diftance j and uu-
lefs proper methods be taken to bring them into contadl,
the ufe of it is ever afterwards loft.
If by a wound any confiderable artery happens to be
divided, the blood flows out with great velocity, and
by ftarts ; the patient foon becomes faint with lofs of
blood ; nor does the haemorrhagy flop until he faints
away altogether ; and if as much vis vitce ftill remains
as is fuffieient to renew the operations of life, he reco¬
vers after fome time, and the wound heals up as ufual.
The part of the artery which is below the wound in the
mean time becomes ufelefs, fo that all the inferior part
of the limb would be deprived of blood, were it not
that the fmall branches fent off from the artery above
the wounded place become enlarged, and capable of
carrying on the circulation. Nature alfo, after a won¬
derful manner, often produces new veffels from the fu-
perior extremity of the divided artery, by which the cir¬
culation is carried on as formerly. The confequences of
fuch a prof ufe haemorrhagy may be, however, very dan¬
gerous to the patient, by inducing extreme debility, or
an univerfal dropfy. This great haemorrhagy happens
efpecially where the artery is partially divided ; beeaufe
then the veffel cannot contradl in fucli a manner as to
clofe the orifice: however, if the wound is but fmall,
the blood gets into the cellular fubftance, fwelling up
the member to an extreme degree, forming what is cal¬
led a diffufed aneurifm. Thus the haemorrhagy foon
flops externally, but great mifchief is apt to flow from
the confinement of the extravafated blood, from bring¬
ing on exterior fuppuration among the mufcles and
bones ; and thus not only the ufe of the limb is entirely
loft, but the patient is brought into great danger of his
life.
Wounds of the ligaments, nerves, and tendons, are
likewife attended with bad confequences. When a nerve
erves, and js entirely divided, the pain is but trifling, though the
’ndons, confequences are often dangerous. If the nerve is large,
all the parts to which it is diftributed below the wound
immediately lofe the power of motion and fenfation.
This, however, takes place only when all or the great-
eft part of the nerves belonging to a particular part are
divided. If the fpinal marrow, for inftance, be divided
near the head, the parts below foon lofe their fenfation
irrecoverably j or if tne bundle of nerves pafling out of
the axilla be divided or tied, fenfation in the greateft
part of the arm below will be loft. But though a nerve
fliould be divided, and a temporary paby be produced,
it may reunite, and perform its former functions. If a
nerve be wounded only, inftead of being divided, the
worft fymptoms frequently enfue.
Wounds which penetrate the cavities of the thorax
are always exceedingly dangerous, becaufe there is
fcarce a poflibility of all the vifeera efcaping unhurt. A
wound is known to have penetrated the cavity of tne
thorax principally by the difeharge of air from it at
each infpiration, by an extreme difficulty of breathing,
and by coughing up blood. Such wounds, however, aie
not always mortal ; the lungs have frequently been
wouaded, and yet the patient has recovered.—Wounds
Wounds.
6
if the li-
aments.
)f the tho-
ax, and the are
ifeera
diich it
emtains.
of the diaphragm are almoft always mortal, either by
inducing fatal convuliions immediately, or by the afeent
of the ftomach, which the preffure of the abdominal
mufcles forces up through the wound into the cavity of
the thorax *, of this Van Swieten gives feveral inftances.
—Even though the wound do not penetrate into tho
cavity of the thorax, the very worft fymptoms may fol¬
low. For if the wound defeends deeply among the ex¬
ternal mufcles, and its orifice lies higher, the extravafa¬
ted blood will be therein colle&ed, fiagnate, and form
various finufes j which after having eroded the pleura,
may at length pafs into the cavity of the thorax. The
matter having once found a vent into this cavity, will
be continually augmenting from the difeharge of the fi-
nuous ulcer, and the lungs will at laft fufter by the fur¬
rounding matter. If, in cafes of wounds in the thorax,
the ribs or fternum happen to become carious, the cure
will be extremely tedious and difficult. Galen relates
the cafe of a lad who received a blow upon his fternum
in the field of exercife : it was firft neglecled, and af¬
terwards badly healed ; but, four months afterwards,
matter appeared at the place which had received the
blow. A phyfician made an incifion into the part, and
it was foon after cicatrized : but in a ffiort time a new
colleftion made its appearance, and upon a fecond inci¬
fion the wound refufed to heal. Galen found the fter¬
num carious j and having cut off the difeafed part, the
pericardium itfelf was obferved to be corroded,fo that the
heart could be feen quite naked j notwilhftanding which,
the wound was cured in no very long time.
There is fometimes difficulty in determining whether
the wound has really penetrated into the thorax or inta.
the abdomen ; for the former defeends much farther to¬
wards the fides than at the middle. But as the lungs
are almoft always wounded when the cavity of the tho¬
rax is penetrated, the fymptoms arifing from thence can
fcarcely be miftaken.— Another fymptom which fre¬
quently, though not always, attends wounds of the tho¬
rax, is an emphyfema. This is occafioned by the air
efcaping from the wounded lungs, and infinuating itfelf
into the cellular fubftance ; which being pervious to it
over the whole body, the tumor paffes from one part to
another, till at laft every part is inflated to a furprifing
degree. An inftance is given in the Memoirs of the
Roval Academy, of a tumour of this kind, which on
the thorax was eleven inches thick, on the abdomen
nine, on the neck fix, and on the reft of the body four j
the eyes were in a great meafure thruft out of their or¬
bits by the inflation of the cellular fubftance ; and the
patient died the fifth day. This was occafioned by a
ftab with a fword. 8 -
Wounds of the abdomen are not lefs dangerous than Of the ah-
thofe of the thorax, on account of the importance of clomen and
the vifeera which it contains. When the wound does'ts Vilccra’
not penetrate the cavity, there is fome danger of a her¬
nia being formed by the protrufion of the peritonaeum
through the weakened integuments, and the danger is
greater the larger the wound is. Thofe wounds which
run obliquely betwixt the interftices of the mufcles often
produce finuous ulcers of a bad kind. For as there is a
large quantity of fat interpofed everywhere betwixt the
mufcles of the abdomen, if a wound happens to run be¬
tween them, the matter there collefted, not meeting -
with free egrefs through the mouth of the wound, often
makes its way in a furprifing manner through the cellu¬
lar .
W O U [ 750 ] w o u
t Wcmmls. Jar fubftance, and forms deep finuofities between the
v ' mufcles 5 in which cafe the cure is always difficult, and
fometimes impoffible.
If a large wound penetrate the cavity of the abdo¬
men, fome of the vifcera will certainly be protruded
through it j or if the wound is but ffnall, and clofed up
with fat fo that none of the intellines can be protruded,
we may know that the cavity of the abdomen is pierced,
and probably lome of the vifcera wounded, by the acute
pain and fever, palenefs, anxiety, faintings, hiccough,
cold fweats, and weakened pulfe, all of which accom¬
pany injuries of the internal parts. The mifehiefs which
attend wounds of this kind proceed not only from the
injury done to the vifcera themfelves, but from the ex-
travafation of blood and the difeharge of the contents of
the inteftines into the cavity of the abdomen ; which,
being of a very putrefeent nature, foon bring on the
molt violent diforders. Hence wounds of the abdomi¬
nal vifcera are very often mortal. This, however, is
not always the cafe, for the fmall intellines have been
totally divided, and yet the patient has recovered.
Wounds both of the fmall and large inteftines have
healed fpontaneoufiy, even when they were of fuch mag¬
nitude that the contents of the inteftine were freely dif-
charged through the wound into the abdomen, and after
part of the inteftine itfelf has been protruded through
the wound of the integuments.
When the mefentery is injured, the danger is ex¬
treme, on account of its numerous veffels and nerves.
Wounds of the liver, fpleen, and pancreas, are alfo ex¬
ceedingly dangerous, although there are fome inftances
of the fpleen being cut out of living animals without
any confiderable injury.
From the preceding account of the fymptoms attend¬
ing wounds in the different parts of the body, the fur-
geon may be enabled to judge in fome meafure of the
event; though it muft always be remembered, that
wounds, even thofe which feemed at firft to be of the
llighteft nature, have, contrary to all expeftation, proved
mortal, chiefly by inducing convulfions, or a locked jaw j
lo that no certain prognoftic can be drawn on fight of
recent wounds. We ftiall now, however, proceed to
confider their treatment.
Treatment ^ 01j ^ie c^re wounds, it has been already cbferved,
of wounds. the ancients imagined balfams, the juice of herbs,
&c. to be fpecifics. In after-ages, and in countries
where babams are not eafily to be procured, falves were
iubftituted in their place ; and even at this day there
arc many who reckon a falve or ointment effentially ne-
ceffary for healing the fiighteft cut. It is certain, how¬
ever, that the cure of wounds cannot be effe&ed, nay,
not even forwarded in the leaft, by ointments, unlefs in
particular cafes. That power which the human frame
has of repairing the injuries done to itfelf, which by
phyficians is. called vis medicatrix nature?, is the foie
agent in curing external injuries •, and without this the
nioft celebrated balfams would prove ineffeftual. When
a wound has been made with a (harp inftrument, and
is not extenfive, if it be immediately cleaned and all
t.re extravafated blood fucked (a) out or walked away, it
will almoft always heal by adhejion. When a wound Wounds
does not heal by this procefs, there are three ftages to y-^.
be obferved in its cure j the firft, called fuppuration,
which takes place when the ends of the wounded veffels
contraft themfelves, and pour out the liquor which is
( converted into pus. As foon as this appeals, the fecond,
or granulating ftage, in which the flelh begins to grow
up, takes place ; and as this proceeds, the edges of
the wound acquire a fine bluifli or pearl colour, which
is that of the new fkin beginning to cover the wound as
far as the granulations have filled it up. This procefs
continues, and the ikin advances from all fides towards
the centre, which is called the cicatrizing of the wound,
for the promoting of each of thefe proceffes, feveral
ointments were formerly much in vogue. But it is
now found, that no ointment whatever is capable of
promoting them j and that it is only neceffary to keep
the wound clean, and to prevent the air from having
accefs to it. This, indeed, nature takes care to do, by
covering the wound with a cake of coagulated blood ;
but il a wound of any confiderable magnitude fhould be
left entirely to nature, the pus would form below the
cruft of coagulated blood in fuch quantity, that it would
moft probably corrupt, and the wound degenerate into
a corroding ulcer. It is neceffary, therefore, to cleanfe
the wound frequently ; for this purpofe it will be pro¬
per to apply a little ointment fpread on foft feraped lint.
And, in a healthy body, the wound will heal without
farther trouble. As to the ointment employed, it is al¬
moft indifferent what it be, provided it has no acrid or
ftimulating ingredient in its compofition ; hogs lard or
the fimple ointment of the Pharmacopeia will anfwer
perfectly.
But though, in general, wounds thus eafily admit of
a cure, there are feveral circumftanccs which require a
different treatment, even in fimple divifions of the fleftiy
parts, when neither the membranous nor tendinous parts
are injured. Thefe are, 1. Where the wound is large,
and gapes very much, fo that, if allowed to heal in the
natural way, the patient might be greatly disfigured by
the fear. It is proper to bring the lips of the wound
near to each other, and to join them either by adhefive
plafter or by future, according as the wound is fuper-
ficial, or deep. 2. When foreign bodies are lodged in
the wound, as when a cut is given by glafs, &c. it is
neceffary to extra# them, before the wound is dreffed :
for it will never heal until they are difeharged. Wfien
thefe bodies are fituated in fuch a manner as not to be
capable of being extra#ed without lacerating the ad¬
jacent parts, which wrould occafion violent pain and
other bad fymptoms, it is neceflary to enlarge the
wound, fo that thefe offending bodies may be eafily re¬
moved. This treatment, however, is chiefly neceffary
in gunfhot wounds, of which we fhall afterwards
fpeak. 3. When the wound is made in fuch a man¬
ner that it runs for fome length below the fkin, and the
bottom is much lower than the orifice, the matter col-
le#ed from all parts of the wound will be lodged in the
bottom of it, where, corrupting by the heat, it will de¬
generate into a fiftulous ulcer. To prevent this, we
muft
u(rfe VS“ an “CC0Unt “f tl,e n!etI'°cl of fucking wounds, in Mr John Bell’s Difcwfi, on Wound,, Part I. dif.
w o u
See
lood,
°lr
Wounds, mud ufe compreffes, applied fo that the bottom of the
- v ' 1 wound may fuffer a more confiderable preffure than the
upper part of it. Thus the matter formed at the bot¬
tom will be gradually forced upwards, and that formed
at the uppier part will be incapable of defcending by its
weight j the divided parts, in the mean time, eafily
uniting when brought clofe together. Indeed, the
power which nature has of uniting different parts of
the human body is very furprifing *, for, according to
authors of credit, even if a piece of flefh be totally cut
out, and applied in a fhort time afterwards to the place
from whence it was cut, it will unite. That a part cut
out of a living body does not entirely lofe its vital
power for fome time, is evident from the modern prac¬
tice of tranfplanting teeth j and from an experiment of
Mr John Hunter’s, where he put the tefticle of a cock
into the belly of a living hen, and the tefticle adhered
to the liver, and became conne&ed to it by means of
blood-veffels*. We have therefore the greateft reafon
to hope, that the divided parts of the human body,
w'hen clofely applied to each other, will cohere without
leaving any finus or cavity between them. However,
if this method fhould fail, and matter be collefted in the
depending part of the wound, it will be neceffary to
make an opening in that part in order to let it out j
after which the wound may be cured in the common
way. 4. During the courfe of the cure, it fometimes
happens that the wound, inftead of filling up with gra¬
nulations of a florid colour, flioots up into a glalfy-like
fubftance which rifes above the level of the furrounding
(kin, while, at the fame time, inftead of laudable pus, a
thin ill-coloured and fetid ichor is difcharged. In this
cafe the lips of the wound lofe their beautiful pearl co¬
lour, and become callous and white, nor does the cica¬
trizing of the wound at all advance. When this hap¬
pens in a healthy patient, it generally proceeds from
fome improper management, efpecially the making ufe
of too many emollient and relaxing medicines, an im¬
moderate ufe of balfams and ointments. Frequently
nothing more is requifite for taking down this fungus
than drefling with dry lint 5 at other times deficcative
powders, fuch as calamine, tutty, calcined alum, &c.
will be neceflary ; and fometimes red precipitate mer¬
cury muft be ufed. This laft, however, is apt to give
great pain, if fprinkled in its dry ftate upon the wound ;
it is therefore moft proper to grind it with fome yellow
bafilicon ointment, which makes a much more gentle,
though at the fame time an efficacious efcharotic.
Touching the overgrown parts with blue vitriol is alfo
found very effectual.
Hitherto we have confidered the wounded patient as
otherwife in a ftate of perfeft health •, but it muft; be ob-
ferved, that a large wound is capable of difordering the
fyftem to a great degree. If the patient is ftrong and
vigorous, and the pain and inflammation of the wound
great, confiderable degree of fever may arife, which it
will be neceffary to check by bleeding, low diet, and
other parts of the antiphlogiftic regimen, at the fame
time the inflamed lips of the wound and parts adjacent
are to be treated with emollient fomentations or cata-
plafms till the pain and fwelling abate. On the other
hand, it may happen, when the patient is of a weak and
lax habit, that the vis vit<x may not be fufficient to ex¬
cite fuch an inflammation in the wound as is abfolutely
neceffary for its cure. In this cafe, the edges of the
3
[ 7s1 1
W O 5J
IO
f the re-
men of
itients in
Quads.
wound look pale and foft; the wound itfelf ichorous Wounds.-
and bloody, without any figns of granulations $ or ifv—'■V'-™'
any granulations {hoot up, they are of the fungous
glafly kind above mentioned. To fuch wounds all ex¬
ternal applications are vain j it is neceflary to ftrengthen
the patient by proper internal remedies, among which
the bark has a principal place, until the wound begins
to alter its appearance. In fuch perfons, too, there is
fome danger of a heftic fever by the abforption of mat¬
ter ; and this will take place during the courfe of the
cure, even when the appearances have been at firft as
favourable as could be wiftied. This happens generally
when the wound is large, and a great quantity of mat¬
ter formed j for by this difcharge the patient is weaken¬
ed j fo that the pus is no fooner formed, than it is re¬
conveyed into the body by the abforbent veflels, and
immediately affefts the patient with feverifti heat.
When this takes place, the belt remedy is to exhibit
the bark copioufly, at the fame time to fupport the pa¬
tient by proper cordials and nourifliing diet. Indeed,
in general, it will be found, that, in the cafe of wounds
of any confiderable magnitude, a more full and nourifti-
ing regimen is required than the patient, even in health,
has been accuftomed to ; for the difcharge of pus alone,
where the quantity is confiderable, proves very debili¬
tating. And it is conftantly found, that the cure of
fuch fores goes on much more eafily when the patient
is kept in his ufual habit of body, than when his fyftem
is much emaciated by a very low allowance •, and, for
the fame reafon, purgatives, taken more freely than
what is neceflary to keep the bowels open, and whatever
elfe tends to weaken the conftitution, are improper in
the cure of wounds.
Haemorrhagies very frequently happen in wounds, ofhjemor-
either from a divifion of a large artery, or of a number rhagies
of fmall ones. In this cafe, the firft ftep to be taken by fl0m
the furgeon is to effe61 a temporary ftoppage of theU0U1K
blood by means of compreffion, and he is then to tie up
all the larger veflels according to the methods ufually
dire&ed.
When the principal arteries of a wound have been
tied, and a little blood continues to be difcharged,
which appears to come from fundry fmall veflels only,
an experienced furgeon is induced to think, that the
compreffion of the bandages will in all probability
effedt a total ftoppage of the hcemorrhagy. In a gene¬
ral oozing from the whole furface of a fore, and when
no particular veflel can be diftinguiftied, there is a ne-
ceffity for trufting to the bandage or compreffion ; but
whenever an artery can be difcovered, of whatever fize
it may be, it ought to be fecured by a ligature. But it
frequently happens, that confiderable quantities of blood
are difcharged, not from any particular veflel, but from
all the fmall arteries over the furface of the wound j and
in wounds of great extent, particularly after the extir¬
pation of cancerous breafts, and in other operations where
extenfive fores are left, this fpecies of hremorrhagy often
proves very troublefome by being exceedingly difficult
to fupprefs.
In conftitutions perfedlly healthy, on the occurrence
of wounds even of the moft extenfive nature, as foon as
the larger arteries are fecured, all the fmall veflels which
have been divided are diroiniftied, not only in their dia¬
meters, but alfo in their length ; in confequence of
which, they recede confiderably within the furface of
tiie -
W O U [75
-Wounds, the furrounding parts. This caufe of itfelf would pro-
bably, in the greateft number of inftances, prove iuf-
ficient for rettraining all lofs of blood from the fmaller
arteries. Another very powerful agent however is pro¬
vided by nature for producing the fame effeft. brom
the extremities of the divided veffels which at firft dif-
charged red blood, there now, in their contratted Hate,
oozes out a more thin, though vifcid fluid, containing a
great proportion of the coagulable parts of the blood ;
and this being equally diftributed over the furface of
the wound, by its agglutinating powers has a very con-
fiderable influence in reftraining all fuch haemorrhagies.
When a tedious oozing occurs in a patient young and
vigorous, and where the tone of the mufcular fibres is
evidently great, the moft effectual means of putting a
flop to the difcharge is to relax the vafcular fyftem,
either by opening a vein in fome other part, or, what
gives Hill more immediate relief, by untying the liga¬
ture on one of the principal arteries of the part, fo as to
allow it to bleed freely : thofe violent fpafmodic twitch-
ings too, fo frequent after operations on any of the ex¬
tremities, when they do not depend on a nerve being
included in the ligature with the artery, are in this
manner more effedtually relieved than by any other
means.
By the fame means the patient, from being in a fe¬
brile heat and much confufed, foon becomes very tran¬
quil : the violent pulfation of the heart and larger ar¬
teries abates, and the blood not being propelled with
fuch impetuofity into the fmaller veffels of the part,
they are left at more liberty to retraft.
The patient ought to be kept exceedingly cool •, wine
and other cordials fliould be rigidly avoided } cold wa¬
ter, acidulated either with the mineral or vegetable
acids, ought to be the only drink j motion of every
kind, particularly of the part affected, fliould be guard¬
ed againft ; and the lip of the wound being drawn to¬
gether by adhefive plafier, and gently covered with
foft charpie, it ought to be tied up with a bandage fo
applied as to produce a moderate degree of preffure on
the extremities of the divided parts.
As foon as a fufficient quantity of blood has been dif-
charged, the wound dreffed, and the patient laid to ret!,
a dole of opium proportioned to the violence of the
fymptoms ought to be immediately exhibited. It ought
to be remarked, however, that in all fuch circumftances,
much larger dofes of this medicine are neceffary than in
ordinary cafes requiring the ufe of opiates. Small dofes,
inftead of anfwering any good purpofe, feem frequently
rather to aggravate the various fymptoms; fo that
whenever they are had recourfe to in fuch cafes, they
ought always to be given in quantities fufficient for the
intended effeft.
But haemorrhagies of this nature happen much more
frequently in relaxed enfeebled habits, where the folids
have loft part of their natural firmnefs, and the fluids
have acquired a morbid tenuity. In this cafe a moder¬
ate ufe of generous wine ought to be immediately pre-
fcribed *, for nothing tends fo much, in fuch circum¬
ftances, to reftrain h^morrhagies, as a well dire&ed ufe
of proper cordials. By tending to invigorate and brace
the folids, they enable the arterial fyftem to give a due
refiftance to the contained fluids 5 and have alfo a con-
nderable influence in reftoring to the fluids that vifcidi-
2 ] W o U
ty of texture, of which in all fuch inftances we fuppofe Wounds
them to be deprived. —y—«
A nourithing diet alfo becomes proper $ the patient
ought to be kept cool; and the mineral acids, from their
known utility in every fpecies of hasmorrhagy, ought
alfo to be prefcribed. Reft of body is here alfo pro¬
per j and opiates, when indicated either by pain or
fpafmodic affedlions of the mufcles, ought never to be
omitted.
Together with thefe remedies adapted to the general
fyftem, particular dreffings, appropriated to the ftate of
the parts to which they are to be applied, have been
found very beneficial. In healthy conftitutions, foon
after the difcharge of blood is over, the parts are cover¬
ed with a vifcid coagulable effufion from the mouths of
the now retraced arteries j but in conftitutions of an
oppofite nature, where the folids are much relaxed, the
blood in general is found in fuch an attenuated ftate as
to afford no fecretion of this nature.
To fupply as much as poffible the deficiency of this
natural balfam, different artificial applications have been
invented. Dulling the part with ftarch or wheat-flour
has fometimes been found of ufe, and gum arabic in fine
powder has b6en known to anfwer when thefe failed.
Applications of this kind, indeed, have been ufed
with fuccefs in all fuch haemorrhagies, with whatever
habit of body they happen to be connected 5 but they
have always proved more particularly ferviceable in re¬
laxed conftitutions, attended with an attenuated ftate
of the blood and an enfeebled mufcular fyftem. Al¬
cohol, or any other ardent fpirits, impregnated with as
great a quantity as they can diffolve of myrrh, or any
other of the heating vifcid gums, may be here ufed with
freedom, though in conftitutions of an oppofite nature
they ought never to be employed. The balfamum
traumuticum of the ffiops, a remedy of this nature, has
long been famous for its influence in fuch cafes: but
that indiferiminate ufe of this and fimilar applications
which has long prevailed with fome practitioners, has
undoubtedly done much harm ; for as they are all pof-
feffed of very ftimulating powers, they of courfe tend to
aggravate every fymptom in wounds conneded with a
tenfe ftate of fibres, or much pain, efpecially when fpaf¬
modic mufcular afftClions prevail.
By a due perfeverance in one or other of the plans
here pointed out, it will feldom happen that haemorrha¬
gies are not at laft put a flop to : but when the contrary
does occur, when, notwithftanding the ufe of the reme¬
dies recommended, a difcharge of blood ftill continues ^
in addition to the means already advifed, an equal mode¬
rate preffure ought to be applied over the whole furface
of the fore, to be continued as long as the neceffity of
the cafe feems to indicate.
In finiffiing the dreffings of fuch wounds, after the
adhefive plafter and comprefles have been applied, a
bandage properly adapted to the part ought to be em¬
ployed, and in fuch a manner as to produce as equal a
degree of preffure over the furface of the wound as pof¬
fible. But it now and then happens that no bandage
can be applied fo as to produce the defired effeft $ and
in fuch cafes the hand of an affiftant is the only re-
fource ; which being firmly preffed over the dreffings,
will commonly fucceed when no other means is found
to have much influence.
Wounds
W O 0
t
Symptoms
which
iometimes
fucceed
blood-let¬
ting.
founds. Wounds of the nerves, tendons, and ligaments, are
l" v attended with much more violent fymptoms than thofe
where even confiderable arteries are divided, and they
frequently refill every method of cure propofed by the
molt fkilful practitioners. In the fimple procefs of
blood-letting, it frequently happens that the tendinous
expanfion called the aponeurojis of the biceps mufcle is
wounded, or even the tendon of that mufcle itfelfis
puifCtured, by the point of the lancet •, or fometimes a
nerve which happens to lie in the neighbourhood is
partially divided. Any one of thefe wounds, though
they are the fmalleft we can well fuppofe to be given,
are frequently very dangerous and difficult of cure. It
fometimes immediately happens on the introduction of
the lancet, that the patient complains of a molt exqui-
fite degree of pain 5 and when this occurs, we may reft
allured that either a tendon or a nerve has been wound¬
ed. On forae occafions, by proper management, fuch
as evacuating a confiderable quantity of blood at the
orifice newly made, by keeping the part at perfeCt reft,
and preferving the patient in as cool a ftate as poffible,
the pain at firlt complained of will gradually abate, and
at laft go off entirely without any bad confequence. At
other limes, however, this pain which occurs inftanta-
neoufly on the introduCIion of the lancet, inftead of
abating, begins foon to increafe ; a fullnefs, or fmall
degree of fwelling, takes place in the parts contiguous
to the wound; the lips of the fore become fomewhat
hard and inflamed j and, in the courfe of about 24 hours
from the operation, a thin watery ferum begins to be
difcharged at the orifice.
If, by the means employed, relief is not foon obtain¬
ed, thefe fymptoms generally continue in nearly the
fame ftate for two or perhaps three days longer. At
this time the violent pain which at firft took place be¬
comes ftill more diftreffing j but inftead of being fharp
and acute as before, it is now attended with the fenfa-
tion of a burning heat, which goes on to increafe, and
proves, during the whole courfe of the ailment, a fource
of conftant diftrefs to the patient. The fullnefs and
hardnefs in the lips of the wound begin to increafe, and
the fwelling in the neighbouring parts gradually ex¬
tends over the whole members. The parts at laft be¬
come exceedingly tenfe and hard ; an eryfipelatous in¬
flammatory colour frequently appears over the whole
member; the pulfe by this time is generally very hard
and quick j the pain is now intenfe, the patient ex¬
ceedingly reftlefs j twitchings of the tendons occur to a
greater or lefs degree; on fome occafions, a locked
jaw and other convulfive affe61ions fupervene ; and all
thefe fymptoms continuing to increafe, it moft frequent¬
ly happens that the torture under which the patient has
been groaning is at laft terminated by death.
Different opinions have prevailed refpefling the caufe
of thefe fymptoms. By fome they have been imputed
to wounds of the tendons. By others the tendons are
tanw fuppofed to be fo entirely deftitute of fenfibility, as to
be quite incapable of producing fo much diftrefs; fo
that wounds of the nerves they confider, on all fuch oc¬
cafions, as the true caufe of the various fymptoms we
have mentioned.
One or other of thefe ideas continued to be the only
fource for explaining the various phenomena found to
occur in this malady, till a different opinion was fug-
gefted by the late inp-enious Mr John Hunter of Lon-
Yol. XX. Part II.
753
„ n
“pinions
about the
caufe-, of
] W O U
don. Mr Planter fuppofed, that all the <lreadful fymp- WunruV-.
toms found now and then to be induced by the opera- v
tion ©f blood-letting, might be more readily accounted j(‘};u
lor from an inflamed ftate of the internal furface of the Hunter’s
vein, than from any other caufe. Such a ftate of the opinion
vein he has often traced in borfes that have died of fuch
fymptoms from venefedlion, and the fame appearances
have fometimes occurred alio in the human body. And
on other occafions, inflammation having in this manner
been once excited, has been known to terminate in fnp-
puration ; and the matter thus produced being in the
courfe of circulation carried to the heart, Mr Hunter
fuppofes that in fuch cafes death may have been induced
by that caufe alone.
P'here can be no reafon to doubt the fadl held forth
by Mr Plunter, that in fuch inftances the vein in which
the orifice has been made, has frequently after death
been found greatly inflamed : but however ingenious
his arguments may be for concluding that the ftate of
the vein is the original caufe of all the bad fymptoms
enumerated, and although we muft allow that fuch an
inflammatory affeftion of a vein muft have a confider¬
able influence in aggravating the various fymptoms pre*
vioufly induced by other caufes $ yet we may very fair¬
ly conclude, that it could not probably in any one in-
ftance be able to account with fatisfadtion for their firft
produdlion.
In many cafes the patient, at the very inftant of
the operation, feels a very unufual degree of pain. In
fome cafes, the violence of the pain is almoft unfupport-
able. Now this we can never fuppofe to have been pro¬
duced by the mere pundlure of a vein *, for although
the coats of veins are not perhaps entirely deftitute of
feeling, yet we know well that they are not endowed
with fuch a degree of fenfibility as to render it probable
that fuch intenfe pain could ever be induced by their It.
being pundlured in any way whatever. This inflamed not jutt4
ftate of the veins therefore, as detedled by Mr Hunter
after death, muft be confidered rather as being pro¬
duced by, than as being produdlive of, fuch affedlions 5
and that luch ailments fhould frequently produce an in¬
flammation of the contiguous veins, is a very probable
conjecture. In the courfe of 48 hours from the opera¬
tion, when the febrile fymptoms are juft commencing,
fuch a degree of hardnefs and evident inflammation is
induced over all the parts contiguous to the crifice, that
it would be furprifing indeed if the vein, which is thus
perhaps entirely furrounded with parts highly inflamed,
fliould efcape altogether. We fliall therefore proceed Rea*y otr
upon the fuppofition of this inflamed ftate of the veinsing to the
being a confequence rather than the cauft of fuch ail-'-m o
ments ; and of courfe we now revert to one or other 0f wounding
the opinions long ago adopted on this fubjedl, that all
the train of bad fymptoms found on fotne occafions to
fucceed venefedlion, proceeds either from the wound of
a nerve or of a tendon.
That a partial wound of a nerve will now and then
produce Very diftreffing fymptoms, no pradlitioner will
deny : but it has been attempted to be ftiown, that
tendons are almoft totally deftitute of fenfibility ; and it
has therefore been fuppofed, that their being "wounded
can never account for the various fymptoms known to
occur in fuch cafes. There is great reafon however to
think, that in different inftances the fame train of fvmp-
toms have been induced by different cauffs j tbatin one a
5 C inftance
w o u [7
Wonrds. infiance a wounded nerve, and in others inicks of tlie
* tendons, have given rife to them, as we have already
17 fuppofed.
Metho.l of Jn orcier to prevent as much as podible the confe-
que.nt indammation and other fymptoms which uluaily
toil6 anT*-cnfue> a conilderable quantity of blood (hould be imme-
ruring the diatcly difeharged at the orifice juft made ; the limb,
••wound. fox* feveral days at leaft, ought to be kept in a ftate of
.perfect reft, care being at the fame time taken to keep
the mufcles of the part in as relaxed a ftate as poflible ;
the patient ftiould be alfo kept cool, on a low diet j
and, if neceilary, gentle laxatives ought to be admini-
llered.
When, notwithftanding thefe means, the fymptoms,
inftead of diminiftiing, rather become more violent ; if
the lips of the orifice turn hard and more inflamed, if
the pain become more confiderable, and efpecially if
the fwelling begin to fpread, other remedies come to
be indicated, in thisftateof the complaint, topical blood¬
letting, by means of leeches applied as near as poflible to
the lips of the wound, frequently affords much relief;
and when the pulfe is full and quick, it even becomes
neceffary to evacuate large quantities of blood by open¬
ing a vein in fame other part.
The external applications ufually employed in this
ftate of the complaint are warm emollient fomentations
and poultices. In fimilar afteiftions of other parts no
remedies with which we are acquainted would probably
be found more fuccef ful *, but in the complaint now
under confideration, all fuch applications, inftead of be¬
ing produftive of any advantage, rather do harm. The
heat of the part is here one of the moft diftreffing fymp¬
toms •, and warm emollient applications rather tend to
augment this fource of uneafinefs. The lips of the wound
alfo are rendered ftiil more hard, fwelled, and of courfe
more painful; and the fwelling of the contiguous parts
is increafed. The beft external remedies are cooling
aftringents, efpecially the faturnine applications. The
parts chiefly affefted being alternately covered over
•with cloths wet with a folutxonof faccharum faturni, and
pledgets fpread with Goulard’s cerate, are kept more
cool and eafy than by any other remedy hitherto ufed.
The febrile fymptoms which occur muft at the fame
time be attended to, by keeping the patient cool, on a
low diet, preferving a lax ftate of the bowels ; and, if
neceffary, farther quantities of blood ought to be eva¬
cuated.
On account of the violence of the pain, which is fome-
fimeSi fo exceflxve as to deftroy entirely the patient’s
reft, opiates ought to be freely exhibited *, and when
twitchings of the tendons and other convulfive fymp¬
toms fupervene, medicines of this kind become ftill
more neceffary. In order, however, to have a proper
influence in this flate of the complaint, opiates ought to
be given in very full dofes ; otherwife, inftead of an-
fwering any good purpofe, they conftantly tend to ag¬
gravate the different fymptoms, not only by increafing
the heat and reftleffnefs, but by having an evident in¬
fluence in renderiRg the fyftem more fufceptiblethan it
was before of the pain and other diftrefling effedls pro-
- duced upon it by the wound.
It often happens, however, either from neglefting the
wound or from improper treament, that all thefe reme¬
dies are had recourfe to without any advantage what¬
ever : the fever, pain, and fwelling of the parts conti-
5
54 ] W O U
nue, and convulfive a flexions of the mufcles at laft oc- Wounds,
cur, all tending to indicate the moft imminent danger.
In this fituation of matters, if we have not immediate
recourfe to fome effectual means, the patient will icon
fall a'vifiim to the diforder; and the only remedy from
which much real advantage is to be expedled, is a free
and exteniive divifion of the parts in which the orifice
producing all the mifebief was at firft made. We know
well, from the experience of ages, that much more *ain
and diftrefs of every kind are commonly produced by the
partial divifion either of a nerve or of a tendon, than
from any of thefe parts being at once cut entirely aerofs.
Now the intention of the operation here recommended,
is to produce a complete divifion of the nerve or tendon
we fuppofe to have been wounded by the point of the
lancet, and which we confider as the foie caufe of all
the fubfequent diftrefs.
This operation being attended with a good deal of •
pain, and being put in practice for the removal of fymp¬
toms from which it is perhaps difficult to perfuaclt the
patient that much danger can occur, all the remedies
we have mentioned ftiould be made trial of before it is
propofed : but at the fame time, care ought to be taken
that the diforder is not allowed to proceed too far before
we have recourfe to it ; for if the patient fhould be pre-
vioufly much weakened by the feverifh fymptoms having
continued violent for any length of time, neither this
remedy nor any other with which wc are acquainted
would probably have much influence. As foon, there¬
fore, as the courfe already preferibed has been fairly
tried, and is found to be inadequate to the effedls exptdi-
ed from it, we ought immediately to have recourfe to a
free divifion of the parts affefted. ig
Wherever a w ounded or ruptured tendon may be Treatment
fituated, the limb ftiould be placed in fuch a manner as of wounded
will moft readily admit of the retraced ends of the ten-orruPture^
don being brought together } and when in this fituation, u‘n^ons'
the mufcles of the whole limb in which the injury has
happened muft be tied down with a roller, fo as to pre¬
vent them from all kinds of exertion during the cure,
endeavouring at the fame time to keep the parts eafy and
relaxed. Thus, in a wound or rupture of the tendon of
the redlus mufcle of the thigh, the patient’s /eg- ihould
be kept as much as poflible f. retched out during the cure,
while the thigh-fliould be in fome degree bent, to relax
the mufcle itfelf as far as poftible.
In fimilar affections of the tendo Achillis, the hnee
fliould be kept conftantly bent to relax the mufcles of
the leg, and the foot ftiould be ft retched out to admit of
O’ .
the ends of the ruptured tendon being brought into con*
tad. A roller fliould be applied with a firmnefs quite
fufficient for fecuring the mufcles and tendons in this
fituation ; but care muft be taken to prevent it from im¬
peding the circulation. With this view7, foft fine flannel
fhould be preferred either to linen or cotton ; for being
more elaftic, it more readily yields to any fwelling with
which the limb may be attacked.
The late Dr Monro was the firft who gave any accu¬
rate dire&ions for the treatment of rupture in the large
tendons ; and it is perhaps given with more precifion,
from his having himfelf experienced the effeCls of this
misfortune in the tendo achillis.
He ufed a foot-fock or flipper, made of double quilted
ticking, and left open at the toe ; from the heel of
which a ftrap went up above the calf of the leg. A
ftrong
Wounds.
19
Wounds of
the thorax.
20
Wounds of
the abdo¬
men.
\V O U [ 755 J W O U
ftronj piece of the fame materials went round the calf,
and was fattened with a lace. On the back part of this
was a buckle, through which the tlrap of the foot-fock
was paiTed, by which the calf could be brought down,
and the foot extended at pleafure. Befides there was a
piece of tin applied to the fore part of the leg, to pre¬
vent the foot from getting into any improper pofture
during deep. After proposing to walk, he put on a (hoe
with a heel two inches deep ; and it was not till the
expiration of five months that he ventured to lay afide
the tin-plate and he continued the ufe of the high-
heeled Q\oe for two years.
From this treatment a knowledge may be formed of
the treatment neceffary to be followed in the laceration
of tendons of other parts of the body.
In wounds of the thorax, even though none of the
vifcera lliould be wounded, we may yet reafonably ex¬
pert that a confiderable quantity of blood will be extra-
vafated ; and this, if very large, muft be evacuated if
poflible. However, it ought to be particularly ob-
ferved, that this extravafated blood (liould not be dif-
charged before we are aiTured that the wounded vefiels
have done bleeding. When the pulfe appears futficient-
ly (frong and equal, the extremities warm, no hickup or
convulfion, and the patient’s ftrength continues, we may
then know that the internal hsemorrhagy hasceafed, and
that the means for difeharging the blood may now be
fafely ufed. Matter, water, and blood have fometimes
vanifhed from the cavities of the thorax, and been after¬
wards difcharged by fvveat, urine, &e. Yet this but
feldom happens *, and if we were to truft to nature alone
in thefe cafes, it is certain that many would perilh from
a deltru&ion of the vital vifcera by the extravafated
blood, who by an artificial extraction of the fame blood
might have been faved.
Wounds of the abdomen muft be clofed as foon as
poflible, and then treated as fimple wounds •, only they
ought to be drefled as feldom and expeditiouily as pofli¬
ble. Copious bleeding and a fpare diet, with other
parts of the antiphlogiftic regimen, are here abfolutely
neceflary.
It fometimes happens, that, through a large wound
of the abdominal integuments, the inteftine comes out
without being injured. The moft certain method, in
all fuch cafes, is to return the protruded part as foon as
poflible; for although writers in general formerly re¬
commended warm fomentations, &c. to be previoufly
applied, the latert authors upon this fubjeft confider the
moft natural and proper fomentation to be that which is
produced by the heat and mnifture of the patient’s belly,
and that therefore the inteflines, if no mortification has
taken place, are to be cleared from extraneous matter,
and immediately returned.
When the wound of the abdomen is large, the in-
teftines eafily prolapfe, and they are as eafily returned.
But* when part of an inteftine has been forced through a
narrow wound, it is much more dangerous. For the
prolapfed inteftine being diftended by flatus, or the in-
gefted aliments driven thither by the periftaltic motion,
it will become inflamed, tumefied, and incapable ot
being returned through the ftiiCIure of the wound j
whence gangrene will foon follow. In this cafe the ut-
moft care is to be taken to reduce the inteftine to its na¬
tural fize. When this cannot be accompliftied by other
means, fome praCIitioners of great eminence have even
adviled the punCluring of the inteftine in different places Wuunda.
in order to difcharge the flatus. This practice has alfo ^
been recommended in an incarcerated hernia, but is ex¬
ceedingly difapproved of by Mr Pott and later writers",
and it feems to be very dubious whether any good can
poffibly arife from it. To puncture any part that is al¬
ready inflamed, muft undoubtedly add to the inflamma¬
tion j and it is very improbable that the difcharge of
flatus procured by the punctures would be at all a re-
compenfe for the bad confequences produced by the in-
creafed inflammation. The method of Celfus is much
more eligible : It is to dilate the wound fo as to reduce
the inteltine with cafe.
Sometimes part of the inteftine is loft either by fuppu-
ration or gangrene. In this cafe, all that can be done
is to put a Angle flitch through the wounded bowel, and-
to fix it to the external wound by pafling the future alfo
through the fides of the wound. The ends of the In¬
tel! inc may perhaps adhere ; or at any rate the wound
will continue to perform the office of an anus, out of
which the faeces will continue to be difcharged during
life. The directions given by fome furgeons about in-
ferting the upper end of the gut into the lower, and
ftitching them together, are perfectly impracticable-, and
even if they were practicable, would certainly produce
new mortification, which could not but be fatal.
When the omentum appears prolapfed, the fame ge¬
neral treatment is to be obferved ; only that, when it is
mortified, the dead part may be fafely extirpated.—We
(hall conclude the article of abdominal wounds with a
cafe from the memoirs of the academy of feiences for
the year 1705, which (hows that we ought not to dc-
fpair, even though the moft defperate fymptoms ftioukl
take place. A madman wounded himfelf in 18 different
places of the abdomen. Eight of thefe penetrated the
cavity, and injured the contained vifcera ; he had a
diarrlnea, naufea, and vomiting, tenfion of the abdomen,
with difficult refpiration and violent fever, fo that his
life was defpaired of. During the firft four days he was
blooded feven times ; and during the grealeft part of the
cure his diet confifted almuft entirely of flefh-brolhs,
with the addition of fome mild vegetables. By theft;
means he was not only cured of his wounds, but reitored
to his right fenfes. Seventeen months after, he went
mad again, and threw himfelf over a precipice, by which
he was inftantly killed. On opening the body, the
wounds were found to have penetrated the middle lobe
of the liver, the inteftinum jejunum, and the colon.
Such extraordinary cures are to be imputed, accord¬
ing to the fatisfaflory explanation of Mr J. Bell, to
the abdomen being perfettiy full, and conftantly fub-
jedfted to ftrong preffure between the diaphragm and
abdominal mufcles ; which keeps the parts contiguous
to a wound clofely applied to it, alfo in fome meafure
prevents the difcharge of fceces or even of blood, and
gives an opportunity for a very fpeedy adhefion between
the parts. 2I
In wounds of the head, where the cellular membrane Wounds of
onlv is affefted, and the aponeurofis and pericranium'll1^*
are untouched, phlebotomy, lenient purges, and the ufe
of the common febrifuge medicines, particularly thofeof
the neutral kind, generally remove all the threatening
fymptoms. When the inflammation is gone.off, it leaves
on the (kin a yellowifli tint and a dry feurf, which con¬
tinue until perfpiration takes them away } and uporf the
5 ^ 2 removal
W O U [ 756 ] W O V
^Wounds, removal of the difeafe, the wound immediately recovers
a healthy afped, and fwm heals without further trouble.
But in the word kind <>&tffrefe wounds, that is, where a
fmall wound pafles through the tela cellulofa and apo-
neurofis to the pericranium, the patient will admit of
more free evacuations by phlebotomy than in the former.
In both, the ufe of warm fomentations is required j but
an emollient eataplafm, which is generally forbid in the
eryfipelatous fwellings, may in this latter cafe be ufed to
great advantage. Where the fymptoms are not very
preffing, nor the habit very inflammable, this method
will prove fufKcient 5 but it fometirnes happens that the
fcalp is fo tenfe, the pain fo great, and the fymptomatic
fever fo high, that by waiting for the flow effe6l offuch
means the patient runs a rilk from the continuance of
the fever ; or elfe the injured aponeurofis and pericra¬
nium become floughy, produce an abfeefs, and render
the cafe both tedious and troublefome. A divifion of
the wounded part, by a fimple incifion down to the bone,
about half an inch or an inch in length, will mod com¬
monly remove all the bad fymptoms; and if it be done
in time, wrill render every thing elfe unneceffary.
Wounds pf The wounds penetrating into the cavities of the joints
the joints, do not feem at fird alarming; yet, by expofure to the
air, the lining membrane of fuch cavities acquires fuch a
degree of fenfibility as to endanger life when they are
large. As foon therefore as any extraneous body, pudi-
ed into the joint, is removed, the admidion of the ex¬
ternal air is to be guarded againd as much as poflible.
If the wound be not too large, this may be done by
pulling the fkin over the wound of the joint; and, to
prevent its retraftion, rather adhefive plader, with pro¬
per bandaging, is to be ufed. But when inflammation
lias come on, repeated and copious blood-letting, together
with fomentations, becomes neceflary ; and as the pain,
in thefe cafes, is apt to be violent, opiates mud be ad-
minidered j but fhould matter be fonped in the cavity
of the joint, free vent mud be given to it.
Of contufed and lacerated Wounds.—When the fmall
veflels are ruptured by a blow with any hard indrument
without penetrating the {kin, at the fame time that
the folid fibres of the part are crudied, the injury is
termed a contufion : and when at the fame time the
fkin is broken, it is termed a contufed and lacerated
wound.
Symptoms Every contufion therefore, whether the fkin is broken
and effects or not, may be properly reckoned a wound $ where the
coma- injury is fo flight that none of the contents of the fmall
veflels are extravafated, it fcarcely deferves to be men¬
tioned. The immediate confequence of a contufion,
therefore, is a fwelling, by reafon of the extravafation
jud mentioned ; and the fkin becomes difcoloured by
the blood dagnating under it j but as this fluid, even
though covered by the {kin, cannot long remain in the
natural date, it thence happens, that the contufed part
foon lofes its dorid red colour, and becomes blue or
black •, the thinner parts being ir» the mean time gra¬
dually taken up by the abforbent veflels, This at lad
happens to the blood itfelf j the blue difappears, and is
fucceeded by a yellowidi colour, diowing that the blood is
now diflblved $ after which, the part recovers its former
appearance, and the ruptured veflels appear to have
united as if no injury had happened.
Thefe are the fymptoms which attend the flighted
kind of contufions j but it is evident, that where the
4
blow is fo violent as to rupture the blood-veffels or crufli Wounds,
fome of the large nerves, all the bad confequences which * ' v
attend fimple wounds of thofe parts will enfue, and they
will not be at all alleviated by the circumdance of the
{kin remaining whole. Hence it is eafy to fee how a
contufion may produce ulcers of the word kind, gan¬
grene, fphacelus, carious bones, See.; and if it happen
to be on a glandular part, a fchirrus or cancer is very
frequently found to enfue. Even the vifeera themfelves,
efpecially of the abdomen, may be injured by contufions
to fuch a degree as to produce, an inflammation, gan¬
grene, or fchirrus, nay inflant death, without rupturing
the {kin.
Of Gun-foot Wounds.—Gun-fliot wounds can be
confidered in no other light than contufed wounds. In
thofe made by a mulket or piflol ball, the fird things
to be done are, to extraft the ball, or any other ex¬
traneous body which may have lodged in the wound¬
ed part; and to flop the hemorrhagy, if there be an
effufion of blood from the rupture of fome confiderable
artery.
It is frequently neceflary to enlarge the wound in Extradion
order to extra# the ball; and if it has gone quite of the ball
through (provided the fituation of the part wounded or.other ^
will admit of its being done with fafety), the wound is^nbo’
to be laid freely open through its whole length ; by
which means any extraneous body will be more readily
removed, and the cure facilitated.
In order to get at the ball, or any foreign matter, the
probe is to be ufed as fparingly as poflible : and this
mud appear evident to any one who will only confider
the nature of the fymptoms attendant on penetrating
wounds of the bread or belly, either from a bullet or
fliarp inflrument; the thrufling in a probe to parts un¬
der fuch circumdances being unavoidably a frelh flab on
every repetition. Wherever probing is neceflary, the
finger is to be preferred as the bed and trued probe,
where it can be ufed.
If a ball, or any other foreign body, happen to be
lodged near the orifice, or can be perceived by the fin¬
ger to lie under the {kin, though at fome diflance from
the mouth of the wound, we ftiould cut upon it and take
it out: but when it is funk deep, and lies abfolutely be¬
yond the reach of the finger, it mud appear evident up¬
on the lead reflection, that thruding, fird a long probe
in quefl of the bullet, and then, as has been likewife
praCtifed, a long pair of forceps, either with or without
teeth, into a wound of that kind, though with fome
certainty to extra# it, mufl either contufe, or irritate
and inflame the parts to a great degree ; and confequent-
ly do as much, or more, mifehief as the ball did at
fird in forcing its paflage to fuch a length. And Ihould
they at the fame time lay hold of any confiderable ar¬
tery or nerve along with the ball (which can fcarceever
fail of being the cafe), what {hocking coqfequences^
would attend fuch a proceeding ! Nor would attempts
of this fort be lefs injurious, if a bullet Ihould happen to
be lodged in the cavity of the belly or bread. Such at¬
tempts are the lefs neceflary, becaufe a great number of
inflances have occurred, where balls have been quietly
lodged in feveral parts of the body, till after many years
they have worked themfelves a pafiage towards the fur-
face, and were very eafily extra#ed ; and many cafes alfo
where balls have been entirely left behind.
In cafe the wound be occafioned by a mujket or pi--
ftofc
w o u
[ 757 ]
w o u
Wounds.
*5
Dilatation
ofthe
ivound.
76
Advantage
of bleeding
27
Regimen.
28
External
application
ftol (hot, and of courfe be fmall, it will be neceffary to
dilate the wound without delay, provided the nature of
the part will permit of this with fafety : for in wounds
near arjoint, or in very membranous or tendinous parts,
the knife, as well as forceps, fnould be put under fome
reftraint; nor (hould any more opening be made than
what is abfolutely requifite for the free difcharge of the
matter lodged within.
Where the wounded perfon has not fuffered any great
lofs of blood, and this is generally the cafe, it will be ad-
vifable to open a vein immediately, and take from the
arm a large quantity ; and to repeat bleeding as circum-
ftances may require, the fecond, and even the third day.
Repeated bleedings in the beginning are followed by
many advantages. They prevent pain and a good deal
of inflammation, leflen any feverilh affaults, and feldom
fail to obviate impofthumations, and a long train of com¬
plicated fymptoms which are wont otherwife to interrupt
the cure, miferably harafs the poor patient, and too often
endanger his life. Even where the feverifh fymptoms
run high, and there is almoft: a certainty that matter is
forming, bleeding, in fuch a date, is very frequently of
great advantage.
For the firft twelve days after the wound has been re¬
ceived, it will be proper to obferve a cooling regimen,
both in refpeef of the medicines that may be preferibed,
and the diet requifite for the fupport of the patient. It
is likewife abfolutely neceflary that the body be con-
ftantly kept open. Unlefs, therefore, nature does this
office of herfelf, a (tool (hould be every day procured,
either by emollient clyfters, or fome gentle laxative ta¬
ken at the mouth; and whenever there is much pain in
the wounded parts, immediate recourfe muff; be had to
opium.
As to external applications, whatever is of a hot fpi-
rituous nature is remarkably injurious on thefe occafions,.
and what no wounded part can in any degree bear. The
wound may be dreffed with pledgits of any emollient
ointment; the whole being covered with a common
poultice, or, in fome cafes, the preparations of lead may
be ufed. An opiate (hould now be adminiftered *, and
the part affefted being placed in the eafieft and mod
convenient pofture, the patient (hould be laid to reft.
The formation of matter, in every contufed wound, is an
objeft of the firft importance *, for, till this takes place,
there is often reafon to fufpeft that gangrene may hap¬
pen. With a view to haften fuppuration, the warm
poultices (hould be frequently renewed, and they (hould
be continued till the tendon and dwelling, with which
wounds of this kind are ufually attended, be removedj
and till the fore has acquired a red, healthy, granula¬
ting appearance, and then it is to be treated like a com¬
mon ulcer.
Gun-ftrot wounds are commonly covered from the
beginning with deep (loughs, and various remedies are
recommended for removing thefe. Every appearance,
however, of this kind with which they are attended pro¬
ceeds entirely from contufion ; and, excepting the injury
be extenfive, the (lough is not often perceptible, or it is
fo thin as to come away along with the matter at the
firft or fecond drefling. Although emollient poultices
be extremelyufefu1, they ought to be no longer continued
than till the effecfs already mentioned are produced ;
otherwife they will not only relax the parts, but alfo
produce too copious a difcharge of matter, which is
Wounds.
fometimes attended with great danger. A too copious
flow of matter may proceed from different caufes ; but '
in whatever way it may have been produced, the prac¬
tice to be adopted muff: be nearly the fame. Every
colleftion which appears muff have a free outlet, and the
limb laid in that pofture which will mod readily admit
of its running off. In fuch circumftances, nouriftiing
diet and Peruvian bark in confiderable quantities are
highly ufeful. When the difcharge continues copious,
in fpite of every effort to check it, detached pieces of
bone or fome extraneous matter are probably the caufe.
In fuch a fituation nothing will leffen the quantity of
matter till fuch fubftances be removed. The wound
ought therefore again to be examined, and any loofe
bodies taken away. Pieces of cloth have been known
to be removed by fetons, when that method was pra&i-
cable, after every other method had failed. Opium is
frequently ufed in checking an exceflive difcharge, when
it happens to be kept up by irritation.
Although no confiderable hemorrhagy may happen
on firft receiving a gun-(hot wound ; yet after the (loughs
commonly produced upon fuch accafions have come off,
fome confiderable arteries may be expofed, and then a
dangerous hemorrhagy may enfue. The hemorrhagy
is often preceded by a great heat in the injured parts,
and with a throbbing pulfatory pain. At this period it-
may frequently be prevented by plentiful blood-letting,
particularly local. But if the hemorrhagy has fairly
taken place, and from arteries of confiderable fize, no¬
thing will reftrain it but the proper application of liga¬
tures. As the difcharge in thefe cafes would often
prove dangerous before the furgeon could be procured,
the attendants (hould be furnilhed with a tourniquet,
with dire&ions to apply it, upon the firft appearance of
blood.
Till of late years the fcarifying of gun-ftiot wounds Scarifying,
was a pra&ice which prevailed very univerfally among‘mProI)er-
furgeons y and it was expefted by this, that the (loughs
with which wounds are fometimes covered would fooner
feparate, and that the cure would thereby be more rea¬
dily performed. It is now, however, known, that this
praftice, inftead of being ufeful, very generally does harm
by increafing the inflammation. It (hould therefore be
laid entirely afide.
When a gun-(hot wound cannot eafily or fafely be laid
open from one end to the other, perhaps it may be pro-*
per to introduce a cord through the finus. This, how¬
ever, (hould not be attempted till the firft or inflamma¬
tory (late of the. wound is over : but when a cord cannot
be properly introduced, on account of the fituation or
dire&ion of the wound, compreflion may prove equally
ufeful here as- in cafes of pun&ured wounds* „0
Mortification happening after gim-ftiot wounds, is to Mortifies*
be treated in the fame manner as if it had arifen from^011,
any other caufe, only bark is not to be promifeuoufly
ufed '; as, in plethoric habits, it may prove hurtful, though
in debilitated relaxed habits it will be extremely ufeful ;
but even in fuch it Ihould never be given while much
pain and tenfion continue*
Of Wounds and In juries of the Head 'producing Frac- 1
tribes and Depreflions.—When the brain is compreffed, Symptoms
a fet of fymptoms enfue^ extremely dangerous, though of compiei-
fometimes they do not make their appearance tillllon.of
after, a confiderable interval. But at whatever time1
they appear, they are uniformly of the fame kind, and
29
brain.
W O U [ 758 ] w o u
■Wounds. are in general as follows : drowfinefs, giddinefs, and du-
' pefaclion, dimnefs of fight, dilatation of the pupil; and,
where the injury done to the head is great, there is com¬
monly a difeharge of blood from the eyes, nofe, or
ears. Sometimes the fraaured bone can be difeovered
■through the integuments, at other times it cannot. There
is an irregular and opprefied pulfe, and fnoring or apo-
ple6lic ftertor in breathing. There is likewife naufea
and vomiting, with an involuntary difeharge of faeces
and urine. Among the mufcles of the extremities and
other parts, there is lofs of voluntary motion, convulfive
tremors in fome parts of the body, and palfy in others,
efpecially in that fide of the body which is oppofite to
the injured part of the head.
Some of the milder of thefe fymptoms, as vertigo, ftu-
pefadion, and a temporary lofs of fenfibility, are fre¬
quently induced by (light blows upon the head, but com¬
monly foon difappear, either by reft alone, or by the
means to be afterwards pointed out. But when any
other fymptonrs enfue, fuch as dilatation of the pupils,
and efpecially when much blood is difeharged. from the
eyes, nofe, and ears, and that there is an involuntary dif¬
eharge of faeces and urine, it may be reafonably conclu¬
ded that compreffion of the brain is induced.
The cavity of the cranium, in the healthy and natu¬
ral (late, is everywhere completely filled by the brain ;
whatever therefore diminifhes that cavity, will produce
a compreflion of the brain.
Caufes of The caufes producing fuch a diminution may be of
thefe. various kinds, as frafture and depreffion of the bones of
the cranium *, the forcible introduction of any extrane¬
ous body into the cavity of the cranium ; effufion of
blood, ferum, pus, or any other fluid ; the thicknefs and
irregularity of the bones of the cranium in certain dif-
eafes, as in lues venerea, rickets, or fpina ventofa ; or
water collefted in hydrocephalous cafes. The firft
fet of caufes (hall be confidefed in their order. The
four laft mentioned belong to the province of the phy-
fician, and have been confidered in a former part of this
work.
Fractures of the cranium have been differently diftin-
guifhed by different authors 5 but it feems fufficient to
divide them into thofe attended with depreflion, and
thofe which are not.
In fraCture and depreffion of the cranium, the treat¬
ment ought to be,— to difeover the fituation and extent
of the fradture ; and to obviate the effefts of the injury
done to the brain, by raifing or removing all the de-
33 preffed parts of the bone.
Method of When the teguments correfponding to the injury done
tlfe fitua"8 t0 t^ie k°ne are cut or lacerated, and, as is fometimes
tbn offrac-^16 cafe, entirely removed, the ftate of the fraClure is
tures of the imme(liately difeovered ; but when the integuments of
cranium, the Ikull remain entire, even though the general fymp¬
toms of frafture be prefent, there is fometimes much dif¬
ficulty in afeertaining it. When, however, any exter¬
nal injury appears, particularly a tumor from a recent
contufion, attended by the fymptoms already deferibed,
there can be no doubt of the exiftence of a fra&ure.
But it fometimes happens that compreffion exifts without
the fmalleft appearance of tumor. In fuch cafes, the
whole head ought to be ffiaved, when an inflammatory
fpot may frequently be obferved. Sometimes the place
pf the fratfture hsujbeeft difeovered by the patient apply¬
ing the hand frequently on or near fome particular part Wounds,
of the head. —y——
When the fymptoms of a compreffed brain are evi¬
dently marked, no time ought to be loft in fetting
about an examination of the ftate of the cranium, wbere-
ever appearances point out, or even lead us to conjec¬
ture, in what part a fraflure may be lituated. For
this purpofe an incifion is to be made upon the fpot
through the integuments to the furface of the bone,
which muft be fufficiently expofed to admit of a free
examination.
Some authors have recommended a crucial incifion ;
others one in form of the letter T ; ivhile many advife
a confiderable part of the integuments to be entirely re¬
moved. But as it is more agreeable to the prefent
mode of praflice to fave as much of the (kin as pofiible,
a fimple incifion is generally preferred, unlefs the frac¬
ture run in different direftions, and then the incifion
muft vary accordingly. It will frequently happen, that
a confiderable part of the integuments muft be feparated
from the (kull, in order to obtain a diftinft view of the
full extent of the frafture ; but no part of the integu¬
ments is to be entirely removed.
When blood-veffels of any confiderable fize are di¬
vided, either before or in lime of the examination, they
ought to be allowed to bleed freely, as in no cafe what¬
ever is the lofs of blood attended with more advantage
than the prefent. When, however, it appears that the
patient has loft a fufficient quantity, the veflels ought
to be fecured.
After the integuments have been divided, if the (kull
be found to be fra&ured and depreffed, the nature of
the cafe is rendered evident j but even where there is
no external appearance of fraflure, tumor, difcolorstion,
or other injury, if the patient continue to labour under
fymptoms of a compreffed brain, if the pericranium has
been feparated from the bone, and efpecially if the bone
has loft its natural appearance, and has acquired a pale
white or dufky yellow hue, the trepan ought to be ap¬
plied without hefitation at the place where thefe appear¬
ances mark the principal feat of the injury.
Again, although no mark either of fraflure or of any
difeafes underneath (hould appear on the outer table of
the bone, yet there is a poflibility that the inner table
may be fractured and depreffed. This indeed is not a
common occurrence, but it happens probably more fre¬
quently than furgeons have been aware of; and where
it does happen, the injury done to the brain is as great,
and attended with as much danger, as where the whole
thicknefs of the bone is beat in. The application of the
trepan is therefore neceffary.
But if, after the application of the trepan, it happens
that no mark of injury appears either in the outer or
inner table in that part, or in the dura mater below it,
and that the lymptoms of a compreffed brain ftill conti¬
nue, a fra£lure in fome other part is to be fufpeeltd ; or
that kind of fra&ure termed by praflitioners counter fj-
fitre, where the (kull is fra&ured and fometimes depref¬
fed on the oppofite fide to, or at a diflance from, the
part where the injury was received. This is fortunately
not a very frequent occurrence, and has even been
doubted by fome ; but different inftances of it have, be¬
yond all queftion, been found. If then fore the opera¬
tion of the trepan has been performed, and no fraefture
w o u
[
34 r
Method or
removing
and eleva
/
Wounds, is difcovered, no extravafation appears on the furface of
—  1 the brain •, and if blood-letting and other means ufually
employed do not remove the fymptoms of com predion,
the operator is to fearch for a fra&ure on fome other
part. The whole head fhould again be examined with
much accuracy •, and, by preding deliberately but firm¬
ly over every part of it, it the fmalleft degree of fenfi-
bility remains, the patient will fhow figns of pain, ei¬
ther by moans or by raifing his hands, when preflure is
made over the fractured part. In this way fractures
have been frequently detected, which might otherwife
have been concealed.
Having now confidered every thing preparatory to
the operation of the trepan, we fliall next point out the
ana m<?ans bell adapted for the removal or elevation of a de-
ied portions prtfled portion of the bone.
of the era- The fird thing to be done is, after (having the head,
mum. t0 raake an incifion as deep as the bone, and diredlly
upon the courfe of the fraflure.
The patient ought to be laid on a table, with a mat-
trefs under him, while his head is placed upon a pillow,
and fecured by an afddant. When the extent of the
fraflure has been determined, and the bleeding from-the
incifion (lopped, the depreffed bone is now to be eleva¬
ted ; but previous to this it is neceflary to fearch for
detached pieces. Should any be found, they ought to
be removed by a pair of forceps adapted to this purpofe.
By the fame indrument any fplinters of bone which may
have been beaten in may be removed ; but when a part
of the bone is beaten in beyond the level of the red of
the cranium, as much of the pericranifim is then to be
removed by a rafpatory, as will allow the trephine to
be applied ; or, if the operator incline, for the fake of
difpatch, he may ufe the trepan ; or the operation may
be begun and finithed with the trephine, while the tre¬
pan may perform the middle and principal part of the
work. This part of the work is begun by making a
hole with the perforator, deep enough to fix the central
pin of the trephine, in order to prevent the faw from
dipping out of its central courfe, till it has formed a
groove fudiciently deep to be worked deadily in ; and
then the pin is to be removed. If the bone be thick,
the teeth of the faw mud be cleaned now and then by
the brufh during the perforation, and dipped in oil as
often as it is cleaned, which will confiderably facilitate
the motion, and render it more expeditious 5 making it
at the fame time much lefs difagreeable to the patient,
if he poffefs his fenfes. That no time may be loll, the
operator ought to be provided with two indruments of
the fame fize, or at lead to have two heads which can
be readily fitted to the fame handle.
After having made fome progrefs in the operation,
the groove ought to be frequently examined with a pick-
tooth, or fome fuch indrument, in order to difeover its
depth } and if one fide happen to be deeper than the
other, the operator ought to prefs more on that fide
which is (hallowed. Precautions are more particularly
neceffary when the operation is performed upon a part
of the (kull which is of an unequal thicknefs, efpecially
59 1 won
after the indrument has paffed the diploe. And though Wounds,
it be faid by writers in general that the indrument may V"~
be worked boldly till it comes at the diploe (which is
generally known by the appearance of blood), yet the
operator fhould be upon his guard in this point, examin¬
ing from time to time if the piece be loofe, lelt through
inadvertence the dura mater be wounded ; for in iome
parts of the (kull there is naturally very little diploe,
and in old fubjedts fcarcely any. It ought likewife to
be remembered, that the (kulls of children are very thin.
When the piece begins to vacillate, it ought to be fnap*
ped off with the forceps or levator ; for the fawdng
ought by no means to be continued till the bone be cut
quite through, otherwife the indrument may plunge in
upon the brain, or at lead injure the dura mater (b).
If the inner edge of the perforation be left ragged, it is
to be fmoothed with the lenticular, to .prevent it from
irritating the dura mater. Particular care is to be taken
in ufing the indrument, led it (hould prefs too much
upon the brain.
The next dep is to raife the depreffed part of the.
bone with the levator, or to extraft the fragments pf
the bone, grumous blood, or any extraneous body. Af¬
ter this, if there appear reafon to apprehend that blood,
lymph, or matter, is contained under the dura mater, it
ought to be cautioufly opened with a lancet, endeavour¬
ing to avoid the blood-veffels running upon it, or" lying
immediately under it.
When the trepan is to be ufed on account of a fiffure
in which the bone will not yield, the indrument (hould
be applied fo as to include part of it, if not direddly over
it, as it is mod probable that the extravafated fluid will
be found dircflly under it. And when the fiffure is of
great extent, it may be proper to make a perforation at
each end, if the whole can be conveniently brought in¬
to view ; and in fome cafes feveral perforations may be¬
come neceffary.
When it is propofed to make feveral perforations to
remove deprefled fragments of the bone which are firm¬
ly fixed, and having the internal furface larger than the
external, or to raife them fudiciently, it is neceflary ta
apply the trepan as near the fractured parts as podible j
making the perforations join each other, to prevent the
trouble of cutting the intermediate fpaees.
When the (kull is injured over a future, and it is not
thought advifable to ufe the trepan, a perforation ought
to be made on each fide of the future, efpecially in
young fubje&s, in which the dura mater adheres more
drongly than in adults ; becaufe there cannot be a free
communication between the one fide and the other, on.
account of the attachment of that membrane to the fu¬
ture.
35
After the elevation of the depreffed pieces, or the re- Treatment
moval of thofe which are quite, loofe, the extraflion ofof the pa-
extraneous bodies, and'the evacuation of extravafated af'er
fluids, &c. the fore is to be dreffed in the lighted and'I16 cl)era"
eafied manner-, all that is neceffary being to apply aUOn’
pledget of fine feraped lint, covered with Ample oint¬
ment, to that part of the dura mater which is laid bare
by
(b) A trepanning indrument has been invented by Mr Rodman, furgeon, Paifley, which has no central pin,
and it is fo contrived that any given thicknefs of bone may be cut, fo that the danger from other indruments is
by the ufe of this entirely avoided. See a more detailed account of this inftrument under Abaptiston, .
W O U [ 760 ] W ft E
Wounds, by the trepan, nr otherwife j after which the edges of
t]ie fca]p are to be brought together or nearly fo, and
another pledget laid along the whole courfe of the
wound ; a piece of fine foft linen is to be laid over all,
and the dreflings may be retained in their place by a
common night-cap applied clofe to the head, and pro¬
perly fixed.
The patient is to be placed in as eafy a pofition in
bed as poffible, with his head and llioulders elevated a
little more than ordinary. If the operation be attend¬
ed with fuccefs, the patient will foon begin to (how fa¬
vourable fymptoms 5 he will foon (how figns of increaf-
ing fenfibility, and the original bad fymptams will gra¬
dually difappear. After this he ought to be kept as
quiet as poffible j proper laxatives are to be adminilter-
ed, and fueh as may be leaff of a naufeating nature.
His food ought to be fimple and eafy of digeltion, and
his drink of the moft diluent kind. If he complain of
the wound being uneafy, an emollient poultice flrould
‘be immediately applied, and renewed three or four times
in the twenty-four hours. By thefe means there will
commonly be a free fuppuration from the whole furface
.of the Tore.
.Every time the wound is drefled, the purulent mat¬
ter ought to be wiped off from it with a fine warm
fponge *, and if any degree of floughinefs take place on
the dura mater or parts adjacent, it will then be com¬
pletely feparated. Granulations will begin to form,
which will continue to increafe till the whole arife to
a level with the furface of the cranium. The edges of
the fore are now to be dreffed with cerate rtraps, and
the reft of it covered with fine foft lint, kept gently
preffed on by the nightcap properly tied. In this way
the cure will go on favourably; luxuriance of granula¬
tions will commonly be prevented; the parts will cica¬
trize kindly ; and as the flein has been preferved in
making the firft; incifion, the cicatrix will be but little
obferved.
But things do not always proceed in this favourable
manner. Sometimes in a few hours after the operation
the patient is feized with a kind of rertleffnefs, toffing
his arms, and endeavouring to move himfelf in bed,
while the fymptoms of a compreffed brain remain nearly
the fame as formerly. In this cafe, efpecially if the
pulle be quick and ftrong, the patient ought to be bled
freely, as there will be reafon to fufpeft fome tendency
to inflammation in the brain. Sometimes, though the
trepan has been properly applied, the fymptoms are not
relieved, on account of extravafated fluids colle&ed in¬
ternally under the dura mater, or between the pia mater
and brain, or in the cavity of the ventricles. The
danger in thefe cafes will be in proportion to the depth
of the colleftion. Particular attention therefore ought
always to be paid to the ftate of the dura mater after
the perforation has been made. If blood be collefted
below the dura mater, this membrane will be found
tenfe, dark coloured, elaftic, and even livid; in which
cafe, an opening becomes abfolutely neceffary to dif-
charge the extravafated fluid. Gentle fcratches are to
be made with a fcalpel, till a probe or direftory can
be introduced ; upon which the membrane is to be
fufliciently divided in a longitudinal, and fometimes
even in a crucial diredion, till an outlet to the fluid be
given.
After the dura mater has been cut in this manner,
there is fome danger of the brain protruding at the Wounds
opening ; but the danger from this is not equal to the II
bad effeiis ariling from effufed fluids eompreffing the ^reck•
brain.
A troublefome and an alarming appearance now and
then follows the operation of the trepan ; namely, the ^
excrefcences called fungi, formerly fuppofed to grow of fungi,
immediately from the furface of the brain, but which, in
general, originate from the furface of the dura mater or
cut edge of the bone granulating too luxuriantly.
It often happens that they poffefs little fenfibility j
and then the beft method to prevent their rifing to any
great height is to touch them frequently with lunar
cauftic : but fome cafes occur where their fenfibility is
fo great that they cannot be touched, unlefs they hang
by a fmall neck ; and then a ligature may be put round
them, and tightened from time to time till they drop
off, which will commonly be in the courfe of a few
days. It feldom happens, however, that there is any
occafion for applying fuch means for the removal of
thefe tumors, for they generally fall off as the perfora¬
tions of the bone fill up.
If they do not, as the connexion between them and
the brain will be then in a great meafure intercepted,
they may be with more fafety removed, either by exci-
fion, by cauftic, or by ligature.
The cure being thus far completed, only a fmall ci¬
catrix will remain, and in general the parts will be
nearly as firm as at firft : but when much of the inte¬
guments have been feparated or deftroyed, as they are
never regenerated, the bone will be left covered only
by a thin cuticle., with fome fmall quantity of cellular
fubftance. When this is the cafe, the perfon ought to
wear a piece of lead or tin, properly fitted and lined
with flannel, to protedl it from the cold and other ex¬
ternal injuries.
This is the method now commonly pra&ifed in cafes
of compreflion ; but it frequently happens, that inftead
of compreffion, fuch a degree of concuflion takes place
that no afliftance from the trepan can be attended with
any advantage ; for the effetffs of concuflion are totally
different from thofe of compreflion, and therefore to be
removed in a different manner.
Wounds, in Tarriery. See Farriery Index.
WRASSE, or Old Wife. See Labrus, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
WREATH, in Heraldry, a roll of fine linen or filk.
(like that of a Turkifh turban), confifting of the co¬
lours borne in the efcutcheon, placed in an achievement
between the helmet and the creff, and immediately fup-
porting the creft.
WRECK, or Shipwreck, the deftru£Hon of a (hip
by rocks or {hallows at fea.
By the ancient comipon law, where any (hip was loft
at fea, and the goods or cargo were thrown upon the
land, thefe goods, fo wrecked, were judged to belong
to the king : for it was held, that, by the lofs of the
ftiip, all property was gone out of the original owner.
But this was undoubtedly adding forrow to forrow, and
was confonant neither to reafon nor humanity. Where¬
fore it was firft: ordained by King Henry 1. that if any
perfon efcaped alive out of the Ihip, it ftiould be no
wreck ; and afterwards King Henry II. by his charter,
declared, that if on the coafts of either England, Poic-
tou, Olerou, or Gafcony, any (hip ftieuld be diftrtffed,
W Fv E
Wreck, and either man or beaft (hould efcapc or be found there-
" ^ in alive, the goods iliould remain to the owners, if they
claimed them within three months j but otherwife lliould
be efteemed a wreck, and fliould belong to the king, or
other lord of the franchife. This was again confirmed
with improvements by King Richard I.) who, in the
fecond year of his reign, not only eftablifhed thefe corv-
ceflions, by ordaining that the owner, if he was (hip-
wrecked and efeaped, onines res funs liberas et quietus
haberet, but alfo, that if he perilhed, his children, or, in
default of them, his brethren and filters, (hould retain
the property > and in default of brother or filter, then
the goods (hould remain to the king (a). And the
law, a$ laid down by Bra£lon in the reign of Henry III.
feems (till to have improved in its equity. For then, if
not only a dog (for inltance) efcaped, by which the
owner might be dilcovered, but if any certain mark
were fet on the goods, by which they might be known
again, it was held to be no wreck. And this is cer¬
tainly molt agreeable to reafon 5 the rational claim of
the king being only founded upon this, that the true
owner cannot be afeertained. Afterwards, in the firft
flatute of 'Weltminlter, the time of limitation of claims,
given by the charter of Hnnry II. is extended to a year
and a day, according to the ufage ol Normandy : and
it enafls, that if any man, a dog, or a cat, efcape alive,
the veflel (hall not be adjudged a wreck. Thefe ani¬
mals, as in Bra cion, are only put for examples $ for it
is now held, that not only if any live thing efcape, but
if proof can be made of the property of any of the goods
or lading which come to (Imre, they lhall not be for¬
feited as wreck. The llatute further ordains, that the
Iheriff of the county lhall be bound to keep the goods a
year and a day (as in France for one year, agreeable to
the maritime laws of Oleron, and in Holland fora year
and a half), that if any man can prove a property in
them, either in his own right or by right of reprefenta-
tion, they lhall be reftored to him without delay j but
if no fuch property be proved within that time, they
then ihall be the king’s. If the goods are of a perilh-
able nature, the Iheriff may fell them, and the money
(hall be liable in their Head. This revenue of wrecks
is frequently granted out to lords of manors as a royal
franchife; and if any one be thus intitled to wrecks in
his own land, and the king’s goods are wrecked there¬
on, the king may claim them at any time, even after
the year and day.
It is to be obferved, that, in order to conffitute a le¬
gal wreck, the goods mull come to land. If they con¬
tinue at fea, the law dillinguifhesthem bv the barbarous
and uncouth appellations of jetfam, jlotfam, and/*§•««.
Jetfam is where goods are call into the fea, and there
fink and remain under water: flotfam is where they
continue fwimming on the furface of the waves : ligan
is where they are funk in the fea, but tied to a cork or
buoy, in order to be found again. Ihefe are alfo the
king’s, if no owner appears to claim them ; but if any
owner appears, he is intitled to recover the poffeflion.
VOL. XX. Part II.
W R E
For even if they be call overboard, without any mark
or buoy, in order to lighten the Ihip, the owner is not '
by this a£t of necelfity conllrued to have renounced his
property : much lefs can things ligan be fuppofed to be
abandoned, fince the owner has done all in his power to
affert and retain his property. Thefe three are there¬
fore accounted fo far a dillinft thing from the former,
that by the king’s grant to a man of wrecks, things jet¬
fam, flotfam, and ligan, will not pafs.
Wrecks, in their legal acceptation, are at prefent not
very frequent: for if any goods come to land, it rarely
happens, fince the improvement of commerce, naviga¬
tion, and correlpondence, that the owner is not able to
affert his property within the year and day limited by
law. And in order to preferve this property entire for
him, and if poflible to prevent wrecks at all, our laws
have made many very humane regulations ; in a fpirit
quite oppofite to thofe favage laws which formerly pre¬
vailed in all the northern regions of Europe, anti a few
years ago were Hill laid to lublilt on the coads of the
Baltic fea, permitting me inhabitants to feize on what¬
ever they could get as lawful prize ; or, as an author
of their own exprcfies it, “ in naufragorum miferia et
calamit Me tanquam vultures ad freedom currere” For
by the flatute 27 Edw. III. c. 13. if any Ihip be loft on
the Ihore, and the goods come to land (which cannot,
fays the llatute, be called wreck), they lhall be pre-
fently delivered to the merchants, paying only a realbn-
able reward to thofe that faved and preferved them,
which is intitled falvagc. Alfo by the common law, if
any perfons (other than the Iheriff) take any goods fo
call on Ihore, which are not legal wreck, the owners
might have a coramiflion to inquire and find them out,
and compel them to make reftitution. And by 12 Ann.
flat. 2. c. 18. confirmed by 4 Geo. I. c. 12. in order to
affill the diftreffed, and prevent the fcandalous illegal
pradlices on fome of our lea-coafts (too fimilar to thofe
on the Baltic), it is enabled, that all head-officers and
others of towns near the fea, lhall, upon application,
made to them, fummon as many hands as are neceffary,
and fend them to the relief of any ffiip in diltrefs, on
forfeiture of look j and in cafe of affittance given, fal-
vage lhall be paid by the owners, to be affeffed by three
neighbouring juftices. All perfons that fecrete any
goods (hall forfeit their treble value ; and if they wil¬
fully do any a£l whereby the Ihip is loft or deftroyed,
by making holes in her, Healing her pumps, or other-
wife, they are guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.
Laftly, by the llatute of 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plundering
any veffel, either in diltrefs or wrecked, and whether
any living creature be on board or not (for whether
wreck or otherwife, it is clearly not the property of the?
populace), fuch plundering or preventing the efcape o£
any perfon that endeavours to fave his life, or wounding
him with intent to deltroy him, or putting out falfe
lights in order to bring any veffel into danger, are all
declared to be capital felonies; in like manner as the
deftroying of trees, fteeples, or other Hated fea-marks,
5 ^ is
{ 7S1 ]
(a) In like manner Conllantine the Great, finding that by the imperial law the revenue of wrecks was given to
the prince’s treafury or fifeus, reftrained it by an ednft (Cod. 11.3* 1 •) <md ordt rt d tin m to remain to the owners ^
adding this humane expollulation : “ Quod enim jus habet fifeus in aliena calamitate, ut de re tam luftuofa com¬
pendium fe&etur.”
Wreck.
—Y—
W II E [ 762 ] W R I
Wreck is punlflied by the ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 13. with a forfei-
li . ture of 100I. or outlawry. Moreover, by the ftatute of
Wrdtung. pilfering any goods caft afhore is declared to
~ be petty larceny j and many other falutary regulations
are made, for the more effe&ually preferving Ihips of
any nation in diftrefs.
By the civil law, to deftroy perfons Ihipwrecked, or
prevent their faving the fliip, is capital. And to fteal
even a plank from a veffel in diftrefs or wrecked, makes
the party liable to anfwer for the whole Ihip and cargo.
The laws alfo of the Wifigoths, and the moft early Nea¬
politan conftitutions, punilhed with the utmoft feverity
all thofe who neglefted to aflift any fhip in diftrefs, or
plundered any goods caft on fhore.
WREN. See Motacilla, Ornithology Index.
WREN, Sir ChriJIopher, a great philofopher, and one
of the moft learned and moft eminent architefts of his
age, was the fon of Chriftopher Wren dean ofWindfor,
and was born in 1632. He ftudied at Wadham college
in Oxford •, where he took the degree of mafter ot aits
in 1653, anc^ was ch°fen fellow of All Souls college.
When very young he difcovered a furprifing genius for
the mathematics j in which fcience he made great ad¬
vances before he was fixteen years old. In 1657J ^ie
was made profeffor of aftronomy at Greftiam college,
London ; which he refigned in 1660, on his being
chofen to the Savilian profefforlhip of aftronomy in Ox¬
ford : he was next year created doflor of laws, and in
1663 was elefted fellow of the Royal Society. He was
one of the commiftioners for the reparation of St Paul’s j
and in 1665 travelled into France, to examine the moft
beautiful edifices there, when he made many curious ob-
fervations. At his return to England, he drew a noble
plan for rebuilding the city of London after the fire,
which he prefented to parliament j and upon the deceafe
of Sir John Denham in 1668, was made furveyor-gene-
ral of his majefty’s works ; and from that time had the
direfHon of a great number of public edifices, by which
he acquired the higheft reputation. He built the mag¬
nificent theatre at Oxford, St Paul’s cathedral, the
churches of St Stephen Walbrook, and St Mary-le-Bow,
the Monument, the modern part of the palace of Hamp¬
ton Court, Chelfea college, one of the tvings of Green¬
wich hofpital, and many other beautiful edifices. He
was prefident of the Royal Society, one of the com¬
miftioners of Chelfea college, and twice member of par¬
liament ; firft for Plymouth in Devonlhire, and then
for Melcomb Regis in the fame county j but in 1718
was removed from his place of furveyor-general. He
died in 1723, and was interred in the vault under
§t Paul’s.
This great man alfo diftinguifhed himfelf by many
curious inventions and difeoveries in natural philofophy ;
and, among many others, contrived an inftrument for
meafuring the quantity of rain that falls on any fpace
of land for a year •, he invented many ways of making
aftronomical obfervations more accurate and eafy ; and
was the firft author of the anatomical experiment of
injefting liquors into the veins of animals, &c. He
tranfiated into Latin Mr Oughtred’s Horologiographi-
cu Geometricn; and wrote a Survey of the cathedral
church of Saliihury, and other pieces. After his death
his pofthumous works and draughts were publilhcd by
bis fon.
WRESTLING, a kind of combat or engagement
3
between two perfons unarmed, body to body, to prove WrefUing
their ftrength and dexterity, and try which can throw II.
his opponent to the ground.
Wreftling is an exercife of very great antiquity and
fame. It was in ufe in the heroic age ; witnefs Her¬
cules, who wreftled with Antseus.
It continued a long time in the higheft repute, and
had confiderable rewards and honours afligned to it at
the Olympic games. It was the cuftom for the athletae
to anoint their bodies with oil, to give the lefs hold to
their antagonifts.
Lycurgus ordered the Spartan maids to wreftle in
public quite naked, in order, as it is oblerved, to break
them of their too much delicacy and nicenefs, to make
them appear more robuft, and to familiarize the people,
&c. to fuch nudities.
WRIST, in Anatomy. See there, N° 53.
WRIT, in Law, fignifies, in general, the king’s pre¬
cept in writing under feal, iffuing out of feme court, di¬
re 6b d to the ftieriff or other officer, and commanding
fomething to be done in relation to a fuit or aftion, or
giving commiffion to have the fame done. And, accord¬
ing to Fitzherbert, a writ is faid to be a formal letter of
the king in parchment, fealed with his feal, anddire&ed
to fome judge, officer, or minifter, &c. at the fuit of a
fubjefl, for the caufe briefly expreffed, which is to be
determined in the proper court according to law.
Writs, in civil actions, are either original or judi¬
cial : original, are fuch as are ilfued out of the court of
chancery for the fummoning of a defendant to appear,
and are granted before the fuit is commenced, in order
to begin the fame *, and judicial writs iffue out of the
court where the original is returned, after the fuit is be¬
gun. See Process.
The original writ is the foundation of the fuit. See
Suit.
When a perfon hath received an injury, and thinks it
worth his while to demand a fatisfaftion for it, he is to
confider with himfelf, or take advice, what redrefs the
law has given for that injury j and thereupon is to make
application or fuit to the crown, the fountain of all juf-
tice, for that particular fpecific remedy which he is de¬
termined or advifed to purfue. As for money due on
bond, an aflion of debt ; for goods detained without
force, an aftion of detenue or trover; or, if taken with
force, an aftion of trefpafs vi et armis; or, to try the
title of lands, a writ of entry or affion of trefpafs in
eje&ment; or for any confequential injury received, a
fpecial affion on the cafe. To this end he is to fue out,
or purchafe by paying the ftated fees, an original or ori¬
ginal writ from the court of chancery, which is the ofji-
cina jujlitice, the (hop or mint of juftice, wherein all the
king’s writs are framed. It is a mandatory letter from
the king in parchment, fealed with his great feal, and
direfled to the ftieriff of the county wherein the injury
is committed, or fuppofed fo to be, requiring him to
command the wrrong-doer, or party accufed, either to do
juftice to the complainant, or elfe to appear in court,
and anfwer the accufation againft him. Whatever the
ffieriff does in purfuance of this writ, he muft return or
certify to the court of common pleas, together with the
writ itfelf: which is the foundation of the juiifdiflion of
that court, being the king’s warrant for the judges to
proceed to the determination of the caufe. For it was
a maxim introduced by the Normans, that there Ihould
W R I [ 763 ] W R I
Writs, be no proceedings in common-pleas before the king’s
'“"V"*—'juflices without his original writ j becaufe they held it
unfit that thofe juftices, being only the fubftitutes of the
crown, Ihould take cognizance of any thing but what
was thus exprefsly referred to their judgment. How¬
ever, in fmall aftions, below the value of forty (hillings,
which are brought in the court-baron or county-court,
no royal writ is necefiary *, but the foundation of fuch
fuits continue to be (as in the times of the Saxons), not
by original writ, but by plaint j that is, by a private
memorial tendered in open court to the judge, wherein
the party injured fets forth his caufe of action : and the
judge is bound of common right to adminifter juftice
therein, without any fpecial mandate from the king.
Now indeed even the royal writs are held to be demand-
able of common right, on paying the ufual fees : for any
delay in the granting them, or fetting an unufual or ex¬
orbitant price upon them, would be a breach of magna
charta, c. 29. “ nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus, aut
diflferemus juftitiam vel refhim.”
Original writs are either optional or peremptory ; or,
in the language of our law, they are either a praecipe or
a, Ji te fecerit fecurum. The praecipe is in the alterna¬
tive, commanding the defendant to do the thing re¬
quired, or (how the reafon wherefore he hath not done
it. The ufe of this writ is where fomething certain is
demanded by the plaintiff, which is in the power of the
defendant himfelf to perform ; as, to reftore the pofleflion
of land, to pay a certain liquidated debt, to perform a
fpecific covenant, to render an account, and the like j
in all which cafes the writ is drawn up in the form of a
praecipe or command, to do thus, or (how caufe to the
contrary ; giving the defendant his choice to redrefs the
injury or Hand the fuit. The other fpecies of original
writs is called a fi fecerit te fecurum, from the words of
the writ; which diredls the fheriff to caufe the defend¬
ant to appear in court, without any option given him,
provided the plaintiff gives the fheriff fecurity effectually
to profecute his claim. This writ is in ufe where no¬
thing is fpecifically demanded, but only a fatisfaCtion in
general; to obtain which, and minifter complete redrefs,
the intervention of feme judicature is neceffary. Such
are writs of trefpafs, or on the cafe, wherein no debt or
other fpecific thing is fued for in certain, but only
damages to be affeffed by a jury. For this end the de¬
fendant is immediately called upon to appear in court,
provided the plaintiff gives good fecurity of profecuting
his claim. Both fpecies of writs are tefted, or witneffed,
in theldng’s own name $ “ witnefs ourfelf at Weflmin-
ller,” or wherever the chancery may be held.
The fecurity here fpoken of, to be given by the
plaintiff for profecuting his claim, is common to both
writs, though it gives denomination only to the latter.
The whole of it is at prefent become a mere matter of
form ; and John Doe and Richard Roe are always re¬
turned as the (landing pledges for this purpofe.— The
ancient ufe of them was to anfwer for the plaintiff, who
in cafe he brought an aftion without caufe, or failed in
the profecution of it when brought, wras liable to an
amercement from the crown for raifing a falfe accufa-
tion 5 and fo the form of the judgment (till is. In like
manner, as by the Gothic conflitutions no perfon was
permitted to lay a complaint againfl another nif fib
rcript::ru aut fpecifcatione tnum tejlium, quod acilonem
vellet perfequi: aud, as by the laws of Sancho I. king
of Portugal, damages were given againfl a plaintiff who ,
profecuted a groundlefs action.
The day on which the defendant is ordered to appear
in court, and on which the fheriff is to bring in the
writ, and report how far he has obeyed it, is called the
return of the writ; it being then returned by him to
the king’s juftices at Weftminfter. And it is always
made returnable at the diftance of at leaf! 15 days from
the date or tell, that the defendant may have time to
come up to Weftminfter, even from the moft remote
parts of the kingdom j and upon fome day in one of the
four terms, in which the court fits for the difpatch of
bufinefs.
WRITING, the art or a£l of fignifying and convey¬
ing our ideas to others, by letters or chara£ters vifible
to the eye. See Composition, Grammar, and Lan¬
guage.
The moft ancient remains of writing, which have
been tranfmitteft to us, are upon hard fubftances, fuch
as {tones and metals, which were ufed by the ancients
for edifts and matters of public notoriety ; the deca¬
logue was written on two tables of ftone ; but this prac¬
tice was not peculiar to the Jews, for it was ufed by
moft of the eaftern nations, as well as by the Greeks
and Romans $ and therefore the ridicule which Voltaire
attempts to caft upon that part of the book of Genefis,
where the people are commanded to write the law on
{tones, is abfurd ; for what is there faid by no means
implies, that other materials might not be ufed on com¬
mon occafions. The laws penal, civil, and ceremonial,
among the Greeks, were engraven on tables of brafs
which were called cyrbes.
We find that wood was alfo ufed for writing on in
different countries. In the Sloanian library (N® 4852.)
are fix fpecimens of Kufic writing, on boards about two
feet in length, and fix inches in depth. The Chinefe,
before the invention of paper, wrote or engraved with
an iron tool upo» thin boards or on bamboo. Pliny
fays, that table books of wood were in ufe before the
time of Homer. Thefe table books were called by the
Romans pugillares. The wood was cut into thin flices,
and finely plained and polifhed. The writing was at
firft upon the bare wood, with an iron inftrument called
2ifyle. In later times thefe tables were ufually waxed
over, and written upon with that inftrument. The mat¬
ter written upon the tables which were thus waxed over
was eafily effaced, and by fmoothing the wax new mat¬
ter might be fubftituted in the place of what had been
written before. The Greeks and Romans continued
the ufe of waxed table-books long after the ufe of papy¬
rus, leaves, and {kins, became common, becaufe they
were fo convenient for corre<5ling extemporary compo-
Writs,
Writing.
fitions.
Table books of ivory are ftill ufed for memorandums,
but they are commonly written upon with black lead
pencils. The pra6tice of writing on table-books covered
with wax was not entirely laid afide till the commence¬
ment of the 14th century.
The bark of trees Avas alfo ufed for writing by the
ancients, and is fo ftill in feveral parts of Afia. The
fame thing may be faid of the leaves of trees. It is
needlefs to obferve the ufe of parchment and vellum,
papyrus and paper, for writing ; it is too well known.
5 D 2 'IV
W R I t 764 ] W U R
Writing. method of fabricating thefe fubftances has been
,'l”~v " ' already defcribed as they occurred in the order of the
alphabet.
It is obvious, that when men wrote, or rather en¬
graved, on hard fubftances, inftruments of metal wrere
neceffary, fuch as the chifel and the ftylus; but the lat¬
ter was chiefly ufed for writing upon boards, waxed
tablets, or on bark.
When the ancients wrote on fofter materials than
wood or metal, other inftruments were ufed for writing
with, of which reeds and canes feem to have been the
firft. Reeds and canes are Hill ufed as inftruments for
writing with by the Tartars, the Indians, the Perfians,
the Turks, and the Greeks. Pencils made of hair are
nfed by the Chinefe lor their writing : they firft liquefy
their ink, and dip their pencils into it. Hair-pencils
have likewife been ufed for writing in Europe. Large
capital letters were made with them from the time of
the Roman emperors till the 16th century. After the
invention of printing they were drawn by the illumi¬
nators. Quills of geefe, fwans, peacocks, crows, and
other birds, have been ufed in thefe weftern parts for
writing with, but how long is not eafy to afcertain. St
Ifidore of Seville, who lived about the middle of the 7th
century, defcribcs a pen made of a quill as ufed in his
time.
Method of refloring decayed WRITINGS. In the 77th
volume of the Phil, franf. there is a paper on this fub-
jedl by Sir Charles Blagden. One of the belt methods
he found upon experiment to be, covering the letters
with phlogifticated or pruflic alkali, with the addition of
a diluted mineral acid ; upon the application of which,
the letters changed very fpeedily to a deep blue colour,
of great beauty and intenfity. To prevent the fpread-
ing of the colour, which, by blotting the parchment,
detrafts greatly from the legibility, the alkali fhould be
put on firft, and the diluted acid added upon it. The
method found to anfwer beft has been, to fpread the al¬
kali thin with a feather over the traces of the letters,
and then to touch it gently, as nearly upon or over the
letters as can be done with the diluted acid, by means
of a feather or a bit of flick cut to a blunt point.
J. hough the alkali fhould occafion no fenfible change of
colour, yet the moment the acid comes upon it, every
trace of a letter turns at once to a fine blue, which foon
acquires its full intenfity, and is beyond comparifon
ftronger than the colour of the original trace had been.
If, then, the corner of a bit of blotting paper be care¬
fully and dexteroufly Applied near the letters, fo as to
imbibe the fuperfluous liquor, the flaming of the parch¬
ment may be in a great meafure avoided 5 for it is this
fuperfluous liquor which, abforbing part of the colour¬
ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to whatever
it touches. Care muft be taken not to bring the blot-
ting paper in contatf: with the letters, becaufe the co¬
louring matter is foft whilft wet, and may eafily be
rubbed off. I he acid chiefly employed was the ma¬
rine j but both the vitriolic and nitrous fucceed very
well. They fhould be fo far diluted as not to be in
danger of corroding the parchment, after which the de¬
gree of ftrength does not feem to be a matter of much
nicety.
Method of copying Writings. The ingenious Mr
Watt, fome years ago, invented a method of copy¬
ing writings very fpeedily, and without the poflibility of
committing miftakes. A piece of thin unfized paper is Writing
to be taken exadlly of the fize of the paper to be co- II
pied j it is to be moiftened with water, or, what is bet- )Vurtzburg»
ter, with the following liquid : Take of diftilled vine- ' ^
gar two pounds weight, diflblve it in one ounce of bo-
racic acid; then take four ounces of oyfter-fhells cal¬
cined to whitenefs, and carefully freed from their brown
cruft ; put them into the vinegar, ftiake the mixture
frequently for 24 hours, then let it ftand until it depo-
fits its fediment; filter the clear part through unlrzed
paper into a glafs veffel; then add two ounces of the
heft blue Aleppo galls bruifed, and place the liquor in
a warm place, lhaking it frequently for 24 hours 3 then
filter the liquor again through unfized paper, and add
to it after filtration one quart, ale meafure, of pure wa¬
ter. It muft then ftand 24 hours, and be filtered again
if it fhows a difpofition. to depofit any fediment, which
it generally does. When the paper has been wet with
this liquid, put it between two thick unfized papers to
abforb the fuperfluous moifturej then lay it over the
writing to be copied, and put a piece of clean writing
paper above it. Put the whole on the board of a rol-
ling-prefs, and prefs them through the rolls, as is done
in printing copperplates, and a copy of the writing
lhall appear on both fides of the thin moiftened paper 3
on one fide in a reverfed order and dire&ion, but on
the other fide in the natural order and dire61ion of the
lines.
WRITTEN mountains. See Mountains.
W RY-neck. See Jynx, Ornithology Index.
WURTEMBURG, or Wirtenberg, a fovereign
duchy of Germany, in Suabia 3 bounded on the north
by Franconia, the archbifhopric of Mentz, and the pa¬
latinate of the Rhine 3 on the eaft by the county of
Oeting, the marquifate of Burgau, and the territory of
(Jim ; on the fouth by the principality of Hoen-Zol-
lern, Furftenburg, and the marquifate of Hohecburg 3.
and on the weft by the palatinate of the Rhine, the
marquifate of Baden, and the Black Foreft. It is 65
miles in length, and as much in breadth, and the river
Neckar runs almoft through the middle of it from fouth
to north. Though there are many mountains and
woods, yet it is one of the moft populous and fertile
countries in Germany, producing plenty of grafs, corn,
fruits, and a great deal of wine towards the confines of
the palatinate. There are alfo mines, and fait fprings,
w-ith plenty of game and fifti. It contains 645 villages,
88 towns, and 26 cities, of which Stutgard is the ca¬
pital.
WUR I SBURG, a large bifliopric in Germany com¬
prehending the principal part of Franconia. It is
bounded by the county of Henneburg, the duchy of Co¬
burg, the abbey of Fuld, the archbifhoprio of Mentz,
the marquifate of Anfpach, the biftiopric of Bamberg,
and the county of Wertheim 3 being about 65 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth, and divided into 50 baili¬
wicks. 1 he foil is very fertile, and produces more
corn and wine than the inhabitants eonfume. The ter¬
ritories of the bilhop comprehend above 400 towns and
villages, of which he is fovereign, being one of the
greateft ecclefiaftical princes of the empire.
WUR1 ZBURG,a large and handfome city of Ger¬
many, and one of the principal in the circle of Franco¬
nia. It is defended with good fortifications, and has a
magnificent palace. There is a handfome hofpital, in
which-
w Y C [ 765 ]' WYE
Wurtzburg, which are generally 400 poor men and women. The
Wycherley- caftle Is at a fmall diftance from the city, and commands
it* as it (lands upon an eminence. It communicates
with the city by a (lone bridge, on which are 12 fta-
tues, reprefenting as many faints. The arfenal and the
cellars of the bifhop deferve the attention of the cu¬
rious. There is alfo an univerfity, founded in 1403.
It is feated on the river Maine, in E. Long. 10. 2. N.
Lat. 49. 40.
WYCHERLEY, William, an eminent Englifli
comic poet, was born about 1640. A little before the
reftoration of King Charles II. he became a gentleman
commoner of Queen’s college Oxford, where he was re¬
conciled by Dr Barlow to the Proteftant religion, which
he had a little before abandoned in his travels. He af¬
terwards entered himfelf in the Middle-temple, but foon
quitted the (ludy of the law for purfuits more agreeable
to his own genius, as well as to the tafte of the age.
Upon writing his firft play, entitled, Love in a Wood,
or St James’s Park, which was a6ted in 1672, he be¬
came acquainted with feveral of the celebrated wits both
of the court and towm, and likewife with the duchefs
of Cleveland. Some time after appeared his comedies,
called The Gentleman Dancing Mailer, the Plain
Dealer, and the Country Wife 5 all which were adted
with applaufe. George duke of Buckingham had a
very high efteem for him, and bellowed on him feveral
advantageous polls. King Charles alfo IhoAved him
lignal marks of favour * and once gave him a proof of
his elleem, which perhaps never any fovereign prince be¬
fore had given to a private gentleman. Mr Wycherley
being ill of a fever, at his lodgings in Bow-ftreet, the king
did him the honour of a vilit. Finding him extremely
weakened, he commanded him to take a journey to the
fouth of France, and allured him, at the fame time, that
he would order him 500I. to defray the charges of the
journey. Mr Wycherley accordingly went into France ;
and having fpent the winter there, returned to England
entirely reltored to his former vigour. The king, Ihort-
ly after his arrival, told him, that he had a fon, who he
was refolved Ihould be educated like the fon of a king,
and that he could not choofe a more proper man for his
governor than Mr Wycherley j for which fervice 1500I.
ger annum Ihould be fettled upon him.
Immediately after this offer he went to Tunbridge,
where walking one day upon the Well’s walk with his
friend Mr Fairbeard of Gray’s Inn, juft as he came up
to the bookfeller’s Ihop, the countels of Drogheda, a
young widow, rich, noble, and beautiful, came there to
inquire for the Plain Dealer; “ Madam,” fays Mr Fair-
beard, “ lince you are for the Plain Dealer, there he is
for you pufhing Mr Wvcherley towards her. “ Yes,”
fays Mr Wycherley, “ this lady can bear plain dealing ;
for (lie appears to be fo accompliftipd, that what would
be a compliment to others, would be plain dealing to
her.” “ No, truly, Sir,” faid the countefs, “ I am not
without my faults, anymore than the reft of my fex ;
and yet notwithftanding, I love plain dealing, and am
never more fond of it than when it tells-the of them.”
41 Then, madam,” fays Mr Fairbeard, “ you and the
Plain Dealer feem defigned by Heaven for each other.”
•—In fhort, Mr Wycherley walked a turn or two with
the countefs, waited upon her home, viftted her daily
while (he (laid at Tunbridge, and married her foon after
without acquainting the king. By this ften; which was
looked upon as a contempt of his majefty’s orders, he for- Wycherley
feited the royal favour. The countefs of Drogheda 11
fettled her whole fortune upon him ; but his title being , Wye* ,
difputed after her death, he was fo reduced by the ex- ’ ^
pences of the law and other incumbrances, as to be un¬
able to fatisfy the impatience of his creditors, who threw
him into prifon ; and the bookfeller who printed his-
Plain Dealer, by which he got almoft as much money
as the other gained reputation, was fo ungrateful as to
refufe to lend him 20I. in his extreme neceffity. In that
confinement he languiftied feven years; but at length
King James going to fee the above play, was fo charm¬
ed with it, that he gave immediate orders for the pay¬
ment of his debts, and even granted him a penfion of
200I. per annum. But the prince’s bountiful intentions
were in a great meafure defeated merely through Mr
Wycherley’s modefty ; he being aftiamed to tell the
earl of Mulgrave, whom the king had fent to demand
it, a true date of his debts. He laboured under the
weight of thefe difficulties till his father died, who left
him 600I. a-year. But this eftate was under limita¬
tions, he being only a tenant for life, and net being al¬
lowed to raife any money for the payment of his debts.
However, he took a method of doing it which few fuf-
pe&ed to be his choice ; and this was making a jointure.
He had often declared, that he was refolved to die mar¬
ried, though he could not bear the thoughts of living in
that date again : accordingly, juft at the eve of his
death, he married a young gentlewoman w-ith 1500I.
fortune, part of which he applied to the ufes he wanted
it for. Eleven days after' the celebration of thefe nup¬
tials, in December 1715, he died, and was interred in
the vault of Covent-garden church.
Befides his plays above mentioned, he publiflied a
volume of poems in folio. In 1728 his pofthumous
works in profe and verfe were publifhed by Mr Theo¬
bald.
WYNDH AM, Sir William, defeended of an an-*
eient family, was born about the year 1687, and fuo
ceeded young to the title and eftate of his father. On
his return from his travels, he -was chofen member for
the county of Somerfet ; in which ftation he ferved in
the three laft parliaments of Queen Anne, and as long
as he lived : after the change of the miniftry in 17 icy,
be was appointed fecretary at war ; and-in 1713 was
raifed to be chancellor of the exchequer. Upon the
breach between the earl of Oxford and Lord Boling-
broke, he adhered to the interefts of the latter. He
was removed from his employment on the acceffion of
George I. and falling under fufpicion on the breaking
out of the rebellion in 1715, was apprehended. He
made his efcape ; a reward was publiflied for apprehend¬
ing him ; he furrendered, was committed to the Tower;
but never brought to a trial. After he regained his li¬
berty, he continued in oppofition to the feveral admini-
((rations under which he lived ; and died in 1740.
WYE, a river of South Wales, which iffuing out of
Plinlymmon Hill, very near the fource of the Severn,
croffes the north-eaft corner of Radnorfliire, giving name
to the town of Rhyadergowy (Fall of the Wye), where
it is precipitated in a cataradl: then flowing between
this county and Brecknoekffiire, it croffes Herefordfliire,
and dividing the counties of Gloucefter and Monmouth,
falls into the mouth of the Severn, below Chepftovv.
The romantic beauties of the Wye, which flows in a
deep-
WYE [756] WYE
Wye. deep bed, between lofty rocks clothed with hanging
woods, and here and there crowned by ruined caftles,
have employed the defcriptive powers of the pen and
is alfo the name of a river in Derbyfhire, which
rifes in the north-weft part, above Buxton ; and, flow¬
ing fouth-eaft, falls into the Derwent, below Bake-
well.
pencil
W1
Wye, the name of a town in Kent, with a market on Wye.
Thurfday, feated on the Stour, 10 miles fouth of Can-
terbury, and 59 fouth-eaft of London. E. Long. 1. 4.
N. Lat. 51. 10.
Wye, a town of Switzerland, in a territory of the
abbey of St Gallen, with a palace. It is built on an
eminence, 16 miles fouth-fouth-weft of Conftance. E.
Long. 9. 4. N. Lat. 47. 34.
X.
Xor x, is the 22d letter of our alphabet, and a dou-
5 ble confonant. It was not ufed by the Hebrews
or ancient Greeks j for, as it is a compound letter, the
ancients, who ufed great fimplicity in their writings, ex-
prefled this letter by its component letters c s. Neither
have the Italians this letter, but exprefs it by^ X be¬
gins no word in our language but fuch as are of Greek
original $ and is in few others but what are of Latin
derivation ; as perplex, reflexion, defluxion, &c. We of¬
ten exprefs this found by Angle letters, as cks, in backs,
necks ; by ks, in books, breaks; by cc, in accefs, acci¬
dent; by ct, in aElion, undlion, &c. The Englifti and
French pronounce it like cs or ks ; the Spaniards like c
before a, viz. Alexandra, as it were A/ecandro. In nu¬
merals it expreffeth TO, whence in old Roman manu-
feripts it is ufed for denarius; and as fuch feems to be
made of two V’s placed one over the other. When a
dafti is added over it, thus x, it fignifies 10,000.
X ANTHIUM, a genus of plants of the clafs monce-
cia, and arranged in the natural claflification under the
49th order, Compofltcc. See Botany Index.
XANTHOXYLUM. See Zanthoxylum.
XEBEC, or Zebec, a fmall three-mafted veffel, na¬
vigated in the Mediterranean fea, and on the coafts
of Spain, Portugal, and Barbary. See Plate
fig. 10.
The fails of the xebec are in general fimilar to thofe
of the poleacre, but the hull is extremely different from
that and almoft every other veffel. It isfurniftied with
a ftrong prow : and the extremity of the ftern, which is
nothing more than a fort of railed platform or galley,
projefts farther behind the counter and buttock than
that of any European fhip.
Being generally equipped as a corfair, the xebec is
conftnufted with a narrow floor, to be more fwift in pur-
fuit of the enemy j and of a great breadth, to enable
her to carry a greater force of fail for thispurpofe with¬
out danger of overturning. As thefe vefftls are ufually
very low built, their decks are formed with a great con¬
vexity from the middle of their breadth towards the
fides, in order to carry off the water which falls aboard
more readily by their feuppers. But as this extreme
convexity would render it very difficult to walk thereon
at fea, particularly when the veffel rocks by the agita¬
tion of the waves, there is a platform of grating extend¬
ing along the deck from the fides of the veffel towards
the middle, whereon the crew may walk dry-footed
whilft the water is conveyed through the grating to the Xebec,
feuppers. Xenocrates.
The Xebecs, which are generally armed as veffels of' T""*
war by the Algerines, mount from 16 to 24 cannon,
and carry from 300 to 450 men, two-thirds of whom
are generally foldiers.
By the very complicated and inconvenient method of
working thefe veffels, what one of their captains of Al¬
giers told Mr Falconer will be readily believed, viz.
that every xebec requires at leaft the labour of three
fquare-rigged Clips, wherein the ftanding fails are cal¬
culated to anfwer every fituation of the wind.
XENOCRATES, a celebrated ancient Grecian phi-
lofopher, was born at Chalcedon in the 95th Olym¬
piad. At firft he attached himfelf to iEfchines, but
afterwards became a difciple of Plato, who took much
pains in cultivating his genius, which was naturally
heavy. His temper was gloomy, his afpeft fevere, and
his manners little tinftured with urbanity. Thefe ma¬
terial defeats his mafter took great pains to correft;
frequently advifing him to facrifice to the Graces : and
the pupil was patient of inftruffion, and knew how
to value the kindhefs of his preceptor. As long as
Plato lived, Xenocrates was one of his moft efteemed
difciples j after his death he clofely adhered to his doc¬
trine $ and in the fecond year of the noth Olympiad,
he took the chair in the academy, as the fucceffor of
Speufippus.
Xenocrates was celebrated among the Athenians, not
only for his wifdom, but for his virtues. So eminent
was his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial tranfaftion, in which
an oath was ufually required, the judges unanimoufly a-
greed, that his fimple affeveration ftiould be taken, as a
public teftimony to his merit. Even Philip of Macedon
found it impoflible to corrupt him. So abftemious was
he with refpedl to food, that his provifion was frequently
fpoiled before it was confumed. His chaftity was invin¬
cible. Phryne, a celebrated Athenian courtezan, at¬
tempted without fuecefs to feduce him. Of his humanity
the followed pathetic incident is a fufficient proof: A
fparrow, which was purfued by a hawk, flew into his
bofom j he afforded it protection till its enemy was out
of fight, and then let it go, faying, that he would never
betray a fuppliant. He rvas fond of retirement, and was 0f
feldom feen in the city. He was difereet in the ufe oiphiiofopbp
his time, and carefully allotted a certain portion of each vol. ii.
day
x E N [ 767 ] X I M
Xenoeratesday to its proper bufinefs. One of tbefe be employed in
II filent meditation. He was an admirer of the mathema-
Xenop on. tjca^ fcjences. an(j was fQ fuiiy convinced of their utility,
that when a young man, who was unacquainted with
geometry and aftronomy, delired admiflion into the aca¬
demy, he refufed his requeft, faying, that he was not
yet pofleffed of the handles of philofophy. In fine, Xe-
nocrates was eminent both for the purity of his morals
and for his acquaintance with fcience, and fupported the
credit of the Platonic fchool, by his lectures, his writ¬
ings, and his conduft. He lived to the firft year of the
116th Olympiad, or the Sid of his age, when he loft his
life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a refervoir
of water.
XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleaic feft of
philofophy among the Greeks, was born at Colophon
probably about the 65th Olympiad. From fome caufe
or other he left his country early, and took refuge in Si¬
cily, where he fupported himfelf by reciting, in the court
of Hiero, elegiac and iambic verfes, which he had writ¬
ten in reprehenfion of the theogonies of Hefiod and Ho¬
mer. From Sicily he paffed over into Magna Graecia,
where he took up the profeflion of philofophy, and be¬
came a celebrated preceptor in the Pythagorean fchool.
Indulging, however, a greater freedom of thought than
was ufual among the difciples of Pythagoras, he ventured
to introduce new opinions of his own, and in many par¬
ticulars to oppofe the do£trines of Epimenides, Thales,
and Pythagoras. Xenophanes poffefled the Pythagorean
chair of philofophy about feventy years, and lived to the
extreme age of an hundred years, that is, according to
Eufebius, till the 81ft Olympiad. The doftrine of Xe¬
nophanes concerning nature is fo imperfe&ly preferved,
and obfcurely expreffed, that it is no wonder that it has
been differently reprefented by different writers. Per¬
haps the truth is, that he held the univerfe to be one in
nature and fubftance, but diftinguilhed in his conception
between the matter of which all things confift, and that
latent divine force which, though not a diftinft fubftance
but an attribute, is neceffarily inherent in the univerfe,
and is the caufe of all its perfection.
XENOPHON, an illuftrious philofopher, general,
and hiftorian, was born at Athens in the 3d year of the
82d Olympiad. When he was a youth, Socrates, ftruck
with his external appearance, determined to admit him
into the number of his pupils. Meeting him by accident
in a narrow paffage, the philofopher put his ftaff acrofs
the path, and flopping him, alked, where thofe things
were to be purchafed which are neceffary to human life ?
Xenophon appearing at a lofs for a reply to this unex¬
pected falutation, Socrates proceeded to alk him, where
honeft and good men were to be found ? Xenophon ftill
hefitating, Socrates faid to him, “ Follow me, and learn.”
From that time Xenophon became a difciple of Socrates,
and made a rapid progrefs in that moral wifdom for which
his matter was fo eminent. Xenophon accompanied So¬
crates in the Peloponnefian war, and fought courageoufly
in defence of his country. He afterwards entered into
the army of Cyrus as a private volunteer in his expedi¬
tion againft his brother. This enterprife proving un¬
fortunate, Xenophon, after the death of Cyrus, advifed
his fellow foldiers to attempt a retreat into their own
country. They liftened to his advice ; and having had
many proofs of his wifdom as well as courage, they gave
hini the command of the army, in the room of Proxenus
who had fallen in battle. In this command he acquired Xenophon
great glory by the prudence and firmnefs with which he II
conduced them back, through the midft of innumerable iXimcrics-<
dangers, into their own country. The particulars of this
memorable adventure are related by Xenophon himfelf
in his Retreat of the Ten Thoufand. After his return
into Greece, he joined Agefilaus, king of Sparta, and
fought with him againft the Thebans in the celebrated
battle of Chaeronea. The Athenians, difpleafed at this
alliance, brought a public accufation againft him for his
former conduit in engaging in the fervice of Cyrus, and
condemned him to exile. The Spartans, upon this, took
Xenophon, as an injured man, under their proteition,
and provided him a comfortable retreat at Scilluntes in
Elea. Here, with his wife and two children, he remain¬
ed feveral years, and paffed his time in the fociety of his
friends, and in writing thofe hiftorical works which have
rendered his name immortal. A war at length arofe be¬
tween the Spartans and Eleans j and Xenophon was ob¬
liged to retire to Lepreus, where his eldeft fon had fettled.
He afterwards removed, with his whole family, to Co¬
rinth, where, in the firft year of the hundred and fifth
Olympiad, he finifhed his days.
Xenophon the Younger, a Greek writer, fo called to
diftinguifh him from the celebrated Xenophon, was born
at Ephefus, and lived, according to fome authors, before
Heliodorus, that is, about the beginning of the 4th cen¬
tury. He is only known by his Ephefiaca, a Greek ro¬
mance in five books, which is etteemed, and contains the
amours or adventures of Abracomes and Anthia. This
romance was printed at London, in Greek and Latin, in
1724, 410.
XERXES I. the fifth king of Perfia, memorable for
the vaft army he is faid to have carried into the field
againft Leonidas king of Sparta $ confifting, according to
fome hiftorians, of 800,000 men, while others make it
amount to 3,000,000, exclufive of attendants. The fleet
that attended this prodigious land force is likewife made
to confift of 2000 fail j and all the fuccefs they met with
was the taking and burning the city of Athens j for the
army was lhamefully repulfed near the ftraits of Ther¬
mopylae by Leonidas, and the fleet was difperfed and
partly deftroyed by Themiftocles at the ftraits of Sala-
mis, who had only 380 fail under his command. Xerxes
was affaflinated by Artabanes, chief captain of his guards,
and his diftinguiftied favourite. See Sparta.
XIMENES, Francis, a juftly celebrated cardinal,
bifliop of Toledo, and prime minifter of Spain, w'as born
at Torrelaguna, in Old Caftile, in 1437, and ftudied at
Alcala and Salamanca. He then went to Rome ; and
being robbed on the road, brought nothing back but a
bull for obtaining the firft vacant prebend : but the arch-
bilhop of Toledo refufed it him, and threw him into pri-
fon. Being at length reftored to liberty, he obtained a
benefice in the diocefe of Siguen^a, where Cardinal Gon¬
zales de Mendoza, who was the bifliop, made him his
grand vicar. Ximenes fome time after entered among
the Francifcans of Toledo •, but being there troubled
with vifits, he retired to a folitude named Cajfanel, and
applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity and the oriental
tongues. At his return to Toledo, Queen Ifabella of
Caftile chofe him for her confeffor, and afterwards nomi¬
nated him archbiftiop of Toledo ; which, next to the
papacy, is the richeft dignity in the church of Rome..
“ This honour (fays Dr Robertfon) he declined with a.
firmnefs-
X I M [ 768 ] X I M
Emeries. £rmnefs which nothing but the authoritative injun&ion
v™“~; of the pope was able to overcome. Nor did this height
of promotion change his manners. Though obliged to
difplay in public that magnificence which became his
ftation, he himfelf retained his monaftic feverity. Under
his pontifical robes he conltantly worevthe coarfe frock
of St Francis, the rents of which he ufed to patch with
his owm hands. He at no time ufed linen, but was
commonly clad in hair-cloth. He dept always in his
habit ; molt frequently on the floor or on boards, and
rarely in a bed. He did not tafte any of the delicacies
.which appeared at his table, but fatisfied himfelf w»ith
that Ample diet which the rule of his order prefcribed.
,Notwithflanding thefe peculiarities, fo oppofite to the
manners of the world, he polfeffed a thorough know¬
ledge of its affairs, and difcovered talents for bulinefs
which rendered the fame of his wifdom equal to that of
his fanftity.” His firlt care was to provide for the ne-
ceflities of the poor ; to vifit the churches and hofpitals;
to purge hisdiocefe of ufurersand places of debauchery j
to degrade corrupt judges, and place in their room per-
fons whom he knew to be diffingui(lied by their probity
and difintereftednefs. He ererffed a famous univerffty at
Alcala; and in 1499 founded the college of St Ilde-
nhonfo. Three years after he undertook the Polyglot
. Bible ; and for that purpofe fent for many learned men
to come to him at Toledo, purchafed feven copies in
Hebrew for 4000 crowns, and gave a great price for
Latin and Greek manuferipts. At this Bible they la¬
boured above 12years. ItcontainstheHebrew text of the
Bible ; the verfion of the Septuagint, with a literal tranf-
lation ; that of St Jerom, and the Chaldee paraphraies
of Onkelosj.and Ximenes added to it a dictionary of
the Hebrew and Chaldee words contained in the Bible.
This work is c'a\\&A Ximenes'>s Polyglot. In 1507 Pope
Julius LI. gave him the cardinal’s hat, and King; Ferdi¬
nand the Catholic entrufted him with the adminiffration
of affairs. Cardinal Ximenes was from this moment the
foul of every thing that paffed in Spain. He diftinguiffi-
ed himfelf at the beginning of his miniftry by difehar-
ging the people from the burdenfome tax called acavale,
which had been continued on account of the waragainft
Granada ; and laboured with fuch zeal and fuccefs in
the converfion of the Mahometans, that he made 300O
converts, among whom was a prince of the blood of the
kings of Granada. In 1509 Cardinal Ximenes extended
the dominions of Ferdinand, by taking the city of Oran
in the kingdom of Algiers. He undertook this conqueft
at his own expence, and marched in perfon at the head
,of the Spaniffi army clothed in his pontifical ornaments,
and accompanied by a great number of ecclefiaftics and
monks. Some time after, forefeeing an extraordinary
fcarcity, he ereCted public granaries at Toledo, Alcala,
and Torrelasuna, and had them filled with corn at his
own expence $ which gained the people’s hearts to fuch
a degree, that to preferve the memory of this noble ac¬
tion they had an eulogium upon it cut on marble, in the
half of the fenate-houfe at Toledo, and in the market¬
place. King Ferdinand dying in 1516, left Cardinal
Ximenes regent of his dominions ; and the archduke
Charles, who^ was afterwards the emperor Charles V.
confirmed that nomination. The cardinal immediately
.made a reform of the officers of the fupreme council and
.of the court, and put a flop to the oppreffion of the gran¬
dees. He vindicated the rights of the people agalnft the Xlmenef.
nobility ; and as by the feudal conffitution the military y-—“
power was lodged in the hands of the nobles, and men
of inferior condition were called into the field only as
tljeir vaffals, a king with fcanty revenues depended on
them in all his operations. From this ffate Ximenes re-
folved to deliver the crown ; and iffued a proclamation,
commanding every city in Caftile to inrol a certain num¬
ber of its burgeffes, and teach them military dilcipiine;
he himfelf engaging to provide officers to command them
at the public expence. This was vigoroufly oppofed by
the nobles ; but by his intrepidity and fuperior addrefs
he carried his point. He then endeavoured to diminilh
the poffeffions of the nobility, by reclaiming all the
crown-lands, and putting a ftop to the penfions granted
by the late king Ferdinand. This addition made to the
revenues enabled him to difeharge all the debts of Fer¬
dinand, and to effabliffi magazines of wailike ftores.
The nobler, alarmed at thefe repeated attacks, uttered
loud complaints; but before they proceeded to extremi¬
ties, appointed fome grandees of the firft rank to exa¬
mine the powers in confequence of which lie exercifed
aiffs of fuch high authority. Xirnemes received them
with cold civility ; produced the teffament of Ferdi¬
nand, by which he was appointed regent, together with
the ratification of that deed by Charles. To both thefe
they objected; and he endeavoured toeftabliflr their va¬
lidity. As the converfation grew warm, he led them in-
fenfibly to a balcony, from which they had a view of a
large body of troops under arms, and of a formidable
train of artillery. “ Behold (fays he, pointing to thefe,
and raifing his voice) the powers which I have received
from his Catholic majefty ! With thefe I govern Caftile;
and with thefe I will govern it, till the king, your ma¬
iler and mine, takes pofleffion of his kingdom !” A de¬
claration fo bold -and haughty filenced them, and afto-
niffied their affociates. They faw that he was prepared
for his defence, and laid afide all thoughts of a general
confederacy againft his adminiftration. At length, from
the repeated intreaties nf Ximenes, and the impatient
murmurs of the Spanifti miniftry, Charles V. embarked,
and landed in Spain, accompanied by his favourites.
Ximenes was advancing to the coaft to meet him, but
at Bos Equillos was Itized with a violent diforder, which
•his followers conlidered as the effects of poifon. This^
accident obliging Ximenes to ftop, he wrote to the king,
and with his ufual boldnefs advifed him to difrr ifs all the
ftrangers in his train, whofe number and credit already
gave offence to the Spaniards, and earneftly defired to
have an interview with him, that he might inform him
of the ftateof the nation, and the temper of his fubje£ls.
To prevent this, not only the Flemings, but the Spanilh
grandees, employed all their addrefs to keep Charles at
a diftance from Aranda, the place to which the cardinal
had removed. His advice was now flighted and defpifed.
Ximenes, confcious of his own integrity and merit, ex¬
pected a more grateful return from a prince to whom he
delivered a kingdom more flouriftffng than it had been
in any former age, and a more extenfive authority than
the moft illuftrious of his aneeflors had ever poffeffed ;
and lamented the fate of hi> country, about to be ruined
by the rapacioufnefs and infolence of foreign favourites.
While his mind was agitated by thefe paffions, he re¬
ceived a letter from the king ; in wrhich? alter a few
X Y L [ 7
Ximenes cold and formal expreffions of regard, be was allowed to
1! retire to his diocefe j and he expired a few hours after
Xy o-a oes;rea(j;ng- jn i jiy, in the Sift year of his age.
This famous cardinal ought not to be confounded with
Roderic XlMENES, archbifhop of Toledo, in the 13th
century, who wrote a Hilfory of Spain in nine books;
nor with feveral other Spanilh writers of the name of
Ximenes.
XIPHIAS, the Sword-Fish ; a genus of fiflies be¬
longing to the order of apodes. See Ichthyology In¬
dex. This fifh is common in the Mediterranean fea,
efpeeially in that part which feparates Italy from Sicily,
and which has been long celebrated for it : the promon¬
tory Pelorus, now Capo di Faro, was a place n-Ued for
the refort of the xiphias, and poffibly the ftation of the
fpeeulatores, or theperfons who watched and gave notice
of the approach of the filh.
The ancient method of taking them is particularly
deferibed by Strabo, and agrees exaftly with that prac-
tifed by the moderns. A man afcends one of the cliffs
that overhangs the fea : as foon as he fpies the filh, he
gives notice, either by his voice or by figns, of the courfe
it takes. Another that is Rationed in a boat, climbs
up the mall, and on feeing the fword-filh, directs the
rowers towards it. As foon as he thinks they are got
within reach, he defcends, and taking a fpear in his hand,
flrikes it into the fifh ; which, after wearying itfelf with
its agilation, is feized and drawn into the boat. It is
much elieemed by the Sicilians, who buy it up eagerly,
and at its firit coming into feafon give for it about fix-
pence Englifh per pound. The feafon lalfs from May
till Augult. The ancients ufed to cut this fifh into
pieces and fait it; whence it was called Tomas Thuri-
anus, from Thurii, a town in the bay of Tarentum,
where it was taken and cured.
The iword-fifh is faid to be very voracious, and that
it is a great enemy to the tunny, which (according to
Belon) are as much terrified at it as iheep are at the
fight of a wolf. It is a great enemy to whales, and fre¬
quently deflroys them.
XYLO-ALOES, or Aloe Wood, in the Materia
Medica, is the product of a tree growing in China and
forae of the Indian iilands. See Exc^ECARIA.
This drug is diftinguilhed into three forts ; the ca-
lambac or tambac, the common lignum aloes, and ca-
lambour.
The calambac, or finefi: aloes wood, called by authors
lignum aloes prcejflantiffimum, and by the Chinefe fuk-
hiang, is the molt refinous of all the woods we are ac¬
quainted with : it is of a light fpongy texture, very po¬
rous, and its pores fo filled up with a foft and fragrant
refin, that the whole may be prefied and dented by the
fingers like wax, or moulded about by chewing in the
mouth, in the manner of maftich. This kind, laid on
the fire, melts in great part like refin, and burns away
in a few moments with a bright flame and perfumed
imell. Its fcent, while in the mafs, is very fragrant
and agreeable ; and its tafle acrid and bitterifh, but very
aromatic and agreeable. It is fo variable in its colour,
that fome have divided it into three kinds ; the one va¬
riegated with black and purple ; the fecond, with the
fame black, but with yellowifh inftead of purple ; and
the third, yellow alone like the yolk of an egg : this laft
69 ]
X Y S
is the leaft Icented of the three. The variation, how- Xylo-aloe*
ever, is owing to the trunk of the tree being itfelf of x jf
three different colours; and the heart of it is the va- ‘ ‘ /
luable fort firft deferibed. The two following are fup-
pofed to be the outer parts of the trunk ; though this
feems doubtful, efpecially in regard to the lait fort, from
the circunntance mentioned of its being found in large
logs entire, and fometimes only the h'.art, which, as
above noticed, conftitutes the calambac.
i he lignum aloes vulgare is the kx;ond in value. This
is of a more dtnle and compact texture, and confequently
lefs refinous than the other; there is fome of it, how¬
ever, that is fpongy, and has the holes filled up with the
right retinous matter ; and all of it, when good, has veins
of the lame rtlin in it. We meet with it in Imall frag¬
ments, which have been cut and fplit from larger : thefe
are of a tolerably denfe texture in the more lolid pieces,
and of a dutky brown colour, variegated with refinous
black veins. It is in this Itate very heavy, and lets fra¬
grant than in thofe pieces which fhow a multitude of
little holes, filled up with the fame blackiih matter that
forms the veins in others. The woody part of thefe lalf
pieces is fomewhat darker than the other, and is not un-
frequcntly purpiifh, or even blackilh. The fmell of the
common aloe wood is very agreeable, but not fo Itrongly
periumed as the former. Its talte is fomewhat bitter
and acrid, but very aromatic.
The calambour, called alfo agallochum fylvejlre, and
lignum aloes mexicanum, is light and friable, of a dufky
and often mottled colour, between a dufky green black
and a deep brown. Its fmell is fragrant and agree¬
able, but much lefs fweet than that of either of the
others ; and its tafte'bitterilh, but not lo much acrid or
aromatic as either of the two former. 1 his is faid to be
met with very frequently, and in large logs ; and thefe
fometimes entire, fometimes only the heart of the tree.
This is the aloe wood ufed by the cabinet-makers and
inlayers.
This drug is efleemed a cordial taken inwardly ; and
is fometimes given in dilorders of the ftomach and bowels,
and to deftroy the worms. A very fragrant oil may
be procured from it by diftillation ; which is recom¬
mended in paralytic cafes from five to fifteen drops. It
is atprefent, however, but little ufed ; and would fcarce
be met with anywhere in the fiiops, but that it is an in¬
gredient in fome of the old compofitions.
XYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, an anniverfary
feaft obferved by the Athenians in honour of Minerva,
upon the fixteenth of Hecatombaeon, to commemorate
their leaving, by the perfuafion of Thefeus, their coun¬
try feats, in which they lay difperfed here and there in
Attica, and uniting together in one body.
XYSTARCHA, in antiquity, the mailer or direftor
of the xyllus. In the Greek gymnafium the xyflarcha
was the fecond officer, and the gymnafiarcha the firit ;
the former was his lieutenant, and preiidedover the two
xyfti, and all exercifes of the athletse therein,
XYSTUS, among the Greeks, was a long portico,
open or covered at the top, where the athletae pradlifed
wrefUing and running : the gladiators, who pra£liftd
therein, were called xystici. Among the Romans, the
xyftus was only an alley, or double row of trees, meeting
like an arbour, and forming a ffiade to walk under. °
5E
Y>
Vol. XX. Part II,
Y A R
[ 77® 3
Y A R
Y.
Yard.
Yor y, the 23d letter of our alphabet: its found is
9 formed by exprefling the breath with a fudden
expanfion of the lips from that configuration by which
we exprefs the vowel u. It is one of the ambigenial
letters, being a confonant in the beginning of words,
and placed before all vowels, as in yttrd, yield, youngs
&c. but before no confonant. At the end of words it
is a vowel, and is fubftituted for the found of i, as in
try, defcry, &c. In the. middle of words it is not ufed
fo frequently as i is, unlefs in words derived from the
Greek, as in chyle, empyreal, Sec. though it is admitted
into the middle of fome pure Engliflr words, as in dying,
Jlying, &c. The Romans had no capital of this letter,
but ufed the fmall one in the miudle and lalt fyllables of
■words, as in coryambus, onyx, martyr. Y is alfo a nu¬
meral, fignifying 150, or, according to Baronius, 159 J
and with a dafti a-top, as Y, it fignified 150,000.
YACHT, or Yatch, a veflel of Hate, ufually em¬
ployed to convey princes, ambafladors, or other great
perfonages, from one kingdom to another.
As the principal defign of a yacht is to accommodate
the paffengers, it is ufually fitted with a variety of con¬
venient apartments, with fuitable furniture, according
to the quality or number of the perfons contained there¬
in.
The royal yachts are commonly rigged as ketches,
except the principal one referved for the fovereign,
which is equipped with three mails like a Ihip. They
are in general elegantly furnilhed, and richly ornament¬
ed with fculpture j and always commanded by captains
in his majefty’s navy.
Befides thefe, there are many other yachts of a fmall-
er kind, employed by the commiflioners of the excife,
navy, and cuftoms 5 or ufed as pleafure-boats by private
gentlemen.
^^oSee?I0¥°REA’ j Botany M*.
YAM BOO. See Eugenia, J
YARD of a Ship, a long piece of timber fufpended
upon the malls of a Ihip, to extend the fails to the wind.
See Mast and Sail.
All yards are either fquare or lateen $ the former of
which are fufpended acrofs the malls at right angles,
and the latter obliquely.
The fquare yards are nearly of a cylindrical fur face.
They taper from the middle, which is called the flingsy
towards the extremities, which are termed the yard¬
arms ; and the dillance between the flings and the yard¬
arms on each fide is by the artificers divided into quar¬
ters, which are dillinguilhed into the firll, fecond, third
quarters, and yard-arms. The middle quarters are form¬
ed into eight fquares, and each of the end parts is figur¬
ed like the frultum of a cone. All the yards of a fliip
are fquare except that of the mizen.
The proportions for the length of yards, according to
the different clalfes of fliips in the Britilh navy, are as
follows s
r 560
559
1000 : gun-deck : : •<
515
I561
, r 880
icoo : main-yard::
fore-yard. ^
io$o : main-yard : :
1000 : main-yard : :
1000 : fore-yard : :
{8 20
S47
S40
Guns.
main-yard, fig. I. f 100 ^
PI. CCCCLXVIH. I 90 80
Note, the figure j 70
reprefents the j 60
yard and fails of I 50
a fliip of 74 guns. 44
lOO 90 80
all the reft.
To apply this rule to practice, fuppofe the gun-deck
144 feet. The proportion for this length is, as 1000 is
to 575, fo is 144 to 83 } which will be the length of
the main-yard in feet, and fo of all the reft.
Guns.
1 Tieo 90 80 Co 44
' S47 : J-mizen-yard< 70
^40: J (_ 24
{ ? 20 : £ main t0pfail-yard { all tlie^reft.
{719f 70
726: J-fore topfail-yard < 24
■715:3 (_all the reft.
1000 : main topfail-yard : : main top gallant-yard all the rates.
r r j 1606; 7 fore top gallant- f 70
1000 fore-topfail yard :: 109O: £ yard 1 all the reft.
1000 : fore-topfail yard:: ^ mizentopfailyard all th7e
Crofs-jack and fprit-fail yards equal to the fore top-
fail-yard.
Sprit-topfail-yard equal to the fore top-gallant-yard.
The diameters of yards are in the following propor¬
tions to their length.
The main and fore yards five-fevenths of an inch to
one yard. The topfail, crofs-jack, and fprit-fail yards,
nine-fourteenths of an inch to one yard. The top-gal¬
lant, mizen topfail, and fprit-fail topfail yards, eight-
thirteenths of an inch to one yard.
The mizen-yard five ninths of an inch to one yard.
All ftudding-fail booms and yards half an inch to one
yard in length.
The lifts of the main-yard are exhibited in the above
figure by gg ; the horfes and their ftirrups by hi ; the
reef-tackles and their pendents by k, l; and the braces
and brace-pendents by m, n.
The lateen-yards evidently derive their names from
having been peculiar to the ancient Romans. They are
ufually compofed of feveral pieces faftened together by
wooldings, which alfo ferve as fteps whereby the failors
climb to the peek or upper extremity, in order to furl
or call loofe the fail.
The mizen-yard of a (hip, and the main-yard of a
bilander, are hung obliquely on the mail, almoll in the
fame manner as the lateen-yard of a xebec, fettee, or
polacre. # . . , c •
Yard, a meafure of length ufed in Britain and bpam,
eonfifting of three feet, chiefly to raeafure cloth, fluffs,
Xartso
Yard.
YAW [ 771 1 YEA
Yard-arm 7ARD-Arm is that half of the yard that is on either
II. fide of the mail, when it lies athwart the (hip.
Yawning., Yards alfo denotes places belonging to the navy,
' where the fhips of war, 8cc. are laid up in harbour.—
There are belonging to his majefty’s navy fix great
yards, viz. Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, Portfmouth,
Sheernefs, and Plymouth •, thefe yards are fitted with
feveral docks, wharfs, launches, and graving places, for
the building, repairing, and cleaning of his majefty’s
(hips} and therein are lodged great quantities of tim¬
ber, marts, planks, anchors, and other materials : there
are alfo convenient ftore-houfes in each yard, in which
are laid up vaft quantities of cables, rigging, fails, blocks,
and all other forts of ftores needful for the royal
navy.
YARE, among failors, implies ready or quick : as,
be yare at the helm *, that is, be quick, ready, and ex¬
peditious at the helm. It is fometimes alfo ufed for
bright by feamen : as, to keep his arms yare ; that is,
to keep them clean and bright.
Yare, a river of Norfolk, which runs from weft to
eaft through that county, parting by Norwich, and fall¬
ing into the German fea at Yarmouth.
YARMOUTH, a fea-port town of Norfolk, with a
market on Wednefdays and Saturdays, and a fair on
Friday and Saturday in Eafter-week for petty chapmen.
It is feated on the river Yare, where it falls into the
fea ; and is a place of great ftrength, both by art and
nature, being almoft furrounded with water j and there
is a drawbridge over the liver. It is efteemed the key
of this coaft, and is a clean handfome place, whofe
houfes are well built, it being a confiderable town for
trade. It has one large church, and a neat chapel, and
the fteeple of St Nicholas is fo high that it ferves for a
fea-mark. It is governed by a mayor. The harbour is
a very fine one, though it is very dangerous for ftrangers
in windy weather *, and it has for its fecurity a pretty
ftrong fort. The inhabitants in 1801 amounted to near¬
ly 15,000. It is 27 miles eaft of Norwich, and 112 north-
eaft of London. E. Long. 1. 55. N. Lat. 52. 45.
Yarmouth, a town of the ifle of Wight, in Hamp-
fhire, with a market on Fridays, and one fair on July
25th for toys. It is feated on the weftern part of the
ifland, on the fea ftiore, and is encompafled with water;
for, not many years ago a channel was cut through the
peninfula, over which there is a drawbridge, and it is
defended by a ftrong caftle on the quay. It is a hand¬
fome place, whofe houfes are chiefly built with ftone,
and covered with flate ; and it fends two members to
parliament. The market is now difufed. W. Long.
1. 28. N. Lat.-50. 40.
YARN, wool or flax fpun into thread, of which they
weave cloth. See Cloth.
YARROW. See Achillea, Botany Index.
YAWNING, an involuntary opening of the mouth,
generally produced by wearinefs or an inclination to
fleep. Yawning, according to Boerhaave, is performed
by expanding at one and the fame time all the mufcles
capable of fpontaneous motion j by greatly extending
the lungs ; by drawing in gradually and flowly a large
quantity of air , and gradually and ftowly breathing it
out, after it has been retained for fome time and rare¬
fied *, and then reftoring the mufcles to their natural
ftate. Hence the effe£! of yawning is to move, acce¬
lerate, and equally diftribute all the humours through
all the veflels of the body, and confequently to qualify
the mufcles and organs of fenfation for their various
funftions.
San6lorius obferves, that a great deal is infenfibly dif-
charged, when nature endeavours to get rid of the re¬
tained perfpirable matter, by yawning and ftretching of
the limbs. To thefe a perfon is molt inclined juft after
fleep, becaufe a greater quantity going off by the pores
of the {kin than at other times, whenfoever a perfon
wakes, the increafing contraftion that then happens
clofes a great deal of the perfpirable matter in the cuta¬
neous paffages, which will continually give fuch irrita¬
tions as excite yawning and ftretching ; and fuch mo¬
tions, by (baking the membranes of the whole body,
and thifting the contadls of their fibres, and the inclofed
matter, by degrees throw it off. Hence we fee the
reafon why healthful ftrong people are mod inclined to
fuch motions, becaufe they perfpire moft in time of
fleep, and therefore have more of the perfpirable matter
to lodge in the pores, and greater irritations thereunto.
The advantages of fome little exercife juft after waking
in a morning are confiderable, as it throws off all the
perfpirable matter that is ready for its exit out of the
body. When yawning is troublefome, Hippocrates fays
that long deep refpiration or drawing in the air at long
intervals cures it.
YEAR, in AJfronomij and Chronology. See Astro¬
nomy and Kalendar.
The ancient Roman year was the lunar year, which,
as firft fettled by Romulus, confided of only 10 months j
viz. 1. March, containing 31 days. 2. April, 30. 3.
May, 31. 4. June, 30. 5. Quintilis, 31. 6. Sextilis,
30. 7. September, 30. 8. Oflober, 31. 9. Novem¬
ber, 30. 10. December, 30.—In all 304 days j which
came (hort of the true lunar year by 50 days, and of
the folar, by 61 days. Numa Pompilius corre&ed this
irregular conftitution of the year, and compofed two
new months, January and February, of the days that
were ufed to be added to the former year.
The ancient Egyptian year, called alfo the year of
NabonaJJhr, on account of the epoch of Nabonaffar, is the
folar year of 365 days, divided into 12 months, of 30
days each, befides five intercalary days added at the
end. The names, &c. of the months are as follows :
I. Thoth. 2. Paophi. 3. Athyr. 4. Chojac. 5. TybL
6. Mecheir. 7. Phamenoth. 8. Pharmuthi. 9. Pachon.
10. Pauni. 11. Epiphi. 12. Mefori j befide the
iTrayopiiou,
The ancient Greek year was lunar j confiding of 12
months, which at firft had 30 days a-piece, then alter¬
nately 30 and 29 days, computed from the firft: appear¬
ance of the new moon ; with the addition of an embolif-
mic month of 30 days, every 3d, 5th, 8th, nth,
14th, 16th, and 19th year of a cycle of 19 years; in
order to keep the new and full moons to the fame terms
or feafons of the year. Their year commenced with
that new moon, the full moon of which comes next af¬
ter the fummer folftice. The order, &c. of their months
was thus: 1. 'EKXTOft&ctuvv, containing 29 days. 2. M«-
Tctyurnav, 30. 3. 29. 4. M.xtfcxxTn^tut,
30. 5. nvteysipi*>v, 29. 6. na<reideMvt 30. 7.
<y>, 29. 8. Av0*5-i]g/tfv, 30. 9. ILXxtpY&oXim, 30. 10.
30. II. Gx^Xivt, 29. 12. 'Zxi^6£tair,
3°*
The ancient Jewirti year is a lunar year, confiding
5E2 commonly
Yawning»
Year.
i'ear.
YEA [ 77
commonly of n months, which alternately contain 30
and 29 days. It was made to agree with the folar
year, either by the adding of 11, and fometimes 12
days, at the end of the year, or by an embolifmic
month. The names and quantities of the months Hand
thus : 1. Nifan, or Abib, 30 days. 2. Jiar, or Zius,
29. 3. Siban, or Siwan, 30. 4. Thammuz, or Tam-
muz, 29. 5. Ab, 30. 6. EIul, 29. 7. Tifri, or E-
thanim, 30. 8. Marchefvam, or Bui, 29. 9. Cifleu,
30. 10. Tebeth, 29. 11. Sabat, or Schebeth, 30.
12. Adar, in the embolifmic year, 30. Adar, in the
common year, was but 29. Note, in the defedlive
year, Cifleu was only 29 days; and in the redundant
year, Marchefvam was 30.
The Perfian year is a folar year of about 365 days j
confiding of 12 months of 30 days each, with five in¬
tercalary days added at the end.
The Arabic, Mahometan, and Turkilh years, called
alfo the year of the Hegira, is a lunar year, equal to
354 days eight hours and 48 minutes, and confifts of 1 2
months, which contain alternately 30 and 29 days.
The Hind 00 year differs from all thefe, and is indeed
different in different provinces of India. The belt ac¬
count that we have of it is by Mr Cavendilh, in the
Phil. Tranf. of the Royal Society of London for the
year I792, 4t Before I fpeak of the civil year of the
Hindoos (fays this eminent philofopher), it will be pro¬
per to fay a few words of the aftronomical year, by
which it is regulated.
V Phe aftronomical year begins at the inftant when
the fun comes to the firft point of the Hindoo zodiac.
In the year 1792, it began on April 9th, at 22h. 14'
after midnight of their firft meridian, which is about 41'
of time weft of Calcutta ; but, according to Mr Gen-
til’s account of the Indian aftronomy, it began 3I1. 24'
earlier. As this year, however, is longer than ours,
fits commencement falls continually later, in refpett of
the Julian year, by 50' 26" in four years. This year
is divided into 12 months, each of which correfponds to
the time of the fun’s flay in fome fign j fo that they are
of different lengths, and* feldom begin at the beginning
of a day.
“ I he civil day in all parts of India begins at funrife,
and is divided into 60 parts called dandas, which are
again divided into 60 palas. In thofe parts of India in
which the Benares almanac, or as it is there called pa-
tras, is ufed, the civil year is lunifolar, confifting of 12
lunar months, with an intercalary month inferted be¬
tween them occafionally. It begins at the day after
the new moon next before the beginning of the folar
year. The lunar month is divided into 30 parts called
teethees i thefe are not ftri&ly of the fame length, but
are equal to the time in which the moon’s true motion
from the fun is 1 2°. From the new moon till the moon
arrives at I2°dirtance from the fun is called the firft
teethee ; from thence till it comes to 240, is called the
lecond teethee \ and fo on till the full moon, after which
the teethees return in the fame order as before.
I he civil day is conftantly called by the number of
that teethee which expires during the courfe of the day j
and as the teethee is fometimes longer than one day, a
day fometimes occurs in which no teethee ends. When
this is the cafe, the day is called by the fame number
as the following day 5 fo that two fucceflive days go by
the fame name. It oftsner happens, however, that two
A
in which
2 ] YE
teethecs end on the fame day; in which cafe the
number of the firft of them gives name to the day, and
there is no day called by the number of the laft, fo thatv
a gap is made in the order of the days. In the latter
pait of the month the days are counted from the full
moon, in the fame manner as in the former part they are
counted from the new moon ; only the laft day, or that
on which the new moon happens, is called the 3’oth, in-
ftead of the 15th. It appears, therefore, that each half
of the month conftantly begins on the day after that
on which the new or full moon falls ; only fometimes
the half month begins with the fecond day, the firft be¬
ing wanting.
This manner of counting the dap is fufficiently in¬
tricate ; out that of counting the months is ftill more
fo.
“ The civil year, as was before faid, begins at the
day alter the new moon ; and, moreover, in the years
which have an intercalary month, this month begins at
the day after the new moon ; but notwithftanding this,
the ordinary civil month begins at the day after the full
moon. To make their method more intelligible, we
will call the time from new moon to new moon the na¬
tural month. The civil month Visakha, the firft in the
Hindoo kalender, which extends from the 9th of our
April to the 10th of May, begins at the day after that
full moon which is neareft to the inftant at which the
fun enters Mefha, the firft in order of the Indian figns,'
whether before or after ; however, it is not always ac¬
curately the neareft.
“ A confequence of this way of counting the months
is, that the firft half of Chitra, the laft month in the
Indian kalender, extending from March the 10th to
April the 9th, falls In one year, and the latter half in
the following year ; and whenever the fun enters no
fign during a natural.month, this month is intercalary.
I lie number of days in the month varies from 29 to 32.
Indeed the Hindoo months, both folar and lunar, con-
fift neither of a determinate number of days, nor are
regulated by any cycle, but depend folely on the mo¬
tions of the fun and moon ; fo that a Hindoo has no
way of knowing what day of the month it is but by
confulting his almanac ; and what is more, the month
ought fometimes to begin on different days, in different
places, on account of the difference in latitude and lon¬
gitude, not to mention the difference which may arife
from errors in computation. This mode of computing
time muft be attended with many inconveniences; but
in tne tranfacftions of civil life the Hindoos do not much
regard it. A difagreement, however, in the computa¬
tion of the teethee, which fometimes alfo happens, oc-
cafions no fmall perplexity ; becaufe by the teethees or
lunar days are regulated moft of their religious feftivals.
Every Brahmin in charge of a temple, or whofe duty it
is to announce the times for the obfervance of religious
ceremonies, is therefore furnilhed with one of their al¬
manacs ; and if he be an aftronomer, he makes fuch cor-
reftions in it as the difference of latitude and longitude
renders neceflary.”
Hew Teak's Gift. See Gift.
YEAST , or Yest, a head or fcum riling upon beer
or ale while working or fermenting in the vat. See
Brewing.
It is ufed for a leaven or ferment in the baking of
bread, as ferving to fwell or puff it up very confiderably
Year,
Yeait.
YEA [ 773 ] YEW
Y?aft. in a little time, and to make it much lighter, fofter, and
-^v——'more delicate. See Baking, Barm, and Bread.
Mr Henry has publilhed a method of preparing arti-
jicialyectjl, by which good bread may be made without
the afliftance of any other ferment. The method is
this: Boil flour and water together to the confiftence
of treacle, and when the mixture is cold faturate it with
fixed air. Pour the mixture thus faturated into one or
more large bottles or narrow-mouthed jars; cover it
over loofely with paper, and upon that lay a flate or
board with a weight to keep it fteady. Place the vef-
fel in a fituation where the thermometer will ftand from
70° to 8d°, and flir up the mixture two or three times
in 24 hours. In about two days fuch a degree of fer¬
mentation will have taken place, as to give the mixture
the appearance of yeaft. With the yeaft in this date,
and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous fmell,
mix the quantity of flour intended for bread, in the pro¬
portion of fix pounds of flour to a quart of the yeaft, and
a fufficient portion of warm water. Knead them well
together in a proper veffel, and covering it with a cloth,
let the dough ftand for 12 hours, or till it appears to be
fufficiently fermented in the fore-mentioned degree of
warmth. It is then to be formed into loaves and baked.
Mr Henry adds, that perhaps the yeaft would be more
perfedl, if a deco&ion of malt were ufed inftead of Ample
water.
It has lately been difcovered, that a deception of malt
alone, without any addition, will produce a yeaft pro¬
per enough for the purpofe of brewing. This difeovery
was made by Jofeph Senyor, fervant of the reverend Mr
Mafon of Afton near Rotheram •, and he received for it
a reward of 20I. from the Society for promoting Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce. The procefs is as fol¬
lows : Procure three earthen or wooden veflels of dif¬
ferent fizes and apertures, one capable of holding two
quarts, the other three or four, and the third five or fix :
boil a quarter of a peck of malt for about eight or ten
minutes in three pints of water } and when a quart is
poured off from the grains, let it ftand in the firft or
fmaller veffel in a cool place till not quite cold, but re¬
taining that degree of heat which the brewers ufually
find to be proper when they begin to work their liquor.
Then remove the veffel into fome warm fituation near a
fire, where the thermometer ftands between 70 and 8o
degrees Fahrenheit, and there let it remain till the fer¬
mentation begins, which will be plainly perceived
within 30 hours : add then two quarts more of a like
decoftion of malt, when cool, as the firft was ; and
mix the whole in the fecond or larger veffel, and ftir
it well in, which muft be repeated in the ulual way, as
it rifes in a common vat: then add a (till greater quan¬
tity of the fame decoClion, to be worked in the largeft
veffel, which will produce yeaft enough for a brewing
of 40 gallons.
Common ale yeaft may be kept frefh and fit for ule
feveral months by the following method : Put a quan¬
tity of it into a clofe canvas bag, and gently Iqueeze
out the moifture in a ferew-prefs till the remaining mat¬
ter be as firm and ftiff as clay. In this ftate it may be
clofe packed up in a tight calk for fecuring it from the
air ; and will keep frefh, found, and fit for uie, for a
long time. This is a fecret that might be of great nfe
to the brewers and diftillers, who, though they employ
Very large quantities of yeaft, feem to know no method
5
of preferving it, or raifing nurferies of it 5 for want of Yell
which they fuftain a very confiderable lofs ; whereas H
the brewers in Flanders make a very great advantage of. *
fupplying the malt diftillers of Holland with yeaft,
"which is rendered lafting and lit for carriage by this
eafy expedient.
YELL, one of the flands of Shetland, lying north-
eaft from the Mainland, and divided from it by an
arm of the fea, called Yell-Sound. By fome it is
thought to have been the Thule of the ancients. In
the old deferiptions it is faid to be 20 miles long and'
8 broad. It is very mountainous and full of mofs ; but
there are pretty confiderable paftures in which they
feed a great many Iheep } and it alfo affords plenty of
peat. It has eight large harbours, which wfould not be
thought defpicable in other countries.. Anciently it
feems to have been pretty populous, fince there are in it
three churches, twenty chapels, and many brughs or
Piftilh forts.
YELLOW, one of the original colours of light.
YelLO TV-Colour for Houfe-painting. See COLOUR-
Making.
Naples YellOJV, a beautiful colour much ufed by
painters, formerly thought to be prepared from arfenic,
but now difcovered to have lead for its balls.
YelloTV-Hammer. See Fringilla, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
YELLOW-Fever. See Medicine, N° 168.
YEMEN, a province of Arabia ftretching along,
the Red fea and Indian ocean, and forming a part of
the country once known by the name of Arabia Felix.
YEOMAN, the firft or higheft degree among the
plebeians of England, next in order to the gentry.
The yeomen are properly freeholders, who having
land of their own, live on good hufbandry.
Yeoman is alfo a title of office in the king’s houfe-
hold, of a middle place or rank between an ulher and a
groom.
YEOMEN of the Guard were anciently 250 men of
the belt rank under gentry, and of larger ftature than
ordinary, each being required to be fix feet high. At
prefent there are but ICO yeomen in conftant duty, and
70 more not in duty ; and as any of the 100 dies, hia
place is fupplied out of the 70. They go dreffed after
the manner of King Henry VIII.’s time. They form¬
erly had diet as well as wages when in waiting ; but
this was taken off in the reign of £>ueen Anne.
YEST, or Yeast, See Yeast.
YEW. See Taxus, Botany Index.
Yew trees are remarkable for their duration. There
are now growing within 300 yards of the old Gothic
ruins of Fountain’s abbey, near Rippon, in Yorklhire,
feven very large yew trees, commonly called the Seven
Sifters, whofe exadl ages cannot be accurately afeertain-
ed, though tradition fays that they were Handing in the
year 1088. It is faid alfo, that when the great Foun¬
tain’s abbey was building, which is 700 feet long, and
was finiflied in 1283, the mafons ufed to work their
ftones, during the hot fummers, under the (hade of thefe
trees. The circumference of the Seven Sifters, when
meafured by a curious traveller, were of the following
fizes :—the fmalleft tree, round its body, 5 yards 1 foot -
four others are from 54 to 7*- yards; the fixth is 9J
yards ; and the feventh is 11 yards 1 foot 7 inches in
circumference, being 2 yards 10 inches larger than the
great
4*
YOU C 774 ] Y O R
i>w great yew tree now growing in the churchyard at Gref-
YJjk ford, in North Wales, which is 9 yards 9 inches.
_ °r ' ■ Thefe trees are the largeft. and oldeil in the Britifh do¬
minions.
YNCA, an appellation anciently given to the kings
of Peru, and the princes of their blood ; the word li¬
terally fignifying lord, king, emperor, and royal blood.
YOAK, or Yoke, in Agriculture, a frame of wood
fitted over the necks of oxen, whereby they are coupled
together and harneffed to the plough.
l~OAK of Land, in our ancient cuftoms, was the fpace
which a yoke of oxen, that is, two oxen, may plough in
one day.
YOLK, the yellow part in the middle of an egg (fee
Egg). It contains a lymphatic fubftance mixed with
a certain quantity of mild oil, which, on account of this
mixture, is foluble in water. When expofed to heat, it
aflumes a conlillence not fo hard as the white of the
egg •, and when bruited gives out the oil which it con¬
tains. This oil has been ufed externally as a liniment.
YONNE, a river in France, which rifes in Bur¬
gundy, and running north through Nivernoisand Cham¬
pagne^ falls into the Seine at Monterau fur Yonne.
YORK, in Latin Eboracum, the capital of York-
fhire in England. This city is fo ancient that the origin
of it is uncertain. In the time of the Romans a legion
was Rationed here, it being then the capital of the Bri-
gantes ; and here died the emperor Severus, and Flavius
Valerius Conftantius Chlorus, father of Conftantine the
Great. There was then alfo a temple of Bellona here,
and no lefs than three military ways went from hence.
In the time of the Saxons it was ere&ed into an arch-
bifhopric by Pope Honorius, to which are now fubjeft
the bifhoprics of Chefter, Durham, Carlifle, and the ifle
of Man •, though anciently 12 bilhoprics in England,
and all Scotland, were. A horn is Rill kept in the
minRer, by which Ulphius, one of the Saxon princes,
beRowed all his lands and revenues upon the church.
This city fuffered very much during the ravages of
the Danes *, but, after the Conquefl, it began to flourifli
again. The cathedral, which coR a long time and a
great deal of money in building, is a moR flately Go¬
thic pile. Its chapter-houfe is particularly admired for
its painted glafs, its fine marble Ralls, its pillars of ala-
bafter, and curious contrivance. In it is the following
line in gold letters :
Ik Rofa,fos forum, ft c ef Domus if a Domorum.
The choir is remarkable for its fine carvings, particular¬
ly the flatues of all the Englifli monarchs ; and the
windows are exquifitely painted with the hiRory of the
Bible. The lanthorn fleeple is 70 feet fquare, and 188
high, and the windows are 45. At the fouth end is a
circular light, called the marigold window from the co¬
lour of its glafs ; and at the north end is a very large
one, whofe painting reprefents embroidery.
This city is generally reckoned the fecond city in
England •, but though it Rands upon more ground, it is
Inferior in trade, wealth, and number of people, to
Briflol. The inhabitants are reckoned at 16,145. It
is fituated in a fine plain, in the middle of the fliire, on
both fides the Oufe, walled and divided into four rvards,
containing 28 parifhes. It enjoys large privileges and
immunities, conferred upon it by a fucceflxon of kings
rrom Henry II. and its chief magiRrate has the title of
lord mayor, which is an honour peculiar to it and Lon- York,
don. Richard II. made it a county of itfelf. The con- Yorkfhire.
fervancy of moR of the rivers of the county, within cer-
tain limits, belongs to the lord mayor and aldermen.
The middle arch of the bridge here over the Oufe is
thought to equal the Rialto at Venice in archite&ure,
height, and breadth, the diameter being 81 feet, and
the height 51. Though this city is 60 miles diRant
from the fea, yet fliips of 70 tons burden come up the
river to it. The town-houfe or guild-hall Rands upon
the bridge, and is fuperior in all refpedls to that of
London. In the Popifti times there were nine abbeys
here, and a vaR number of churches 5 but of the latter
there are only 17 now. The Reeple of that of Allhal¬
lows is reckoned the fineR in England. The archbifliop
has a fine palace; and the affembly-room, defigned by
the earl of Burlington, is very noble. Here are plays,
affemblies, concerts, and the like entertainments, at fome
houfe or other, almofl every night in the week. In the
old caflle, built originally by William the Conqueror,
and repaired in 1701, the aflizes are kept. It ferves alfo
for the county-gaol, which is the neateR and pleafanteft
in England, with an area larger than that of the king’s-
bench, and it has a handfome chapel in it, with a good
allowance for a preacher. This city has long given the
title of duke to fome branch of the royal family.
The plenty and cheapnefs of provifions induces many
perfons of fmall fortune, or that would live frugally, to
take up their abode here j and the venerable remains of
Roman antiquities, and thofe of a later date, as abbeys,
churches, and caRles, procure this city a vilit from every
curious traveller. Many Roman altars, urns, coins, in-
feriptions, &.c. have been found ; and Saxon coins are
Rill extant that have been Rruck here. The members,
being two in number, for this city, have precedence of
all others, except thofe of London, in the houfe of com¬
mons. An infirmary, after the manner of thofe of Bath,
Briflol, &c. hath been ere&ed in it j and a cotton ma¬
nufacture eflabliflied and brought to great perfection.
Befides four weekly markets, it has a great many fairs 5
one, in particular, every other Thurfday for cattle and
flieep. W. Long. 1. 1. N. Lat. 53. 59.
YORKSHIRE, the largefl county of England,
bounded on the fouth by Derbyfliire, Nottinghamfliire,
and Lincolnfliire j on the north by Durham and Wefl-
moreland j on the eafl by the German ocean j and on
the wefl by Lancaflrire and a part of Cheflrire.—It is
upwards of 80 miles in length from eafl to weft, nearly
as much in breadth, and about 360 in circumference,
containing, in the whole, 26 hundreds or wapentakes,
49 market-towns, 563 pariftres, 242 vicarages, with
many chapels of eafe, and 2330 villages. Its area is
computed by fome at 4684 fquare miles, by others at
3,770,000 acres, and its inhabitants at 858,892. It is
divided into three parts or ridings, viz. the Weft, Eaft,
and North j fo denominated from their fituation, in re-
fpeCI of the city of York. Each of thefe is as large, if
not larger, than any ordinary county. There are other
divifions, asRichmondftrire, Allertonfhire, Howdenftiire,
Hallanftiire, Craven, Cleveland, Marfhland, Holdernefs,
&c.
As the foil and face of the country vary greatly, fo
does the air. In the hilly parts the air is good, but the
foil very indifferent j of the lower fome are marftiy,
others drier, and the foil of both rich j but the air of the
former
Y O R [ 775 ] YOU
York, former is more foggy and unhealthy than that of the
— y— ■’ latter. The manufactures of this county are cutlery
and hard-wares, particularly knives, bits, and fpurs $
but the principal are dockings and woollen cloth, with
which it fupplies in a great meafure Germany and the
North. As to the produce, it abounds in corn, cattle,
horfes, lead and iron, coal, wood, lime, liquorice, alum,
jet, &c. It lies wholly in the northern circuit, and
much the greater part of it in the diocefe of York } that
only which is called Richmondjhire belonging to the
diocefe of Chefter. The members it fends to parliament
are 305 of which two are for the (hire and 28 for the
towns.
Nezu-TORK, one of the United States of America, is
bounded towards the fouth-eaft by the Atlantic ocean j
eaft by Connecticut, Maffachufets, and Vermont", north
by the 45th degree of latitude, which divides it from
Canada 5 north-weftwardly by the river Iroquois or St
Lawrence, and the lakes Ontario and Erie *, fouth-weft
and fouth by Pennfylvania and New Jerfey. The
whole ftate contains about 44,000 fquare miles, equal to
28,160,000 acres.
The fetdements already made in this ftate are chiefly
upon two narrow oblongs, extending from the city of
New-York eaft and north. The one eaft is Long Ifland,
which is 140 miles long, and narrow, and furrounded
by the fea. The one extending north is about 40 miles
in breadth, and bifeCIed by Hudfon’s river. And fuch
is the interfeCHon of the whole ftate by the branches of
the Hudfon, the Delaware, the Sufquehannah, and other
large rivers, that there are few places throughout its
whole extent which are more than 15 or 20 miles from
fome navigable ftream. There are few fiflr in the rivers,
but in the brooks are plenty of trout} and in the lakes
yellow perch, fun-fifti, falmon-trout, cat-fifli, and a va¬
riety of others.
The ftate, to fpeak generally, abounds with lakes,
fome of fait and others of freflr w'ater. It is interfe&ed
by ridges of mountains running in a north-eaft and
fouth-weft dire&ion. Beyond the Allegany mountains,
however, the country is a dead level, of a fine rich foil,
covered, in its natural ftate, with maple, beech, birch,
cherry, black-walnut, locuft, hickory, and fome mul¬
berry-trees. On the banks of lake Erie, are a few chef-
nut and oak ridges. Hemlock fwamps are interfperfed
thinly through the country. All the creeks that empty
into lake Erie have falls, which aftord many excellent
mill feats. Eaft of the Allegany mountains, the coun¬
try is broken into hills with rich intervening valleys.
The hills are clothed thick with timber, and when
cleared afford fine pafture } the valleys, when cultivated,
produce wheat, hemp, flax, peafe, grafs, oats, Indian
corn. Of the commodities produced from culture,
wheat is the ftaple y of which immenfe quantities are
raifed and exported. Indian corn and peafe are likewife
raifed for exportation*, and rye, oats, barley, &c. for
home confumption. In fome parts of the ftate excel¬
lent dairies are kept, which furnilh for the market but¬
ter and cheefe.
The fituation of New-York, with refpeft to foreign
markets, has decidedly the preference to any other of
the United States. It has at all feafons of the year a
fhort and eafy acctfs to the ocean. Its exports to the
Weft Indies are, bifcuit, peafe, Indian corn, apples,
Ssaions, boards, ftaves, horfes, (heep, butter, cheefe, pick-
4,
led oyfters, beef, and pork. But wheat is the ftaple York,
commodity of the ftate, of which no lefs than 677,700 y——^
buihels were exported in the year I 775, beudes 2555
tons of bread and 2828 tons of flour. Infpcctors of
flour are appointed to prevent impofition, and to fee
that none is exported but that which is deemed by them
merchantable. Befides the above-mentioned articles,
are exported flax-feed, cotton, wool, farfaparilla, coffee,
indigo, rice, pig-iron, bar-iron, pot-afh, pearl-ath, furs,
deer-fkins, logwood, fuftick, mahogany, bees wax, oil,
Madeira wine, rum, tar, pitch, turpentine, whale-fins,
fi(h, fugars, molafl'es, fait, tobacco, lard, &c. but melt
of thele articles are imported for re-exportation. In
the year 1774, there were employed, in the trade of
this ftate, 1075 veflels, whole tonnage amounted to
40,81 2.
Since the revolution, the literature of the ftate has en¬
gaged the attention of the legiflature. In one of their
earlieft: feflions an adl palfed, conftituting 21 gentlemen
(of whom the governor and lieutenant-governor for tha
time being are members ex ojficiis') a body coporate and
politic, by the name and ftyle of “ The regents of the
univerfity of the ftate of New-York.” They are in¬
truded with the care of literature in general in the
ftate, and have power to grant charters of incorpora¬
tion for erefting colleges and academies throughout the
ftate—are to vifit thefe inftitutions as often as they ftiall
think proper, and report their ftate to the legiflature
once a-year. All degrees, above that of mafter of arts
are to be conferred by the regents. A univerfal tolera¬
tion is granted in religion.
The fupreme legiftative powers of the ftate are vefted
in two branches, a fen ate and aflembly, The members
of the fenate are ele&ed by the freeholders of the date,
who poflefs freehold ettates to the value of look clear
of debts. For the purpofe of electing fenators, the
ftate is divided into four great diftri&s, each of which
choofes a certain number.
The aflembly of the ftate is compofed of reprefenta-
tives from the feveral counties, chofen annually in May.
Every male inhabitant of full age, who has refided in
the ftate fix months preceding the day of election, and
poflefling a freehold to the value of 20I. in the county
where he is to give his vote j or has rented a tenement
therein of the yearly value of forty {hillings, and has
been rated and a£tually paid taxes—is entitled to vote
for reprefentatives in affembly.. The number of repre-
fentatives is limited to 300.
The fupreme executive power of the ftate is vefled in
a governor chofen once in three years by the freemen of
the ftate. The lieutenant-governor is, by his office,
prefident of the fenate } and, upon an equal divifion of
voices, had a cafting vote $ but has no voice on other
ocealions. The governor has not a feat in the legifla¬
ture ; but as a member of the council of revifxon and
council of appointment, he has a vaft influence in the
ftate. The council of revifion is compofed of the chan¬
cellor, the judges of the fupreme court, or any of them,
and the governor. In the year 1790 the number of in¬
habitants in this ftate rvas 340,120, of Avhom 21,324
were negroes $ but in 1795 t^ie whole population of the
ftate amounted to 530,177, making an increafe of
190,057 in five years.
New-TORK, a city of North America, capital of the
ftate of the fame name. It is fituated at the fouth-wdft
ppinti
Y O R l 776 ] Y O V
Yosk. point of an idand, at the confluence of Hudfon and Eaft
rivers, and is about four miles in circumference. The
fituation is both healthy and pleafant. Surrounded on
all fides by water, it is refrefhed by cool breezes in fum-
raer, and the air in winter is more temperate than in
other places under the fame parallel. York ifland is
15 miles in length, and hardly one in breadth. It is
joined to the main by a bridge called King’s bridge.
The channels between Long and Staten Hlands, and be¬
tween Long and York iflands, are fo narrow as to occa-
fion an unufual rapidity of the tides, which is increafed
by the confluence of the waters of Hudfon and Eaft
rivers. This rapidity, in general, prevents the obftruc-
tion of the channel by ice. There is no bafon or bay
for the reception of fhips ; but the road where they lie
in Eaft river is defended from the violence of the fea
by the iflands which interlock with each other j fo that,
except that of Rhode ifland, the harbour of New-York,
which admits fhips of any burden, is the beft of the
United States. The number of the inhabitants in iy86
was 23,614.
The moft magnificent edifice in this city is Federal
Hall, at the head of Bread-ftreet j in a gallery in front
of which General Wamjngton, attended by the fenate
and hotife of reprefentatives, took his oath of office at
the commencement of the operation of the federal con-
flitution, 30th April, iy8g. The other public buildings
in the city are, three houfes for public worfhip for the
Dutch Reformed church, four for Prefbyterians, three
for Epifcopalians, two for German Lutherans and Cal-
vinifts, two for Quakers, two for Baptifts, two for Me-
fhodifts, one for Moravians, one for Catholics, one for
French Proteftants, and a Jevvifh fynagogue.
King’s college was chiefly founded by the voluntary
contributions of the inhabitants of the province, aflifted
by the general aflembly, and the corporation of Trinity
Church ; in the year 1754, a royal charter (and grant
of money) being then obtained, incorporating a number
of gentlemen therein mentioned, by the name of “ The
Governors of the College of the Province of New-York,
in the city of New-York, in America granting to
them the power of conferring all fuch degrees as are
ufually conferred by either of the Englilh univerfities.
The building confifts of an elegant ftone edifice, three
flories high, with four flair cafes, 12 apartments in each,
a chapel, hall, library, mufeum, anatomical theatre, and
a fehool for experimental philofophy. It is fituated on
a dry gravelly foil, about 150 yards from the bank of
Hudfon’s river, commanding a beautiful and extenfive
profpeft. Since the revolution, the legiflature palled
an act conftituting 21 gentlemen (of whom the govern¬
or and lieutenant-governor for the time being, are mem¬
bers ex officiis) a body corporate and politic by the
name of “ The Regents of the Univerfity of the State
of New-York.” They are entrufted with the care of
literature in general, and have power to grant charters
for eredling colleges and academies through the ftate.
It is now denominated Columbia college. The annual
revenue arifing from the eftate belonging to the college
amounts to 1535I. currency, exclufive of fome bonds
which are not as yet produftive. It confifts of a facul¬
ty of arts, and one of phyfic, the firft having a prefident
and feven profeffors, and the fecond a dean, and the
fatpe number of profeffors. The library and mufeum
were deftroyed during the war, after which upwards of
Sool. were expended on books to enlarge the library.
The government of this city is at prefent in the hands
of a mayor, aldermen, and common counoil, and the
city is divided into feven wards, in each of which an
alderman and afMant are annually chofen by the
people. A court of feflion is held for the trial of cri¬
minal caufes. It is efteetned the moft eligible fituatiem
for commerce in the United States ; but the want of
good water is a great inconveniency, there being few
wells in the city, and moft of the people are fupplied
with frefh water conveyed to their doors in calks from
the head of Queen-ftreet. The number of inhabitants
in 1796 hs.ftated at more than 33,000 ; and according
to fome it is fuppofed that they amount at this time to
nearly the double. The entries from foreign ports in
1795, were 178 ftiips, 309 brigs, 9 barques, 7 fnows,
268 fchooners, and 170 floops. Works of defence
have been erefted to a confiderable extent, and when
completed on the original plan, will afford great fecuri-
ty to the city. New-York is 95 miles N. E. of Phi¬
ladelphia, 197 N. E. of Baltimore, and 913 from
Char left on. W. Long. 740 9' 43". N. Lat. 40° 42'
8".
Y OUNG, Dr Edward, was the fon of a clergyman
of the fame name, and was born about the year 1679.
When fufficiently qualified, he w^as matriculated into
All-Souls college, Oxford ; and defigning to follow the
civil law, he took a degree in that profeflion. In this
fltuation he wrote his poem called The Laft Dav,
publiflied in 17045 which coming from a layman gave
univerfal fatisfa<ftion : this was foon after followed by
another, entitled The Force of Religion, or Vanquilhed
Love. Tbefe produ&ions gained him a refpe&able ac¬
quaintance 5 he was intimate with Addifon, and thus
became one of the writers of the Spe&ator : but the
turn of his mind leading him to the church, he took
orders, was made one of the king’s chaplains, and ob¬
tained the living of Welwyn in Hertfordflrire, worth
about 500I. per annum, but he never rofe to higher
preferment. For fome years before the death of the
late prince of Wales, Dr Young attended his court
pretty conftanlly 5 but upon his deceafe all his hopes of
church preferment vanifhed 5 however, upon the death
of Dr Hales, he was taken into the fervice of the prin-
cefs dowager of Wales, and fucceeded him as her privy
chaplain. When pretty far advanced in life, he married
the lady Elizabeth Lee, daughter of the late earl of
Litchfield. This lady was a widow, and had an ami¬
able fon and daughter, who both died young. What
he felt for their lofs, as well as for that of his wife, is
finely expreffed in his Night Thoughts, in which the
young lady is charaflerifed under the name of Narciffa ;
her brother by that of Philander 5 and his wife, though
namelefs, is frequently mentioned ; and he thus, in aa
apoftrophe to death, deplores the lofs of all the three.
Infatiate archer, could not once fuffice !
Thy (haft flew thrice, and thrice my peace was flainy
And thrice ere thrice yon moon renew’d her horn.
He wrote three tragedies, The Revenge, Bufiris, and
The Brothers. His fatires, called Love of Fame the
univerfal Paflion, are by many efteemed his principal
performance) though Swift faid the poet fhould have
been
YOU [ 777 ] Y U N
'Young, been either more angry or more merry : they have been
chara&erifed as a firing of epigrams written on one fub-
jeft, that tire the reader before he gets through them.
His Complaint, or Night Thoughts, exhibit him as a
moral and melancholy poet, and are efteemed his mailer-
piece; They form a fpecies of poetry peculiarly his
own, and in which he has been unrivalled by all thofe
who attempted to write in this manner. They were
written under the recent preffure of his forrow for the
lofs of his wife, daughter, and fon-in-law ; they are ad-
drefled to Lorenzo, a man of pleafure and the world,
and who, as it is infinuated by fome, is his own fon,
but then labouring under his father’s difpleafure. As
a profe-writer, he arraigned the prevailing manners of
his time, in a work called The Centaur not Fabulous j
and when he was above 80 years of age, publifhed Con-
jeelures on Original Compolition. He publilhed fome
other pieces; and the whole of his works are collefted
in 4 and 5 vols 1 2mo. Dr Young’s turn of mind wras
naturally folemn j and he ufually, when at home in the
country, fpent many hours of the day walking in his
own church-yard among the tombs. His converfation,
his writings, had all a reference to the life after this ;
and this turn of difpofition mixed itfelf even with his
improvements in gardening. He had, for inllance, an
alcove with a bench, fo painted, near his houfe, that at
a difiance it looked as a real one which the fpeftator
was then approaching. Upon coming up near it, how¬
ever, the deception was perceived, and this motto ap¬
peared, Invi/ibi/ia non decipiunt, “ The things unfeen
do not deceive us.” Yet, notwithllanding this gloomi-
nefs of temper, he was fond of innocent fports and
amufement : he inllituted an affembly and a bowling-
green in the parilh of which he was redlor, and often
promoted the gaiety of the company in perfon. His
wit was generally poignant, and ever levelled at thofe
who teftified any contempt for decency and religion.
His epigram, fpokeu extempore on Voltaire, is well
known ; who happening in his company to ridicule Mil-
ton, and the allegorical perfonages of Death and Sin,
Young thus addreffed him :
Thou art fo witty, profligate, and thin, Young
You feem a Milton with his Death and Sin. ^ H
One Sunday, preaching in office at St James’s, he ,
found, that though he drove to make his audience at¬
tentive, he could not prevail. Upon which his pity for
their folly got the better of all decorums, and he fat
back in the pulpit and burd into a flood of tears. To¬
wards the latter part of life he knew his own infirmities,
and differed himfelf to be in pupilage to his houfe-ketp-
er; for he confidered that, at a certain time of life, the
fecond childhood of age demanded its wonted protection.
His fon, whofe boyifli follies were long obnoxious to pa¬
ternal feverity, was at lad forgiven in his will ; and our
poet died regretted by all, having performed all that
man could do to fill his pod with dignity. His death
happened in 1765.
YOUTH, that date of man in which he approaches
towards his greated perfection of body,
YPRES, a handfome, large, and populous town cf
the Andrian Netherlands, with a bifnop’s fee. It ha-
a confiderable manufactory in cloth and ferges, and
every year in Lent there is a confiderable fair. It is
one of the barrier tow ns, but was befieged and taken by
the French in 1744, and alfo in 1794. It is feated in
a fertile plain on the river Ypre, in E. Long. 2. 48,
N. Lat. 50. 51.
YTTRIA, one of the lately difeovered earths. For
an account of its properties and combinations, fee Che¬
mistry, N° 1457.
T'TTRlO-2'antalite, a mineral fubdance containing the
new earth yttria, and the new metal tantalium, which
latter is found by Dr Wolladon to be identical with
columbium.
YUCCA, Adam’s Needle, a genus of plants of the
clafs hexandria. The fpecies of this plant are all ex¬
ceedingly curious in their growth, and are therefore
much cultivated in gardens. The Indians make a kind
of bread from the roots of this plant.
YULE, Yool, or lu/. See Iul.
YUNX, a genus of birds of the order piece. See
Ornithology Index.
1.
2. *7 or z, the 24th and lad letter, and the 19th confo-
nant of our alphabet ; the found of which is form¬
ed by a motion of the tongue from the palate down¬
wards and upwards to it again, with a (hutting and open¬
ing of the teeth at the fame time. This letter has been
reputed a double confonant, having the found ds ; but
fome think with very little reafon : and, as if tVe thought
otherwife, we often double it, as in pu%%le, mu%,z,le, &.c.
Among the ancients, Z was a numeral letter, fignifying
2000 ; and with a da(h added a-top, z fignified 2000
times 2000, or 4,600,006.
In abbreviations this letter formerly dood as a mark
for feveral forts of weights 5 fome times it fignified an
ounce and a half; and very frequently it dood for half
Vol. XX. Part. II.
an ounce j fometimes for the eighth part of an ounce, ,»
or a dram troy weight; and it has in earlier times been ZaailHi
ufed to exprefs the third part of an ounce or eight feru-—-v—
pies. ZZ were ufed by fome of the ancient phyficians
to exprefs myrrh, and at prefent they are often ufed to
lignify zinziber or ginger.
ZAARA, Zapara, Sahara, or the Idcj'crt^ a vad
country of Africa, bounded on the north by Barbary,
on the ead by Fezzan and Cadina, on the fouth by
Tombu&oo, and on the wed by the Atlantic ocean.
Zaara contains a variety of wandering nations, all pro¬
ceeding from Arabs, Moors, and fugitive Portuguefe,
who took refuge there when the family of the Sherifs
made themfelves maders of the three kingdoms of Bar-
S ^ bary.
Z A F I 773 ] -z A M
barv. All thefe people bear indifcrhmnately the names
of Nurs, Moors, or Arabs. They are fubdivided into
various nations, of which the molt confiderable are the
Mongearts, Trafars, and Bracnars. The Mongearis
lead a wandering life, and live chiefly on the milk of
their flocks, with a little barley-meal, and fume dates.
The poorer fort go naked, except the females, who
commonly wrap a clout about their middle, and wear a
kind of bonnet on their head 5 but the wealthier fort
have a kind of loofe gown, made of blue calico, with
large lleeves, that is brought them from Negroland.
When they move from one place to another for frefli
pafture, water, or prey, mofl of them ride on camels,
which have generally a fort of faddle between the bunch
and the neck, with a firing or ftrap run through their
nollrils, which ferves for a bridle ; and inflead of fpurs
they ufe a {harp bodkin. Their tents or huts are cover¬
ed with a coarfe fluff, made of camel’s hair, and a kind
of wool or mofs that grows on the palm trees. Thefe
Arabs live here under the government of their fheiks or
cheyks; as in Arabia, Egypt, and other places. The
other two tribes are rather more civilized. They are
all Mahometans.
ZABULON, in Ancient Geography, one of the
twelve tribes ■, bounded on the north by the tribes of
Afher and Naphthali j on the eafl by the fea of Gali¬
lee •, bn the fouth by the tribe of Iffachar or the brook
Cifon, which ran between both ; on the weft by the
Mediterranean ; fo that it touched two feas, or wras bi-
marous.
Zabulon, in Ancient Geography, a very ftrong town
in the tribe of that name, on the Mediterranean, fir-
named of men, near Ptolemais : its vicinity to which
makes it probable that it was alfo Chabulon, unltfs ei¬
ther name is a faulty reading in Jofephus j diftant about
60 ftadia from Ptolemais.
ZACYNTHUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland to
the fouth of Cephalenia 60 ftadia, but nearer to Pelo-
ponnefus, in the Ionian fea, formerly fubje£l to Ulyffes,
in compafs above 160 ftadia, woody and fruitful, with
a confiderable cognominal town and a port. The ifland
lies over againft Elis, having a colony of Achaeans from
Peloponnefus, over againft the Corinthian gulf. Both
iiland and town are now called Zante.
ZAFFRE, is the oxide of cobalt, employed for
painting pottery ware and porcelain of a blue colour.
The method of preparing it is as follows : The cobalt
taken out of the mine is broken with hammers into
pieces about the fize of a hen’s egg •, and the flony in-
volucrum, with fuch other heterogeneous matters as are
diftinguilhable by the eye, are feparated as much as
poflible. The chofen mineral is then pounded in ftamp-
ing mills, and lifted through brafs wire fieves. The
lighter parts are walked off by water, and it is after¬
wards put into a large flat-bottomed arched furnace, re-
fembling a baking oven, where the flame of the wood
reverberates upon the ore •, which is occafionally ftirred
and turned with long handled iron hooks or rakes *, and
the procefs is continued till it ceafes to emit any fumes.
The oven or furnace is terminated by a long horizontal
gallery, which ferves for a chimney; in which the
arfenic, naturally mixed with the ore, fublimes. If the
ore contains a little bifmuth, as this femimetal is very
fufible, it is colle61ed at the bottom of the furnace.,
The cobalt remains in the ftate of a dark gray oxide,
and is called s&ajfre. One hundred pounds of the cobalt
ore lofe 20 and even 30 per cent, during this operation,
which is continued 4 or even 9 hours, according to the
quality of the ore. The roaited ore being taken out
from the furnace, fuch parts as are concreted into lumps
are pounded and lifted afrelh. Zaffre, in commerce, is
never pure, being mixed with two or rather three parts
of powdered flints. A proper quantity of the belt fort
of thefe, after being ignited in a furnace, is thrown
into water to render it friable, and more eafily re¬
duced to powder ^ which, being fifted, is mixed with
the zaffre, according to the before-mentioned dofe : and
the mixture is put into calks, after being moiftened with
water. This oxide, fufed with three parts of fand and
one of potafh, forms a blue glafs •, which, when pound¬
ed, fifted, and afterwards ground in mills, included in
large calks, forms fmalt.
The blue of zaffre is the moll folid and fixed of all
the colours that can be employed in vitrification. It
fuffers no change from the moft violent fire. It is fuc-,
cefsfully employed to give lhades of blue to enamels,
and to the cryftal-glaffes made in imitation of fome
opaque and tranfparent precious Hones, as the lapis
lazuli, the turquois, the fapphire, and others of this
kind.
ZALEUCUS, a famous legiflator of the Locrians,
and the difciple of Pythagoras, flourilhed 500 years,
B. C. He made a law, by which he punifhed adulter¬
ers with the lofs of both their eyes j and his fon offend¬
ing, was not abfolved from this punilhment : yet, to
Ihow the father as well as the juft lawgiver, he put out
his own right, and his fon’s left eye. This example of
juftice and feverity made fo ftrong an impreflion on the
minds of his fubjedts, that no inftance was found of the
commiflion of that vice during the reign of that legifla¬
tor. It is added, that Zaleucus forbade any wine being-
given to the lick on pain of death, unlefs it was pre-
feribed by the phyficians j and that lie was fo jealous of
his laws, that he ordered, that whoever was defirous of
changing them, fliould be obliged, -when he made the
propofal, to have a cord about his neck, in order that
he might be immediately ftrangled, if thofe alterations
were efteemed no better than the laws already eftablilh-
ed. Diodorus Siculus attributes the farce thing to Cha-
rondas legillator of the Sybarites.
ZAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town ofChamane,
a diftridl of Cappadocia, of unknown fituation.—An¬
other Zama, of Mefopotamia, on the Saocoras, to the
fouth of Nifibis.—A third, of Numidia, diftant five
days journey to the weft of Carthage : it Avas the other
royal refidence of the kings of Numidia, hence called
Zama Regia. It flood in a plain •, was ftronger by art
than nature j richly fupplied with every neceffary ; and
abounding in men, and every weapon both of defence
and annoyance.
The laft of thefe is remarkable for the decifive battle
fought between the two greateft commanders in the
world, Hannibal the Carthaginian and Scipio Africa-
nus. Of this engagement, the moft important perhaps
that ever was fought, Mr Hooke gives the following
account.
“ Scipio drew up his army after the Roman manner,
except that he placed the cohorts of the Principes di-
re&ly behind thofe of the Haftati, fo as to leave fuffi-
cient fpace for the enemy’s elephants to pafs through
from
Z A M [7
from front to rear. C. Laelius was ported on the left
wing with the Italian horfe, and Mafinifla with his Nu-
midians on the right. The intervals of the firft line
Scipio filled up with his Velites, or light-armed troops,
ordering them, upon a fignal givep, to begin the bat¬
tle *, and, in cafe they were repulfed, or broke by the
elephants, to run back through the lanes before men¬
tioned, and continue on their flight till they were got
behind the Triarii. Thofe that were wounded, or in
danger of being overtaken, were to turn off to the right
and left through the fpaces between the lines, and that
way efcape to the rear.
“ The army thus drawn up, Scipio w7ent from rank
to rank, urging his foldiers to confider the confequences
of a defeat and the rewards of viflory : on the one hand,
certain death or rtavery (for they had no town in Africa
ftrong enough to protect them) •, on the other, not only
a lading fuperiority over Carthage, but the empire of
the reft of the world.
“ Hannibal ranged all his elephants, to the number
of above 80, in one front. Behind thefe he placed his
mercenaries, confiftingof 12,000 men, Ligurians, Gauls,
Baleares, and Mauritanians.
“ The new levies of Carthaginians and other Afri¬
cans, together with 4000 Macedonians, under a gene¬
ral named Sopater, compofed the fecond line. And in
the rear of all, at the dirtance of about a furlong, he
ported his Italian troops, in whom he chiefly confided.
The Carthaginian horfa formed his right wing, the Nu-
midians his left.
“ He ordered their feveral leaders to exhort their
troops not to be difcouraged by their own weaknefs, but
to place the hope of vi£tory in him and his Italian ar¬
my ; and particularly directed the captains of the Car¬
thaginians to reprefent to them what would be the fate
of their wives and children if the event of this battle
fhould not prove fuccefsful. The general himfelf, walk¬
ing through the ranks of his Italian troops, called upon
them to be mindful of the 17 campaigns in which they
had been fellow-foldiers'with him; and of that conftant
feries of victories by which they had extinguifhed in the
Romans all hope of ever being conquerors. He urged
them to remember, above all, the battles of Trebia,
Thrafynienus, and Cannae ; with any of which the ap¬
proaching battle was in no wife to be compared, either
with refpefl to the bravery or the number of the enemy.
‘ The Romans were yet unfoiled, and in the height of
their ftrength, when you firft met them in the field ;
neverthelefs you vanquifhed them. The foldiers now
before us are either the children of the vanquiftied, or
the remains of thofe whom you have often put to flight
in Italy. Maintain therefore your general’s glory and
your own, and eftablifli to yourfelves the name of invin¬
cible, by which you are become famous throughout the
World.’
“ When the Numidians of the two armies had fkir-
miflied a while, Hannibal ordered the managers of the
elephants to drive them upon the enemy. Some of the
hearts, frightened at the noife of the trumpets and other
inftruments of war which founded on all fides, immedi¬
ately ran back amongft the Numidians of the Carthagi¬
nian left wing, and put them into confufion ; which
Mafiniffa taking advantage of, entirely routed them.
Great deftruftion was made of the Velites by the reft of
the elephants, till thefe alfo being terrified, fome of
79 ] Z A M
them ran through the void fpaces of the Roman army
which Scipio had left for that purpofe ; others falling
in among the cavalry of the enemy’s right wing, gave
Ladius the fame opportunity againft the Carthaginian
horfe as had been given to Mafinifla againft the Numi-
dian, and of which the Roman did not fail to make the
fame ufe. After this the infantry of the foremofl lines
joined battle. Hannibal’s mercenaries had the advan¬
tage in the beginning of the conftift ; but the Roman
Haftati, followed and encouraged by the Principes, who
exhorted them to fight manfully, and fhowed themfelves
ready to aflift them, bravely fuftained the attack, and
at length gained ground upon the enemy. The merce¬
naries not being feafonably fupported by their fecond
line, and therefore thinking themfelves betrayed, they
in their retreat fell furioufly upon the Africans ; fo
that thefe, the Haftati coming up, were obliged to fight
for fome time both againft their own mercenaries and
the enemy. When the two Carthaginian lines had
ceaff d their mutual rage, they joined their ftrength ;
and though now but a mere throng of men, broke the
Haftati: but then the Principes advancing to the afiift-
anee of the latter, reftored the battle; and moft of the
Africans and mercenaries were here cut off. Hannibal
did not advance to their relief, the Roman Triarii not
having yet engaged, and the Principes being ftill in
good order; and left the routed Africans and mercena¬
ries fhould break the ranks of his Italian foldiers, he
commanded thefe to prefent their fpears at thofe who
fled to them for proteflion, which obliged the runaways
to move off to the right and left.
“ The ground over which the Romans muff march
before they could attack Hannibal being ftrewed with
heaps of dead bodies ayd weapons, and being flippery
with blood, Scipio feared that the order of his battalions
would be broke, fhould he pafs it haftily. To avoid
this mifchief, he commanded the Haftati to give over
the purfuit, and halt where they were, oppofite to the
enemy’s centre : after which, having lent all his wound¬
ed to the rear, he advanced leifurely with the Principe*
and Triarii, and placed them on the wings of the Ha¬
ftati. Then followed a fharp engagement, in which
victory was long and eagerly difputed. It would feern
that the Romans, though fuperior in number, were once
upon the point of lofing the day; for Polybius tells us,
that M'afiniffa and Lsclius came very feafonably, and as
if fent from heaven, to their afliftance. Thefe generals
being returned from the purfuit of the cavalry, fell fed-
denly upon the rear of Hannibal’s men, moft of whom
were cut off in their ranks ; and of thofe that fled, very-
few efcaped the horfe, the country7 all around being a
plain.
“ There died of the Carthaginians in the fight above
20,000, and almoft the like number were taken prifon-
ers. The lofs on the fide of the Romans amounted to
about 2000 men. Hannibal efcaped with a few7 horfe
to Adrumetum, having performed every thing in the-
engagement which could be expeifted from a great ge¬
neral. His army (fays Polybius) could not have been
more fkilfully drawn up. For as the order of the Ro¬
man battalions makes it extremely difficult to break
them, the Carthaginian wifely placed his elephants in
the front, that they might put the enemy in confufion
before the armies fhould engage. In his firft line he
placed the mercenaries ; men bold and adlive, but not
5 F 2 well
ZAP, [ 780 ] Z E A
■\vel] ditciplined, that by their impetuofity he might give
a check to the ardour of the,Romans. The Africans
and Carthaginians, whofe courage he doubted, he port¬
ed in the middle between the mercenaries and his Ita¬
lian foldiers, that they might be forced to fight, or at
lealt that the Romans, by flaughtering them, might fa¬
tigue themfelves and blunt their weapons. Latf of all,
lie drew up the troops he had difciplined himfelf, and
in whom he chiefly confided, at a good diltance from
the fecond line, that they might not be broken by the
route of the Africans and mercenaries, and kept them
in referve for a vigorous attack upon a tired and weak¬
ened enemy.”
ZANGUEBAR, a country in Africa, lying on the
cartern coaft, between three degrees of north latitude,
and 18 fouth. It includes feveral petty kingdoms, in
which the Portuguefe have various fettlements. The
inhabitants, except thofe converted by the Portuguefe,
are all Mahometans or idolaters j and the latter much
the more numerous. The names of the principal terri¬
tories are Mombivza, Lamon, Melinda, ^uiola, and Mo~
Jambique. The Portuguefe have built feveral forts in
Mombaza and Mofambique, and have fettled feveral
colonies there. They trade with the negroes for Haves,
ivory, gold, ortrich-feathers, wax and drugs. The
productions are much the fame as in other parts of
Africa between the tropics-
ZANONIA, a genus of plants of the clafs pentan-
dria. See Botany Index.
ZANTE, an ifland of the Mediterranean, near the
eoaft of the Morea, 19 miles fouth-eaft of the ifland of
Cephalonia, belonging to the Venetians. It is about
24 miles in length and 12 in breadth, and very pleafant
and fertile ; but its principal riches confilt in currants,
with which it greatly abounds. They are cultivated in
a very large plain, under the fhelter of mountains on
the fhore of this irtand ; for which reafon the fun has
greater power to bring them to perfeft maturity. The
town called 'iante may contain near 20,000 inhabitants ;
the whole ifland contains about 40,000. The houfes
are low, on account of the frequent earthquakes, for
fcarce a year paflfes without one ; however, they do no
great damage. The natives fpeak both Greek and Ita¬
lian. There are very few Roman Catholics among
them *, but they have a bifliop as well as the Greeks.
This place has no fortifications, but there is a fortrefs
upon an eminence planted with cannon. In one part of
this ifland is a place which fliakes when trod upon like
a quagmire 5 and a fpring which throws out a great
deal of bitumen, efpecially at the time of an earthquake.
It ferves inftead of pitch to pay the bottoms of the fhips,
and about 100 barrels in a year are ufed for this pur-
pofe. There are about 50 villages in the ifland $ but
no other large town befide Zaute. It is feated on the
caftern fide of the ifland, and has a good harbour. The
Engliih and Dutch have each a fadtory and conful here.
E. Long. 21. 3. N. Lat. 37. 53.
ZANTHOXYLUM, the Toothache-tree, a ge¬
nus of plants of the clafs of dioecia ; and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 46th order, Hederucece. See
Botany Index.
ZAPATA, a kind of feaft or ceremony held in
Italy in the courts of certain princes, on St Nicholas’s
day j wherein people hide prefents in the Ihoes or flip¬
pers of thofe they would do honour to, in fuch a manner
as may furprife them on the morrow when they come
to drefs ; being done in imitation of the pradiice of
St Nicholas, who ufed in the night-time to throw purfes
of money in at the windows to marry poor maids
withal.
ZEA, Indian Corn ; a genus of plants of the clafs
monuecia. See Botany Index.—There is only one fpe-
cies, the Mays, maize. The Indians in New England,
and many other parts of America, had no other vege¬
table but maize or Indian corn for making their bread.
They call it weachin; and in the United States of A-
merica there is much of the bread of the country made
of this grain, not of the European corn. In Italy and
Germany alfo there is a fpecies of maize which is the
food of the poor inhabitants.
The ear of the maize yields a much greater quan¬
tity of grain than any of our corn ears. There are com¬
monly about eight rows of grain in the ear, often more,,
if the ground be good. Each of thefe rows contains at
leatt 30 grains, and each of thefe gives much more
flour than a grain of any of our corn. The grains are
ufually either white or yellowilh j but fometimes they
are red, bluilh, greenilh, or olive-coloured, and fome¬
times ftriped and variegated. This fort of grain, though
fo eflentially neceflary to the natives of the place, is yet
liable to many accidents. It does not ripen till the end
of September; fo that the rains often fall heavy upon
it while on the ftalk, and the birds in general peck it
when it is foft and unripe. Nature has, to defend it
from thefe accidents, covered it with a thick hulk,,
which keeps off flight rains very well : but the birds,
if not frighted away, often eat through it, and devour
a great quantity of the grain.
There are three or four varieties of maize in different
parts of America. 1 hat of Virginia is very tall and
robufl, growing to feven or eight feet high ; that of .
New England is fliortcr and lower. And the Indians
farther up in the country have a yet fmaller kind in
common ufe. The ftalk of the maize is jointed like the
fugar-cane ; it is very foft and juicy, and the juice is fo
fweet and faccharine, that a fyrup, as fweet as that of
fugar, has been often made of it j and things fweetened
with it have been found not dirtinguifliable from thofe
done with fugar. It has not been tried yet whether it
will cryftallize into fugar 5 but in all probability it will.
The Americans plant this corn any time from the
beginning of March to the beginning of June ; but the
beft feafon is the middle of April. The favage Indians,
who knew nothing of our account of months, ufed to
guide themfelves in the feed-time of this ufeful plant by
the budding of fome particular trees of that country,
and by the coming up of a fort of fifti into their rivers
which they call the aloofe. Thefe things were both fo
regular, that they were in no danger of miftaking the
time.
The manner of planting maize is in rows, at equal
diftances, every way about five or fix feet. They open
the eatrth with a hoe, taking away the furface to three
or four inches deep, and of the breadth of the hoe
they then throw in a little of the finer earth, fo as to
leave the hoe four inches deep or thereabouts, and in
each of thefe holes they place four or five grains at a
little dirtance from one another. If two or three of
thefe grow up, it is very well \ fome of them are ufual¬
ly deftroyed either by the birds or other animals.
When
Zealand
2 E A t ?8i ] Z E M
■ Zea When the young plants appear, they hoe up the
f II , weeds from time to time j and when the ftalk gathers
LZea‘‘11 '■ fome ftrength, they raife the earth a little about it, and
continue this at every hoeing till it begins to put forth
the ears •, then they enlarge the-hill of earth, round the
root, to the fize of a hop-hill, and after this they leave
it till the time of harveft, without any farther care.
When they gather the ears, they either immediately
ftrip off the corn, or elfe hang up the ears, tied in traces
at diftances from one another ; for if they are laid near
together, they will heat and rot, or elfe fprout and
grow j but kept cool and feparate, they will remain
good all the winter. The belt method is to thrafh out
the corn as foon as the harveft is over, to day it well on
mats in the fun, and then lay it up in holes of the
ground, well lined with mats, grafs, or the like, and
afterwards covered at top with more earth. The moft
careful among the Indians ufe this method, and this fort
of fubterranean granary always proves good.
The ufes of this plant among the Indians are very
many. The great article is the making their bread of
it *, but belides this, the ftalks, when cut up before they
are too much dried, are an excellent winter food for
cattle 5 but they ufually leave them on the ground
for the cattle to feed on. The hulks about the ear are
ufually feparated from the reft, and make a particular
fort of fodder, not inferior to our hay. The Indian
women have a way of flitting them into narrow parts,
and they then weave them artificially into balkets and
many other toys. The original way of eating the grain
among the Indians was this : they boiled it whole in
water till it fwelled and became tender, and then they
fed on it either alone, or ate it with their fifh and veni-
ion inftead of bread. After this, they found the way of
boiling it into a fort of pudding, after bruifing it in a
anortar ; but the ■way of reducing it to flour is the belt
of all. They do this by parching it carefully in the
fire, without burning, and then beating it in mortars
and lifting it. This flour they lay up in bags as their
eonftant provifion, and take it out with them w'hen they
go to war, eating it either dry or with rvater. The
Englilh have contrived, by mixing it into a ftiff pafte,
either by itfelf or with rye or wheat-meal, fermenting
it with leaven or yeaft, and baking it in a hot oven, to
make good bread of it. They have likewife found out
a method of making good beer, either ©f the bread or
by malting the grain.
ZEAL, paftionate ardour for any perfon or caufe.
It is moft frequently uled to denote a ftrong and w^arm
attachment to the diftinguifhing do6trines or worfhip of
fome particular fedt of Chriftians. Thus we fay, a zea¬
lous Calviniji, Arminian, or Papi/l; though we may
likewife with the greatcft propriety fay of an upright
and benevolent man, that he is zealous of good works.
ZEALAND, the chief of the Danifh illands, is fi-
tuated at the entrance of the Baltic fea, bounded by the
Schaggerrac fea on the north ; by the Sound, which fe-
parates it from Schonen, on the eaft *, by the Baltic fea
on the fouth ; and by the ftrait called the Great Be/t,
which feparates it from the illand of Funen, on the weft ^
being of a round figure, near 200 miles in circumfe¬
rence : the chief town is Copenhagen.
Zealand, is alfo a province of the United Nether¬
lands, confifting of eight ifiands, which lie in the mouth
®f the river Scheldt, bounded by the province of Hol-
I
land, from which they are feparated by a narrow chan¬
nel, on the north •, by Brabant on the eaft 5 by Flanders,
from which they are feparated by one of the branches of
the Scheldt, on the fouth j and by the German ocean
on the weft.
New ZEALAND, a country of Alia, in the South Pa¬
cific ocean, firlt difcovered by Tafman, the Dutch na¬
vigator, in the year 1642, who gave it the name of
Staten Land, though it has been generally diftinguiihed
in our maps and charts by the name of New Zealand,
and was fuppofed to be part of a fouthern continent :
but it is now known, from the late difeoveries of Captain
Cook w'ho failed round it, to confift of two large illands,
divided from each other by a ftrait four or five leagues
broad. They are fituated between the latitudes of 34
and 48 degrees fouth, and between the longitudes of
166 and 180 degrees eaft from Greenwich. One of
thefe illands is for the moft part mountainous, rather
barren, and but thinly inhabited ; but the other is much
more fertile, and of a better appearance. In the opi¬
nion of Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr Solander, every kind
of European fruits, grain, and plants, would flourilh
here in the utmoft luxuriance. From the vegetables
found here, it is fuppofed that the winters are milder
than thofe in England, and the fummers not hotter,
though more equally warm fo that it is imagined, that
if this country were fettled by people from Europe, they
would, with moderate induftry, be foon fupplied, not
only with the neceflaries, but the luxuries of life, in
great abundance. Here are foreftsof vaft extent, filled
with very large timber trees 5 and near 400 plants were
found here that had not been defcribed by the natura-
lirts. The inhabitants of New Zealand are ftout and4
robuft, and equal in ftature to the large ft Europeans.
Their colour in general is brown, but in few deeper
than ,that of the Spaniard who has been expofed to the
fun, and in many not fo deep ; and both fexes have good
features. Their drefs is very uncouth, and they mark
their bodies in a manner fimilar to the inhabitants «f
Otaheite, and which is called tallowing. Their prin¬
cipal weapons are lances, darts, and a kind of battle-
axes ; and they have generally fhown themfelves very
hoftile to the Europeans who have vifited them.
ZEALOTS, an ancient feft of the Jews, fo called
from their pretended zeal for God’s law and the honour
of religion.
ZEBRA. See Eqxjus, Mammalia Index.
ZEBU, a name given by M. de Buffon to the bos
indicus of Linnaeus. See Mammalia Index.
ZECHARI AH, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment. See Scripture, N° 80.
ZECHIN, or Zecchino. See Sequin.
ZEDOARY, in the Materia Medico. See KTEMP¬
TER 1 A.
ZELL, a city of Germany in the circle of Lower
Saxony, capital of the duchies of Zell and Lunenburg,
fituated at the confluence of the rivers Aller and Fuhfe,
30 miles north of Hanover, and 40 fouth of Lunen¬
burg. E. Long. 10. 12. N. Lat. 52. 49.
ZEMBLA, Nova, a very large ifland lying in the
Northern ocean, to the north of Ruflia, from which it
is feparated by the ftrait of Waigate. It has ne inhabi¬
tants except wild beafts, particularly white foxes and
bears. In 1595 a Dutch veflel was caft away on the
coaft, and the fhip’s company were obliged to winter
here : .
Zembla.
Z E M
Zembla, here j but tliey did not fee the fun from the fourth of
Zcrmndur. j\jf)Vemher to the beginning of February, and had great
difficulty to keep themfelves from being frozen to
death.
ZEMINDAR, in its original meaning, fignifies a
great landholder of Bengal; but it is now more ftriiflly
applicable to thofe who have their title conftituted or
confirmed by a patent or charter from government, by
which they hold their lands or zemindaries upon cer¬
tain conditions. It appears from hiftory, that, in times
prior to the irruption of the Mahomedans, the rajahs
•who held their refidence at Delhy, and polfelfed the fo-
vereignty of Hindoftan, deputed officers to collect their
revenues. The word ‘zemindar is Perfian, and that
language can have had no currency in the countries of
India, until it was introduced by the people of Perfia.
When the emperor Shehab-ul-Dien Ghory conquered
the empire of Hindoftan at the end of the t 2th century,
he left Sultan Cutub-ul-Dien to be his viceroy at Delhy,
and adminifter the government of Hindoftan. From
that time the cuftoms and practices of the Mahomedans
began gradually to be eftablifhed in India: their ar¬
mies were fent into the countries of the reduced rajahs,
under the command of omrahs, in order to preferve the
conqueft ; and lands were allotted to them to defray the
expence. From hence arofe the fyftem of Jaghiredarry
in Hindoftan. But when thefe Omrah Jaghiredars had
eftablifhed their own ftrength, feveral of them rebelled
againft the imperial authority, and afpired at the crown.
Thus circumftanced, the emperors, in order to obviate
thefe mifchiefs, thought it would be more politic to
commit the management of the country to the native
Hindoos, who had moft diftinguifhed themfelves by the
readinefs and conftancy of their obedience to the fove-
reign power.
In purfuance of this plan, diUriels were allotted to
numbers of them under a reafonable revenue (Jummah
Monafib), which they were required to pay in money
to the governors of the provinces, deputed from the
emperor. And in cafe any one of the omrahs or pro¬
vincial governors fhould fwerve from his allegiance, the
zemindars of that country were to exert themfelves in
luch a manner as fhould check rebellion, and reftore
good government. For this purpofe, grants of ze-
rnindary were feverally conferred upon fuch of the Hin¬
doos as were obedient j deferibing their apportionment
of the country ; and every perfon who had received a
grant under the authority of the crown was thereby
tully inverted with the functions of zemindar.
The functions of a zemindar are, ift, The preferva-
tion and defence of their refpeclive boundaries from
traitors and infurgents. 2dly, The tranquillity of the
fubjecls, the abundance of cultivators, and increaie of
his revenue. 3dly, The punifhment of thieves and rob¬
bers, the prevention of crimes, and the deftru6tion of
highwaymen. The accompliftiment of thefe objedls is
confidered in the royal grant as the difeharge of office
to the fovefeign ; and on that account the word office
(khidmut) is employed in the Dewanny Sunnud for a
'Zemindary.
It was a rule in the times of the ancient emperors,
that when any of the zemindars died, thgir eftefls and
property were fequeftrated by the government. After
which,^ in confideration of the rights of long fervice,
which is incumbent on fovereigns, and elevates thedig-
Z E N
nity of the employer, funnuds for the office of zemin- Zemindar,
dary were granted to the children of the deceafed ze- Zend,
mindar ; and no other perfon was accepted, becaufe the y—
inhabitants could never feel for any ftranger the attach¬
ment and affe&ion which they naturally entertain for
the family of their zemindar, and -would have been af¬
flicted if any other had been put over them. For this
reafon, the-emperors, confidering it as a means of con¬
ciliating the minds of the people, gracioufly fixed and
confirmed the children of the deceafed zemindar in the
office of their fathers and grandfathers, by iffuing new
funnuds to transfer the pofleffion to them. By degrees
zemindaries- became truly heritable property, which,
however, could be transferred by gift or fale from one
family to another. They could likewife be forfeited to
the fovereign, by the zemindar’s deviating from his al¬
legiance, neglefting to pay his tribute, or to difeharge-
the duties of his ftation.
It is univerfally known, fays Sir Charles Roufe
Boughton, that, when the three provinces of Bengal,
Bahar, and Orifla, were ceded to the Britilh Eaft India
Company, the country was diftributed among the ze¬
mindars and talookdars of holders of land, who paid a
ftipulated revenue, by twelve inftalments, to the fove¬
reign power or its delegates. They affembled at the
capital in the beginning of every Bengal year (com¬
mencing in April), in order to complete their final pay¬
ments, and make up their annual accounts; to fettle the
difeount to be charged upon their feveral remittances in
various coins for the purpofe of reducing them to one
ftandard, or adjuft their concerns with their bankers ;
to petition for remiffions on account of ftorms, drought,
inundation, difturbances, and fuch like ; to make their
reprefentations of the ftate and occurrences of their
diftriOs: after all which tliey entered upon the collec¬
tions of the new year; of which, however, they were
not permitted to begin receiving the rents from their
own farmers, till they had completely elofed the ac¬
counts of the preceding year, fo that they might not en¬
croach upon the new rents, to make up the deficiency
of the paft. Our author proves, we think completely,
the right of the zemindars to transfer their pofieffions,
either by inheritance to their children, or, with the con-
fent of the fovereign, to other families ; and he argues
ftrenunufiy and fuccefsfully againft the bad policy, as
well as iajuftice, of interfering with thofe rights, as
long as the zemindars difeharge the duties of their feve¬
ral ftations.
ZEND, or Zendavesta, a book aferibed to Zoro-
after, and containing his pretended revelations; which
the ancient Magicians and modern Perfees, called alfo
Gaurs, obferve and reverence in the fame manner as the
Chriftians do the Bible, and the Mahometans the Ko¬
ran, making it the foie rule both of their faith and man¬
ners. The word, it is faid, originally fignifies any in-
ftrument for kindling fire, and is applied to this book
to denote its aptitude for kindling the flame of religion
in the hearts of thofe who read it.
The Zend contains a reformed fyftem of Magianifm ;
teaching that there is a Supreme Being, eternal,felf-exift-
ent, and independent, who created both light and dark-
nefs, out of which he made all other things; that thefe
are in a ftate of conflift, which will continue till the
end of the world ; that then there {hal! be a general
refurrc&ion and judgment; and that juft retribution
{hall
[ 782 ]
ZEN [ 783 ] ZEN
Zend fliall be rendered unto men according to tlieir works j
II that the angel of darknefs with his followers {hall be
. configned to a place of everlafting darknefs and punifh-
ment, and the angel of light with his difciples introdu¬
ced into a date of everlalling light and happinefs j after
which light and darknefs (hall no more interfere with
each other. The Zend alfo enjoins the conftant main¬
tenance of facred fires and (ire temples for religious
worfhip j the didinclion of clean and unclean beads •,
the payment of tithes to priefta, which are to be of one
family or tribe; a multitude of walkings and purifica¬
tions, refembling thofe of the Jewilh law : and a variety
of rules and exhortations for the exercife of benevolence
and charity.
In this book there are many pafifages evidently taken
out of the Scriptures of the Old Teilament, particularly
out of the Pfalms of David: The author reprefents
Adam and Eve as the firft parents of all mankind, gives
in fubftance the fame account of the creation and de¬
luge with Mofes, differing indeed with regard to the for¬
mer, by converting the fix days of the Mofaic account
into fix times, comprehending in the whole 365 days j
and fpeaks alfo of Abraham, Jofeph, Mofes, and Solo¬
mon. Moreover, Dr Baumgarten afferts, that this work
contains do&rines, opinions, and fa£ts, adlually borrowed
from the Jews, Chrifiians, and Mahometans*, whence,
and from other circumftances, he concludes that both the.
hiftory and writings of this prophet were probably in¬
vented in the later ages, when the fire-worlbippers under
the Mahometan government thought fit to vindicate their
religion from the fufpicion of idolatry.
At whatever period the Zend may have been written,
we are afi’ured by Dr Hyde, that it is in the pure old
Perfian language, and in the character called Peplavi.
Some parts of it contain the original text, and others
Zoroafter’s fecond thoughts fubjoined, for explaining
more fully his doftrine. Thefe were occafioned by the
oppofition of adverfaries, and unforefeen circumftances
which occurred during the fabrication of the impofture.
About 300 years ago, when the old Perfian language
bad become antiquajked and little understood, one of the
deftours or high-prielts among the Perfees compofed the
Sadda, which is a compendium in the vulgar or modern
Perfic tongue, of thofe parts of the Zend that relate to
religion, or a kind of code of canons and precepts, drawn
from the theological writings of Zoroafter, ferving as an
authoritative rule of faith and practice for his followers.
This Sadda is written in a low kind of Perfic verfe, and
as Dr Hyde informs us, it is bonorum ct malorum far¬
rago, having many good and pious, things, and others
very fuperftitious and trifling. See Persees and Zoro¬
aster.
ZENITH, in Ajironomij, the vertical point, or a
point in the heavens direflly over our heads.
ZENO Eleates, an eminent Grecian philofopher,
infield’s was b°rn at Elea about 504 years before Chrift. He
Vi/iory of' was a zealous friend of civil liberty, and is celebrated
fhilofophy, for his courageous and fuccefsful oppofition to tyrants j
but the inconfiftency. of the ftories related by different
writers concerning him in a great meafure deftroys-their
credit. He chofe to refide in his fmall native city of
Elea rather than at Athens, hecaufe it afforded freer
fcope to Iris independent and generous fpirit, which could
not eafily fubmit to the reftraints of authority.^ It is re¬
lated, that he vindicated the warmth with which he re-
5-
fented reproach, by faying, “ If I were indifferent to Zeno.,
cenfure, I ftiould alfo be indifferent to praile.” The
invention of the dialcdlic art has been improperly aferi-
bed to Zeno; but there can be no doubt that this phi¬
lofopher, and other metaphylical difputants in the Elea-
tie left, employed much ingenuity and fubtlety in exhi¬
biting examples of moft of the logical arts, which were
afterwards reduced to rule by Ariftotle and others.
According to Ariftotle, he taught, that nothing can
be produced either from that which is limilar or diflimir
lar j that there is only one being, God 5 who is eternal,,
homogeneous, and fpherical, neither finite nor infinite,
neither quiefeent nor moveable 5 that there are many
worlds $ that there is in nature no vacuum j that all
bodies are compofed of four elements, heat and moifture,.
cold and drynefs j and that the body of man is from the
earth, and his foul an equal mixture of thefe four ele¬
ments. He argued with great fubtlety againft the pof-
fibility of motion. If Seneca’s account ox this philofo¬
pher deferves credit, he reached tlie highelt point of
fcepticifm, and denied the real exiftence of external ob*
je£ts. The truth is, that atter all that has been advan¬
ced by different writers, it is impoftible to determine
whether Zeno underftood the term one, metaphylically,
logically, or phyfically j or whether Jie admitted or de¬
nied a nature properly divine.
Zeno, the founder of the feel of the Stoics, was born
about 300 years before Chrift at Citium, in the illand of
Cyprus. This place having been originally peopled by
a colony of Phoenicians, Zeno is fometimes called a Phoe¬
nician. His father was by proftflion a merchant, but
difeovering in the youth a ftrong propenfity towards
learning, he early devoted him to philofophy. In his
mercantile capacity he had frequent occafion to vifit A-
thens, w'here he purchafed for his fon feveral of the wri¬
tings of the moft eminent Socratic phiiofophers. Thefe
he read with great avidity ; and when he was about 30
years of age, he determined to take a voyage to a city
which was fo celebrated both as a mart of trade and of
Icience. If it-be true, as fome writers relate, that he
brought with him a valuable cargo of Phoenician purple,
which was loft by ftiipwreck upon the coaft of Piraeus,
this circumftance will account for the facility with which
he at firft attached himfelf to a fe£t whole leading prin¬
ciple was the contempt of riches. Upon liis firft arrival
in Athens, going accidentally into the {hop of a book-
feller, he took up a volume of the Commentaries of Xe¬
nophon ; andiafter reading a few paffages, was fo much
delighted with the work, and formed lo high an idea of
the author, that he alked the bookleller where he might
meet with fuch men. Crates the Cynic.philofopher hap¬
pening at that inftant to be pafling by, the, bookfelkr
pointed to him, and faid, “ Eollow that man.” Zeno
attended upon the inftru&ior.s of Grates, and was fo well
pleafed with his-doftrine that he became one. of his dif-
ciples. But though he admired the general principles
of the Cynic fchool, he could not eafily reconcile him¬
felf to their peculiar manners. Befides, his inquifitive
turn of mind would not allow him to adopt that indiffer¬
ence to every fcientific inquiry which was one of the
chara£leriftic diftinftions of the fett. He therefore at¬
tended upon other mafters, who profeffed to inftruft their
difeiples in the nature and caufes of things. When Crates,
difpleafedat his following other phiiofophers, attempted
to drag him by forge out of the fchool of Stilpo, Zeno
\
ZEN [ 7§4 ] Z-E U
r/Vh’ ” ^r°u may my body, but Stilpo has
)1,1‘ . Isid hold of my mind.” After continuing to attend
upon the le£tures of Stilpo feveral years, he palled over
to other fchools, particularly to thofe ofXenocrates and
Diodorus Cronus. By the latter he was inltrufted in
dialedlics. He wasfo much delighted with this branch
■of ftudy, that he prefented to his mailer a large pecuni¬
ary gratuity, in return for his free communication of
tome of his ingenious fubtleties. At laft, after attending
aim oft every other mailer, he offered himfelf as a difci-
ple of Polemo. This philofopher appears to have been
aware, that Zeno’s intention in thus removing from one.
fcbool to another, was to colledt materials from various
quarters for a new fyftem of his own 5 for, when he came
into Polemo’s fchool, he fa id to him, “ I am no Itran-
ger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts •, I perceive that your
defign is to creep flyly into my garden, and Ileal away
my fruit.” Polemo was not miftaken in his opinion.
Having made himfelf mailer of the tenets of others, Ze¬
no determined to become the founder of a new led!.
1 he place which he made choice of for his fchool was a
public portico, adorned with the pidlures of Polygnotus,
and other eminent painters. It was the moll famous
.portico in Athens, and called, by way of eminence,
“ the Porch.” It was from this circumllance that the
followers of Zeno were called Stoics.
In his perfon Zeno was tall and flender; his afpedl was
fevere, and his brow eontradled. His-conllitution was
"feeble, but he preferved his health by great abllemiouf-
nefs. 1 he fupplies of his table conlilted of figs, bread,
and honey ; notwithllanding which, he was frequently
honoured with the company of great men. In public
company, to avoid every appearance of an affuming tem¬
per, he commonly took the lowed place. Indeed fo
great was his modedy, that he feldom chofe to mingle
with a crowd, or withed for the company of more than
two or three friends at once. He paid more attention to
neatnefs and decorum in external .appearance than the
Cynic philofophers. In his drefs indeed he was plain,
and in all his expences frugal; but this is not to be im-
.puted to avarice, but a contempt of external magnifi-
.cence. He Ihowed as much refpeft to the poor as to
the rich j .and converfed freely w'ith perfons of the mean-
ed occupations. jHe had only onefervant, or, according
to Seneca, none.
Zeno lived to the extreme age of 98 ; and at lad, in
confequence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to
his life. As he was walking out of his fchool he fell
down, and in the fall broke one of his fingers j upon
which he was fo affe&ed with a confcioufnefs of infirmi¬
ty, that, driking the earth, he faid, “ Why am I thus
importuned ? I obey thy furnmons j” and immediately
went home and drangled himfelf. He died in the fird
year of the 129th Olympiad. The Athenians, at the
,-requed of Antigonus, erefted a monument to his me¬
mory in the Ceramicum.
We ought not to confound the two Zenos already
mentioned Avith J
Zeno, a celebrated Epicurean philofopher, born at
Sidon, who had Cicero and Pomponius Atticus for
his difciples, and who wrote a book againd the mathe¬
matics, which, as well as that of Poffidonius’s refuta-
tion of it, is lod j nor with feveral other Zenos mention¬
ed in hidory.
ZENOBIA, queen of Palmyra. See Palmyra.
ZEOLITE, a mineral fubdance. See Mineralogy Zeolite
Index. II
ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tefia-, 2™xis-
ment. See Scripture, N° 79. "f ^
ZEPHYR, the WEST-Wvtd, or that which blows
from the cardinal point of the horizon oppofite to
the ead.
ZEPHT RUS, one of the Pagan deities, Avas repre-
- fen ted as the fon of Aurora, and the lover of the nymph
Chloris, according to the Greeks, or of Flora according
to the Romans; and as prefiding over the growth of
fruits and flowers. He is defcribed as giving a refreffi-
ing coolnefs to the air by his foft and agreeable breath,
and as moderating the heat of dimmer by fanning the
air Avith his filken Avings. He is depidfured under the
form of a youth, Avith a very tender air, Avith Avings re-
fembling thofe of the butterfly, and Avith his head croivn-
ed Avith a variety of flowers. As the poets of Greece
wnd Rome lived in a warm climate, they are lavifli in
in their praife of this beneficent deity, and under his
name defcribe the pleafure and advantage they received
from the Aveftern breezes.
ZERDA. See Cams, Mammalia Index.
ZER1 A, the Ze^ite, a fifli caught in the rivers of
Italy and fome other places, of the figure of the chub,
and called by authors capita anodrotnus, and the blihe.
It feldom groAVs to more than two pounds weight, and
at times lives in rivers, at times in the fea; and is efleem-
ed a very Avell tafted filh, efpeeialfy a little before the
feafon of its fpawning. The zerte is that fpecies of ey-
prinus defcribed by Gefner and others under the name
of capita anodromus.
'ZEST, the Avoody thick fkin quartering the kernel
of a Avalnut; preferibed by fome phyficians, Avhen dried
and taken Avith Avhite Avine, as a remedy againit the
gravel.
Zest is alfo ufed for a chip of orange or lemon peel ;
fuch as is ufually fqueezed into ale, wine, &c, to give
it a flavour ; or the fine oil which fpurts out of that peel
on fqueezing it.
ZEUGMA, a figure in Grammar, Avhereby an ad¬
jective or werb Avhich agrees Avith a nearer wTord, is
alfo, by Avay of fupplement, referred to another more
remote.
ZEUS, a genus of fillies of the order of thoracici.
Bee Ichthyology Index.
ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of antiquity, flourifli-
ed about 400 years before Chrift. He Avas born at He-
raclea ; but as there have been many cities of that name,
it cannot be certainly determined Avhich of them had
the honour of his birth. Some learned men, hoAvever,
conjeClure, that it Avas the Heraclea near Crotona in
Italy. He canied painting to a much higher degree of
perfection than Apollodorus had left it; difeovered the
art of properly difpofing of lights and thades, and par¬
ticularly excelled in colouring. He amaffed immenfe
riches; and then refolved to fell no more of his pictures,
but gave them away ; faying very frankly, “ That he
could not fet a price on them equal to their value.”
Before this time he made people pay for feeing them ;
and nobody Avas admitted to fee his Helena without rea¬
dy money, which occafioned the Avags calling his picture
Helen the Courtesan. It is not knoAvn whether this
Helen of Zeuxis Avas the fame Avith that Avhich A\ras at
Rome in Pliny’s time, or that Avhich he painted for the
inhabitants
Z I M
Zwxis Inhabitants of Crotona to be hung up In the temple of
Juno : this laft he painted from five beautiful girls of
that city, copying from each her greateft excellencies,
r Pliny obferves, that this admirable painter, difputing for
the prize of painting with Parrhafius, painted ibme
grapes fo naturally, that the birds flew down to peck
them. Parrhafius, on the other hand, painted a curtain
fo very artfully, that Zeuxis, miftaking it for a real one
that hid his rival’s work, ordered the curtain to be
drawn afide, to (how what Parrhafius had done ; but
having found his miftake, he ingenuoully confeffed him-
felf vanquiflied, fince he had only impofed upon birds,
while Parrhafius had deceived even a matter of the art.
Another time he painted a boy loaded with grapes ;
when the birds alfo flew to this picture, at which he was
vexed ; and conftffed, that this work was not fuffieiently
finiflied, fince, had he painted the boy as per fed ly as the
grapes, the birds would have been afraid of him. Ar-
chelaus, king of Macedon, made ufe of Zeuxis’s pencil
for the embellifhment of his palace. One of this pain¬
ter’s fineft pieces was a Hercules ftrangling fome fer-
pems in his cradle, in the prefence of his affrighted mo¬
ther : but he himfelf chiefly efteemed his Athleta, or
Champion, under which he placed a Greek verfe that
afterwards became very famous, and in which he fays,
That it was eafier to criticife than to imitate the pic¬
ture.” He made a prefent of his Alctnena to the A-
grigentines. Zeuxis did not value himfelf on fpeedily
finifhing his pi&ures •, but knowing that Agatharchus
gloried in his being able to paint with eafe and in a lit¬
tle time, he faid, “ That for his part he, on the con¬
trary, gloried in his flownefs ; and, if he was long in
painting, it was becaufe he painted for eternity.” Ver-
rius Flaccus fays, that Zeuxis having painted an old wo¬
man, he laughed fo very heartily at the fight of this pic¬
ture, that he died : but as no other of the ancients has
mentioned this particular, there is the greateft reafon to
believe it fabulous. Carlo Dati has compofed in Ita¬
lian the Life of Zeuxis, with thofe of Parrhafius, Apel¬
les, and Protogenes. This work was printed at Florence
in 1667.
ZICLAG, or Ziki.ag, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the tribe of Simeon, on the borders of the
Philiftines (Jofhua xv. and xix.), but in the hands
of the Philiftines till David’s time (1 Sam. xxvii. and
xxx.).
ZIMENT-water, Copper-water, the name by
which fome have called water found in places where
there are copper-mines, which is impregnated with par¬
ticles of that metal.
The moft famous fpring of this kind is about a mile
diftant from Newfohl in Hungary, in the great copper-
mine called by the Germans herrngrundt. The water
in this mine is found at different depths, and is received
into bafons, for the purpofe of feparating the copper
from it: in fome of thefe it is much more fated with
this metal than in others, and will make the fuppofed
change of iron into that metal much fooner. The moft
common pieces of iron ufed in the experiments are horfe-
fhoes, nails, and the like ; and they are found very lit¬
tle altered in Ihape, after the operation, except that
their furfaces are more raifed. The water appears
greenifli in the bafon, where it Hands ; but if a glafs of
it be taken up, it looks clear as cryftal: it has no fmell,
but a ftrong vitriolic aftringent tafte, infomuch that
VoLe XX. Part II.
[ 785 ]
Z I N
bliftered and fcorched upon
the lips and tongue are
tailing It.
Z1N, in Ancient Geography, a wildernefs encompaf-
fing Idumea, at leaft on the fouth and weft, as far as
Paleltine or Canaan $ but according to Wells, on the
eaft ot Edom, to the north of Ezion-gaber.
ZINC, a metallic fubltance, formerly confidered as
one of the brittle metals j or, according to the diftin&ion
of the older chemitts, a femi-metal or an imperfedt me¬
tal, becaufe it was found to be deftitute of fome of the
properties of other metals which were confidered as per-
fecl. lor an account of the properties and combina¬
tions of zinc, as they were then known, fee Chemi-
Siry Index ,• and for the hiftory of its ores, fee IVIine-
RALOGY Index.
But in the progrefs of chemical difcovery it has been
found that zinc is not a lefs perfedt metal than others j
for in the year 1805, it was announced that a patent
was granted to Meffrs Hobfon and Sylvefter of Shef¬
field for a method of manufacturing zinc. From their
difcovery it appears, that zinc raifed to a temperature of
between 2io° and 3:-'C)0 °f Fahrenheit, is not only very
malleable, but may be paffed through rollers, or drawn
into wire. After the metal has been treated in this
manner, it does not return to its former brittlenefs, but
continues foft, flexible, and extenfible, and may be ap¬
plied to many ufes for which this metal was before
thought unfit *.
We mull, however, notice, that a prior claim to the dif¬
covery of rendering zinc dudfile and malleable, has been
made by Mr Lowry, in favour ofa Mr Sheffield of Somerf-
town. Twenty years before the time of Meffrs Hobfon
and Sylvefter’s patent being announced, Mr Sheffield, in
making an affay of fome blende, was impatient to exa¬
mine the metal, ftruck an ingot for the purpofe of break¬
ing it while it was yet hot, but was much furprifed to
find that inftead of being brittle, and breaking with the
ufual fradlure of zinc, it was extremely tough, and
when he fucceeded in breaking it, after many bendings
backward and forward, it exhibited a fteel-grained
fibrous texture. At firft he doubted of the metal be¬
ing zinc, but he repeated the experiment on what he
knew to be pure metal, and obtained the fame refult 5
and from this he concluded that zinc at a certain tem¬
perature is equally malleable and dudlile with other
metals. This he found to be the cafe by drawing it
into wire, and laminating it between rollers, by which
he produced plates not exceeding the T^oth of an inch,
and poffefling the ftrength and tenacity of filver f.
Since the time that our article Chemistry was print¬
ed, the decompofition of potafh, foda, the alkaline earths,
and fome other bodies which were formerly confidered
as fimple, or were only conjeflured from analogy to
be compound, has been effe&ed by Mr Davy ; and as
we were difpofed to entertain hopes that fomething
new might be added to the unexpe&ed and brilliant
difcoveries of that celebrated chemift, we have deferred,
till near the clofe of our work, giving any account of
them. This is the reafon that the fad was merely an¬
nounced under the words Potash and Soda, and a re¬
ference made t» Galvanic Trough, under which it was
intended to give a (hurt defcription of the apparatus
employed in the experiments which led to the difcoveries
alluded to. For the fame reafon we were induced to
make a farther reference to this place, becaufe zinc is
iG
Ziment-
water
H
Zinc.
* Phil.
Mag- xxiii.
f Phil.
Mag. xxiii,
282.
Z I N
[ 786 ]
Z I N
Zinc. jjrie of the metallic fubllances ufually employed in the
v' conftru&ion of galvanic apparatus. We mail llitichue
here employ a few pages, id, In a defcription of the
improvements which have been made in the conftru£lion
of galvanic apparatus j and, 2d, We Ihall lay betore our
readers a view of the difcoveries in galvanic eledlricity
fince the treatifes on CHEMISTRY and GALVANISM in
this work were printed.
Galvanic Apparatus.—A very confiderable improve¬
ment has been made on the conftruttion of galvanic
batteries, by which they are rendered, not only more
convenient and manageable, but far more poweriul.
Under the article Galvanism, we have defcribed par¬
ticularly the condrublion of the galvanic trough, and
we have noticed that the foidering of the plates oi zinc
and copper employed tor this purpote was attended with
contiderable difficulty. In the new method of con-
Itruclion the plates are not foldered together, but are
merely connected by means of a metallic arc. In this
way each pair of plates can be removed from the trough
at pleafure, for the purpofe of examining and cleaning
them. The new apparatus is conftrudled precifely on
the fame principle as the couronne de Tajfes, propofed
by Volta, and defcribed at p. 333 of Galvanism.
The trough employed in this apparatus is prepared in
the fame way as when the plates of zinc and copper
foldered together were fixed in it by means of cement;
but in place of the metallic plates, plates of glafs, or
.fome other non-condu£ting fubftance, are introduced
and fecured by cement, fo that there fhall be no com¬
munication between the different cells into which the
liquid is introduced. The plates of zinc and copper
connected by means of the metallic arc, at the diffance
of about half an inch, are placed in different cells, ha¬
ving a plate of glafs between each pair of plates. Each
cell then contains a plate of each of the metals, which
are unconnected, excepting through the medium of the
liquid which is to be the conductor of the electricity.
It is fcarcely neceffary to mention, that the proper or¬
der of arrangement (hall be obferved, fo that through¬
out the whole trough or battery there {trail be a feries
of zinc, copper, and liquid.
Befide the conveniency and fimplicity of this mode
of conftruCting galvanic troughs, it poffeffes this farther
advantage of being more powerful, becaufe tnftead of
one furface of the plates, as in the former conftruCtion
of this apparatus, both furfaces areexpofed to the aCtion
of eleClricity, and therefore the power is greatly in-
creafed. A farther improvement, it is faid, has been
made in conftrufting batteries of this kind, which con-
lifts in employing troughs of Wedgwood’s ware, with
partitions of the fame material, inftead of wooden troughs
with partitions of glafs. This improvement was firlt
fuggefted by Dr Babington.
The following is the account of the conftruCtion of
galvanic apparatus^ with the view of afeertaining in
what way the greateft effeCl might be produced, with
the leaft wafte of power and expenee. The experi¬
ments which we are now to mention were made by Mr
* Phil. Children *. For this purpofe a battery was conftrudt:-
Tranf ed on the new method, with plates of copper and zinc,
s.8op,p. 32-conile£ted by leaden (traps, foldered on the top of each
pair of plates. Twenty pairs of plates were employed,
and each plate was four feet high by two feet wide.
The whole extent of furface expofed amounted to 92,160
fquare inches ; the trough was made of wood, with
wooden partitions, covered with cement, to refill; the '
action of the acid employed. The battery was charged
with a mixture ot three parts of fuming nitrous, and
one of fulphuric acid, diluted with thirty of water j the
quantity employed was 120 gallons. With this appa¬
ratus the following experiments were made.
Exper. I. Eighteen inches of platina wire, of one-
thirtieth of an inch diameter were completely fufed in
about twenty feconds. Exper. 2. Three feet of the
fame wire were heated to a bright red, viiible by ftrong
day-light. Exper. 3. Four feet of the fame wire were
rendered very hot, but not perceptibly red by day-light.
Exper. 4. Charcoal burnt with intenfe brilliancy.
Exper. 5. Ten inches of iron-wire of -^th of an inch
diameter, were barely tuied 5 three feet of the fame
wire were not ignited. Exper. 6. No effedl was pro¬
duced on imperledl conductors. Exper. 7. The gold-
leaves of the eleCtrometer were not aft’eCted. Exper. 8.
When the cuticle was dry, no fliock was given by the
battery, and it was fcarcely perceptible when the (kin
was wet.
To contrail the effeCls of this apparatus with another
differing in the lize and number of plates, the author
employed 200 pairs of plates, each about two inches
fquare, placed in half pint pots of common queen’s ware.
The fame liquid was employed, with the addition of a
frelh portion of fulphuric acid, in the proportion of
about a quarter of a pint to a gallon. The experiments
with this apparatus gave the following refults.
Exper. 1. Potafli and barytes -were readily decompof-
ed. Exper. 2. The metallization of ammonia was pro¬
duced with great facility. Exper. 3. Charcoal was
vividly ignited. Exper. 4. The gold leaves of the
eleClrometer diverged coniiderably. Exper. 5. After
the battery was in aCtion three hours, it gave a vivid
fpark ; at the end of 24 hours it metallized ammonia j
at the end of 41 hours it was nearly exhaufted. From
the refults of thefe experiments, Mr Children con¬
cludes, that the theory of the mode of aCtion of the
voltaic battery propofed by Mr Davy is confirmed,
namely, that the intenfity increafes with the number,
and the quantity with the extent of the feries. This
is proved by the effeCls produced on the platina and
iron wires, in the ill and 5th experiments with the
large battery, as well as by the experiments on im-
perfeCt conductors in the fmall apparatus ; for as the
platina wire is a perfeCt conductor, and not liable to
oxidation, it allows the eledricities to be freely tranf-
mitted, and from the immenfe quantity given out from
a furface of fuch extent, they evolve, on their mutual
annihilation, heat fufficient to raife the temperature of
the platina to the point of fufion. But a very fmall
portion of the eleCtricity paffes through the iron wire,
in eonfequence of its eafy oxidation, and the thin coat
of oxide formed on its fiwface. T his arifes from the
low ftate of the intenfity of the eleCtricity, as appears alfo
from its want of power on the gold leaves of the elec¬
trometer. From the fame deficient intenfity, the decom-
pofition of barytes could not be effeCted by the large
battery, and the fame battery exhibited a very weak
aCtion on imperfeCt conductors j but the fmall battery
exerted great power on that clafs of bodies, and decom-
pofed them readily, although its furface was 30 times
kff than the furface of the great battery j but the num¬
ber
Zinc.
Z I N [
Zinc, ber of plates "was nearly ten times greater. Another
eircumftance, of confiderable importance in condufting
experiments by means of the galvanic battery, is here
noticed by the author ; that the long continued aftion
of the fmall battery was owing to the large capacity of
the cells containing a proportional quantity of liquor.
And befide this advantage he adds, that with very large
combinations, a certain diftance between each pair of
plates is abfolutely neceflary to prevent fpontaneous dif-
*charges, which are accompanied with vivid flalhes of
ele&ric light. This happened to the author with a bat¬
tery of 1250 four-inch plates, conftrufted according to
the new method. Mr Children has conftrudted a bat¬
tery of 20 pairs of fix feet high and 2^ broad, and with
this battery he ignited 6 feet of platina wire.
From the experiments and obfervations, fome of
which we have detailed, and for others we refer to the
paper itfelf, the author concludes with the following
remarks : “ The abfolute effect of a voltaic apparatus
feems to be in the compound ratio of the number and
fize of the plates. The intenfity of the ele&ricity being
as the former, the quantity given out as the latter, con-
fequently regard muft: be had, in its conftruflion, to the
purpofes for which it is defigned. For experiments on
perfedl condu&ors, very large plates are to be prefer¬
red, a fmall number of which will probably be fufficient;
but where the relitfance of imperfeft conductors is to be
overcome, the combination muft be great, but the fize
of the plates may be fmall: but if quantity and intenfi¬
ty be both required, then a large number of large plates
will be neceflary. For general purpofes, four inches
* Ibid. 37. fquare will be found to be the moft convenient fize
Difcoveries in Galvanifm.—At the clofe of the article
Galvanism, we noticed fome experiments which were
made about the beginning of the year 1805, which
feemed to lead to the conclufion, that muriatic acid and
foda were formed by means of galvanic eleClricity. In
experiments on the decompofition of water, which was
fuppnfed to be in a ftate of the utmoft purity, the ap¬
pearance of muriatic acid and foda was adduced in fup-
port of this opinion. The accuracy of this conclufion,
which feemed to be at variance with known fads, ex¬
cited doubt, and probably led to the inveftigation which
was undertaken by Mr Davy, and carried on with great
ingenuity and addrefs by the fame philofopher, till it
terminated in the brilliant difcoveries, an account of
which we are now to detail. Mr Davy’s refearches in
galvanifm, an account of which he laid before the Royal
Society in a memoir entitled, On fume Chemical Agen¬
cies of EleElricity, may be confidered as the firft ftep in
this train of inveftigation.
With the view of difproving the accuracy of the ex¬
periments in which the generation of acids and alkalies
was fuppofed to have been effe&ed by means of galvan
Plate , ,
Btxxvm. ifm, Mr Davy employed agate cups, (fig. 1.), of a cy
%• l* lindrical form, and containing about one-fourth of a
cubic inch each. The cups were boiled for fome hours
in diftilled water, and a piece of white tranfparent ami¬
anthus, which had been treated in the fame way, was
made to conned! them. They were then filled with
diftilled water, and expofed by means of two platina
wires, to a current of eledlricity, from 150 pairs of
plates of copper and zinc, four inches fquare. T he
liquid employed ivas a folution of alum. I he adlion
continued 48 hours, and the procefs was then examined.
Paper tinged with litmus introduced into the tube con*
787. h 2 I N
taining the pofitive wire, was reddened; paper coloured
by turmeric placed in the other tube, had its colour
deepened ; the acid matter produced a flight turbidity
in a folution of nitrate of filver ; the fluid from the
negative tube retained the property of affefting the tur¬
meric after being boiled, and indeed became more vivid
as the quantity was diminifhed by evaporation. Carbo¬
nate of ammonia was added, and the whole being dried,
and expofed to a ftrong heat, a minute quantity of white
matter remained, which had all the properties of carbo¬
nate of foda.
The fame experiment was repeated with glafs tubes,
and the refult was, that the quantity of alkali obtained
was 20 times greater, but no traces of muriatic acid
could be perceived. Mr Davy fufpe&ing that the agate
might contain a minute portion of faline matter, repeat¬
ed the experiment four times. The quantity of alka¬
line matter diminifhed in every operation, and in the
laft procefs, although the battery had been kept in
great adlivity for three days, the fluid poflefled in a
flight degree only the power of adling on paper tinged
with turmeric ; but its alkaline property was very fen-
fible to litmus paper (lightly reddened. The acid mat¬
ter in the other tube was abundant; it had a four tafte,
and produced no effedl on folution of muriate of barytes,
but left a black (lain from a drop on a polifhed plate of
filver. Thus it appeared to be extremely diluted ni¬
trous acid.
For the purpofe of making the experiment with ‘
greater accuracy, two hollow cones of pure gold (fig. 2.) Fig. 4,
were employed, each containing about 25 grains of
water. They were filled with diftilled water, connedl-
ed by moiftened amianthus, as before, and expofed to the
adlion of a battery of 100 pairs of plates of fix inches
fquare. The liquid ufed was a folution of alum, and
diluted fulphuric acid. In ten minutes the water in the
negative tube changed litmus paper to a flight blue,
and the water in the pofitive tube produced a red tint.
The procefs having continued for 14 hours, the acid
was found to increafe in quantity during the whole
time, but the alkaline fluid in the other tube did not
affed! the tefts more than in the firft trial. The acid
feemed to be the pure nitrous, with an excefs of nitrous
gas. The experiment was repeated, and the procefs
carried on for three days, and fimilar refults were ob¬
tained. From thefe experiments it was concluded, that
the diftilled water contained a minute portion of faline
matter, but fo minute indeed, that it was infenfible to
the moft delicate chemical tefts. This appeared to be
the cafe by evaporating a quantity of the diftilled water
that was ufed, very (lowly, at a heat below 14c0 Fah¬
renheit, in a filver dill. A quantity of folid matter
equal to feven-tenths of a grain, of a faline but metallic
tafte, was obtained. It feemed to be a mixture of ni¬
trate of foda and nitrate of lead. Mr Davy then em¬
ployed fome of the water colltfted in the fecond pro¬
cefs of flow diftillation, in another experiment with the
gold tubes and connefting amianthus. At the end of
turn hours the water in the negative tube had no effect
on turmeric paper ; litmus, it could juft be perceived,
was changed *, but by heating the water ftrongly for
two or three minutes, it was deprived even of this power,
and from this he fuppofes that it was owing to a fmall
quantity of ammonia. A fimilar experiment was made
with a portion of the fame water in the agate tubes, and
precifely the fame refults were obtained. From thefe
5 G 2 experiments
Z 1 N [788
Zinc, experiments Mr Davy fairly concludes, that the fixed
' alkali is not generated during the procefs, but merely
evolved, either from the folid materials employed, or
fome faline matter in the water.
Many experiments were made in veffels compofed of
different fubifances, with the water procured by flow
diftillation } and in almoft every inftance fome fixed
alkali appeared. When tubes of wax wrere employed,
the alkaline matter was a mixture of foda and potafn,
and the acid matter, a mixture of fulphuric, muriatic,
and nitric acids. A tube of refin afforded alkaline
matter, which was principally potafh. A cube of Car¬
rara marble of about an inch, having an aperture in its
centre, was placed in a platina crucible, which was
filled as high as the. upper furface of the cube, with the
purified water. The aperture was filled with the fame
liquid, and the crucible was pofitively electrified by a
powerful battery, and the negatively eleCtrified wire in¬
troduced into the aperture. Fixed alkali and lime were
obtained in this experiment j the quantity of alkali di-
minifhing as the experiment was repeated, and after 11
proceffes, each continued for two or three hours, difap-
peared altogether. The quantity of lime-water obtain¬
ed was uniform.
When 500 grains of this marble were analyzed, they
afforded about three-fourths of a grain of fixed faline
matter, having foda for its bafe. SufpeCting that
the Carrara marble might have been recently expofed
to fea water, Mr Davy fubjefted to a fimilar experi¬
ment, a piece of granular marble from the mountains of
Donnegal, and by means of negative eleCtricity he ob¬
tained fixed alkali. Argillaceous fchiftus from Corn¬
wall gave the fame refult, and ferpentine and gray
wacken both afforded foda.
In other experiments Mr Davy fubjeCted other bo¬
dies to the aClion of the fame power, with the view of
effeding a decompofition. Thus, two cups of compaCt
fulphate of lime, each containing about 14 grain
meafures of water, were connected by fibrous fulphate
of lime moiftened with pure water. The cups were
filled with the fame fluid, and they were introduced into
the circuit of a galvanic battery with too pairs of plates
of fix inches. In five minutes the water in the pofitive
cup became acid, while that in the oppofite cup tinged
tumeric. An hour after, a faturnine folution of lime
was formed in the negative cup, and the other contain¬
ed a folution of fulphuric acid of moderate flrength.
Two cubical pieces of cryftallized fulphate of ftron-
tites, of about an inch, with a hole drilled in each, ca¬
pable of receiving eight grains of water, were plunged
in pure water, in a platina crucible, and the level of
the fluid was kept a few lines below the furface of the
cubes. The holes in the earthy mineral were filled
with pure water, and two platina wires were introdu¬
ced into them. At the end of thirty hours the fluid in
the cavity of the negative fide precipitated folution of
fulphate of potafli, and fulphuric acid appeared in the
other.
Two pieces of fluate of lime, having each a cavity,
and conne6ted by moift afbeflus, were fubjedled to a
fimilar experiment. The decompofition was flow ; but
in two days a folution of lime appeared in the one tube,
and an acid in the other, which precipitated acetate of
lead, and left a fpot upon the glafs, from which it was
evaporated, fo that it muft have been fluoric acid,
3
] Z I N
Compa£l: zeolite being prepared in the fame way, and
electrified in the fame manner as the cube of Carrara
marble, afforded foda and lime. Lepidolite, by fimilar
treatment, gave potafh; and an alkaline matter, which
feemed to be a mixture of foda, potafh and lime, was
extracted from a piece of vitreous lava from Mount
Etna.
The decompofitinn of faline bodies, which are foluble
in water, was more rapid. A diluted folution of ful¬
phate of potafh introduced into the agate cups connect¬
ed by amianthus moiltened with pure Avater, being elec¬
trified by a battery with 50 pairs of plates, produced in
four hours a Aveak folution of potafh in the negative
cup, and a folution of fulphuric acid in the pofitive
cup. Similar phenomena were obferved when fulphate
of foda, nitrate of potafh, nitrate of barytes, fulphate of
ammonia, phofohate of foda, fuccinate, oxalate, and
benzoate of ammonia and alum, Avere employed. The
acids in a certain time collected in the tube containing
the pofitive wire, and the alkalies and earths in the ne¬
gative tube. Solutions of the muriatic falls, fubjeCIed
to decompofition by the fame proceffes, uniformly af¬
forded oxymuriatic acid on the pofitive fide.
Saturated faline folutions Avere mofl rapidly decom-
pofed, but tl^e fmalleft proportion Avas alfo aCled on.
Thus, if a piece of paper tinged Avith turmeric be
plunged into pure Avater, in a proper circuit, in contaCl
Avith the negative point, the minute quantity of faline
compound contained in the paper, produces inftantly a
broAvn tint near its point of contaCl. Acid appears alfo
from litmus paper at the pofitive furface.
Experiments Avere made with the vicav of afeertain-
xng whether in thefe procefles the feparation of the con-
ftituent parts Avas complete, from the laft portions of
the compound. The folloAving experiment fliows that
this is the cafe. “ A very weak folution of fulphate of
potalh, containing 2C parts of Avater, and one part of
faturated folution at 64°, was eleftrified in the two
agate cups, by the power of 50 pairs of plates for three
days ; the connefting amianthus which had been moift-
ened Avith pure Avater, Avas removed, waftied Avith pure
Avater, and again applied tAvice every day. By this
precaution the prefence of any neutral fait that might
adhere to it, and difturb the refults, Avas prevented.
The alkali obtained in this procefs in the folution had
the properties of pure potafli, and Avhen it had been fa¬
turated with nitric acid, it gave no turbidnefs by mix¬
ture Avith folution of muriate of barytes ; the acid mat¬
ter expofed to a ftrong heat, evaporated, Avithout leaving
any refiduum.”
Mr Davy then made experiments on the transfer of
certain of the conftituent parts of bodies, and alfo on the
paflage of acids, alkalies, and other fubftances, through
various attracting chemical menftrua, by means of elec¬
tricity, and in thefe experiments he obtained many curi¬
ous and interefting rcfults •, but for an account of them,
as well as of his obfervations on the different phenomena,
and on the mode of decompofition and tranfition, avc
muft refer to the memoir itfelf.
After the inveftigations in which Mr Davy had been
occupied, and the fingular and unexpected refults Avhicb
he obtained, he ventured to conclude, from the general
principles on which the phenomena might be explained,
that the neAV methods of proceeding Avould lead to*a
more intimate knowledge concerning the true elements
of
Zinc.
-O'
Z I N [ 789 ] Z I N
Zine. of bodies. Accordingly, in November 1807, he laid
—V—■' before the Royal Society a moil; intereiling detail of an
elaborate feries of experiments on the decompofition of
the alkalies.
Decompofition of the Alkalies,
In the firft attempts that were made on the decompo-
fition of potaih, Mr Davy employed an aqueous folution,
faturated at a common temperature. It was expofed to
the aftion of a powerful galvanic battery, compofed of
24 plates of copper and zinc of 12 inches fquare, 100
plates of fix inches, and 150 plates of four inches fquare,
charged with folutions of alum and nitrous acid. The
aftion was very intenfe ; a great deal of heat and vio¬
lent effervefcence were produced, but the water only of
the folution was effe&ed, and its hydrogen and oxygen
were difengaged. PotaiK in the Rate of igneous fufion,
in a fpoon of-platina, was next fubje&ed to the aftion of
a battery of 100 plates of fix inches, highly charged.
The fpoon was connected with the pofitive fide. In
this experiment fome brilliant phenomena were produ¬
ced. The potaih appeared to be a good conduftor;
and, while the communication was preferved, a moll in¬
tenfe light was emitted from the negative wire, and a
column of flame, feemingly owing to the developement
of combuftible matter, arofe from the point of contaft.
When the order was reverfed, and the platina fpoon was
conne&ed with the negative fide, a vivid and conftant
light appeared at the oppofite point. There was no in¬
flammation round it j but aeriform globules, which in¬
flamed in the atmofphere, rofe through the potaih. The
platina was confiderably afled on.
Although potafh, when perfectly dry, be a non-con-
du&or, it acquires a conducing power by being llight-
ly moiftened. A fmall piece of pure potaih expofed for
a few feconds to the atmofphere, was placed on a difc
of platina connedled with the negative fide of a battery
of 250 plates of fix and four inches, in a ftate of intenfe
activity. A platina wire from the oppofite fide was
brought in contaft with the upper furface of the alkali.
A vivid a£Hon foon took, place. The potafh fufed at
both points of ele&rifation •, a violent effervefcence ap¬
peared at the upper furface ; but at the lower or nega¬
tive furface no elallic fluid was emitted, but fmall glo¬
bules like, quickfilver were produced, fome of which
burnt with explofion and bright flame as they were
formed, and others remained and were only tarnifhed,
and finally covered by a white film formed on their
furfaces. Thefe globules were the bafis of potaih. I he
fame refults were obtained, when gold and other metals,
plumbago, or charcoal, were employed ; and the effects
were the fame when the procefs was conduced in an
exhaufted receiver.
Mr Davy alfo obtained the fame fubftance from pot-
alh, fufed by means of a lamp, and placed in glafs tubes
confined by mercury, and furnilhed with hermetically
inferted platina wires, to tranfmit the eleftricity j but
the glafs was rapidly diffolved by the aftion of the al¬
kali, fo that the procefs could not be long carried on.
In thefe experiments on potaih, the combuftible bafe
was produced from the negative furface, and oxygen
was evolved from the pofitive furface. I he fame effects
invariably followed, when the experiment was conduc¬
ed above mercury. The fame thing was proved fynthe-
tically. The combuftible fubftance obtained from the
potaih had its metallic luftre deftroyed in the atmo- Zine.
fphere, and a white cruft formed upon it. This cruft y“—“v—
was found, upon examination, to be pure potaih j but
this was ftill farther confirmed by placing globules of
the combuftible matter in tubes containing common air,
or oxygen gas, confined by mercury. An abforption of
the oxygen took place, and a cruft of alkali was formed
upon the globule. When the combuftible matter con¬
fined in given portions of oxygen, was ftrongly heated,
a rapid combuftion, with a brilliant white flame, was
produced, and the metallic globules were converted into
a white and folid mafs, which was found to be pure
potaih.
To the combuftible matter thus obtained from pot¬
aih, Mr Davy gave the name of potafium. From its
ftrong affinity for oxygen, it was extremely difficult to
preferve it unchanged, for the purpofe of examining its
properties. The fubftance which he found to be leaft
affefted, is newly diftilled naphtha. In this fluid po-
taffium may be kept for many days nearly unaltered,
and its phyfical properties may be examined in the at-
inofphere, when covered by a thin film of it.
Potaffium, at 6o° Fahrenheit, is in the form of fmall
globules, which have the metallic luftre and general
appearance of mercury 5 at 70° it becomes more fluid,
and at too0, different globules eafily run into one. At
50° of Fahrenheit it is foft and malleable, and exhibits
the luftre of polilhed filver. At 320 it becomes hard
and brittle, and, \yhen broken, prefents a cryftallized
texture. To reduce it to vapour, it requires a red heat 5
and in proper circumftances, it may be fubje&ed to di-
ftillation, without change. It is a good condu&or of
heat, and a perfeft condu&or of ele6lricity.
In the properties now mentioned, potaffium approach¬
es nearly to the metals ; but it is very different in its
fpecific gravity. In naphtha of the fpecific gravity of
.861 it rofe to the furface j and it did not fink in double
diftilled naphtha, the fpecific gravity of which was
about .770. From thefe and other experiments, Mr
Davy eftimates the fpecific gravity of potaffium at .6,
fo that it is the lighteft fluid body known. In its folid
form it is fomewhat heavier •, but, even in this ftate,
when cooled to 40° Fahrenheit, it fwims in double di¬
ftilled naphtha.
With the view of afcertaining the proportions of the
conftituent parts of potaffi, Mr Davy made two experi¬
ments, by fubje<fting the metallic bafe to combuftion in
oxygen gas. In the firft experiment, .12 of a grain of
potaffium were employed j the combuftion was made
upon platina, and was rapid and complete, and the bafis
appeared to be perfeftly faturated. The refult of this
experiment indicates 86.7 of bafis, and 13.3 of oxygen,
in the 100 parts of potaffi. In another experiment, the
refult he obtained was 85.5 of bafis, and 14.5 of oxy¬
gen. The mean of thefe two experiments is 86.1 of
bafis, and 13.9 of oxygen, in 100 parts of potafh.
The refults of the decompofition of water by the bafis
of the alkalies, which were more readily and perfe&ly
obtained than thofe of their combuftion, exhibited the
proportion of bafe to be 84, and that of oxygen 164
but the mean of 86.1 of bafe, and 13.9 of oxygen, and
84 bafe and 16 oxygen, is 85 of potaffium and 15 of
oxygen, which may be taken as the proportions of the
elements of potaffi.
Mr Davy’s difcoveries have been confirmed by the
ingenious
Z I N [ 790 ] Z I N
Zinc, ingenioiisexperlmentsof ThenardandGay-Luffac. Thefe
diitinguifhed chemifts have decompofed potaQi by a dif¬
ferent procefs. They introduced iron filings into a bent
gun barrel, which was placed acrofs a furnace. A tube
with a fiopcock, containing a quantity of folid potalh, is
conne&ed with one extremity of the gun-barrel $ to the
other extremity there is attached a tube of fafety, con¬
taining mercury, for the purpofe of excluding the at-
mofpheric air, and allowing any gafeous matter formed
during the procefs to efcape. The potalh in the tube is
to be kept cold by means of a freezing mixture, till
that part of the barrel containing the iron filings has
been raifed to a white heat. The potalh is then fufed by
applying heat, by means of a portable furnace ; and it is
allowed to pals through a fmall opening, to come in
contact with the iron filings, where it is decompofed,
the oxygen of the potalh entering into combination with
the iron, and the bafe paffing on to the other extremity
of the tube in a Hate of fublimation. At that extremity
the metallic hafe is condenfed by the application of ex-
celfive cold, and in this way the potalhum may be ob¬
tained at lefs expence, and in greater quantity, than by
means of galvanifm. During this procefs, hydrogen gas
is evolved, which, it is fuppofed, is owing to the de-
compofition of the water contained in the alkali. The
potallium thus obtained is in the form of brilliant lami¬
nae, which adhere to the fides of the gun barrel. An
alloy of the fame metal with iron is alfo found in that
part of the barrel containing the filings. Mr Davy has
repeated this experiment, and he finds that the bafe ob¬
tained in this manner is heavier, and its melting point
higher, than what is procured by means of galvanifm.
This, it is fuppofed, may arife from its being combined
with a fmall proportion of iron. The metallic bafe of
foda was obtained by a fimilar procefs.
But, according to the view which the French che-
milts have taken of thefe difcoveries, and the refults of
their own experiments, they conclude, that the metallic
fubltances derived from the alkalies are not fimple, but
are compounds of the feveral bafes with hydrogen.
Another method of decompofing potafh, and obtain¬
ing its bafe, which is ftill fimpler, has been followed by
Curaudau. In this procefs the decompofition is effe£ted
by charcoal. A mixture of carbonate of potalh is made
with flour or charcoal and linfeed oil. This mixture is
introduced into an iron or earthen tube or retort, and
calcined, by gradually railing the heat, till a bluilh
light be feen in the infide of the vefl'el. Soon after an
abundant evolution of vapour takes place, which is the
bafe of the alkali, to be collected by introducing a clean
iron rod, on which it condenfes. Care mull be taken
to withdraw the rod before it is too hot, and to plunge
it in oil of turpentine, under the furface of which the
metallic cruft on the rod may be feparated. In this
way a quantity of potaffium may be procured. The
bafe of foda is obtained by a fimilar procefs.
3* Fig. 3. is a reprefentation of the apparatus employed
by the French chemifts in decompofing potalh. ABCE
is the gun barrel laid acrofs the furnace, with its appa¬
ratus j D is the furnace, and F is the pipe of the bel¬
lows.
Fig- 4. Fig. 4. is a fe&ion of the tube containing the pot¬
alh. ° 1
But the chemical relations of potalfium are not lefs
extraordinary than its phyfical properties. It combines
4
flowly with oxygen, and without flame, at all tempera- Zinc,
tures below that of its vaporization. At this point com- ■V"
bullion takes place, with a brilliant white light, and in-
tenfe heat. When it is heated llowly in a quantity of
oxygen gas, which is not fufficient for its complete fatu-
ration, and at a temperature below that of inflamma¬
tion, as for inftance 400° of Fahrenheit, it changes to
a red brown colour, and the folid form, confining part¬
ly of potafh, and partly of its bafe, is of a grayilh co¬
lour. When expofed to wrater, or again heated in frelh
quantities of air, the whole is converted into potalh^
When dry potafh and potaflium are fuftd together un¬
der proper circumftances, the bafe is deprived of its me¬
tallic fplendour, and the two fubflances unite into a
compound of a red brown colour when fluid, and of a
dark gray when folid. This compound, when expofed
to the air, foon abforbs its full proportion of oxygen,
and is wholly converted into-potam. The fubftan,ce
thus formed feems to be in a lower Hate of oxidation,
fo that it is to be confidered as an oxide of potafliura
with a fmaller proportion of oxygen.
When potaflium is introduced into oxymuriatic acid
gas, it burns fpontaneoufly with a bright red light, and
a white fait is formed, which is muriate of potalh.
When a globule of potaflium is heated in hydrogen gas,
at a degree below its point of vaporization, it feems to
diffolve in it, for the globule is diminifhed in volume,
and the gas explodes with alkaline fumes, and bright
light, when brought into the air 5 but, by cooling, the
potaflium is wholly or principally depofited, for the gas
is deprived of its property of fpontaneous detonation.
When potaflium is thrown into water, it decompofes
it with great violence j an inftantaneous explofion, 'with
brilliant flame, is produced, and a folution of pure pot¬
alh is obtained. In thefe experiments, a white ring of
fmoke, gradually extending as it rifes in the air, is pro¬
duced, fimilar to the phenomenon of the combuftion of
phofphorated hydrogen. When a globule of the balls
of potafh is placed upon ice, it inftantly burns with a
bright flame ; part of the ice is melted, and in the ca¬
vity there is found a folution of potalh.
By placing a globule of potaflium upon moiftened
paper, tinged with tumeric, the moment that it comes
in contact with the water, it burns, and, moving ra¬
pidly upon the paper, leaves behind it a deep reddifh
brown trace, thus demonftrating, in a very fimple man¬
ner, the production of the alkali by the decompofition
of water.
Potaflium readily decompofes the fmall quantities of
water contained in alcohol and ether, even in their
pureft ftate. As potalh is infoluble in ether, w hen the
bafe is thrown into it, oxygen isfurnilhed to it, and hy¬
drogen gas evolved, and, as the alkali is formed, the
ether becomes white and turbid. It is obferved, that
the energy of aClion of potaflium in ether and alcohol,
is proportional to the quantity of water which they con¬
tain, and hydrogen and potalh are always produced.
When potaflium is thrown into folutions of the mine¬
ral acids, it inflames and burns on the furface, and when
plunged, by proper means, beneath the furface enve¬
loped in potalh, furrounded by naphtha, it aClsupon the
oxygen with great intenfity. In fulphuric acid, a white
faline fubftance, covered wdth a yellow coating, which
is fuppofed to be fulphate of potalh furrounded with ful-
phur, and a gas, having the fmell of fulphurous acid,
z I N [ 791 ] Z I N
and winch 15 probably a mixture of that fubftance with
hydrogen gas, are formed. When potaffium is thrown
into nitrous acid, nitrate of potath is formed, and nitrous
gas is difengaged.
Potahium readily combines with phofphorus and ful-
phur. When preffed upon a piece of phofphorus, they
both become fluid, enter into combuition, and produce
phofphate of potath. When the experiment is made
upon naphtha, no gafeous- fubftance is given out *, the
compound has the appearance of a metallic phofphuret,
is of the colour of lead, and has the luftre of poll the d
lead. Expofed to the air at common temperatures, it
combines flowly with oxygen, and is converted into
phofphate of potafh. When heated upon a plate of pla-
tina, it gives out fumes, but does not burn till it reach¬
es the temperature of the rapid combuition of potaf-
fium.
When potaflium is brought into contact with fulphur
in fufion, in tubes filled with the vapour of naphtha,
they combine rapidly, with the evolution of heat and
light. A gray fubltance is thus formed, which has the
appearance of artificial fulphuret of iron; if it be kept
in fufion, it rapidly diflblves the glafs. When this ex¬
periment is made in a glafs tube, hermetically fealed,no
gas is difengaged, if the tube be opened under mercury;
but when it is made in a tube connefted with a mercu¬
rial apparatus, a fmall quantity of fulphurated hydrogen
is evolved. When the combination is effected in the at-
mofphere, a great inflammation takes place, and fulphu-
ret of potalh is formed, and by farther expofure to the
air, it is at lafi: converted into fulphate of potafh.
When one part of potaflium is added to eight or ten
of mercury, in bulk, at 6o° of Fahrenheit, they in-
ftantly unite, and form a fub(lance like mercury in co¬
lour, but lefs coherent. When a globule is made to
touch a globule of mercury about twice as large, they
combine with confiderable heat. The compound is
fluid at the temperature of its formation, but, when
cool, it becomes folid, with the appearance of filver.
With the -yjth of potaflium to the weight of mercury,
the amalgam is hard and brittle; but with one part of
potaflium, and 70 of mercury, it is foft and malleable.
Expofed to the air, thefe compounds abforb oxygen,
and deliquefcent potafh is formed; and in a few7 minutes
the mercury is revived. A globule of the amalgam,
thrown into water, decompofes it rapidly with a hifling
noife; potalh is formed; pure hydrogen is difengaged,
and the mercury remains free. This amalgam diffolves
all the metals, and even a£ls on iron and platina.
When potaflium is heated with gold, filver, or cop¬
per, in a clofe veffel of pure glafs, a rapid adlion is pro¬
duced, and the compounds thrown into water efieft its
decompofition; potafh is formed, and the metals are
revived. Potaflium forms an alloy with fufible metal,
which has a higher point of fufion than the fufible metal
itfelf.
Potaflium has little effedt on colourlefs and recently
diftilled naphtha: but, in naphtha, expofed to the air,
it is foon oxidated, and an alkali which unites with the
naphtha into a brown foap that colledls round the glo¬
bule, is formed. Potaflium adls flowly on the concrete
oils, as tallow, fpermaceti, and wax, even when heat¬
ed; coaly matter is depofited, a little gas is evolved,
and a foap is formed. On the fluid fixed oils the ef-
ffdls are fimilar, but take place more flowly. With the
afliftance of heat, volatile oils are rapidly decompofed
by potaflium; gas is evolved, and charcoal depofited. ^
The metallic oxides, when heated in contadt with po-
taffium, are readily reduced. When a finall quantity
of oxide of iron was heated with it, to a temperature
approaching its point of diflillalion, a vivid adlion took
place. Alkali, in gray metallic particles, which eft'er-
velced in muriatic acid, appeared. The oxides oflead
and tin were revived more rapidly, and with potaflium
in excefs, an alloy was formed with the revived me¬
tal.
Potaflium readily decompofes flint glafs and green
glafs, by a gentle heat. The metallic oxides are redu¬
ced, and the alkali formed diffolves the glafs. At a
red heat, even the pureft glafs isadled on by potaflium;
the oxygen in the alkali of the glafs feems to be divided
between the potaflium employed, and the potaflium
which is the bale of the alkali in the glafs, and thus
effedfs an oxidation in the firfl degree.
Soda.—When pure foda was fubjefled in fimilar cir-
cumftances to the aflion of galvanifm, fimilar refults
were obtained as from potafh; but the decompofition
required a more intenfe afiion in the battery, or it was
neceffary to have the alkali in thinner and fmaller pieces..
Potaflium remained fluid at the temperature of the at-
xnofphere, at the time of its produ&ion; but the bale
obtained from foda, which was fluid in the degree of
heat of the alkali during its formation, became folid on
cooling, and exhibited the luftre of filver. With a bat¬
tery of 100 pairs of plates of fix inches, in full activity,
the decompofition of pieces of foda of about 15 to 20
grains in weight only could beefTefted; and it wasne-
ceftary alfo that the diftance between the wires ftroulA
not exceed one-eighth or one-tenth of an inch. But
when 250 pairs of plates were employed, highly char¬
ged for the decompofition of foda, the globules often
burnt at the moment of their formation, and fometimes
exploded and feparated into fmaller globules, which
darted rapidly through the air, in a ftate of vivid com-
buftion, producing a beautiful effect of continued jets of
fire.
When the metallic bafe which is obtained from foda,
and which Mr Davy has denominated /odium, was ex¬
pofed to oxygen, it was converted into foda; and when
this procefs was conducted by ftrongly heating the bafe
in a given portion of oxygen, a rapid combuftion with a
brilliant white flame was produced, and the metallic
globule was converted into a white folid mafs, which
was found to be foda. The oxygen gas was abforbed;
during the operation, and nothing was given out which
affe&ed the purity of the refidual air,
The theory of the decompofition of the alkalies is
ftated by Mr Davy in the following words. “ As in
all decompofitions of compound fubftances which I had
previoufly examined, at the fame time that combuftible
bafes were developed at the negative furface in the elec¬
trical circuit, oxygen was produced, and evolved or car¬
ried- into combination at the pofitive furface, it was rea-
fonable to conclude, that this fubftance was generated
in a fimilar manner by the electrical adtion of the al¬
kali ; and a number of experiments made above mercu¬
ry, with the apparatus for excluding external air, pro¬
ved that this was the cafe. When fulid potalh or foda,
in its conducing ftate, was included in glafs tubes, fur-
nilhed with electrified platina wires, the new fubftances
were
I
Z I N [ 792 ] Z I N
Zinc, were generated at the negative furfaces ; the gas given
out at the other furface proved, by the raoft delicate exa¬
mination, to be pure oxygen j and, unlefs when excefs
of water was prefent, no gas was evolved from the nega¬
tive furface.
For the purpofe of determining the proportions of the
■ elements of foda, Mr Davy made limilar experiments to
thofe by which he afcertained the proportions of the
bafe and oxygen of potafh. By fubjefting fodium to
combuftion in oxygen gas, it appeared that 100 parts of
foda are compofed of 80 of metallic bafe, and 20 of
oxygen j but the refults of its oxidation by the decom-
pofition of water, indicated the proportions to be 23 of
oxygen, and 77 of bafe. By taking the mean propor¬
tions, obtained from the refults of the two fets of expe¬
riments, the elements of foda may be eftimated at 7^*J
of metallic bafe, and 21.5 of oxygen.
Sodium, which remains folid at common temperatures,
is white and opaque ; and examined under a him of
naphtha, has the luftre and appearance of filver. It is
very malleable, and fofter than common metallic fub-
ftances. With a flight preflure it fpreads into thin
leaves, and a globule of one-tenth or one-twelfth of
an inch in diameter, is eafily fpread over a furface of
one-fourth of an inch ; and different globules are eafily
made to adhere, and form one mafs by ftrong preffure.
This property of welding which belongs to iron and
platina at a white heat only, is not diminiftied when fo¬
dium is cooled to 3 2° Fahrenheit.
Sodium, like potaflium, is a conduftor of eleflricity
and heat, and fmall globules fubje&ed to galvanifm in¬
flame and burn with bright explofions. Sodium finks
in naphtha of fpecific gravity .861 ; but by mixing per-
fe&ly about 12 parts of naphtha, and five of oil of fafla-
fras, the fodium remains at reft in any part of the
fluid. This makes its fpecific gravity ~ about .9348,
water being taken as 1. The particles of fodium lofe
their cohefion at 1200 Fahrenheit. It becomes quite
fluid at 180*, fo that it readily fufes under boiling
naphtha. The temperature at which it is volatilized is
not afcertained, but it remains fixed in a ftate of igni¬
tion at the point of fufion of plate glafs.
The chemical relations of fodium are analogous to
thofe of potaflium, but with fome charafteriftic differ¬
ences. Expofed to the atmofphere, it is immediately
tarnifhed, and is gradually covered with a white cruft,
which is pure foda. It combines flowly with oxygen,
and without any luminous appearance at common tem¬
peratures. When heated, the combination is more ra¬
pid, but no light is emitted till it acquire a temperature
near that of ignition. The flame in oxygen gas is
white, and it fends forth bright fparks, producing a
very beautiful effeft •, in common air, the colour of the
light is like that of the combuftion of charcoal, but
brighter. When fodium was heated in hydrogen gas,
it feemed to have no adtion on it.
Sodium burns vividly in oxymuriatic acid gas, giv¬
ing out numerous fparks of a bright red colour ; a faline
matter is produced, which is muriate of foda. When
fodium is thrown into water, it produces a violent ef-
fervefcence with a loud hiding noife •, it combines with
the oxvgen of the water to form foda, which is diffolv-
ed, and its hydrogen is difengaged. During the pro-
•eefs there is no luminous appearance; but when fodium
is thrown into hot water, a more violent decompofition
takes place. A few fcintillations are obferved at the Zinc,
furface of the water, which is owing to fmall particles ■'Y—
of the bafis which are thrown out of the water, heated
to fuch a degree as to burn in palling through the at¬
mofphere. But when a globule of fodium is brought
into contadf with a fmall particle of water, or with
moiftened paper, the heat produced is ufually fuflieient
for its combuftion, as in this cafe there is no medium to
carry off the heat rapidly.
Sodium produces fimilar effefts with potaflium when
brought into contadft with alcohol and ether. It adds
with great energy on the ftrong acids; with nitrous
acid it produces a vivid inflammation, and with muria¬
tic and fulphuric acids, great heat, but no light, is ge¬
nerated. The effefts of fodium and potaflium on the
fixed and volatile oils, and naphtha, are quite analo¬
gous ; but the appearances of the faponaceous compounds
are fomewhat different, the combinations with fodium
being of a darker colour, and apparently lefs foluble.
Sodium alfo exhibits two degrees of combination with
oxygen ; the firft is of a deep brown colour, which is
fluid when produced, and becomes a dark gray fohd on
cooling. By attra&ing oxygen from the air, or by the
decompofition of the water, it is converted into foda.
Sodium forms compounds with fulphur and phofpho-
rus. In clofe veffels filled with the vapour of naphtha,
it enters into combination with fulphur, giving out dur¬
ing the procefs a vivid light and heat, and often attend¬
ed with explofion, from the vaporization of a portion of
fulphur, and the difengagement of fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas. The fulphuret of fodium is of a deep gray
colour. In its combination with phofphorus, the com¬
pound obtained has the appearance of lead, and by ex-
pofure to the air, or by being fubje&ed to combuftion,
the phofphuret of fodium is converted into phofphate of
foda.
Sodium forms compounds with the metals. In the
proportion of one-fortieth with mercury, a compound
is obtained, which is of the colour of filver, and remains
folid; the combination is accompanied with confider-
able heat. Sodium forms an alloy with tin, without
producing any change of colour, and it has fome aflion
upon lead and gold when heated; but in its ftate of al¬
loy it is foon converted into foda, by expofure to the
air, or by the a£Hon of water, which it decompofes
with difengagement of hydrogen. The amalgam of
mercury and fodium feems to be capable of forming
triple compounds with fome other metals; and it would
appear that iron and platina remain in combination
with the mercury, after they are deprived of the fodium
by expofure to the air. The fame amalgam of fodium
and mercury likewife forms combinations with fulphur;
the triple compound thus obtained is of a dark gray co¬
lour.
Ammonia.—The chemical compofition of ammonia
has been many years confidered as fully eftabliflied ;
but in the courfe of Mr Davy’s experiments on the de¬
compofition of the fixed alkalies, it occurred to him
that oxygen might alfo form one of the conftituents of
ammonia, and this he alfo proved by experiment. Char¬
coal carefully burnt, and deprived of moifture, was ig¬
nited by a galvanic battery of 250 pairs of plates of fix
and four inches fquare, in a fmall quantity of pure am-
moniacal gas, confined over mercury. A great expan-
fion of the gafeous matter took place, and the white
fubftance
GALVANISM
PLATE DLXXVI/Z. ^
£ Jfilch JtJcn/pl
Z- I N [ 793 ] 2 1 N
fubdance formed in the procefs colle&ed on the fides of
the glafs tube. This matter effervefced in diluted mu¬
riatic acid, fo that the produft was probably carbonate
of ammonia. ' A more decifive proof of ammonia con¬
taining oxygen as one of its elements, was obtained
from another procefs. Very pure ammoniacal gas was
paffed over iron wire ignited in a platina tube, and two
curved glafs tubes were fo arranged as to be inferted
into a freezing mixture, and through one of thefe tubes
the gas entered into the platina tube, to be conveyed
through it by the other glafs tube into an air-holder.
The temperature of the air was 550, and no feniible
quantity of water was depofited in the cooled glafs
tube, which tranfmitted the unchanged ammonia. But
after being expofed to heat, moifture was very percep¬
tible, and the gas appeared in the air-holder denfely
clouded. This circumftance appeared to eftablifh the
formation of the water from the decompofition of am¬
monia during the procefs. But after the gas had been
palTed feveral times through the ignited tube, from one
air-holder to the other, the iron wire was found fuperfi-
cially converted into oxide, and had increafed in weight
of a grain. About four-tenths of a grain of water
were colledled from the cooled glafs tubes by means of
filtrating paper, and 33.8 cubic inches of gas were ex¬
panded into 55.3 cubic inches, and by detonation with
oxygen it was found, that the hydrogen gas in thefe
was to the nitrogen or azote as 3.2 to I in bulk.
Ammonia was farther fubjefled to experiment by
taking the ele&ric fpark in it. In experiments of this
kind it was underftood that it is refolved into hydrogen
and azotic gafes j but Mr Davy found, after obferving
feveral variations in the refults, that the weight of the
two gafes obtained was lefs by about one-eleventh than
the weight of the ammonia employed. He afcribes this
lofs to the oxygen of the alkali, which had probably
combined with the wires of platina employed in the ex¬
periment, and had thus difappeared. From thefe ex¬
periments he eftimates the proportion of oxygen in am¬
monia at not lefs than 7 or 8 parts in iooj and as the
gafes evolved may contain more water than the gas de¬
cora pofed, the proportion may even be larger. By thus
confidering ammonia as a triple compound of azote, hy¬
drogen, and oxygen, the phenomena of its produ&ion
and decompofition admit of an eafy explanation. In all
cafes in which ammonia is formed, oxygen exifts along
with its other elements, in the fubllances from the de¬
compofition of which it is obtained. In the decompo¬
fition of ammonia, on the other hand, the oxygen which
forms one of its elements, may be abftra£ted by the
fubftance employed in its decompofition, or it may en¬
ter into combination with portions of its hydrogen or
azote.
But in the progrefs of inveftigating the nature of am¬
monia, to which the attention of chemical philofophers
has been particularly directed, it appears that this al¬
kali is analogous to the fixed alkalies in having a me¬
tallic bafe. The Swedilh chemifts Berzelius and Pon-
tin, placed mercury negatively electrified in the galva¬
nic circle, in contaft with folution of ammonia. By this
aCtion the mercury increafed in volume, and after an
expanfion of four or five times its former dimenfions,
it became a foft folid. From this amalgam expofed to
the air, mercury and ammonia are reproduced, with the
abforption of oxygen ; and when the amalgam is put
Vol. XX. Part II.
into water it forms ammonia, with the evolution of hy¬
drogen, and the re-appearance of the mercury in its
metallic ftate. Mr Davy repeated this experiment, and
he found that to produce an amalgam, from 50 or 60
grains of mercury, in contaCl with a faturated folution
of ammonia, required a confiderable time, and that this
amalgam changed confiderably, even in the fhort pe¬
riod that was neceffary for removing it from the folu¬
tion. Conceiving that the de-oxidation and combina¬
tion with mercury might be more eafily effeCted in its
nafcent ftate, he placed 50 grains of mercury in a cavi¬
ty in muriate of ammonia. The muriate (lightly moift-
ened was placed on a plate of platina, and conneCled
with the pofitive fide of a large galvanic battery. The
mercury was made negative by means of a platina wire j
a ftrong effervefcence, with much heat, immediately
took place j the globule of mercury in a few minutes
enlarged to five times its former dimenfions. It had the
appearance of amalgam of zinc. Metallic cryftalliza-
tions (hot from it as a centre round the body of fait.
They had an arborefcent appearance, often became co¬
loured at their points of contact with the muriate, and
when the connexion was broken, rapidly difappeared,
while ammoniacal fumes were given out, and the mer¬
cury was reproduced. With a piece of carbonate of
ammonia, fimilar phenomena were exhibited. The
amalgam was formed very rapidly j but when the gal¬
vanic aftion was powerful in this laft cafe, a black mat¬
ter appeared in the cavity, which was probably car-
bone, from the decompofition of the carbonic acid.
Mr Davy confidering the ftrong attradlion of potaf-
fium and fodium for oxygen, was led to examine whe¬
ther they produced any effeft in the amalgamation of
ammonia, independent of eleftricity. With this view
he united fmall portions of potaflium and fodium with
mercury, and brought them into contaft with moiften-
ed muriate of ammonia. An amalgam was formed,
which rapidly increafed to fix or feven times its volume,
and the compound feemed to contain a larger propor¬
tion of ammoniacal bafe than that obtained by eleftrici-
ty. It appears, too, that a portion of the metallic bafe
employed to effefl the de-oxidation always remained in
combination with the compound, fo that it was not a
pure amalgam. The following are the properties of
the amalgam from ammonia, obtained by means of gal-
vanifm,
When this amalgam is formed at the temperature of
70° or 8o°, it is in the ftate of a foft folid, of the con¬
fidence of butter j at 3 2° it becomes firmer, and af-
fumes a cryftallized form, in which fmall facets appear,
which feem to be cubical. The amalgam of potaflium
cryftallizes in cubes, as beautiful, and in fome cafes as
large, as thofe of bifmuth. The fpecific gravity of the
amalgam is lefs than three, water being one. When
the amalgam is thrown into water, a quantity of hydro¬
gen equal to half its bulk, is evolved, and the water be¬
comes a weak folution of ammonia. The amalgam be¬
ing confined in a given portion of air, the air increafes
in bulk, and the mercury is revived. Ammoniacal
gas equal to or l^-tbs of the volume of the amal¬
gam, is produced, and oxygen equal to one-feventh or
one-eighth of the ammonia, difappears. When the
amalgam is thrown into muriatic acid gas, it becomes
inftantly coated with muriate of ammonia, and a fmall
portion of hydrogen is evolved. In fulphuric acid it
5 H becomes
z I N [ 794 ] Z 1 N
Zinc. becomes coated with fulphate of ammonia, and ful-
phur.
Mr Davy attempted, by various methods, to preferve
the amalgam, in the hope of fubmiiting it to difiiila-
tion, for the purpofe of obtaining tht* metallic bafe of
the ammonia, which was united to the mercury, in a
feparate form. But as it is extremely difficult to free
mercury, after being once moiftened entirely from wa¬
tt?, lie did not fucceed in this attempt. In wiping the
amalgam carefully with bibulous paper, part of the am¬
monia was regenerated, and in paffing it through fine
linen, with the view of feparating the moifture, a com¬
plete decompofition was effe£led, and the mercury was
revived.
The quantity of the bafe of ammonia combined with
60 grains of quickfilver, appears not to exceed of a
grain, and the quantity of oxygen required for this is not
more than a grain °f water, which might be fup-
plied by merely breathing upon the amalgam. Mr Davy
made various other experiments, with the view of afcer-
taining the nature and properties of the amalgam of
ammonia j but for an account of thefe we mull refer to
the paper itfelf. And he obferves, that the mure thefe
properties are confidered, the more extraordinary will
they appear. Mercury, by combination with about
T'2'3 o’o' °f its weight of new matter, becomes folid, and
yet has its fpecific gravity reduced from 13.5 tolefsthan
3, retaining at the fame time its metallic characters, its
colour, lultre, opacity, and conducting powers, undimi-
niffied. Can it then be conceived, Mr Davy alks, that
a fubitance which forms with mercury fo perfeCt an
amalgam, ffiould not be metallic in its own nature ?
This fubitance he denominates ammonium. On what
then, it is farther alked, do the metallic properties of
ammonium depend ? Are hydrogen and nitrogen both
metals in the gafeous It ate, at the- ufual temperature of
the atmofphere ; bodies of the fame character, as zinc
and mercury in the Itate of ignition ? Or are thefe gafes
in their common form oxides which become metallized
by de-oxidation ? Or are they to be confidered as fimple
bodies, not metallic in their own nature, but capable of
compofing a metal when deprived of oxygen, and be¬
coming an alkali with the addition of oxygen ?
In the farther profecution of the experiments relative
to the nature of ammonia, Mr Davy employed potaf-
fium. He brought, ammonia into conta<3 with about
twice its weight of potaffium at common temperatures j
but excepting a flight diminution in the volume of the
gas, and the metal lofing itsluftre and becoming white,
no other efFefts were produced. The white cruft when
examined, proved to be potaffi, and a fmall portion of
hydrogen was found in the ammonia, but not more than
equal in volume to the metal. When the potaflium was
heated in the gas, by means of a fpirit lamp applied to
5* the bottom of the retort, (fig. 5.) the colour of the cruft
changed from white to bright azure, and gradually to
bright blue, green, and dark olive. The cruft and the
metal then fufed together. This procefs is attended with
effervefcence *, and the cruft paffing off to the fides, ex¬
hibits the ftiining furface of the potaffium. When heat¬
ed a fecond time, it fwells confiderably, becomes por¬
ous, cryftallized, and of a beautiful azure tint. A gas
is evolved during this operation, which gives the fame
diminution by detonation with oxygen, as hydrogen,
and ammonia difappears.
It has b£eu obferved that the proportion of ammonia Zinc,
tvnich lofes its elaftic form, varies according as the gas
employed contains more or lefs moiftbre. Thus, in am¬
monia faturated with water at 63° Fahrenheit, potaf¬
fium caufed the difappearance of twelve and a half cu¬
bical inches of ammonia j but in ammonia deprived of
moifture, by expofure for two days to potafh that had been
ignited, the fame quantity of potaffium occafioned the
difappearance of 16 cubical inches j but whatever were
the degrees of moifture of the gas, the quantity of hy¬
drogen generated always appeared equal for equal quan¬
tities of metal j and according to the French chemifts,
the portions are ftated to have been the fame as would
have refulted from the adlion of water upon potaffium.
But in Mr Davy’s experiments, the proportions were
rather lefs. In one, condudled with great care, eight
grains of potaffium generated, by their adfion upon wa¬
ter, eight and a half cubical inches of hydrogen gas 5.
and eight grains of potaffium from the fame mafs, by
their operation upon ammonia, produced 8-g- cubical
inches of hydrogen gas. This difference, although
inconfiderable, Mr Davy found always to take place.
In Mr Davy’s experiments on the adtion of potaffium
on ammonia, he employed retorts of plate glafs. The
potaffium was fattened upon trays of platina or iron,
which wrere introduced into the glafs retorts furniffied
with flop-cocks. The retorts were exhaufted by an air-
pump, then filled with hydrogen, exhaufted a fecond
time, and afterwards filled with ammonia, (bee fig. 5. Fig. 5. and
and 6.). &•
The following are the properties of the fubftance ob¬
tained from the adlion of ammonia on potaflium. 1. It is
cryftallized, and prefents irregular facets, which are
extremely dark, and in colour and luftre not unlike the
green oxide of iron ; it is opaque when examined in large
mafles, but is femitranfparent in thin films, and appears
of a bright brown colour by tranfmilted light. 2. It is
fufible at a heat a little above that of boiling water,
and if heated much higher, emits globules of gas. 3.
It appears to be confiderably heavier than w:ater* for it
finks rapidly in oil of faffaffas. 4. It is a non-condu£lor
of eledlricity. 5. W hen it is melted in oxygen gas, it
burns with great vividnefs, emitting bright fparks.
Oxygen is abforbed, nitrogen is emitted, and potafti,
which from its great fufibility feems to contain water,
is formed. 6. W hen brought into contact with water,
it a£ts upon it with much energy, produces heat, and
often inflammation, and evolves ammonia. When
thrown upon water, it difappears with a biffing noife,
and globules from it often move in a ftale of ignition
upon the furface of the water. It rapidly eft’ervefees
and deliquefees in air, but can be preferved under
naphtha, in which, however, it foftens flowly, and feems
partially to diffolve. When it is plunged under water
filling an inverted jar, by means of a proper tube, it
inftantly difappears with effervefcence, and the non-ab-
forbable elaftic fluid liberated is found to be hydrogen
§as*
It is found that the weight of this fubftance is greater
than that of the potaffium from which it is formed; and
from this it is concluded, that part of the ammonia, or
of its elements, enters into its compofition. Wrhen this
fubftance is decompofed by heat, nitrogen and hydrogen
gafes, with a portion of ammonia, are given out. It
appears, however, that the production of the ammonia
2 I N
Zinc. In proportion to the moifture admitted, and when the
" 1moifture is confiderable, the whole produfl is ammonia.
When this fubftance is expofed to heat, a matter re¬
mains, which even by increafing the heat, is no farther
changed. On this refiduum water afts violently, and
with effervefcence, from the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Ammonia and potafti are at the fame time reproduced.
Mr Davy’s conclufion from thefe experiments is, that
the fubftance formed by the a£tion of ammonia on pot-
aftium is a compound of the latter with a fmall propor¬
tion of oxygen and nitrogen ; and as it is found that
the quantity of hydrogen given out during its formation
is nearly equal to the hydrogen contained in the am¬
monia, it follows that neither hydrogen nor the am¬
monia itfelf can be fuppofed to enter into its compofi-
txon.
In profecuting this inveftigation, Mr Davy made va¬
rious experiments, and whether the fubftance was a&ed
on by water, expofed to the aclion of oxygen, or decom-
pofed by heat, it was found, contrarv to expectation,
that the quantity of nitrogen evolved during its decom-
poluion was much lefs than in proportion to the q an-
tity of ammonia which had difappeared in its formation.
In one experiment, in which the decompofition was ef¬
fected bv heat, the gafeous produCt was examined, and
was found to be partly potafh, and partly potaflium ;
but it afforded no traces of ammonia, when aCted on by
water, which is a proef that it retained no nitrogen. In
another experiment, II cubic inches of ammonia, or
2.05 grains, were decompofed by potallium. The pro¬
duct was 3.6 cubic inches of nitrogen, equal to 1.06
grain ; 16 cubic inches of hydrogen, equal to .382
grain j and there was added to the potaftium a quantity
of oxygen equal to .6 grain. Thefe produCts taken to¬
gether amount to 2.04 grains, which is nearly equal to
the quantity of ammonia employed ; but this quantity of
ammonia, if the proportions of its elements be eftimated,
from its decorapofttion by eleCIricity, would have yield¬
ed 5.5 cubic inches of nitrogen, equal to 1.6 grain, and
only 14 cubic inches equal to .33 ; and allowing the re¬
paration of oxygen in this procefs in water, it cannot be
eftimated at more than .11 or .12 ; and hence, if the
analyfis of ammonia by eleCIricity come near to accuracy,
there is in this procefs a confiderable lofs of nitrogen,
and the produCKon of oxygen and hydrogen.
How, favs Mr Davy, can thefe extraordinary refults
be explained ? The decompofition and compofition of
nitrogen feem proved, and one of its elements appears to
be oxygen ; but what is the other element ? Is the gas
that appears to poffefs the properties of hydrogen a new
fpecies of inflammable aeriform iubftance ? Or has nitro¬
gen a metallic bafis, which alloys with the iron or pla-
tiiia ? Or is water alike the ponderable matter of nitro¬
gen, hydrogen, and oxygen ? Or is nitrogen a com¬
pound of hydrogen, with a larger proportion of oxygen
than exifts in water ^ Of thefe important queftions, Mr
Davy adds, the two firft feem the lead likely to be an-
fvvered in the affirmative, from the correipondence be¬
tween the weight of the ammonia decompofed, and the
products, fuppofing them to be known fubftances.
In concluding this fubjedf, we muft obferve, that it
ftill remains in a confiderable degree of obfcurity. It
feems, however, to be afcertained, that the bafe of am-
fconia is of a metallic nature, which znuft be derived,
r 795 ]
Z I N
either from the nitrogen or the hydrogen, or from both,
or perhaps thefe fubftances are only different forms of
combination of the elementary bafe. Or if nitrogen be
fuppofed to be an oxide of hydrogen, then hydrogen in
its gafeous form is either a metallic fubftance, or has a
metallic bafe, which latter enters into combination with
the mercury employed in the decompofition of ammo¬
nia.
Decompojiiion of the Earths.
From the refults of the experiments on potafh and
foda, which Mr Davy obtained, he was led to entertain
the ftrongeft hopes of being able to effe£l the decompo¬
fition both of the alkaline and common earths 5 and the
phenomena which took place in the firft imperfefl trials
made upon thefe bodies countenanced the ideas, that
had obtained fince the earlieft periods of chemiftry, of
their being metallic in their nature.
The earths, like the fixed alkalies, are non-conduc¬
tors of ele&ricity j but the fixed alkalies become con¬
ductors by tufion : the infufible nature of the earths,
however, rendered it impoflible to operate upon them in
this ftate : the ftrong affinity of their bafes for oxygen,
made it unavailing, to a£l upon them in folution in wa¬
ter j and the only methods that proved fuccefsful, w7ere
thofe of operating upon them by eleCtricity in fome of
their combinations, or of combining them at the mo¬
ment of their decompofition by eleClricity in metallic al¬
loys, fo as to obtain evidences of their nature and pro¬
perties. To render the experiments upon the earths
fatisfaClory, a more powerful battery will be required,
than Mr Davy has a profpeCl of feeing very foon con-
ftruCled ; he therefore prefers the imputation of having
publifhed unfinifhed labours, to that of having concealed
any new fails.
Barytes, ftrontites, and lime, flightly moiftened, were
eleCtrified by iron wires under naphtha, by the fame me¬
thods, and with the fame powers, as thofe employed for
the decompofition of the fixed alkalies. In thefe cafes
gas was copioufty evolved, which was inflammable j and
the earths, where in contaCt with the negative metallic
wires, became dark coloured, and exhibited fmall'points,
having a metallic luftre, which, when expofed to air,
gradually became white : they became white likewife
when plunged under water ; and when examined in this
experiment with a magnifier, a greenifti powder feemed
to feparate from them, and fmall globules cf gas were
difengaged.
In thefe experiments there was great rCafon to believe
that the earths had been decompofed j and that their
bafes had combined with the iron, fo as to form alloys
decompofable by the oxygen of the air or water ; but the
indiftinClnefs of the effeCI, and the complicated circum-
ftances required for producing it, were fuch as to com¬
pel Mr Davy to form other plans of operation.
Mr Davy bearing in mind the ftrong attraftion of
potaffium for oxygen, was induced to try whether this
bodv might not detach the oxygen from the earths, in.
the fame manner as charcoal decompofes the common
metallic oxides. He heated potaffium in contaft with dry
pure lime barytes, ftrontites, and magnefia, in tubes of
plate-glafs; but as he was obliged to ufe very fmall quan¬
tities, and as he could net raife the heat to ignition with¬
out fufing the glafs, he obtained no good refults in this
5 H 2 manner*
Z I N [ 796 ] Z I N
Zinc. manner. The potaffium appeared to a& upon the earths
—v  and on the glafs, and dark brown fubftances were obtain¬
ed, which evolved gas from water; but no diftinft metal¬
lic globules could be procured : from thefe, and other
like circumftances, it feemed probable, that though pot-
aflium may partially deoxigenate the earths, yet its affi¬
nity for oxygen, at lead at the temperature employed,
is not fufficient to effeft their decompofition. Mr Davy,
having made mixtures of dry potaffi in excefs and dry
barytes, lime, llrontites, and magnefia, brought them
into fufion, and afted upon them in the galvanic circuit
in the fame manner as he employed for obtaining the
metals of the alkalies. He expefted that the potaffium
and the metals of the earths might be deoxigenated at
the fame time, and enter into combination in alloy.
In this way of operating, the refults were more di-
ftin£l than in the lad ; metallic fubdances appeared lefs
fudble than potaffium, which burned the indant after
they had formed, and which by burning produced a
mixture of potaffi and the earth employed. An attempt
was made to form the metallic fubdances under naphtha,
but without much fuccefs. To produce the refult at
all, required a charge by the aftion of nitric acid, which
the date of the batteries would not often allow of; and
the metal was generated only in very minute films,
which could not be detached by fufion, and which were
indantly dedroyed by expofure to air.
Mr Davy had found in his refearches upon potaffium,
that when a mixture of potaffi and the oxide of mercury,
tin, or lead, was ele&rified in the galvanic circuit, the
decompofition was very rapid, and an amalgam, or an
alloy of potaffium, was obtained ; the attraction between
the corhmon metals and potaffium apparently accelera¬
ting the feparation of the oxygen. The idea that a
fimilar kind of aClion might affid the decompofition of
the alkaline earths, induced him to eleftrify mixtures of
thefe bodies and the oxide of tin, of iron, of lead, of
filver, and of mercury ; and thefe operations were far
more fatisfa&ory than any of the others.
A mixture of two-thirds of barytes, and one-third of
©xide of filver very (lightly moiltened, was ele&rified by
iron wires ; an effervefcence took place at both points of
contaCl, and a minute quantity of a fubdance, pofleffing
the whitenefs of filver, formed at the negative point.
When the iron wire to which this fubdance adhered,
was plunged into water containing a little alum in folu-
tion, gas was difengaged, which proved to be hydrogen ;
and white clouds, which were found to be fulphate of
barytes, deicended from the point of the wire.
A mixture of barytes and red oxide of mercury, in
the fame proportions, was eleCfrified in the fame man¬
ner. A (mall mafs of folid amalgam adhered to the ne¬
gative wire, which evidently contained a fubdance, that
produced barytes by expofure to the air, with the ab-
forption of oxygen ; and which occafioned the evolution
of hydrogen from water, leaving pure mercury, and pro¬
ducing a folution of barytes.
Mixtures of lime, drontites, magnefia, and red oxide
«f mercury, treated in the fame manner, gave fimilar
amalgams, from which the alkaline earths were regene¬
rated by the aftion of air or water, with like phenome¬
na ; but the quantities of metallic fubdances obtained
were exceedingly minute ; they appeared as mere fuper-
ficial formation1* furrounding the point of the wire, nor
did they increafe after thefird few minutes of ele&riza-
2
tion, even when the procefs was carried on for fome Zii!c.
hours. ' v——1
Thefe experiments were at fird made when the bat¬
teries were in bad order ; but were afterwards refumed
with a new and much more powerful apparatus, con-
dru&ed in the laboratory of the Royal Inditution, and
confiding of five hundred pairs of double plates of fix
inches fquare.
When Mr Davy attempted to obtain amalgams with
this apparatus, the tranfmitting wires being of platina,
of about -fs of an inch diameter, the heat generated
was fo great as to burn both the mercury and bafis of
the amalgam at the moment of its formation; and when,
by extending the furfaces of the condudors, this power
of ignition was modified, yet dill the amalgam was only
procured in thin films, and globules fufficiently large to
fubmit to didillation could not be procured. When the
tranfmitting wires were of iron of the fame thicknefs,
the iron acquired the temperature of ignition, and com¬
bined with the bafes of the earths in preference to the
mercury ; and metallic alloys of a dark gray colour were
obtained, which aided on water with the evolution of
hydrogen, and were converted into oxide of iron and
alkaline earths.
While Mr Davy was engaged in thefe experiments,
he received a letter from Profeffor Berzelius of Stock¬
holm, who dated that in conjunftion with Dr Pontin,
he had fucceeded in decompofing barytes and lime, by
negatively eleftrifying mercury in contaft with them,
and that in this way he had obtained amalgams of the
metals of thefe earths.
Mr Davy immediately repeated thefe operations with
perfeid fuccefs ; a globule of mercury, electrified by the
power of the battery of 500, weakly charged, was made
to aid upon a furface of (lightly moidened barytes, fixed
upon a plate of platina. The mercury gradually became
lefs fluid, and after a few minutes was found covered
with a white film of barytes, and when the amalgam
was thrown into water, hydrogen was difengaged, the
mercury remained free, and a folution oi barytes was
formed.
The refult with lime, as thefe gentlemen had dated,
was precifely analogous. Strontites and magnefia were
decompofed in the fame manner.
From drontites the expeCled refult foon took place;
but from magnefia, in the fird trials, no amalgam could
be procured. By continuing the procefs, however, for
a longer time, and keeping the earth continually moid,
at lad a combination of the bafis with mercury was ob¬
tained, which flowly produced magnefia by abforbing
oxygen from the air, or by the aClion of water.
Mr Davy found that all thefe amalgams might be
preferved for a confiderable period under naphtha. In
length of time, however, they became covered with a
white crud under this fluid. In water, the amalgam of
barytes was mod rapidly decompofed ; that of drontites
and that of lime next in order: but the amalgam from
magnefia, as might be expeded from the weak affinity
of the earth for water, very flowly changed. When a
little fulphuric acid was added to the water, however,
the evolution of hydrogen, and the produClion and folu¬
tion of magnefia, were exceedingly rapid, and the mer¬
cury foon remained free.
Mr Davy believed, that one reafon why magnefia
was lefc eafy to metallize, than the other alkaline earths,
was
Z I N [ 797 ] Z I N
was owing to its infolubility in water, which would pre¬
vent it from being prefented in the nafcent date, detach¬
ed from its folution at the negative furface.
He then made the experiment, ufing moiftened ful-
phate of magnefia indead of the pure earth ; and the a-
malgam was much fooner obtained. Here the magneda
was attracted from the fulphuric acid, and probably de-
oxigenated and combined with the quickdlver at the
fame indant.
The amalgams of the other bafes of the alkaline
earths could be obtained in the fame manner from their
faline compounds : muriate and fulphate of lime, the
muriate of drontites and barytes, and nitrate of barytes,
were decompofed by the fame means as the other earths.
The earths, feparated at the deoxigenating furface,
thefe feemed indantly to undergo decompodtion, and,
feized upon by the mercury, were in fome meafure de¬
fended from the aftion of air, and from the contaft of
water, and preferved by their drong attra&ion for this
metal.
In attempting to procure the metals of the alkaline
earths, the latter, were dightly moidened, and mixed
with one-third of red oxide of mercury *, the mixture
was placed on a plate of platina } a cavity was made
in the upper part of it to receive a globule of mercury,
of from 50 to 60 grains in weight ; the whole was co¬
vered by a dim of naphtha, and the plate was made
pofitive/ and the mercury negative, by a proper com¬
munication with the battery of dve hundred.
The amalgams obtained in this way were diddled in
tubes of plate-glafs, or in fome cafes in tubes of common
glafs. Thefe tubes were bent in the middle, and the
extremities were enlarged and rendered globular by
blowing, fo as to ferve the purpofes of a retort and re¬
ceiver. The tube, after the amalgam had been intro¬
duced, was Hlled with naphtha, which was afterwards
expelled, by boiling, through a fmall oridce in the end
correfponding to the receiver, which was hermetically
fealed when the tube contained nothing but the vapour
of naphtha, and the amalgam. It was found immediate¬
ly that the mercury rofe pure by didillation from the
amalgam, and it was very eafy to feparate a part of it •,
but to produce a complete decompodtion was very diffi¬
cult, as nearly a red heat was required for the purpofe,
and as at a red heat the bafes pf the earths inftantly a£t-
ed upon the glafs, and became oxigenated. . When the
tube was large in proportion to the quantity of amal¬
gam ufed, the vapour of the naphtha furniffied oxygen
fufficient to deftroy part of the bafes : and when a fmalj
tube was employed, it was difficult to heat the part uied
as a retort fufficient to drive off the whole of the mer¬
cury from the bafes, without raidng too highly the tem¬
perature of the part ferving for the receiver, fo as to
burft the tube. , , , f
In confequence of thefe difficulties, in a multitude of
trials, only a very few fuccefsful refults were obtained ;
and in no cafe could our author be abfolutely certain,
that there was not a minute portion of mercury Hill m
combination with the metals of the earths. .
In the beft refult obtained from the diftillation of the
amalgam of barytes, the redduum appeared as a white
metal, of the colour of diver. It was dxed at all com¬
mon temperatures, but became fluid at a heat below
rednefs, and did not rife in vapour when heated to
yednefs, in a tube of plate-glafs, but a£ted violent y up¬
on the glafs, producing a black mafs, which feemed to
contain barytes, and a dxed alkaline bads, in the drit
degree of oxigenation. When expofed to air, it rapidly
tarnifhed, and fell into a white powder, which was
barytes. When this procefs was conduced in a fmall
portion of air, the oxygen was abforbed and the nitro¬
gen remained unaltered ; when a portion of it was intro¬
duced into water, it afled upon it with great violence
and funk to the bottom, producing in it barytes j and
hydrogen was generated. From the minutenefs of the
quantities obtained, neither its phydcal nor chemical
qualities could be examined corre£tly. It funk rapidly
in water, and even in fulphuric acid, though furround-
ed by globules of hydrogen, equal to two or three times
its volume ; from which it feems probable, that it can¬
not be lefs than four or five times as heavy as water. It
flattened by preffure, but required a confidtrable force
to produce this effe61.
The metal from ftrontites funk in fulphurie acid, and
exhibited the fame charaflers as that from barytes, ex¬
cept in producing ftrontites by oxidation.
The metal from lime, Mr Davy has never been able
to examine, either when expofed to air, or when under
naphtha. In the cafe in which he was able to diftil the
quickfilver from it to the greateft extent, the tube un¬
fortunately broke, while warm, and at the moment that
the air entered, the metal, which had the colour and
luftre of filver, inftantly took fire, and burned with an
intenfe white light into quicklime.
The metal from magnefia feemed to aft upon the
glafs, even before the whole of the quickfilver was di-
ftilled from it. In an experiment in which the procefs
was flopped before the mercury was entirely driven oft',
it appeared as a folid j having the fame whitenefs and
luftre as the metals of the other earths. It funk rapidly
in water, though furrounded by globules of gas produ¬
cing magnefia, and quickly changed in air, becoming
covered with a white cruft, and falling into a fine pow¬
der, which proved to be magnefia.
In feveral cafes in which amalgams of the metals
were obtained, containing only a fmall quantity of mer¬
cury, they were expofed to air on a delicate balance,
and it was always found, that, during the converfion of
metal into earth, there was a confiderable increafe of
weight.
Mr Davy endeavoured to afcertain the proportions of
oxygen and bafis in barytes and ftrontites, by heating a-
malgams of them in tubes filled with oxygen, but with¬
out fuccefs. He fatisfied himfelf, however, that when
the metals of the earths were burned in a fmall quantity
of air, they abforbed oxygen, gained weight in the pro¬
cefs, and were in the highly cauftic or unflaked ftate 5
for they produced ftrong heat by the contaft of water,
and did not effervefce during their folution in acids..
The evidence for the compofition of the alkaline
earths is then of the fame kind as that for the compoli-
tion of the common metallic oxides ; and the principles
of their decompofition are precifely fimilar, the inflam¬
mable matters in all cafes feparating at the negative fur-
face in the galvanic circuit, and the oxygen at the pofi-
tive furface. .
Mr Davy has denominated the metals obtained from
the alkaline earths, barium, Jirontium, calcium, and mag-
nium.
In attempting the decompofition ot the.other earths,
Zinc;
 V—i
J
z I N . t 7
Zinc. j\Ir Davy was lefs fortunate in obtaining diftinft re-
fults •, and he abferves that the methods which have
ufually proved fuccefsful, as well as fome others, failed.
When alumina was fubje£led to the aftion of ele6lricity,
it was in a ftate of fufion with potalh. In this procefs
metallic globules were produced, but they confided chief¬
ly of the bafe of the alkali. Some appearances, however,
ftrewed, that the alumina itfelf was decompofed; for when
foda was employed, the metallic produft obtained was
lefs fufible than fodium itfelf, and when it was afted on
by water, it produced foda and a white powder. When
potafh was fufed with the alumina, and fubje&ed to gal¬
vanic aflion, the metallic product decompofed water
with great rapidity, and the folution obtained depofited
alumina by the aftioti of an acid. When potaflium in
the ftate of amalgam, with one-third of mercury, in con¬
tact with alumina, was negatively ele&rified under naph¬
tha, and after the procefs had been continued for fome
time, the amalgam was added to water, a decompofition
took place, and a folution was obtained, which produ¬
ced a cloudinefs on the addition of an acid ; but all thefe
refults are to be confidered as very imperfe£l evidence
of the decompofition of alumina.
Mr Davy was ftill lefs fuccefsful in attempting the
decompofition of filica, partly from its infolubility,
and partly from its being fcarcely, if at all, affeded with
ele&ricity, when diffufed in water, and placed in the
galvanic circuit $ but by following the fame procefies as
in his experiments on alumina, fome indications of de¬
compofition appeared. When filica was fufed with fix
parts of potafh, and Ivas placed in fufion in the galvanic
circuit, metallic matter was obtained, from which, by
expofure to the air, or by dropping it into water, a mi¬
nute quantity of filica was reproduced. When potaffium,
amalgamated with one-third of mercury, and in eontafl
with filica, was negatively ele&rified, he obtained a fi-
inilar refult •, but in none of the experiments could thq
product obtained be confidered as the pure bafe of the
earth.
The earths of zirconia and glucina were alfo fubje£l:ed
to the action of galvanifm, by procelfes fimilar to thofe
which have now been deferibed, and in both there were
fome indications of decompofition ; but the refults were
not fo perfeft as to lead to any ceftain conclufion refpeft-
ing their nature.
Decompojition of Sulphur and Phofphorus.
Sulphur.—Sulphur, which had formerly been confi¬
dered as a fimple fubftance, appears, from the experi-
ments of fome of the French chemifts, and particularly
thofe of Berthollet junior, to be a compound of fulplmr
and hydrogen. ’I he latter chemift, in his experiments
to inveftigate the nature of this fubftance, caufed fulphur
to pafs through a coated glafs tube, which was heated to
whitenefs ; iome indications of fulphurated hydrogen
were obtained. He then formed metallic fulphurets, as
of iron, copper, and mercury, and in thefe proceffes,
which were performed in an earthen retort with great
care, fulphurated hydrogen gas was alfo obtained. Wa¬
ter in the ftate of vapour being palfed over fulphur in
fufion, caufed the evolution of fulphurated hydrogen ;
the water was not decompofed, for no trace of acid could
be obferved. It feemed only to have effefted the difen-
gagement of hydrogen from the fulphur.
Mr Davy, in the courfe of his experiments in galvan-
98 ] Z I N
ifm, fubje&ed fulphur to the aflion of that power. The Zlat.
fulphur which he employed was fubiimed in a retort, ''“"V—
filled with azotic gas, and it was kept hot till the com¬
mencement of the experiment. The reafon of this pre¬
liminary procefs was, to avoid any uncertainty which
might arife from water abforbt d by the fulphur. The
fulphur introduced into a curved tube, fig. 7. which waspj-
furnifhed with wires of platina A and B, the upper wire 7
A being hermetically fealed into the end of the tube, was
then placed in the galvanic circuit of a battery of 500
pairs of plates of fix inches, in a ftate of great adfivity.
A very intenfe action followed, accompanied by great
heat and a brilliant light. 1 he fulphur toon entered into
ebullition, an;: %ave out a great quantity of elaftic fluid,
a good deal oi w inch was permanent. The fulphur it¬
felf aflumed a deep red brown colour. 1 he gas obtain¬
ed was fulphurated hydrogen. In another experiment
made on 200 grains of lulphur, the aroqunt of fulphur¬
ated liydr.igc;. obtained was equal to more than five
times the volume of the fulphur. A eonfiderable action
was obferved to have taken pla^e on the wires of plati¬
na ; and the fulphur, at its point of contadf with the
wires, reddened moift litmus paper. When lulphur and
potaflium are heated together, .. very powerful affion
takes place. Sulphurated hydiogen is difengaged with
very intenfe heat and light. From thefe experiments
the conclufion feems fair and obvious, that hydrogen
exifts in fulphtfr, for a fubftance, as Mr Davy obferves,
which can be produced from it in fueh abundance, is
not to be confidered merely as an accidental ingredient.
But as it is admitted that fulphurated hydrogen con¬
tains oxygen, Mr Davy contends that oxygen is to be
regarded as one of the eonftituents of fulphur. In this
opinion he is fupported by experiment. He heated pot-
affitim in fulphurated hydrogen gas, from which moifture
had been as much as poflible abftra&ed, by muriate of
lime. The potaflium took fire, and burnt with a bril¬
liant flame. When four grains of potaflium were heated
in 20 cubic inches of gas, the quantity of gas diminithed
only about 2^ cubic inches •, but the properties of the
gas were totally changed. A fmall portion only of it
was abforbed by water, and the remainder was hydro¬
gen, holding in folution a minute portion of fulphur.
Some fulphur was obferved on the tides of the retort,
and a folid matter was formed, which on the fuvface was
of a red colour, like fulphuret of potafh, but internally
dark gray, like fulphuret of potaflium. By fubjefting
this fubftance to the a£Hon of muriatic acid, fulphurated
hydrogen gas was obtained, but the proportion was lefs
than would have been given out, had the potaflium been
in combination with pure eombuftible mattter. From
this Mr Davy concludes, that there is a principle in ful¬
phurated hydrogen which is capable of deftroying par¬
tially the inflammability of potaflium, and of producing
upon it all the effects of oxygen. As fulphurated hy¬
drogen is obtained by heating fulplmr ftrdngly in hydro¬
gen gas, Mr Davy introduced four grains of fulphur in
a glafs retort, containing about 20 cubical inches of hy¬
drogen, and by means of a fpirit lamp, he raifed the heat
nearly to rednefs. No perceptible change took place in
the volume of the gas after the procefs. The fublimed
fulphur was unchanged in its properties, and about three
cubical inches of unelaftic fluid, abforbable by water,
reddening litmus, and having all the properties of ful¬
phurated hydrogen gas, were formed. Suppofing then
fulphurated
z I N [ 799 ] Z I N
Zint. fulphurated hydrogen to be conftituted by fulphur dif-
folved in its unchanged ftate in hydrogen, and admit
the exiftence of oxygen in this gas, its exigence muft
likewife be allowed in fulphur. From thefe experiments
Mr Davy thinks it not unreafonable to affume, that ful¬
phur in its common date is a compound of fmall quan¬
tities of oxygen and hydrogen, with a large quantity of
a bafe, which produces the acids of fulphur in combuf-
tion ; and as this bafis, it is added, poffeffes ftrong at-
tra&ions for other bodies, it will probably be very diffi¬
cult to obtain it in its uncombined Hate.
Sulphur combines readily with potaffium, when
brought into contact in tubes filled with the vapour of
naphtha •, heat and light are rapidly evolved during the
combination, and a gray fubltance like artificial fulphu-
ret of iron, is produced. The fulphurated hydrogen in
fmall quantity is formed at the moment of combination,
the hydrogen of which, it is fuppofed, is derived from
the fulphur. The fulphuret of potaffium readily in¬
flames, and when expofed to the air, it is gradually oxi¬
dated, and converted into fulphate of potaih.
Sulphur alfo enters into combination with fodium, ac¬
companied alfo with the evolution of heat and light. An
explofion fometimes takes place, which is owing to the
volatilization of a portion of fulphur, and the difengage-
ment of fulphurated hydrogen gas. The fulphuret of fo¬
dium is of a deep gray colour.
Phofphorus.—Mr Davy fubjefled phofphorus to fimi-
lar experiments, and he found that the fame analogies
are applicable to this combuftible. Common electrical
fparks tranfmitted through phofphorus produce no evo¬
lution of permanent gas ; but when added upon by the
fame galvanic battery, and in the fame circumftances as
the fulphur, a confiderable evolution of gas was effedded,
and the phofphorus became of a deep red brown colour.
The gas was phofphorated hydrogen } and in an expe¬
riment continued for fome hours, the quantity evolved
was four times the volume of the phofphorus. The light
by the galvanic fpark was at firlt a brilliant yellow, and
afterwards orange.
Three grains of potaffium were heated in 16 cubical
inches of phofphorated hydrogen. As the fufion was ef¬
fected, the retort was filled with white fumes, and a
reddifh fubftance was depofited upon the upper part and
fides ; the heat was applied for fome minutes, but no in¬
flammation took place. When the retort cooled, the
abforption was lefs than a cubical inch ; the potaffium
externally was of a deep brown, and inter; illy of a lead
colour. The refidual gas feemed to contain in folution
a little phofphorus, but it had not the property ot fpon-
taneous inflammation. While the phofphuret was aCte'd
upon over mercury by a folution of muriatic acid, it gave
out only cubical inch of phofphorated hydrogen.
One grain of potaffium, and one of phofphorus, were
fufed together. In combining, a very vivid light and
intenfe ignition were produced 5 Tg- of a cubical inch of
phofphorated hydrogen was evolved, and the phofphuret,
witli diluted muriatic acid over mercury, gave out Tg- of
a cubical inch of phofphorated hydrogen. In another
experiment with one grain of potaffium, and three of
phofphorus, nearly one-fourth ot a cubical inch ot phof¬
phorated hydrogen'was obtained; but the compound
yielded by muriatic acid, only a cubical inch.
From thefe experiments it is concluded, that phof¬
phorated hydrogen contains a minute proportion of oxy¬
gen, and confequently that the fame element enters into Zinc,
the compofition of phofphorus. The deficiency of phof- 1 v -J’
phorated hydrogen in the laft experiment can only be
referred to the fupply of oxygen to the potaffium from
the phofphorus ; and the quantity of phofphorated hydro¬
gen produced in the experiment with equal parts of pot¬
affium and phofphorus, is much lefs than could be ex¬
pected, if the potaflium and phofphorus confifled merely
of pure combuftible matter.
Mr Davy alfo inftituted a fet of interefting experi¬
ments on the ftates of the carbonaceous principle in
plumbago, charcoal, and the diamond, and the refults of
thefe are detailed in the fame memoir ; but for an ac¬
count of them we muft refer to the paper itfelf.
Decompojition of Boracic, Fluoric, and Muriatic acids.
rI he properties of boracic, fluoric, and muriatic acids,
many ot which are quite analogous to thofe of other
acids whofe elements have been difcovered, have led
chemifts to conclude that oxygen is alfo the acidifying
principle in the former ; but the feparate exiftence or
nature of the bafe of thefe three acids was, till the late
refearchesofgalvanifm were inftituted, utterly unknown.
The inveftigation of the nature of thefe fubftances has
been profecuted by Mr Davy, and fome of the French
chemifts ; and of their experiments we ihall now give
a very ffiort account.
Boracic acid.—When boracic acid was moiftened
with water, and expofed between two furfaces of pla-
tina, and then fubjetled to the battery of 500 plates,
an olive brown matter formed on the negative furface,
and, increafing in thicknefs, appeared at laft almoft:
black. This fubftance was permanent in water, but it
diffolved and effervefced in warm nitrous acid. Ideated
to rednefs on the platina, it burned llowly, and gave off
white fumes, which reddened moiftened litmus paper.
A black mafs remained, which through a magnifier ap¬
peared vitreous, and feemed to contain a fixed acid. The
inference drawn from this experiment is, that the acid
was decompofed, and again by the latter procefs repro¬
duced.
When equal weights of potaffium and boracic acid
were heated together in a green glafs tube, which had
been exhaufted, after being twice filled with hydrogen
gas, an intenfe ignition, with vivid inflammation, where
the potaffium was in contact with the boracic acid, took,
place, even before the temperature approached near to a
red heat. When the acid had been heated to whitenefs,
before being introduced into the tube, and powdered and
ufed while yet warm, the quantity of gas which was hy¬
drogen, given out in the operation, did not exceed
twice the volume of the acid. In this mode of con¬
ducing the experiment, 12 or 14 grains of each of the
two fubftances only could be employed, on account of
the intenfe heat and confequent fufion of the glals tube
with larger proportions. Mr Davy found in feveraT
experiments, in which he employed equal parts of acid
and potaffium, that a great proportion-of the former
remained undecompofed, and he afcertained that twenty
grains of potaffium had their inflammability deftroyed by
eight grains of bdracrc acid.
To colleC the fubftances formed in the procefi, me¬
tallic tubes with ftop-cocks, and exhaufted, after being
filled with hydrogen; were employed. With tubes of
brafs or copper, a dull red heat only,, but with iron
tubes,
Z I N [ 800 ] Z I N
Zinc. tubes, a white heat was applied; and in all cafes the
■—"'v ml acid was decompofed writh the fame refults. The fub-
ftance obtained from the iron tube was in fome parts of
a dark olive colour, and in others almoft black. It did
not effervefce with warm water, but was rapidly adled
upon by it. The folutions obtained confiited of fubbo-
rate of potath, and potafh.
The following are the properties of the fubftanee ob¬
tained in the decompofition of boracic acid by means of
procefles conduced in brafs tubes, which afforded it in
largeft proportion. To this fubftance Mr Davy has
given the name of boracium, which, as it is produced in
the manner now defcribed, is in the form of a pulveru¬
lent mafs of the darkeft {hades of olive; it is opaque,
very friable; the powder does not fcrateh glafs, and is
a non-conduftor of ele&ricity. Dried at loa° or 120°,
it gives off moifture, by decreafing the temperature;
and wrhen heated in the atmofphere, takes fire at a tem¬
perature below the boiling point of olive oil, emitting
a red light, and fparks like charcoal. When excluded
from air, and fubje&ed to a white heat in a platina
tube, exhaufted after being filled with hydrogen, it re¬
mains unchanged, excepting in becoming a little darker,
and acquiring a greater fpecific gravity.
Boracium introduced into a retort filled with oxygen
gas, and heated by a fpirit lamp, throws off vivid fcin-
tillations like thofe of the. combuftion of the bark of
charcoal, and the mafs gives out a brilliant light. A
fublimate appears, which is boracid acid; it becomes
coated with a vitreous fubftance, which is alfo found to
be the fame acid. When this is walked off, the black
refiduum requires a greater heat, but it is alfo inflamed,
and converted into boracic acid. When boracium is
brought into contaft with oxymuriatic acid gas, at
common temperatures, it immediately takes fire, and
burns with a brilliant white light, coating the infide of
the veffel with a white fubftance, which is boracic acid.
Boracium heated to rednefs with hydrogen or nitrogen,
became of a darker colour, and gave out a little moif¬
ture, but remained otherwife unchanged. Thrown into
concentrated nitric acid, it rendered it bright red; ni¬
trous gas was produced and abforbed, but no rapid fo-
lution took, place till the acid was heated, when the
• boracium disappeared with effervefcence, and the evo¬
lution of nitrous gas, and the fluid yielded boracic acid.
The aftion ofboracium on fulphuric and muriatic acids
was not remarkable. It combined with the fixed alka¬
lies, both by fufion and aqueous folution, and formed
pale olive-coloured compounds, which by muriatic acid
were precipitated of a dark colour. When fufed with
fulphur, it diffolved flowly, and the fulphur became of
an olive colour. Itsaftion with phofphorus in the fame
circumftances was ftill feebler, but it communicated a
Ihade of pale green.
From the experiments now detailed, it appears that
boracium obtained by means of potaflium, is different
from any other known fpecies of matter, and feems to
be the fame as that obtained from boracic acid by elec¬
tricity. According to the refult of experiments made
by Mr Davy, boracic acid is compofed of one part of
boracium, and about 1.8 of oxygen; and fuppofing the
dark refidual fubftance to be an oxide, it confifts of 4.7
ofboracium, and t.^if of oxygen.
For an account of the experiments of Gay Luffac and
Thenard, m inveftigating the nature of boracic acid,
fee Jour, de Phyfique, tom. Ixvii. or Nichol. Jour, xxiii. Zinc.
Fluoric acid.—According to the experiments of Mr
Davy, potaflium, when heated in fluoric acid gas, un¬
dergoes combuftion, and a great abforption of the gas
takes place. In other experiments, he found, that when
fluoric acid gas, procured in contaft with glafs, is intro¬
duced into a plate glafs retort, exhaufted after being
filled with hydrogen gas, white fumes appear from the
a£tion of the potaflium, which lofes its fplendour, and
becomes coloured with a gray cruft. The fumes are
more copious when the bottom of the retort is gently
heated. The volume of the gas examined at this time
appears to be a little increafed, with the addition of hy¬
drogen; and when the temperature is raifed nearly to
the point of fublimation of the potaflium, the metal rifes
through the cruft, becomes firft of a copper colour, and
then inflames and burns with a brilliant red light. Af¬
ter this combuftion, the fluoric acid is either wholly or
partially deftroyed, according as the quantity of potaf-
fium is great or fmall; and a mafs of a chocolate colour
is found in the bottom of the retort; the fides and the
top are lined with a fublimate, which is partly choco¬
late, and partly of a yellow colour. When the refidual
gas is walked with water, mixed with oxygen gas, and
expofed to the adtion of an eledlrical fpark, it detonates,
and affords a diminution in the fame way as hydrogen
In one experiment with 19 cubical inches of fluoric
acid gas, and ten grains and a half of potaflium, 14 cu¬
bical inches of the gas difappeared, and about two and
a quarter of hydrogen gas were produced. The gas
had not been artificially dried; little fublimate was pro¬
duced, but the whole of the bottom of the retort was
covered with a brown cruft. When this mafs was exa¬
mined with a magnifier, it feemed to confift of different
kinds of matter. It did not conduct ele&ricity; it ef-
fervefced violently in water, Avith the evolution of an
inflammable gas, which had fomewhat of the odour of
phofphorated hydrogen. Part of the mafs heated in
the air, burnt flowly, and was converted into a Avhite
faline matter. It alfo burnt with difficulty in heated
oxygen gas, but it abforbed a portion that required
nearly a red heat. The light emitted refembled that
from the combuftion of liver of fulphur. Chocolate co¬
loured particles Avere found floating in the water, afted
on by a portion of the mafs, and when the folid matter
was feparated by the filter, the fluid was found to con¬
tain fluate of potafh and potafh. The folid refiduum
was heated in a fmall glafs retort filled with oxygen
gas; it burnt before reaching a red heat, and became
white. Oxygen was abforbed, and acid matter pro¬
duced. The remainder had the properties of the fub¬
ftance formed from fluoric acid gas, holding filiceous
earth in folution by the a&ion of water.
“ The decompofition of the fluoric acid, Mr Davy
obferves, by potaflium, feems analogous to that of the
acids of fwlphur and phofphorus. In neither of thefe
cafes are the pure bafes, or even the bafes in their com¬
mon form, evolved; but neiv compounds refult, and in
one cafe, fulphurets and fulphites, and in the other phof-
phurets and phofphites of potafh, are generated.”
In another experiment Mr Davy attempted the de¬
compofition of fluoric acid gas, Avhich was perfedlly
dry, and free from filiceous earth, by mixing 100 grs.
of
Zinc.
z I N [ Soi 1 Z I N
of dry boraclc acid, and 200 grains of fluor fpar. The
mixture was introduced into the bottom of an iron tube,
having a ftop-cock and tube of fafety attached. The
tube was inferted horizontally in a forge, and 20 grains
of potaflium in an iron tray were placed in that part of
it where the heat was only of a dull red. The bottom
of the tube w?as raifed to a white heat, and the acid, as
it was generated, was a£fed upon by the heated potaf.
fium. The refult obtained was a fubftance in fome parts
black, and in others of a dark brown colour. It did
not effervefce with water, and when lixiviated, afforded
a dark brown combuftible mafs which did not condu<5t
ele&ricity, and, when burnt in oxygen gas, afforded bo-
racic and fluoric acids. This fublfance did not inflame
ipontaneoufly in oxymuriatic acid gas $ but it effervefced
violently, and diffolved in nitric acid. Mr Davy thinks
that this fubftance is a compound of the olive-coloured
oxide of boracium, and an oxide of the bafe of fluoric
acid $ but he had not examined its properties particu¬
larly.
Muriatic «</.*—Many conjectures have been offered
with regard to the nature and conftitution of muriatic
acid, and many attempts have been made to effeCt its
decompofition. Mr Davy has extended his refearches
to this fubflance, and has profecuted the inveftigation
with his ufual ardour. It is ftill, however, to be re¬
gretted, that Ids fuccefs has not been commenfurate
with his ingenuity and induftry. Some have fuppofed,
that the bafe of muriatic acid is hydrogen, while others
contend that the bafe is a compound of hydrogen and
nitrogen.
The refult of Mr Davy’s firft experiments in this in¬
quiry fhowed, that tho water alone in combination
with the muriatic acid is decompofed, and that this
elaftic fluid contains a larger proportion of water than
is ufually fufpedted •, and from various experiments he
concludes, that muriatic acid gas, in its common ftate,
is combined with at leaft: one-third of its weight of wa¬
ter. In the profecution of his refearches, therefore, his
obje£I was to obtain the muriatic acid free from water.
With this view he heated dry muriate of lime, mixed
both with pbofphoric acid, and dry boracic acid, in
tubes of porcelain and of iron, and employed the blaft
of an excellent forge 5 but by none of tbefe methods
was any gas obtained, till a little moifture was added
to the mixture, and then muriatic acid was given out
in fuch quantity as almoft to produce expioftons. In
diftiliing the liquor of Libavius, or the fuming muriate
of tin, which contains dry muriatic acid, with fulphur
and with phofpborus, no reparation of the acid took
place ; but with the addition of water, muriatio acid ga*
was evolved with great heat and violence. By diftil¬
iing mixtures of corrofive fublimate and fulphur, and of
calomel and fulphur in their common ftates, muriatic
acid gas was evolved j but when tbefe fubftsnces were
dried by a gentle heat, the quantity of gas obtained
was greatly diminiftted, Mr Davy, and aifo the French
chemifts, endeavoured to procure dry muriatic add by
the dift illation of a mixture of calomel and phofpbo¬
rus. The refult obtained is ccmftdered as a compound
of muriatic acid, phofphorui, and oxygen«^ In Mr
Davy’s experiments, the product was more copious when
corrofive fublimate was employed. With the fame view
ot procuring dry muriatic acid gas, he expofed phofpho-
rus to the affion of oxymuriatic acid gas, In the hope
Vol. XX. Part II.
that in the oxidation of the phofphorus, the whole of
the moifture would be abforbed 5 but the examination
of the refult (bowed, that no muriatic acid gas had
been evolved during the procefs, fo that the muriatic
acid which had difappeared, muff exift, either in the
white fublimate which had collected in the top of the
retort, or in a limpid fluid which had formed in its
neck. When the fublimate was expofed to the air, it
emitted fumes of muriatic acid, and when brought into
contact with water, muriatic acid gas was evolved, and
phofphoric and muriatic acids remained in folution in
the water. Mr Davy regards this white fublimate as a
combination of phofphoric and muriatic acids in their
dry dates. The limpid fluid was of a pale greenifti
yellow colour ; it rapidly difappeared on expofure to
the air, emitting denfe white fumes, which had a ftrong
fmell, differing a little from that of muriatic acid. Mr
Davy thinks that this is a compound of phofphoric and
muriatic acids, both free from water.
Mr Davy made other experiments, for the purpofe of
procuring muriatic acid in its uncombined ftate, but
with no better fucceff. He then tried the effects of po¬
taflium introduced into the fluid generated by the ac¬
tion of phofphorus on corrofive fublimate ; but fuch was
the violent action of the fubftances operated upon, that
the apparatus was generally deftroyed, and he was thus
precluded from examining the refults. But for a parti¬
cular detail of the experiments, we muft refer to the
memoir itfelf and for the extended account of Mr
Davy’s inveftigations on this curious and interefting
fubjeft, of which we have given as comprehenfive a
view' as our limits would permit, fee rbil. Tranf,
jBoy, i8c8, and 1809,
ZINNIA, a genus of plants of the clafsfyngenejia^
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 49th or¬
der, Comunjitcr, See Botaky Index.
ZINZltNDORFF, Nicholas Lf.wjs, Count, was
the noted founder of the German religious feft called
Moravians, or Hirrnhvters, or, as they pretend, the re-
ftorer of that fogiety. From his own narrative, it ap¬
pears, that when he came of age in 1721, his thoughts
were wholly bent on gathering together a little fociety
of believers, among whom he might live, and who fhould
entirely employ themfelves in exercifes of devotion
under him. He accordingly purebafed an eftate at Ber«
tholfdorff in Upper Luftdia, where, being joined by (bme
followers, he gave the curacy of the village to a perfon
of his own complexion j and Bertholfdorff foon became
talked of for a new mode of piety. One Cbnftian Da¬
vid, & carpenter, brought a few profelytes from Mo.
ravia: they began a new town ?bout half a league from
tho village, where Count Zingendorff fixed his refidence
among them, and whither great numbers of Moravians
flocked and eflablifhed themfelves under Ins prote&ior.;
fo that in 11732 their number amounted to 60c. An
adjacent hill, called the flitthkerg, gave occatlon to tbefe
colonifti to call their new fettlemerft Ihth th\< Herni,
and afterwards Hcrrnhuth; which may be interpreted
“ The guard or prote&ion of the Lord and from this
the whole have taken their name, The count
fpared neither pains nor art to propagate his opinions}
he went hlmfelf all over Europe-, and at leaft twice to
America 5 and fent mlfliqnams throughout the world.
Count Zinzendorf? died in 1760. Theft? who wifli to
know more of the Moravian tenets may confult Jlimiusds
i I account
Zrae
II
Zin/pn-
dorr?'.
2 I O [ 802 ] Z O D
Zinzen- account of them, tranflated in 1753^ See United
Brethren.
2;^ ZISCA, John, a famous general of the forces of the
—-y ' Huffites, in the 15th century, was a gentleman educated
at the court of Bohemia, in the reign of Wencellaus.
He entered very young into the army, and after diftin-
guilhing himfelf on feveral occafions, loft an eye in a
battle, whence he was called 7*ifca or One-eyed. At
length the Reformation, begun by John Hufs, fpreading
through alraoft all Bohemia, Zifca placed himfelf at the
head of the Huflites, and had foon under his command
a body of 40,000 men. With this army he gained fe¬
veral viflories over thofe of the Romilh religion, who
carried on a kind of crufade againft them, and built a
town in an advantageous fituation, to which he gave the
name of Tabor; whence the Huffites were afterwards
called Taborites. Zifca loft his other eye by an arrow
at the fiege of the city of Rubi; but this did not pre¬
vent his continuing the war, his fighting battles, and
gaining feveral great vidlories, among which was that of
Aufig on the Elbe, in w'hich 9000 of the enemy were
left dead on the field. The emperor Sigifmund, alarm¬
ed at his progrefs, caufed very advantageous propofals to
be offered to him5 which he readily accepted, andfet
out to meet Sigifmund, but died on the road. He or¬
dered that his body fliould be left a prey to the birds
and wdld beafts-, and that a drum fliould be made of his
fkin, being perfuaded that the enemy would fly as foon
as they heard the found. It is added, that the Huflites
executed his will; and that the news of this order made
fuch an impreflion on the difturbed imaginations of the
German Papifts, that in many battles they a&ually fled
at the beat of the drum with the utmoft precipitation,
leaving their baggage and artillery behind them.
ZINZIBER, or Zingiber. See Amomum, Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica Index.
ZION, or Sion, in Ancient Geography, a very fa¬
mous mountain, ftanding on the north fide of the city of
Jerufalem, (Pfal. xlvii. 2.); containing the upper city,
built by King David; and where flood the royal palace,
(Jofephus.). A part of Zion, fituated at its extremity,
was called Milo, of or in the city of David, (2 Chron.
xxxii. 5.). Modern travellers, w ho have been upon the
fpot, fay, that Zion is the whole of the mountain, on
which Jerufalem Hands at this day, though not to the
extent in which it anciently flood on the fame mountain,
as appears Pfal. ix. 12. 15. Ixv. 1. Ixxxvii. 2, 3. If.
Ixii. 1. It is fwelled into feveral eminences or tops ;
as Moriah, Aera Bezetha, and Zion a particular emi¬
nence or mount, and Zion Proper, &c. encompafled on
three fides, eaft, weft, and fouth, with one continued
very deep and deep valley ; by means of which it was
impregnable on thefe three fides, and always attacked
and taken, according to Jofephus, by the enemy on the
north fide, where Mount Zion became level, and the
vales of Gihon and Jehofhaphat gradually lofe them-
felves. This deep and fteep valley inconteftably con-
■ftitutes the coinpafs of the old Jerufalem on thofe three
fides, as plainly appears to any perfon who has been
upon the fpot. On that particular top of the mount
called Tuion flood the fortrefs of the Jebufites ; which
being afterwards taken by David came to be called the
Ctiy of. David, where he had his royal refidence and
•kept his court. That part of the valley which lay to
the eaft was called JehoJJjaphat's, having Mount Olivet
5
lying beyond it; that to the fouth Gehinnon ; and that ZIo*
to the weft, Gihon, from cognominal mountains lying be- II
yond them. At the weft end of Gihon, without the , Zodiac-
city, flood Golgotha or Calvary. The pretended Gol- v
gotha, ftiown at this day within the walls, is the fpurious
brat of interefted and fraudulent monks, (Korte). There
is another Zzb«, the fame with Hermon.
Zion, or Tjion College. See London, N° 76.
ZIPH, or Siph, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a wildernefs or defert in the tribe of Judah, where Da¬
vid was fugitive; lying to the fouth-eaft of Hebron; fo
called from Ziph or Siph, a twofold town in this tribe;
the one more to the fouth towards'Idumea, on the confines
of Eleutheropolis, (Jerome) ; the other eight miles to
the eaft of Hebron, towards the Dead fea, inclining
fouth wards, becaufe near Mount Carmel. Here was r
mountain, mentioned 1 Sam.xxiii. 14. in which David
abode, faid by Jerome to be rugged, difmal, and always
overcaft. Ziphim, Ziphcei, or Ztphenfes, the inhabitants
of Ziph, ver. 19.
ZIRCHNITZER-see, otherwife called the Lake of
Cxircknit*, in Carniola, is about one German or four
Englifti miles in length, and half as much in breadth,
contains three beautiful iflands, and is encompafftd at
fome diftance with mountains and forefts. But what is
moft remarkable is, that it difappears generally once a-
year, about St John’s or St James’s day, running off
through holes or pits in the bottom; fometimes it dif¬
appears twice or thrice a-year, and fometimes even in
winter if the wreather be dry. On the other hand, it
has been known to continue two or three years without
running off. Of the holes or pits, there are five much
larger than the reft, each of which fucceflively, when
the water runs off, ftands empty five days; fo that the
w'hole lake becomes dry in 25. As foon as the begin¬
ning of the ebb is obferved, the fifhing in the pits be¬
gins, which belongs to five feignories. The filh, which
are carp, tench, pike, eels, and two other forts called
fchleien and ruten, are caught by laying nets over the
holes. Mr Keyfler tells us, that upon the ringing of a bell
at Zirknitz, when the waters begin to fall, thepeafants,
both men and women, run to the pools quite naked.
ZIRCON, a mineral fubftance containing a peculiar
earth. See Mineralogy Index.
ZIRCONIA, a peculiar earth. See Chemistry
Index.
ZIZANIA, a genus of plants of the clafs moncecia ;
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 4th order,
Gramina. See Botany Index.
ZODIAC, abroad circle, whofe middle is the eclip¬
tic, and its extremes two circles parallel thereto, at fuch
a diftanee from it as to bound or comprehend the exeur-
fions of the fun and planets, (fee Astronomy). It is
a curious enough fa<ft, that the folar divifion of the In¬
dian zodiac is the fame in fubftance with that of the
Greeks, and yet that it has not been borrowed either
from the Greeks or the Arabians. The identity, or at
leaft ftriking fimilarity, of the divifion, is univerfally
known; and M. Montucla has endeavoured to prove,
that the Bramins received it from the Arabs. His opi¬
nion, w'e believe, has been very generally admitted ;
but in the fecond volume, of the Afiatic Refearches, the
accompliflied prefident Sir William Jones has proved un-
anfwerably, that neither of thofe nations borrowed that
divifion from the other; that it has been known among
the
ZOO [ 803
llie Hindoos from time immemorial j and that it was
probably invented by the firlt progenitors of that race,
' whom he confiders as the moft ancient of mankind, be ¬
fore their difperfion. The queftion is not of importance
fnfficiently general, ilraitened as we are by the limits
prefcribed us, for our entering into thedifpute ; but we
think it our duty to mention it, that our agronomical
readers, if they think it worth their while, may have
recourfe to the original writers for further information.
ZOEG£ A, a genus of plants of the clafs fyngenefia.
See Botany Index.
ZONE, in Geography and AJtronomy, a divifion of
the terraqueous globe with refpeft to the different de¬
grees of heat found in the different parts thereof. The
zones are denominated torrid, frigid, and temperate. The
torrid zone is a band, furrounding the terraqueous globe,
and terminated by the two tropics. Its breadth is 46°
58'. The equator, running through the middle of it,
divides it into two equal parts, each containing 23° 29'.
The ancients imagined the torrid zone uninhabitable.
The temperate zones are contained between the tropics
Tuhipora
Mufica.
Plate
DLXX1X.
fig-1. Sc 2
] ZOO
tranfverfe fepta are of unequal heights. The colour of Zoophyte,-:
the mafs is a deep purple, or a rich crimfon. The fize —“'v--*-
of the mafs varies confiderably •, but fpecimens have
been obtained of from a foot to three feet in diameter.
It is found abundantly in the Pacific ocean, and on the
fhores of fome of the iflands in the Indian fea.
In its recent Hate it is covered with a mucous or ge¬
latinous fubltance, which pervades the whole mats and
enters within each tube. 1 he inhabiting animalis notcer-
tainly afcertained,butfeems to be allied to the nereii tribe.
Irigs. 3. and 4. exhibit two views of the MadrE- Madrepom
FORA fungites, or mujhroom madrepore. Tlus body {Q jungites.
and the polar circles. The breadth of each is 430 2'
The frigid zones are fegments of the furface of the earth,
terminated, one by the antardtic, and the other by the
ardlic circle. The breadth of each is 46° 58'.
ZOOLOGY, is that part of natural hiftory which
relates to animals. See Natural History.
ZOOPHYTES. Th e name Zoophytes, Zoophyta
{i. e. animal plants, from £&>«», animal, and <py?ov, plant,')
has been long appropriated to a numerous affemblage of
marine or aqueous productions, which have puzzled the
ingenuity of naturalifb to afeertain their place in the
-chain of nature’s urorks, and which have been alternately
ranked among vegetable and animal, and fometimes
even among mineral fubtlances. At length, however,
they feem, by general confent, to have been configned
over to the animal kingdom, and, with the addition of
feveral tribes from the Linnsean orders of Intejlina, Mol-
lufea, and Infufona, have, by Cuvier and his colleagues
of the French fchool, been elevated to the rank of a fe-
parate clafs. See Helminthology, N° ii.
In the Linnsean fyftem, the zoophytes of earlier
modern naturalills conflitute the 4th order of the clafs
Vermes, and as fueh have been enumerated under
Helminthology ; but as the circumfcribed limits of
that article did not admit of our deferibing or figuring
many fpecies, we (hall now as far as poffible fupply that
deficiency by feleCIing a few of the moft curious or in-
terefting fpecies of the Linnsean zoophytes; and we
fliall take this opportunity of making a few obfervations
on fome of the genera to which they belong.
Figs. I. and 2. reprefent the Tubipora mujica,
crimfon tubipore, or organ coral; one of the moft elegant
of thefe Angular productions. This fpecies is diftinguifh-
ed from its congeners by having the tubes conne&ed into
•fafciculce or bundles, and fep&rated from each other by
tranfverfe membranous partitions. The whole mafs
confifh of upright parallel tubes, rifing over each other
by ftages, fomething like the cells of a honeycomb.
Thefe tubes vary in height from half an inch to an inch;
and are from one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch in dia¬
meter. Examined internally, they appear to contain a
fmaller tube divided at certain diftances by radiated par¬
titions (fee fig. 2.), by means of which the tranfverfe
fepta fometimes communicate with each other. Thefe
exaCtiy relembles a mufhroom that it has very common- 3-&•!•>-
ly been regarded as that vegetable in a ftate of petrifac¬
tion ; but recent obfervations feem to prove that it is
formed by fmall animals like meduft. The convex fide
of this madrepore is conical, fometimes obtufely pointed,
and exhibits on its furface thole fiellated pores which
form the diftinguilhing charaCler of the genus, while
the concave lurface is divided into numerous radiated
furrows fo as to reprefent the gills of a mulhroom.
When firft obtained, it is of a delicate white colour,
efpecially on the concave part, but it foon acquires a
brown or yellowiftr tinge. It is found of various fixes,
from an inch to fix inches in diameter. It is met with
chiefly in the Indian ocean and Red fea.
At fig. 5. is reprefented that elegant coral called by //?• hippu-
Linn&eus Isis hippuris, the black and white jointed coralr!t'
of Ellis. The fpecific charaCler of this coral is that ^
is compofed of white f rioted joints united by Hack junc¬
tures ; but that ftru&ure is not vilible till after the coral
has been freed from a whitilh foft fpongy part, with
which the branches are covered in their natural Hate,
See fig. 6. It is found chiefly in the Indian feas, and
varies in height from a few inches to nearly two feet.
Fig. 7. reprefents the ANTIPATHES myriophylla, yar- Antipatbes
row antipalhes, or fea yarrow, of its natural fize; while myriophyl-
fig. 8. lliews one of the pinnae confiderably magnified. ia' ^ te
This is one of thofe zoophytes which in their habit jjlxXX
and appearance almoft exaClly referable fome of the ve-Fig. 7. St 8«
getable tribes, and hence have received the names of
feu-heath, fea-cyprefs, fea-fennel, &c. From their co¬
lour they are ufually denominated black coral. This
fpecies, though one of the fmalleft, is not the leaft ele¬
gant of the tribe. It confifts of numerous branches,
compofed of very (lender pinnae arranged in no certain
order. The whole coral is feldom above a foot in height,
and rough on its outer furface. This alfo is a native of
the Indian ocean, being found more efpecially on the
coafts of the Molucca iflands, and is fometimes met
with in the Great South fea.
Fig. 9. exhibits a fpecimen of red coraf the Isis no- Gorgcnia
bills of Linne, and Gorgonia nobilis of later natural-
ills. This fubftance, though now nearly exploded from
the materia medica, will ftill retain a place in our cabi¬
nets for its intrinfic beauty and elegant appearance;
but when examined on its native beds, or foon after be¬
ing filhed up, it (hews a very different furface from that
under which we ufually fee it. Fig. 9. reprefents it as
prepared for fale by being deprived of its fleftiy animal
bark or coating, but retaining the ftriated appearance
which marks its fpecific character ; but fig. 10. exhibits
a piece of it in its natural ftate, with polypes extruded
from the fleftiy coat, and fhewing ftill more diftindly at
the extremities the ftreaks below.
5l2 Red
ZOO t 8°4 ] ZOO
Gorgonia
reratophy-
ta.
Fig. ix.
Alcyoniwn
gorgonoi-
des.
Fig. i a.
2ioophytes. Red coral is found in large beds or reefs in leveral
parts of the Mediterranean lea, and coral fillieries are
eftablilhed on the cods and near the illands. A tilhery
of this kind in the ftraitsof Medina is minutely defcrib-
ed by Spallanzani in his Travels in the two Sicilies,
vol, iv. To tear the coral from the rocks they make
ufe of a machine compofed of two beams tied acrofs each
other, and furnilhed with a leaden weight to fink them,
and a quantity of loofe hemp and feveral ftrong nets to
entangle the branches of the coral. To this machine is
attached a firong rope, which is held by the fithers, and
ferves both to direct the net and to draw it up when the
coral is entangled. Several boats go in company, each
containing eight men, and the fithery lafts from April
to July. The quantity collected every year amounts on
an average to twelve Sicilian quintals, each equal to 250
pounds Troy, and each pound ufually fells for about
four Ihillings and fixpence. They do not fi(h on the
fame bank oftener than once in ten years, as this time
is deemed neceflary for the coral to acquire its full lize
and vigour.
Another beautiful fpecies of gorgonia, the Gorgo-
NIA ceratophyta, is figured at fig. 11. This is diftinguith-
ed by its dichotomous jlattijhjlem, and afcending branches.
The outer flelh is of a purplifh colour, and the branches
are furnilhed with two rows of fcattered pores from
which the polypi appear. It is found in the Mediterra¬
nean, and fometimes on the eaftern coafts of America.
Nearly allied to the gorgoniae is the fpecies of alcy-
onium reprefented at fig. 12. This is the Alcyonium
gorgonoides of Gmelin. It is of a cinereous colour, of a
Tandy flelhy confidence, having radiated warty cellules.
It is found on the northern coaft of South America, ef-
pecially near the ifiand of Curagoa.
The zoophytes which naturalifts dillinguilh by the
generic name alcyonium, fometimes form independent
bodies of a rounded form, fuch as thofe called the fea-
Grange,fea-fig, &c. 5 or cover the furface of Ihells and
other marine bodies like a kind of bark. Their internal
part or bafe is friable, and, when dried, appears to be
compofed of fine fibres, which are either longitudinal, as
in the prefent cafe, diverging, or circular. This bafe is
covered with a foft crufi, that in drying affumes a lea¬
thery confidence, and is pierced with numerous little
cells inhabited by polypi. In fome fpecies thefe cells
are difperfed over the whole furface of the coral, while in
others they are confined to particular fpots or tubercles.
They are all inhabitants of the ocean, where they are
ufually fixed to rocks or other folid bodies.
In the article Helminthology we have fufficiently
treated of the nature and properties of the fponges, and
have there mentioned particularly the common or
««/fponge. At fig. 13. is reprefented a more curious
fpecies, the Sp. tubulofa or fijlularis, the tubular or
jnpey fponge. This confids of fimple upright, attenua¬
ted, rigid tubes, tuberculated on the outer furface,
which is of a black colour. It is found in the feas that
wafh the coads of America.
The flujlrce are a tribe of infignificant zoophytes,
which feem fcarcely entitled to the rank which they
hold in the animal creation. They are formed of a con¬
geries of fuperficial cells, placed clofe together, like thofe
of a honeycomb, but generally occupying only a fingle
furface. Sometimes this fubdance forms a coating to
fome other marine body, at others It is unattached and
Spongia
tubulofa.
Plate
DLXXXI.
Fig- 13.
Flu fir a are'
nofa.
Fig. 14.
forms a floating foliaceous mafs or mat. The fpecies re- Zoophytes,
prefented at fig. 14. is one of the mod curious, and is '—■v——’
defcribed by Ellis under the name of Eng/ijh feu-mat,
called in the Linncean Tran fa ft ions, vol. v. Flustra
arenofa. It is compofed of Tandy particles aggluti¬
nated together with dime, and in fliape refembles the
fore part of a horfe’s hoof. It is very friable, and fo
thin as to be eafily broken. Thefe jlujlrce are found
abundantly on the coad of Kent, and about Holy-head
on the Wellh coad.
Fig. 15. reprefents a fpecimen of Sertulariafetacea, Sertularia
the fmallfea-brifle coralline of Ellis, of its natural fize fttacea.
and fig. 16. fliews the fame fpecimen confiderably mag- Pig. 15.
nified. This fpecies is didinguidied by btir\gfmply^~ir3‘
pinnated, with bent alternate pitince,furnijbed with very
remote proceffes growing only on one fide, and oblong
axillary ovaries. It is one of the fmailed and mod de¬
licate of the tribe, feldom exceeding an inch and a half
in height. It is very common, and is found on the Bri-
tifli coads.
None of the zoophytes bear a nearer refemblance to
vegetables than the fevtularice. Their creeping roots,
their branched dem, and tufts of feeming flowers (the
polypine proceffes) give them all the air of plants.
Hence they rvere long confidered as fea-mojfes, and de¬
fcribed by botanids under that name. See Ray’s Synop-
fs, p. 38. and 39. When attentively examined, however,
their animal nature will fcarcely be difputed. Exter¬
nally they are compofed of a horny fubdance, perfedtly
tranfparent, and through this may be didinguiflied the
animal fubdance traverfing the centre of the flem and
branches like the pith of a plant, and appearing exter¬
nally as little knots or protuberances in the form of
tentaculated polypes. Thefe extraneous polypes are
confidered by Cuvier {Tableau E/ementaire, p. 768.)
not as didindl animals, but only as parts of the fame
animal which conditutes the foie inhabitant of the
fertularia. Thefe zoophytes adhere to rocks, fliells, &c.
by creeping roots, and appear to propagate by means of
eggs. They are among the mod common of this clafs
of animated beings.
The PennatulvE, or Sea-pens, conditute a very curi- penmtula
ous tribe of zoophytes, which are completely \ocoxao-phofpbona.
tive, and fwim in the manner of fifhes. They conlid of
an internal bone or rather horny fubdance, covered with Sc is.
a fenfible flelhy coat. Their lower extremity is fimple
like the barrel of a quill, while the upper extremity is
expanded into a flattened part, that is generally compo¬
fed of pinnae like the barbs of a quill, thou* it is fome¬
times merely a fimple expanded mafs furniflied with
polypine procefies.
Fig. 17. reprefents one of the mod common fea-pens
properly fo called, the PENNATULA phofphorea, phofpho-
refcent pennatula, of its natural fize. It has aflefhyfem,
a rough middle part, and imbricated pinnules. The pinna;
are fuvnifhed on one fide with Xzfax pinnuIce, at the extre¬
mities of which appear the polypes. See fig. 18. which
fliews one of thefeparate pinnae, a little magnified. This
fpecies is of a fine red or light fcarlet colour, and when
alive, exhibits a drong phofphorefcent light, fo as to ren¬
der didinftly vifible obje&s that are near it. It is pret¬
ty common on the coads of Britain, and is fometimes
taken in the fidiermen’s nets, or adhering to the baits.
For figures of two other Linnaean zoophytes, the
Tubularia magnifica, and Hydra vindis, fee Plate
ccuu.
Fig. /.
ZOOPHYTES.
FLATEULXXZX
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4--
Hr.' {jf/i i £>&/rf x/r .
ZOOPHYTES
/'///. //.
PLATE DLXX1L.
Kff. W.
M. I / r/i i (hi (d .vr .
/'Yc/. 8.
7%9-7
rig./2.
Fig. / 3 .
Fig. /&.
Fig.//.
ZOOPHYTES
Fie,. (4-
PLATb' DLXXXL.
W. Aiv/nhair, sc ■
Z U G [ 805 j Z U R
Zoophytes CCLIII. Several of Cuvier’s zoophytes are reprefent-
11 ed in Plates XXXIV. CCLI. and CCLII. and iome of
Zug~ , the Infuforia in Plates XXXV. and XXXVI.
v ' ZOO rOMY, the art of differing animals or living
creatures, being.the fame with anatomy. See Anato¬
my.
ZORILLE, a fpecies of weefel which inhabits Peru,
and other parts of South America j and is faid to be
remarkable for its fetid odour.
ZOROASTER, or Zt:rdusht, a celebrated ancient
philofopher, faid to have been the reformer or the
founder of the religion of the magi. It is wholly un¬
certain to how many eminent men the name of Zoro-
after belonged. Some have maintained that there was
but one Zoroafter, and that he was a Perlian } others
have faid that there were fix eminent founders of philo-
fophy of this name. Ham the fon of Noah, Moles,
Ofiris, Mithras, and others, both gods and men have
by different writers been aflerted to have been the fame
with Zoroafter. Many different opinions have alfo
been advanced concerning the time in which heflourifti-
ed. Ariftotle and Pliny fix his date at fo remote a
period as 6000 years before the death of Plato. Ac¬
cording to Laertius, he ilouriihed 600 years before the
Trojan warj according to Suidas, 500. If, in the
midft of fo much uncertainty, any thing can be advan¬
ced with the appearance of probability, it feems to be
this; that there was a Zoroafter, a Perfo-Median, who
flouriftied about the time of Darius Hyftafpes; and that
befides him there was another Zoroafter, who lived in a
muah more remote period among the Babylonians, and
taught them aftronomy. The Greek and Arabian
writers are agreed concerning the exiftence <>f the Per-
fian Zoroafter ; and the ancients unanimoufly afcribe to
a philofopher, whom they call Z&ro«y?er, the origin of
the Chaldean aftronomy, which is certainly of much
earlier date than the time of Hyftafpes: it feems, there¬
fore, neceffary to fuppofe a Chaldean Zoroafter diftinA
from the Perfian. Concerning this Zoroafter, however,
nothing more is known, than that he flourilhed towards
the beginning of the Babylonilh empire, and was the
father of the Chaldean aftrology and magic. All the
wri'ings that have been afcribed to Zoroafter are un-
queftionably fpurious.
ZOSTER A, a genus of plants of the clafs gynan-
dria, and in the natural fyftem arranged under the fe-
cond order, Piperitce. See Botany Index.
ZOSIMUS, an ancient hiftorian who lived at the
end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century.
There are fix books of his hiftory extant; in the firft of
which he runs over the Roman affairs in a very fuccinft
manner from Auguftus to Rioclefian ; the other five are
written more diffufely. Zofimus was a zealous Pagan;
whence we find him frequently inveighing with great
bitternefs againft the Chriftian princes, particularly
againit Conffantine the Great, and the elder i beodo-
fius. His hiftory has been publilhed with the Latin-
verfion of Leunclavius at Frankfort, i$go, with the
other minor hiftorians of Rome, in folio; and at Ox¬
ford in 8vo, 1679*
ZUG, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the eaft
and north by that of Zurich, on the fouth by Scbweitz
and Lucern, and on the weft by the canton ot Lucern
and the Freye-Amt or Free Provinces. It is not above
LZ: miles either way ; but very populous and fruitful,
4-
yielding wine, wheat, chefnuts, and other fruits, in its
vales, and excellent pafture on its mountains, i he in¬
habitants of this canton are ftaunch Roman Catholics.
It lies in the diocefe of Conftance, and its government
is democratical. There are two lakes in it abounding
in fifli, particularly large carps, pikes, and a fpecies of
trouts called rote/s; as well as feveral woods full of
game. Zug, which gives name to it, and is its capital,
ftands on the eaft fide of a lake of the fame name, about
feven miles long, and is a ftrong neat town, containing
a priory and two convents.
ZUILA, a town in the territory of Fezzan, in Afri¬
ca, which ftands on a fpace ot about a mile in circuit,
but was formerly of much greater extent. The envi¬
rons are level, well fupplied with water, and fertile,
planted with groves of date trees, and the inhabitants
pay much attention to agriculture. N. Lat. 27. 29.
E. Long. 16. 39.
ZUINGLlXlS, Ulricus, an able and zealous re¬
former, who laid the foundation of a feparation irom
Rome in Switzerland, at the fame time that Luther did
the like in Saxony, was born at Wildehaufen in 1487-
While he officiated as preacher at Zurich, a Francii’can
fent by Leo X. came to publifh indulgences there ;
againft which Zuinglius, after the example of Luther,
declaimed powerfully. In the courfe of this oppofition
he ftarted a new dodlrine, which he called Evangelical
Truth; and from the beginning of 1519 to 1523, he
preached not only againft indulgences, but againft othtr
articles of the Romilh church. Bat though Zuinglius
made no lefs progrefs than Luther, he eondudted him-
felf with more moderation and prudence; and wifhing
to have the concurrence of the civil powers, procured
two aflemblies to be called at Zurich: by the firft, he
was authorifed to pimceed as he had begun; and by the
fecond, the outward worfhip and ceremonies of the
church of Rome were abolifhed. During thefe tranfac-
tions, Zuinglius publiftied feveral books in defence of his
doflrines; but treating of the eucharift, and prefcribing
a form of celebrating the Lord’s Supper different from
Luther, he was involved in violent difpules with the reft
of his reforming brethren. Refpe&ing the divine DE¬
CREES, the opinion of Zuinglius and his followers dif¬
fered very little from that of the PELAGIANS : and in-
ftead of declaring with Calvin, that the church is a fe-
parate independent body, veiled with the right oflegif-
lation for itfelf, Zuinglius afcribed to the civil magiftrate
an abfolute and unbounded power in religious matters,
allowing at the fame time a certain fubordination among
the minifters of the church. This was abundantly
agreeable to the magiftrates of Zurich; but the rett of
the Swifs cantons difallowing of their proceedings, other
affemblies were called, and things tending to tumult,
both fides had recourfe to arms; when Zuinglius, who
began as a preacher, died in arms as a foldier, in 1531.
His works are in four volumes folio.
ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland, bounded to the
north by Swabia and the canton of Schaffhaufen ; to
the fouth by the town and territory of Rapperfchvveil
and the cantons of Switz and Zug ; to the eaft by the
Thurgau, Toggenburg, and Utznacb; and to the weft
by the free bailiages and county of Baden. It is about
6c miles from north to fouth, and 48 from eaft to weft.
With refpeft to its face, air, and foil, it is faid to be an
epitome of all Switzerland, as containing in it hills,
valleys,,
z U H '[ 806 ] Z Y M
vineyards, lakes, and rivers, he {hot the arrow that ftruck the apple off his child’s Zurich
Zurich, valleys, plains, corn-lands.
Their wines have a tartnefs at firft, but the longer they
are kept the more agreeable they are. The other pro-
dufls are excellent fruits, corn, pafture, fine clay, chalk,
feveral coloured earths, pit-coal, turf, and fulphur.
There are alfo fome mineral fprings in the canton, and
fome lakes ; Zurich is the moft confiderable, it is 24
miles long, and two broad. The reformation was intro¬
duced here by Zuinglius in the year 15x7. This can¬
ton is the firft in rank, and inferior only to that of Bern
in extent, power, and wealth} in confequence of which,
its reprefentatives prefide in the general diets, when held
in any place belonging in common to the cantons ; and
the affairs relating to the whole confederacy are tranf-
•afted in its offices. Its quota, for the defence of the
feveral members of the confederacy, is 1400 men. Of
-one of the two armies raifed on thefe occafions, it nomi¬
nates one of the commanders in chief, as Lucern does
the other. Its revenue is faid to be about 150,000
crowns a-year ; of which, one year with another, two
thirds are expended in the charges of government,
and the reft laid up in the treafury. It can bring
50,000 fighting men into the field at a very Ihort
warning.
Zurich, the capital of a canton of the fame name in
Switzerland, ftands in a pleafant country, near where
the river Aa iffues from the lake that takes its name
from the town, 23 miles from Schaffhaufen, and 114
from Geneva. After having been ruined by Attila the
Hun, it is faid to have been reftored by Thuricus, fon of
1 heodoric king of the Goths, from whom it took the
name of Thuricum, corrupted afterwards into that of
'Zurich. It is fortified in the modern way, and has
■wide ditches, faced with free-ftone. There are five
arfenals in it, well ftored with arms and artillery} an
academy or college, having 15 profeffors $ a mufeum,
or chamber of rarities ; a ftately town-houfe, the pillars
in the front of which are of black marble, ftreaked with
white •, and a town library. The fovereignty and ad-
miniftration of all affairs are lodged in the greater and
leffer council, out of which are chofen the city-officers,
as the councils are out of the 13 companies of burghers.
There are feveral other councils or colleges, each of
which has its particular department. Here are a great
variety of filk, woollen, linen, cotton, and other manu¬
factures *, this being the place of the greateft trade in all
Switzerland, i he town is well fupplied with provifions
by and from its lake. The ftreets are neat, and houfes
well built, but not magnificent. In the town-library
are. feveral letters to Ballinger from Lady Jane Gray,
daughter to the duke of Suffolk. In one of the arfenals
is the figure of vVilliam Tell, dreffed and armed in
the ancient Swifs manner, with the crofs-bow whence
head.
Both men and women are fo fond of mufie, that there z}n'of»ne-
are few of them that cannot play on fome inflrument. ■. ter’
If a burgher goes out of town, or a peafant enters it,
without a fword, they are liable to be fined. No per-
fons, whatever their rank or office may be, are exempted
from the fumptuary laws. The burgomafters, who are
the fame as the advoyers at Bern, have the title of ex¬
cellence. The hofpitals here are neat and well endowed.
The environs are pleafant and fruitful ; for which it is
not a little indebted to the lake. That part of it which
is next Zurich is called the Lower Luke, and the other
-end the Upper. The cathedral, or great church here, is
collegiate. The prefent city is faid to owe its origin to
a nunnery, founded by the emperor Lewis I. near where
the ancient Tigurum ftood. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
47. 20.
ZUTPHEN, a ftrong and confiderable town of the
United Provinces in-Guelderland, and capital of a coun¬
ty of the fame name. It has a magnificent church, and
is furrounded with walls. It was taken by the French
in 1672, who in 1674 delivered it up to the States-
General. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers
Berkel and Yeflel, nine miles fouth-eaft of Deventer,
and 55 eaft by fouth of Amfterdam. E. Long. 6. o.
N. Lat. 52. 10.
ZUYDER-zee, a great gulf or bay of the German
ocean, which extends from fouth to north in the United
Provinces, between Friefland,Over-Yeffel,Guelderland,
and Holland. It is fo called from its fituation towards
the fouth. It is faid that the Zuyder-zee was formerly
a lake, and that the land is fwallowed up which united
North-Holland with Friefiand.
ZYGOMA, a bone of the head, or rather an union
or affemblage of two proceffes or eminences of bones.
See Bones of the Head, under Anatomy.
ZYGOMATICUS, a mufcle of the head, arifing
from the Os ZTGOMA, w hence its name, and termina¬
ting at the angle of the lips.
ZYGOPHY LLUM, Bean-caper, a genus of plants
of the clafs of decandria, and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 14th order, Gruinales. See Bota¬
ny Index.
ZYMOSIMETER (formed from puris, fermen¬
tation, and meafure'), an inftrument propofed by
Swammerdam, in his book De Rcfpiratione, with which
to meafure the degree of fermentation occafioned by the
mixture of different matters, and the degree of heat
which thofe matters acquire in fermenting j the fame in¬
ftrument is employed to afcertain the heat or tempera¬
ment of the blood of animals.
FINIS.
Edinburgh:
encyclopaedia press, fountainbridge.
BY A. CONSTABLE AND CO. AND
THOMSON BONAR.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XX.
Part I.
Plate DXIIL—DXXIV. to face pafife 112
DXXV.—DXXVIL. - - 12o
DXXVIII. - - - 252
DXXIX.—DXXXL - . 272
DXXXII. - - - 280
DXXXIII. & DXXXIV.. - , ,00
Part II.
DXXXXV.
DXXXVI.
DXXXVII. & DXXXVIII.
DXXXIX.
DXL.
DXLI.—DXLIII.
DXLIV.—DLXX.
DLXXI. & DLXXII.
DLXXIII. & DLXXIV.
DLXXV. & DLXXVI.
DLXXVIL
DLXXVIII.
DLXXIX.—DLXXXI.
410
432
488
496
542
632
646
680
686
700
792
834